Hong Kong Polytechnic University BRE 326 Maintenance Technology & Management

Department of Building & Real Estate Topic : Weak Building Elements

WEAK BUILDING ELEMENTS 6.5 marks

Material deterioration is one of the major constituents causing defects in building. There are also some
other components: design fault, substandard material, poor workmanship, inadequate maintenance,
misuse. Some of the vulnerable building elements will be examined below, with particular analysis on
these components.

1. Foundation
➢ settlement of foundation is the major problem concerned
➢ serious foundation defects can affect the stability of the structure
➢ not a major problem in end-bearing piles except due to faulty design, poor workmanship or change
of use
o the ‘short’ pile incident in the Shatin public housing is due to insufficient supervision
o other indirect reasons causing the incident: conservative safety factor; Housing Authority’s
‘lowest-bid’ contract award policy, sampling for testing
o 100% testing – more reliable spot check conducted
o different testing methods: static loading, dynamic loading, sonic testing, concrete coring, etc.
(for more details, see ‘Pile Design and Construction’ Civil Engineering Dept., HKSAR, 1996)
➢ frictional piles or shallow foundation can be affected by soil movement
➢ major defects of frictional piles are:
(1) Soil movement causing settlement of foundation :
• change of water content of soils causing shrinking and swelling of soil volume
(particularly clay soil because clays contain very fine particles which can hold large
amount of water)
• soil consolidation under pressure of dead and imposed loads of building, which intends to
squeeze out the water from the soil
• vibration caused by traffic, machinery, construction works like piling or explosion
(2) Frost attack – due to expansion of ice in the sub-soil, the construction of foundation wall under
the perimeter wall to a depth under the frost line can reduce the risk of frost heave
(3) Vegetation effects – tree root attack and change of water content of soil
(4) Ground movements – mining, earthquake, landslides, etc.
(5) Faulty foundation design or construction – can result in differential settlement, e.g. short piles

Tseung Kwan O Settlement Case:

o reclaimed land subject to settlement
o the newly-built sewage discharge tunnel under TKO causes loss of ground water (inflow of
ground water into the tunnel) also exaggerate the settlement extent
o roads, pavements resting on the soil sink with the subsoil roads subject to settlement
o the building, which is supported by end-bearing piles, remains steady
o consequences: level difference between ground floor level and road becomes greater
o the building is structurally safe joints bet road and building cracks
o affects appearance, underground services e.g. burst water pipes
o remedies: seal up the cracks, use flexible joints for building services stop de-watering

(6) Cavernous marble – cavities in the upper surface of marble (found in Yuen Long and Ma On
Shan in Hong Kong) reclaimed land will settle
(7) Settlement of fill (reclaimed land) – forming of void and settlement, particularly for sites
containing domestic refuse. The bearing capacities are very weak for sites filled by refuse or
other organic substances and deep foundations are required if construction is going to be carried
how fast depends on filling materials eg, sand>domestic refuse

Edmond Wong (bsedmond@polyu.edu.hk) Page 1 of 6


Hong Kong Polytechnic University
Department of Building & Real Estate
1. Gound settlement marker
monitor gs
2. tiltmeter:
monitor tilting BRE 326 Maintenance Technology & Management
Topic : Weak Building Elements

out. (The Code of Practice of Foundation 2004 issued by the HK Govt. defines ‘Newly
Reclaimed Land’ as the land reclaimed within 7 years and all structures and foundations built
on such land will be susceptible to settlement.)
(8) Overloading of foundation – misuse or change of use of building, extension or alternations.
Underpinning is used to strengthen existing foundation so as to support the additional loading.

sonic logging test

to check whether it's short pile

previous exam:
remedy for short pile
abandon the short poiles,
construction new piles to replace it

Photo shows the static loading test of pile – test the bearing capacity of piles before
carrying out the superstructure work (such test is only suitable to light to medium load-
bearing capacity piles like H-piles or pre-bored H piles.

