Block 1

MJM-024
Media & Society

Indira Gandhi National Open University
School of Journalism and New Media Studies
Block
1
MASS MEDIA AND SOCIETY
UNIT 1
Understanding Media and Society 7
UNIT 2
Media Audiences 21
UNIT 3
Media Literacy 35
UNIT 4
Mass Media Policies 50
EXPERTS COMMITTEE
Prof. B.P.Sanjay Prof. J.S. Yadav Prof. B.K. Kuthiala
Former VC, CUTN; PVC, Former Director, IIMC Former VC, MLCRPV
Univ. of Hyderabad, Hyderabad New Delhi Bhopal
Prof. G. Ravindran Prof. Kiran Thakur Prof. Usha Raman
Head, Department of Former Head, Deptt. of S. N. School of Arts &
Communication, University of Communication & Journalism, Communication, University of
Madras, Chennai Savitribai Phule Pune University Hyderabad, Hyderabad
Mr. Shastri Ramachandran Prof. Iftekhar Ahmed Prof. Jaishri Jethwaney
Editor and Columnist Director, MCRC, Jamia Milia Former Head, ADPR, IIMC,
New Delhi Islamia, New Delhi New Delhi
Prof. Usha Rani Ms Sevanti Ninan Ms Pamela Philipose
Former Head, Deptt. of Comm.& Senior Journalist & Founder Senior Journalist and Author,
Journalism, Mysore University Editor, The Hoot, New Delhi New Delhi
Ms Mahalakshmi Jayaram Prof. Biswajit Das Prof. Gita Bamezai
Senior Dy. Editor Director, CCMG, Jamia Milia Head Dept. of Comm.
The Hindu, Chennai Islamia, New Delhi Research, IIMC New Delhi
Dr. Vipul Mudgal Prof. Madhu Parhar Mr. K. Ravikanth
Senior Journalist and Author, Director, STRIDE Director, EMPC
New Delhi IGNOU IGNOU
Prof. Subhash Dhuliya Prof. Shambhu Nath Singh, Dr. O. P. Dewal
Former Director, SOJNMS, Former Director, SOJNMS, Associate Professor
IGNOU IGNOU SOJNMS, IGNOU
Dr. Kiron Bansal, Associate Dr. K.S. Arul Selvan, Associate Dr. Ramesh Yadav, Assistant
Professor, SOJNMS, IGNOU Professor, SOJNMS, IGNOU Professor, SOJNMS, IGNOU
Dr. Shikha Rai, Assistant Dr. Amit Kumar, Assistant Ms. Padmini Jain, Assistant
Professor, SOJNMS, IGNOU Professor, SOJNMS, IGNOU Professor, SOJNMS, IGNOU
PROGRAMME COORDINATORS : DR. KIRON BANSAL, MA (JMC)

DR. SHIKHA RAI (PGJMC)
COURSE COORDINATOR: DR. KIRON BANSAL
BLOCK PREPARATION TEAM
Unit 1: Prof. Jaishri Jethwaney Unit 2: Prof. Mira K. Desai Content Editor
Former Head, Advertising Head, Dept. of Extension Prof. J.S. Yadav
& Public Relations, IIMC Education, SNDT Former Director, IIMC
New Delhi Women’s University New Delhi
Juhu Campus Mumbai
Unit 3: Prof. Archana R. Singh Block Editor
Dept. of Journalism, Unit 4: Prof. M.R. Dua Dr. Kiron Bansal
Punjab University Former Senior Professor Associate Professor
Chandigarh IIMC, New Delhi SOJNMS, New Delhi
PRODUCTION TEAM
Mr. K.N. Mohanan Mr. Sumati Nair
Asst. Registrar (Publication) Section Officer (Publication)
MPDD, IGNOU, New Delhi MPDD, IGNOU, New Delhi
January, 2020
 Indira Gandhi National Open University, 2020
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COURSE INTRODUCTION: MEDIA AND
SOCIETY
Media draws its sustenance from the society and does not exist in isolation.
Course MJM-024 Media and Society takes an encompassing view of the role
of media on a wide range of issues including media and development, media and
contemporary issues – both at the national as well as global levels.
Block 1: Mass Media and Society covers the broad areas of media audiences,
media literacy and policies. Unit 1: Understanding Media and Society outlines
various aspects that are relevant to the understanding of the concepts, context
and relevance of media in society. Unit 2: Media Audiences examines the
characteristics, types and theories of audiences, and audience research approaches.
Unit 3: Media Literacy empowers you to understand the rationale of media
messages, implications of visual images and economics of the media industry.
Unit 4: Mass Media Policies deals with the significance of media and
communication policies in the life of the people of a country.
Block 2: Media and Development looks at the concept and theories of

development, development communication, social and behaviour change
communication and some case studies related to SBCC. Unit 5: Development:
Concept and Theories takes an overview of the concept of development and
discusses various theories of development as well as some recent debates in
communication for development. Unit 6: Development Communication
discusses its potential as a tool for inclusive growth and empowerment. Unit 7:
Social and Behavioural Change Communication examines the principles of
SBCC and outlines various strategic approaches and steps to design a SBCC
strategy. Unit 8: SBCC: Case Studies takes the discussion forward with the
help of select case studies from varied areas.
Block 3: Media and Contemporary Issues-1 examines the role of media in the
crucial areas of health, education, gender, environment and human rights. Unit
9: Media and Health Issues argues that health communicators can provide a
consistent and tangible approach to sustaining health and making policies and
programmes more people-friendly and transparent. Unit 10: Education and
Media looks at how media and ICT can be harnessed to expand access, promote
efficiency, improve quality of learning, enhance quality of teaching, and improve
management systems at various levels of education. Unit 11: Gender and Media
observes that skewed media portrayal of gender promotes stereotypes and
misrepresantation. Unit 12: Media and Environment focuses on how media
can investigate various processes and popularise innovative ideas to help conserve
our natural resources. Unit 13: Media and Human Rights examines the
individual natural rights as well as collective rights of people.
Block 4: Media and Contemporary Issues -2 will enable you to appreciate the
emerging critical emerging areas and perspectives in society. Unit 14:
International and Intercultural Communication highlights the connections
between foreign policy, communications flows and public opinion. Unit 15:
Technological Revolution describes major technological revolutions that have
taken place since 1430s; and links each revolution with the emergence of a specific
medium such as print, radio, television and digital media. Unit 16: Globalisation
and Media looks at the concept and factors of globalisation and analyses the
emergence of globalisation in India. The last unit of the course, Unit 17:
Alternative Media stresses the need for alternate media to give impetus to
grassroots journalism and highlight the issues of the marginalised sections of
society.
Thus, this Course provides you with necessary theoretical perspectives on

communication for social change and enables you to apply the available
information structures to bring changes for improvement in people’s lives. We
hope that after completing this course, you would be able to:
• describe the complex interplay between media and society;
• discuss the concept, need and importance of media literacy and policy;
• explain the concept and theories of Development Communication and SBCC;
• critically analyse the role of media in various contemporary issues such as
health, education, gender, environment and human rights;
• examine the emergent issues of intercultural communication, technology,
globalisation and the role of alternative media in society; and
• apply the knowledge and skills gained in your own work.
BLOCK INTRODUCTION: MASS MEDIA AND
SOCIETY
Media is integral to society and communication is essential for both continuity
and change in any society. In this first Block of the Course MJM-024: Media
and Society you will learn about the complex relationship between media and
society at different levels.
Unit 1: Understanding Media and Society outlines the conceptual framework

to understand the relationship between media and society. The role of media in
opinion formation has been discussed in a historical context from press to digital
media. It will help you in understanding the political, social, economic and cultural
developments in today’s world.
Unit 2: Media Audiences examines the concept of media audiences and its
development historically. It explains ‘group’, ‘crowd’ and different ‘media
audiences’ and their characteristics. How different audiences are influenced by
communication has been a subject of research and debate, more so, with the
rapid expansion and penetration of media. Different theoretical perspectives have
been discussed in the unit to understand media impact on audiences.
Unit 3: Media Literacy stresses the need for media education in the present
globalised media environment. The unlimited avenues for information generation
and dissemination have led to blinding glare and often less clarity about the true
meaning and role of media in society. Media literacy helps in differentiating
between ‘reel’ and the ‘real’ and as such make better use of communication and
media resources.
Unit 4: Mass Media Policies discusses the policies that guide and govern the
functioning and operations of different media in any society; nationally and
globally. Keeping in view the important roles that mass media perform in a
nation’s running, it is pertinent to discuss the policies that govern the media
systems and operations. The technological developments together with social
and cultural values of any society and universal human values have strong bearings
on media policies.
We hope you will enjoy reading this Block and develop a good understanding of
the issues discussed.
Mass Media & Society
6
Understanding Media and
UNIT 1 UNDERSTANDING MEDIA AND Society
SOCIETY
Structure
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Learning Outcomes
1.2 Defining Society and Mass Media
1.2.1 Historical Context
1.2.2 Information Age Context
1.3 Interpolation of Media and Political System
1.4 Corporate Control of Media
1.5 Regulation versus Self-Regulation
1.6 Media and Public Opinion
1.6.1 Role of Media in Forming Public Opinion
1.6.2 Relationship between Media and Society
1.7 New Media and its Impact on Society
1.7.1 Evolution of the Internet
1.7.2 Emergence of Social Networking Sites
1.7.3 The Dark Side of Virtual World
1.8 Let Us Sum up
1.9 Further Readings
1.10 Check Your Progress: Possible Answers
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The relationship between media and society is symbiotic. Society has a history
of millions of years while media, especially the mass media, of a little over a
century, but both depend on each other for sustenance. Society’s survival and
growth depends on a number of factors among which a system of communication
is crucial, as people in a society get information, education and entertainment
through communication. In this block, we shall discuss various pertinent issues
relating to media and society such as audience, media literacy and media policies.
Such an analysis becomes important as in a short span, media, especially the
news media has been able to influence policy and also question those in authority,
in the public interest, being the watchdog in a democracy. New media is also
expected to take up issues on behalf of the public, articulate public opinion, set
agenda for discussion and debate. Over the years, the news media has become so
pervasive, that many critics see it as a power institution. In fact, any debate on
the mass media oscillates between two extremes, depending on who is saying it.
Some swear by media’s unbridled power, while others believe that media do not
affect the lives of the people. Whatever may be the view, there is no gainsaying
the fact that media have become a part of the everyday life of an average
individual.
This Unit is aimed at synergising various aspects and issues that are relevant to
the understanding of the concepts, context and relevance of media in society.
7
Mass Media & Society Media is a social institution and as stated earlier, it draws its sustenance from the
society and does not exist outside of the society.
1.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES

After reading the unit, you should be able to:
• define society and mass media;
• analyse the interpolation of media and political system;
• examine the corporate control of media;
• debate on regulation versus self-regulation;
• deliberate on the inter-relation of media and public opinion; and
• trace the emergence of the New Media and analyse its impact on society.
1.2 DEFINING SOCIETY AND MASS MEDIA