2. Cantilevered Structure – Balconies, Canopies, Projections 3 defects

➢ main reinforcement near the top of the cantilevered slab because the upper part is under tension
➢ if there are cracks on the floors, frequent wetting of the balcony floor will speed up the corrosion of
the reinforcement
➢ the location of the reinforcement may be lower than the designed position which will affect its
bearing capacity as workers step on the reinforcement bars while working; therefore inadequate
support to the top layer bars should be provided)steel chair overloading: change of use
➢ misuse and additional loadings on balconies: (1) unauthorized structures, (2) advertisement signage
and (3) suspended ceiling/extra finishing fixed under the slab (usually fixed by the ground floor
shops) would increase the superimposed loads
➢ overloading of cantilevered structure would generate cracks on the slab surface; rain and dirt on the
slab surface would easily reach the reinforcement through the cracks and thus causing corrosion
➢ ponding / blockage of drainage system would cause flooding on the balconies
➢ enclosing the balcony means putting extra loading (e.g. concrete wall or window wall) at the edges
of the balcony which generates maximum bending moments; additional floor finishing may also be
laid
➢ the use of precast balcony can ensure quality but close supervision will also be required during
installation
➢ according to APP68/PNAP173 “Design & Construction of Cantilevered RC Structures”, ‘all
cantilevered structures should be cast monolithically with the supporting members’ and hot-dip
galvanized steel should be used as steel reinforcement for cantilevered slabs spanning 750mm or
above ensure designated position of rebars
➢ avoid premature removal of props supporting the soffit of formwork (at least 14 days after
concreting, some specifications require 28 days)
➢ recent accidents : 1997 collapse of balcony at Marble Road, North Point (see Buildings
Department’s Report BD 2/1998) and at WKK Factory Building, Kwun Tong Road (Buildings
Department’s Report BD 1/1998)

Edmond Wong (bsedmond@polyu.edu.hk) Page 2 of 6

Hong Kong Polytechnic University BRE 326 Maintenance Technology & Management
Department of Building & Real Estate Topic : Weak Building Elements

3. Aluminium Windows 4 defects

➢ aluminium windows fall apart – reasons included improver design (e.g. bimetallic corrosion at rivets
or screws), misuse (overloading), ill-maintained, typhoon, etc.
➢ major components: window frame, window sash, 4-bar hinges, lock and handle
➢ window frame is fixed to the wall securely either during concreting in precast facade or by fixing
lugs for in-situ concrete wall
➢ window sash is then fixed to the window frame by means of 4-bar hinges with fixing screws and
rivets
➢ major defects: corrosion of screws/rivets or 4-bar hinges, missing/loose screws/rivets
➢ corrosion is likely to be caused by (1) weathering and (2) bi-metallic action, e.g. aluminium frame +
steel screws/rivets
➢ stainless steel screws/rivets should be used to fix the 4-bar hinges
➢ bituminous paint or sealant should be applied to avoid direct contact between stainless steel
screws/rivets and the aluminium frames and 4-bar hinges (disconnect electrons flow)
➢ to prevent failure: (1) proper usage – do not hang any objects or clothes on the sash or bar hinge; (2)
regular cleaning and maintenance of window is also required – clean and lubricate the bar hinges
regularly
➢ Mandatory Window Inspection Scheme has been implemented on 30 June 2012: all windows need to
be inspected by qualified person once every 5 years for buildings of aged 10 years or above
(http://www.bd.gov.hk/english/documents/pamphlet/MWIS.pdf)

Photos above showing the lower 4-

bar hinges of the aluminium window
are fixed to the window frames by
screws and rivets (Source of
information: Buildings Department,
HKSAR)

Further information:
http://www.bd.gov.hk/english/servic
es/index_faqH.html

4. Wall Tiles Debonding

➢ also refer to Building Department’s document ADV31/PNAP303 “Building External Finishes –
Wet-fixed Tiles” for reference (http://www.bd.gov.hk/english/documents/pnap/ADV/ADV031.pdf)

Edmond Wong (bsedmond@polyu.edu.hk) Page 3 of 6

Hong Kong Polytechnic University BRE 326 Maintenance Technology & Management
Department of Building & Real Estate Topic : Weak Building Elements