A society can be defined as a community of people living in a particular region
and having shared customs, laws, and organisations. A society however, can be
either homogeneous or heterogeneous. By a homogenous society it is meant a
society whose members share similar values, language, religious framework and
ethnicity. Examples of such societies include, the Japanese, Chinese, Red Indian
and Zulu societies. By a heterogeneous society, it is meant where there will be a
diversity of people in terms of race, culture, religions etc. A good example to
cite of a heterogeneous society is of the USA, where one finds people from
different races. e.g. White, Asians, African Americans, Hispanics etc. inhabit,
but follow different religions and speak different languages, though English is
the common link language.
Communication is the basic link among various echelons in a society. With the
coming of mass media, one finds the society’s reflection in news and entertainment
programmes. At a micro level, one learns about various groups divided by caste,
custom, religion or creed either through interpersonal interaction or through media
programming. It is not uncommon to find references to various castes and
communities in the media. To give an example in the Indian context, media
generally debates and discusses voting patterns based on caste during election
times. One finds media covering events and agitations organised by people
belonging to various castes. One has seen coverage of agitation by various caste
groups on securing quota for reservation in government jobs and admissions in
schools and colleges. The Jat agitation in 2016 in Haryana which resulted in
large scale damage to public property and the Gujjar agitation in 2019 in
Rajasthan, which saw disruption in train traffic, can be cited as the two examples.
The mainstream newspapers in their matrimonial ads also divide the ads based
on gender and castes. The purpose of giving these examples is to make you
aware on how media reinforces and establishes what happens within a society or
group. As the media professionals also come from the same social milieu, so
their writings and views are likely to reflect their biases as well.
1.2.1 Historical Context

The element of large-scale (mass) dissemination of ideas was present even when
8 there were no mass media, like the newspapers, radio and television. The people
were reached out through meetings, congregations, word-of-mouth, grapevine Understanding Media and
Society
and inscriptions on varying issues including religious propaganda and citizens’
charters. We have discussed in detail the historical growth of mass communication
in Unit 5, Block 2 of Course 1; here we shall briefly touch upon some landmarks
to link up with our main discussion. King Ashoka’s relics on the iron pillars
inscribing the teaching of Lord Buddha have stood the tests of time and can be
seen today even after thousands of years. He also spread Buddhism in many
countries through his emissaries. This was largely independent of any media in
the contemporary sense of the term.
The mass media as we know it today is about a century old and can be traced to
when newspapers became available for a few pennies. The period was known as
the era of Penny Press.
The First World War saw the mobilisation of press and radio for nationalist war
aims of contending states. This left little doubt about the power of the media
influence on the ‘masses’, who were effectively managed and directed towards
war aims. By 1925, there was already a strongly held view that mass publicity
had the power to rule the people and influence international alliances. Late
nineteenth century thinkers were conscious of the great transformation that was
taking place in which the slower pace of change was giving way to a faster pace.
The experience of Nazi Germany and the erstwhile Soviet Union further
reinforced this view that mass media could be a powerful source of propaganda
on behalf of the ruling elite. Hitler and Goebbels believed that media was an
instrument of propaganda and that if a lie was repeated hundred times, it had the
potential of becoming a truth. Hitler probably was one of the early powerful men
who had an idea about the potential of imagery and media.
After the Second World War, we witnessed a rapid growth of media, which
affected all spheres of life. In the development process also, the role of media
was recognised and due consideration was given by all societies including the
developing world.
While the media has historically been viewed as overly aggressive and insatiable
in its enthusiasm for the latest and hottest news, their watchdog function in a
democratic society posits that people must know what their governments are
doing. The media has the capacity to hold the government accountable, forcing
them to explain their actions and decisions, all of which affect the people, they
represent. The assumption in some societies is that the press speaks for the people,
thus the freedom of speech and freedom of the press acts are seen in the context
of the public interest. Any effort, therefore on the part of the government to
curtail news media’s freedom is seen as against people’s right to free and fair
information. When during Emergency in 1975-77 in India, press coverage was
censored; The Indian Express left the editorial space to denote censorship. “The
blank editorial metaphor of censorship was soon adopted by other newspapers,
including the Statesman”, recorded the paper later.
Today, in the era of globalisation, this role of mass media has undergone a sea
change. It is often argued that news media has become a commodity. There is
also a growing criticism against media for projecting unabashed violence.
According to the leftist thinking, media is an important tool to serve specific
socio-economic and political interests of the dominant class. 9
Mass Media & Society Media academic, Stanley J Baran in his book Introduction to Mass
Communication, Media Literacy and Culture, quoted theorist Marshall McLuhan
to explain the importance of Mass media in our life. Marshall McLuhan would
often ask, “Does a fish know it’s wet?” The answer, he would say, is, “No.” The
fish’s existence is so dominated by water that only when water is absent, the fish
becomes aware of its condition. So is with people and mass media - an average
person is so inundated with media messages in her/his everyday life that s/he is
often not conscious of the presence or influence of media in life. Media scholars
Caren J Deming and Samuel L Becker point out in their book, Media in Society,
that media operation are too vital to our lives to be disregarded. Indeed, being
the fourth and the strongest pillar of democracy, media enjoys a place of privilege
in the society. Various scholars and critics have argued that media is not only a
mirror of the society but also an instrument of social change. Media must have a
close look at the society in all its manifestations with a penetrating eye.
Media theorists Fred S. Siebert, Theodore Peterson and Wilbur Schramm in their
book ‘Four Theories of the Press’ argue that press always take the form and
coloration of the social, political structures within which it operates. You have
read the normative media theories – Authoritarian, Libertarian, Communist Media
and Social responsibility theories in detail in Unit 2 Block1 of Course 1, which
are relevant to understand the inter-relation of media and society. Communication
scholars Daniel C Hallin and Paolo Mancini while discussing the four theories
of press in their book, Comparing Media Systems: Three models of Media and
Politics, argue, “one cannot understand the news media without understanding
the nature of the state, the system of political parties, the pattern of relations
between economic and political interests and the development of civil society
among other elements of social structure”.
1.2.2 Information Age Context

Now let us look at how the media has changed in the information age. With the
coming of modernity, of which proliferation of mass media has been one of the
key outcomes, societies across the globe have undergone a sea change in media
reach and access. Media has played a significant role in modernisation, be it the
rise of nationalism, individualism, objectivism, democratisation, secularisation
or urbanisation. Today almost every aspect of human life is somehow connected
to or dependent on the media. It will not be an exaggeration to say that every
individual in some or the other way is a media consumer. As per the latest media
reports, mobile phones will soon outnumber human beings on this planet! A
smartphone with a few centimeters’ screen combines all the media in it that
include access to newspapers, television channels, cinema and various social
media platforms that connect people through inter-personal communication on
one-on-one and group basis.
Information now reaches, to put it proverbially, at the speed of thought. The

Internet has indeed made the ‘world flat’, cutting across artificial boundaries of
geography, states, caste, color and creed. There is no gainsaying that without
media; society may not be able to conduct its affairs effectively. Later in the
unit, we shall discuss the opportunities and challenges posed by the new media,
especially in the context of Internet within countries as well as in the international
arena.
10
Check Your Progress 1 Understanding Media and
Society
Note: Use the space below for your answers
Compare your answers with those given at the end of the Unit
1) How media serves as a link with society?
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2) What has been the journey of media from penny press era to the new age
communication?
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1.3 INTERPOLATION OF MEDIA AND POLITICAL

SYSTEM
In a democratic system, mass media play a key role as the very existence of the
government depends on the people’s support and this is where the media acquire
centre stage in politics. In order to reach out to people, the government needs
mass media; and the news media on its part works as a link between the
government and the people, as a carrier of information and at other times with its
own agenda. When media writes positively, it is not uncommon to find politicians
swearing by what is written and broadcast, to deride their rivals; but when media
is critical, politicians often blame media for bias and trial against them.
Communication academic Geoffrey Craig in his book, The Media Politics and
Public Life, says, “the political system exerts a less formal kind of control over
the media landscape through personal influence of politicians and political actors
on media owners and journalists”. Craig maintains that the influence of political
actors over media on a day-to-day basis can be readily observed and realised.
Governments have the power to enact legislations through which they can bring
considerable pressure on the media. Governments are often criticised for their
power to manipulate and maneuvers media by deciding on which information is
to be released, when and how. Political management of the media also takes
place through various types of political communication in the form of media
events, briefings, news conferences, interviews, photo opportunities etc. Media
being information hungry often ends up publishing what it gets from the sources
of authority.
1.4 CORPORATE CONTROL OF MEDIA

As stated earlier, the ownership of media has its effect on the content. Business
interests own more than 90% media, the world over. In India, the last two decades
have been very defining. All kinds of people and interests have some stake in
media holdings; these include politicians, political parties, business houses, and
11
Mass Media & Society national or international conglomerates etc.. Media ownership serves two
immediate interests for the owners, viz., it is an industry that gives the owner the
profit and two, and it lends the owner a voice.
To give an example, Reliance Industries limited (RIL) is said to have taken equity
in more than 25 media channels/newspapers. This should be an area of concern
for society in general and critics in particular. Hypothetically, let us assume that
there is bad news about any of the RIL companies, it will be of empirical research
interest to find out how these media channels/newspapers that have RIL stake,
cover that news and it will take some time to understand the full import in these
media companies.
1.5 REGULATION VERSUS SELF-REGULATION

The news media can enjoy the freedom of expression only in a democracy, but it
is ironical that it is in democratic countries, one finds authorities obsessed with
‘controlling’ or ‘regulating’ the media, and India is no exception. The infamous
clamping of emergency on the 25thJune 1975 saw censorship and intimidation
of media on a large scale. Despite an overt control on the content to which many
newspapers fell prey to, some newspapers did not relent. They would rather
have a blank editorial or reportage than publishing a censored one. The Congress
party suffered a defeat in the elections of 1977 and the serving Prime Minister
Mrs. Indira Gandhi lost her own seat. The journalists and their professional bodies
after the emergency have tried their best to fight and advocate against government
regulation, whenever the occasion has demanded. The debates on regulation
versus self-regulation have been there for decades, with each side advocating
the merits and demerits of a regulated media versus a free media.
Some critics have spoken of another way of ‘control’ exerted by the government
that, they feel, the media in general has found difficult to resist. Both the central
and the state governments in India issue advertisements worth thousands of crores
of rupees in the print and electronic media. Critics feel that covertly, the
governments’ controls them denying advertising support. The India Shining
campaign by the NDA and the Bharat Nirman campaigns by the UPA came
under criticism from some media columnists who commented that there was not
much criticism in the media on spending tax payers’ money, because the various
media houses were direct beneficiaries of ad revenue.
Communication academic Geoffrey Craig points out that of late, governments
all over have developed a more sophisticated understanding of the needs and
functions of media. Craig says that this has resulted in shifting the balance of
power in the favour of politicians as media is now too dependent on the
information supplied by the political actors. He argues that “the growing cynicism
about politics is said to be the consequence of this process. However, this has led
to increasing media literacy as people can now easily decode the intent behind
the political messages”. You will read about media literacy in Unit 3 of this
Block.
Check Your Progress 2
12 1) What is the difference between regulation and self-regulation of media?
...................................................................................................................... Understanding Media and
Society
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2) What in your views are the various ways in which governments may exert
control on media?
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1.6 MEDIA AND PUBLIC OPINION

Media is said to be the articulator as well as the moulder of public opinion. It is
believed that by putting issues in the public domain, the news media provides
various perspectives that help the audiance to form informed views and opinions
on happenings around them. The media also influences people by its editorials,
opinionated articles and debates. American social scientist Kimball Young says
of public opinion as the social judgment of a self-conscious community on a
question of general import after rational, public discussion. Public opinion, he
writes, “is formed by verbalised attitudes, beliefs and convictions, which are
essentially emotional and their associated images and ideas. Public opinion often
is formulated in a crisis when people differ in their definitions of new situations”.
He argues, that the stimulus and scope of public opinion have however changed,
as “there is an enormous extension of the range of excitation”.
American sociologist Herbert Blumer saw public opinion as an aspect of social

relations: People confront an issue of concern and explore different solutions to
the issue through public discussion. On the other hand, the Spiral of Silence
theory propounded by political scientist Noelle-Neumann contends that “the mass
media are a powerful force, not only in establishing public opinion, but in reducing
the number of divergent opinions in the society, as they articulate”.
1.6.1 Role of Media in forming public opinion