➢ after removal of formwork exposing the

concrete wall surface, plastering and
tiling works will follow
➢ good bonding should be formed at the
junction or interfaces/junction between (1)
concrete and plaster, (2) plaster and tile
bed (cement sand mortar or tile adhesive)
and (3) tile bed and tile
➢ any bond failure at one of these interfaces
will result in tile debond
➢ can be detected by infra-red
thermographic survey (for external wall)
or hammer tapping
➢ use pull-off test (i.e. bond test) to test the
bonding strength after installation
(adhesion strength requirements range from 0.5N/mm2 4 layers
for cementitious adhesives to 2N/mm2 for epoxy resin
adhesives; 0.3N/mm2 for tiles fixed on internal wall as
specified by the HK Housing Authority)
➢ precast concrete facade gives better bonding because
of factory production (better working environment)
and stricter quality control; sometimes the tiles are
fixed before concrete is poured and thus forming a
strong monolithic bond
➢ glass mosaic tiles have once been popularly used as
the external wall finishes on domestic buildings in
1980s and 1990s and after over 10 years’ exposure,
they starts to debond and fall apart
➢ probable causes of debonding : 5 defects
1. design – wrong choice of adhesive or tile (e.g.
using floor tile as wall tile, tile too heavy to be
held by the tile bed during installation). Size of
tiles should not exceed 0.1 square metre. Besides,
tiles with low water absorption rate should only be
fixed with polymer modified adhesive.
2. workmanship – (i) treatment of surface, (e.g.
spatterdash), should be free from mound oil, grease
or dust and to be applied within 24 hours after
formwork removal; (ii) correct proportion and
mixing of adhesive or cement mortar; (iii)
spreading of tile bed –thickness control and even proper tile aligment
spreading of tile bed; (iv) pre-soak the tiles (say,
30min) if cement slurry is used for fixing. However, the tiles should not be too wet if tile
adhesive is used. dry out too fast, prevent bonding to substrate
3. the ultra-smooth surface formed by metal formwork will reduce the contact surface area and thus
weaken the bond with subsequent finishes applied over it – spatterdash or bush hammering can
give a ‘rougher’ surface and strengthen the bond
4. wall surface alignment – using too thick rendering or plaster to cover the irregularities of wall
surface may cause de-bonding. It is recommended that a maximum of 2 coats of rendering
should be used with a maximum total thickness of 20mm. The thickness of each coat should be
between 8mm and 16mm.

Edmond Wong (bsedmond@polyu.edu.hk) Page 4 of 6

Hong Kong Polytechnic University BRE 326 Maintenance Technology & Management
Department of Building & Real Estate Topic : Weak Building Elements

5. movement – shrinkage, creep of concrete substrate, thermal movement (especially for external
wall tile). Allowance of 6 weeks for initial drying shrinkage of concrete is recommended.
➢ cure and repair methods:
(1) Patch Tile Repair / Re-tiling is the most popular method (but need to match with the old tiles in
appearance)
(2) Resin Grouting is another method to fix the debonding tiles problem.
⚫ location of debond tiles are located
⚫ holes are drilled at strategic corners of debond tiles
⚫ resin is injected through these holes in order to fill up the void behind the debond tiles
⚫ this technique requires higher technology and precision
⚫ more experienced labourer and closer supervision are required
⚫ noise is minimized as no need to hack-off the old tiles
⚫ appearance (colour, texture) remains intact and unchanged
⚫ if the debond area is too big, this technique is not suitable and re-tiling may be a better
alternative

(3) Overcladding
◆ installation of a new cladding panel to cover debond tiles (need to apply it to the whole building
and therefore much more expensive but is more durable and can give better appearance
◆ quieter operation because no need to hack off the existing tiles
◆ e.g. Jardine House in Central – overcladding with anodized aluminium panel over mosaic tiles.
◆ Other problems need to be solved include the extra loading of the panels and the extra gross floor
area (GFA) generated and therefore may need to seek the approval of the Building Authority.
incur extra GFA

Edmond Wong (bsedmond@polyu.edu.hk) Page 5 of 6

Hong Kong Polytechnic University BRE 326 Maintenance Technology & Management
Department of Building & Real Estate Topic : Weak Building Elements

Overcladding at Jardine House

Further Reference:
◼ APP68/PNAP173 – Design & Construction of Cantilevered RC Structures
◼ APP116/PNAP 248 – Aluminium Windows
◼ PNRC 67 – Building External Finishes – Wet-fixed Tiles
◼ http://www.info.gov.hk/bd - Practice Note for Authorized Persons and Registered Structural
Engineers

Edmond Wong (bsedmond@polyu.edu.hk) Page 6 of 6