Noelle-Neumann saw mass media as a powerful creator of social reality through
their coverage of public events and different opinions. He argues that mass media
serve as the representation of the dominant views in the society. Doris A Graber
refers to many articles that criticises journalists of bias against marginalised groups
who are shown in distorted light. The authors argue that many examples
“demonstrate that there are characteristic, culturally linked patterns of news
framing that depend very much on the cultural orientation of the story’s narrator.”
Elizabeth M Perse looks at the Agenda Setting Theory in the context of the
power of the news media to structure the importance of political issues in the
public’s mind. In other words, she explains that through gatekeeping, the news
media select and highlight certain events, people and issues. Because of repetition
of issues, people tend to adopt the news media’s agenda and start believing that
these same events, people and issues are more important than those not covered.
13
Mass Media & Society American sociologists Lazarsfield and Merton held that media performed a status
conferral function for society by focusing attention on important people, events
and issues. The news media do not limit themselves to just establishing the
“salience of certain topics”. Research has shown that how the news is presented
also has a bearing on what people think about issues and events covered.
To take an example of a natural disaster, the cloudburst in Uttrakhand in 2013

amidst heavy rains flooded the regions of Uttarakhand. The incident brought the
coverage on the nature’s fury and devastation caused in the Himalayan state in
the living rooms of the people for weeks together.
Media’s attention was not just on the efforts at rescuing thousands of stranded
pilgrims, it also brought to attention through its coverage, the various views,
opinions, news reports on how the fragile ecology of Himalayan region was
utterly disregarded by the commercial developers in connivance with the
authorities to reap monetary benefits. It also stressed on the unpreparedness of
various administrative agencies in handling a mammoth crisis like that one. The
media coverage brought to issue the crisis at not only a micro level but also
macro level, cautioning about many more such disasters in store, if all the
stakeholders especially the government did not feel concerned about the fragile
Himalayan ecology. The various media, especially the mainstream news channels
were questioning, grilling and seeking answers from the political bosses on their
lackadaisical attitude, especially after the alarm bells were rung by the
Comptroller and Auditor General’s report months’ in advance on the mindless
construction work and its possible impact on the state. Media also reflected on
how different political parties were trying to make political mileage out of a
human disaster through blame games. Media in covering incidents and events
become an interpreter of ‘reality’. People who watch news get influenced by
what appears as news.
1.6.2 Relationship between Media and Society

Media institutions are a part of society. The important reason, why the news
media ought to be free and fair, is its watchdog function. The news media is
expected to keep a close watch on the government, business and other institutions.
It is expected to bring issues in the public domain for debate and discussion. It is
therefore incumbent on the part of the government to not only protect the
autonomy of the press, but also ensure a free and fair distribution of news to the
public. This is in the interest of ensuring that people who depend on information
provided by media to remain updated and connected to the world. Media on its
part is expected to share news without fear or favour and help in articulating
public opinion on issues that are of concern to them. Media works as a conduit
between the public and the powers that be.
1) What in your view is public opinion?
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2) Is media the best reflector of public opinion? Understanding Media and
Society
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1.7 NEW MEDIA AND ITS IMPACT ON SOCIETY

The technological development and socio-economic, political and ideological
context during 1970s gave rise to ‘new media’. The term became popular in the
1990s with the emergence of videos, new ways of delivering television via cable
and satellite direct-to-home on a subscription basis. Communication scholars
described this phenomenon as the first wave. By 1990s, the home video rental
became a very lucrative and popular business. Consequently, film studios began
to release the films simultaneously in cinema halls as well as on the videos.
(Example: Big corporations like Fox, Warner, and Columbia-Tristar were
prominent in the video production and distribution).
With the coming of the World Wide Web, followed by the popularity of social
media, the world has not been the same. Many feel that Internet has facilitated
democratisation of information; anyone can post anything on the Net and be
heard. Internet has cut across artificial boundaries created by geographical borders
and socio-economic divide. It has helped create a world community, seamless
markets and common consumers. In an era of instant connect, we cannot treat
any issue as ‘local’. In fact anything happening anywhere in the world can ring
a bell across continents. One finds, Internet, especially the social networking
sites, including Facebook and micro-blogging site, Twitter becoming a virtual
turf for gathering followers and putting forth one’s ideology. Despite the fact
that the penetration of the Internet is lower when compared with television and
print media, but the various social media platforms have seen the medium grow
exponentially in the last few years. The reach and access, especially via the mobile
phones is expected to grow many folds in the near future.
1.7.1 Evolution of Internet

Let us now understand what is Internet and trace its evolution. Media academic
Straubhaar and LaRose describe Internet as “network of networks that connects
computers worldwide so that they can exchange messages with one another and
share access to files of computer data”. As Media scholars Lyn Gorman and
David McLean in their book, Media and Society into 21st Century, point out that
in its early developmental phase, the Internet not only provided a means of
communicating and transferring information; it also offered new and alternative
modes of expression.
Internet, simply speaking is a network of computers across the world connected

to each other to share data. It is also called the web, cyber space, virtual world or
the net as well. This data is available on various websites hosted by the computers.
Akin to the real world, one needs to ‘visit’ a ‘site’ to get access to data or
information. The programmes which help the users access these websites are
called web browsers. Tim Berners Lee introduced the first web browser World
Wide Web in 1991-92.The web, back then was just an accumulation of static
15
Mass Media & Society pages containing information in text or pictures. The communication was only
one way as there was no method for the web surfer to provide feedback. This
was called Web 1.0 version.
Web 2.0 is the version which initiated interactivity on the Internet. The interaction
is twofold, with the content and with the people. So, one can today upvote and
comment on YouTube videos as well as post on a friend’s Facebook page.
Web 3.0 is the future, where the communication will not merely be limited to
people across the web, but between machines connected as well. E.g., today
when your laptop automatically starts updating some software through the Net,
it is communicating with the parent website. Google Search is another example
where a programme navigates through all the web pages available on its index to
find what the user is looking for.
With such a large network and multiple communication channels and novel
methods, the Internet began the era of Globalisation in its true sense. It also gave
birth to many powerful corporations like Microsoft, Apple, Yahoo, Oracle etc.
These are the software industries working on making computers useful to humans,
offline and online. By the year 2000, Internet had heralded significant changes
in global communication and removing the limitations of time and boundary.
Facilities/services like email led to the instant contact with individuals. Electronic
networking proved that Marshall McLuhan’s concept of Global Village seemed
to be on its way to reality.
1.7.2 Emergence of Social Networking Sites

By late 1990s, blogs emerged on the Web. Blog simply is another word for Web-
log. It is a website, hosting text entries in a sequential manner, sharing information
and/or opinions on any given topic. Lack of censorship and direct reach to the
audience without any gatekeeping made blogs a popular web publishing tool.
They soon became a source of information supplementing mainstream media
coverage with different views and perspectives. Web 2.0 enabled readers to
provide their feedback in the form of comments as well as posting video clips
(Vlogs), audio clips (Audio log) etc. By 2003, user-generated content (UGC),
the rapidly expanding phenomenon of online social networking through websites
such as YouTube, Orkut, Facebook, Twitter etc. emerged on the scene. Everyone
could be the audience as well as the producer. With people getting in touch with
each other virtually, came the Social Networking Sites (SNS). They allowed
people to connect with each other, communicate, share personal information,
photographs, videos, audio clips and opinions online, publicly and privately.
Information is power, is best elucidated by the fact that a simple message on a

social networking site galvanised thousands at the Tahrir Square in Egypt.
Facebook and Twitter have become the focal point of action/protest in countries
like Egypt, Tunisia, and Yemen. In the Indian context, Facebook and other social
networking sites helped mass protest against the rape of a para- medical student
in the nation’s capital in December 2012. Anti-establishment messages flooding
various social networking sites forced the government to take action against the
culprits of the heinous crime. Facebook and other social networking sites also
motivated people; cutting across age, social and economic barriers to come out
in thousands to support anti-corruption movement catalysed by Anna Hazare in
2011.
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1.7.3 The Dark Side of Virtual World Understanding Media and
Society
First the world was mesmerised by the medium; next it got hooked on it, and
then came the side effects that were initially unforeseen. Three major threats to
the people populating the Virtual world are:
1) Malware: These are malicious software that spread like ‘Virus’, from one
system to another to seek out data unknown to the users. The software copy
themselves on each connected system and spy on the activities of the users.
In times of Net-banking, these viruses are a threat to personal security,
amounting to cyber-crime.
2) Surveillance: In order to curb cyber and real-life terrorism, security agencies

need to monitor communication happening over the web. Agencies like
NSA, FBI etc. intercept, decode and analyse the information being shared
over the web, private or public, for national security interests. Some could
argue that this is a violation of personal privacy rights.
3) Censorship: Even though censorship on World Wide Web is a long standing

debate, some countries, like China and North Korea, ban or limit the use of
Internet for their own internal security and others have rules to track and
shut down child pornography websites. TRAI banned hundreds of porn
websites in India in 2015.
In the light of the above arguments and analysis, the growth of internet as
an important mass medium cannot be ignored. As Communication,
researchers Morris and Ogan have rightly put, “if we ignore the computer
media, not only will the discipline (of mass communication) be left behind,”
but we, “will also miss an opportunity to explore and rethink answers to
some of the central questions of mass communication research.” However
Curran and Seaton comment that “The net has changed out of all recognition
from its pioneering days when the vision of the net as the redeemer of
social ills was first promulgated. The civic discourse and subculture
experiment that so excited early net commentators has given way to an
increased emphasis on entertainment, business and electronic mail”. The
second defect, they say, is that, “it has failed to grasp that inequalities in the
real world distort cyberspace, and limit its potential for improving society.”
Media scholars Lyn Gorman and David McLean endorse the views of Curran
and Seaton by pointing out that social ills have not disappeared with the
extension of new technologies; real world politics has not been transformed
by the advent of YouTube; global inequalities continue to exclude a sizeable
portion of the world’s population from access to the internet and all that it
offers. They argue that media must be seen in relation to the contexts in
which they originate; whether ‘old’ or ‘new’ – they cannot be divorced
from the ‘real world’s structures and processes.
1) How has the new media, especially the Internet brought about a change in
the world?
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Mass Media & Society ......................................................................................................................
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2) In your opinion, is the Internet really free from control?

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1.8 LET US SUM UP

In this unit, we started our discussion on media and society, in historical and
information age contexts. We deliberated on how communication happened when
there was no mass media, but with the coming of mass media, especially the
news media the whole dynamics changed. The unit also looked at the theoretical
underpinning of the relationship between media and society and analysed various
points of views.
The power of media has been resented by institutions, especially political and
economic. It is believed by analysts that the urge to control and regulate media
emanated from a perception that media can play with the reputation of the
powerful and mighty, especially in politics and industry. We also looked at the
ownership patterns and it was argued that when over 90% media is owned by big
business houses, news cannot always be objective.
The unit then looked at the new age media, the Internet, and its potential in
making the world flat with common communities, seamless markets and global
consumers. We also analysed that anybody could write/say and be heard may not
be truly a fact. In an urge for safeguarding national interests, the whole debate on
surveillance of the Internet data has heated up and one wonders if that is the
price individuals and nations pay for what seemed as free access and a democratic
platform for information sharing.
1.9 FURTHER READINGS

Media Now: Communication Media in the Information Age, By Joseph
Straubhaar, Robert LaRose, Wadsworth Thomson Learning, 2000.
Media and Society: Challenges and Opportunities, Edited by Vir Bala Aggarwal,
Concept Publishing Company, New Delhi, 2002.
Media in Society: Readings in Mass Communication, Caren J Deming, Samuel

L Becker, Scott, Foresman and Company, Glenview, Illinois, 1988.
Introduction to Mass Communication: Media Literacy and Culture by Stanley J

Baran , Edition 4 , McGraw Hill New York 2007.
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1.10 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS: POSSIBLE Society
ANSWERS
1) Media offers a platform to discuss various issues, events and developments.
The debates and discussions on different aspects of our day-to-day lives
create informed opinions. Media organisations and media professionals also
come from the same social milieu, so their writings and views may reflect
their biases as well.
2) The journey of media from penny press that meant distribution of

newspapers to a large number of people to exchange of information at the
speed of thought has been quite defining, both for the people and society.
Anything happening anywhere in the world can be accessed within seconds
through the digital media like radio, television and the Internet. The daily
newspapers have to wait for the next day to publish the story, which often
has already reached the people through the digital mode.
1) By regulation of media, it is meant that media is governed and regulated by
the government. In self regulation, media formulate their own codes of
professional conduct and ethics and abide by the laws of the land concerning
the media.
2) Governments exert control on media in varied ways. It may clamp various

regulations and gag their voice by withdrawing advertising support.
1) Public opinion is defined as the social judgment of a self conscious
community on a question of general import after rational, public discussion.
Public opinion is the aggregate of individual attitudes or beliefs. Public
opinion can also be defined as the complex collection of opinions of many
different people and the sum of all their views or as a single opinion held
by an individual on a social or political topic.
2) It is a debatable subject among scholars whether media reflects public

opinion objectively. Media chooses what it wishes to include in newspapers
or news channels, so can’t be fully objective. Media at best spotlights what
happens in a society, but may not be a true reflector of public opinion.
1) The access of information to anyone who can log on to an Internet site and
the platform that it provides people to say what they wish to, has given the
Internet a unique position that no media has enjoyed. There is information
on almost everything that exists in both the real and metaphysical worlds.
However, not all information may be authentic, because people post
information according to their understanding and at times with vested
interests in mind.
19
Mass Media & Society 2) The Internet media that had the potential of being democratic is not really
so, as one finds curbs and surveillance on individual and countries. It has
come to light that the USA, that controls the information dissemination on
the Net has been snooping on nations, embassies and personal mails of
people.
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UNIT 2 MEDIA AUDIENCES Society
Structure
2.0 Introduction
2.2 History of the Term ‘Audience’
2.3 Understanding ‘Audiences’
2.3.1 Public-Crowd-Group-Mass-Audience
2.3.2 Characteristics of Audiences
2.3.3 Types of Audiences
2.3.4 Audience Typologies
2.4 Theories on Audiences
2.4.1 Bullet Theory
2.4.2 Individual Difference Theory
2.4.3 Social Category Theory
2.5 Audience Conception Traditions
2.5.1 Structural
2.5.2 Behavioural
2.5.3 Cultural
2.6 Approaches to Audience Research
2.6.1 Media Effects
2.6.2 Cultivation Analysis
2.6.3 Uses and Gratification
2.6.4 Cultural Studies
2.6.5 Reception Analysis
2.6.6 Everyday Life
2.7 Future of the Audiences
2.8 Let Us Sum Up
2.0 INTRODUCTION
In the previous unit, we took an overview of various issues which have bearing
on media and society. This unit examines the concept of media audiences and its
development historically. As discussed in Unit 1 of Block 1, Course 1, you are
aware that one of the elements of communication is ‘receiver’. The S-M-C-R
(Sender-Message-Channel-Receiver) model which is linear in nature gives no
role to ‘receiver’. The subsequent two-way model, including feedback made
‘receiver’ active beings reacting to the message sent by the sender. The term
‘receiver’ became ‘audience’ when the message gained a character of public
performance. But we use the term ‘audience’ in variety of contexts. In the Indian
context we also call them ‘public’, say general viewers in a cinema hall to indicate
those using mass media.
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Mass Media & Society In this unit, we shall discuss the evolution of the term itself, followed by the
terminological differences between public, crowd, group and audience. We shall
also examine the characteristics and types of audiences, theories about audiences,
audience conception, traditions and few of the audience research approaches.

After reading this unit you should be able to:
• explain the concept of audience;
• describe the evolution of media audiences;
• identify the characteristics, context and typologies related to media
audiences;
• discuss the theories and approaches associated with media audiences; and
• explain the relevance of audiences in media studies.
2.2 HISTORY OF THE TERM ‘AUDIENCE’

In media studies, the term ‘audience’ is the most contested territory. ‘Who is
audience’ is most often very difficult to define for a filmmaker or a television
producer or a journalist writing a news report. Yet all of them create a message
for ‘perceived’ receivers. The audience is the one for whom the communication
takes place. Senders vaguely define their own audience - yet the discourse around
‘audience’ is open-ended. We do not call people waiting for bus as an audience.
An audience means the person has been engaging with media.
In oral cultures ‘audience’ was always present whereas with the emergence of
written word the receivers and sender were freed from the constraints of time
and space. Written word made it possible to reach out to receivers not even
anticipated by the sender. The beginning of printing and later with photography,
sound recordings, motion pictures, radio and television and now Internet have
changed the concept of the ‘audience’. It has changed from ‘fixed’, defined,
homogeneous conception to polysemic, unstructured, diverse and heterogeneous
individuals.
Though communication and theatrical processes are much older, last quarter of
the sixteenth century witnessed gradual emergence of polarised identities of
performer and listeners in musical performances. The emergence of broadcast
system then brought out the concept of individuals sitting in the privacy of their
home listening to radio or watching television. These individuals were different
from those attending lectures or concert halls. They were not located at the place
where message was created. Let us take an example that you are watching a film
made on Mahatma Gandhi. Depending upon the type of film (documentary or
feature film or actual footage), the film is made ‘about’ a time/place, it is made
‘in’ a time/place and you as a viewer watch it in another time/place. Receivers
which most often are referred as ‘audience’ of mass media are usually distanced
from the senders.
McQuail (2000) elaborates the features of Graeco-Roman audience, many of

which can be applied to today’s audiences. They are:
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• Planning and organisation of viewing as well as listening of the Media Audiences
performances themselves;
• Events with public and popular character;
• Secular (thus not religious) content of performance- for entertainment,
education and vicarious emotional experience;
• Voluntary, individual acts of choice and attention;
• Specialisation of roles of authors, performers and spectators; and
• Physical locatedness of performance and spectator experience.
The advent of mass media demanded formalisation of its audience listeners,
readers, viewers for any medium – and they may not be directly observable.
Most often broadcast systems were privately owned or operated through state
licenses. It became necessary for them to address public needs. So, even for
economic reasons it became necessary to assess public opinion and sentiment
for defining audience. Measurement of audiences was also essential for market
research and advertising departments which led to measuring devices. Such
processes impacted the conception of audience.
Media fragmentation and abundance in the late twentieth century has led to more
focus on ‘receivers’ for varied reasons. With Internet, the audience became further
distanced from physical notion of space and time. In digital age, politically,
socially, technologically and even economically, the concept of audience demands
a re-definition. This has led to the advent of Web 2.0, social media applications
and diffusion of mobile phones which has wired the world creating and eventually
breaking online-offline dichotomies.
In 21st century, with the creation of ‘international’ audiences, media have become
more of marketable commodities and cultural artifacts for world trade. Media
messages are treated as goods that need to be packaged, marketed and distributed
to reach perceptual ‘audiences’, some created by artificial demands, others pre-
existent due to social and cultural affinity to the media and message content.
Audiences then become ‘consumers’ of media goods. Media and entertainment
became one industry covering publishing, film and television production,
performance genre including a variety such as popular music and sports.
Audience, unlike in the past, now is defined more as a ‘sociological’ concept

rather than the earlier ‘physical’ medium-centric concept. Audiences are socially
situated and textually constituted subjects. They derive a meaning or ‘meanings’
from the media text on their own. John Fiske (2000) in his book Television
Culture defines audience as “the social subject has a history, lives in a particular
formation (a mix of class, gender, age, religion etc.) and is constituted by a
complex cultural history that is both social and textual”.
Mosco and Kaye (2000) remark, “The concept of the audience is one of the
governing ideas in mass communications research. It is also one of the most
hotly contested…the concept was created largely out of marketing departments
of companies with a stake in selling products through media”. They further remark
that it has now expanded the scope of media studies but it is found puzzling why
the discipline of communication studies still keeps using this marketing concept.
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2.3 UNDERSTANDING ‘AUDIENCES’
If you examine your own experience of listening to radio, watching television or
films, listening to music, being on social networking sites or even being part of
a concert, you would know what it is being a member of an ‘audience’. The
English word ‘audience’ has Latin roots - audire meaning to hear. Mosco and
Kyle (2000) elaborate the context where earliest use of the word was found in
14th century. They remark that audience referred primarily to formal hearing in
front of a magistrate, court official or sovereign and how sense of power is
inherently linked to the word/concept. We also use words like ‘mass’ or ‘group’
as the connotation of audience. Let us understand how there are different meanings
to words that get used interchangeably.
2.3.1 Public-Crowd-Group-Mass-Audience
You know your friends; it’s a group. Usually in a group, members know each
other, share common values, have knowledge about membership, have a certain
structure of relationships and continue over time with some goals to achieve.
The crowd is larger and restricted. It is observable and within a particular place.
Crowd gathers at the place of demonstration or an accident. It has spontaneity of
formation and dispersal, unlike a group. Crowd also shares same ‘mood’ and
some degree of identity but it does not have any structure or moral or social
composition.
Unlike group and crowd, public is relatively large, more dispersed and enduring.
Public conceptually refers to political formation around a cause or an issue.
Protesters, union gatherings indicate publics who work to achieve political change.
Democratic societies gave rise to the need for ‘informed citizenry’. Publics are
thus linked to public opinion. In State supported public service broadcasting, the
audience is public and not the consumer, as is the case with commercial
broadcasting.
McQuail (2000) attributes the credit of defining mass to Herbert Blumer in 1939.
Blumer defined mass as a new type of social formation in a modern society
unlike the other concepts. Mass refers to different, heterogeneous, fluid, desperate,
irrational, un-intellectual, scattered, loose, anonymous, large number of
individuals as a collective. Mass reflects members not knowing each other yet
share similar ‘interest’. The concept of mass also assumes an element of
manipulation by someone else. They are not self-aware, without self-identity
and are incapable of acting together to attain any objectives. The term mass also
gets used for ‘mass market’, ‘mass electorate’ unlike audience.
Audience as a set of spectators for public event, readers of printed book, viewers
of motion picture visiting cinema-hall, television viewers, internet users or
members on social networking sites – indicate ‘institutionalisation’ by media.
Audiences unlike mass have been much more dispersed, individualised, privatised
and large due to the advent of digital media. Audiences get impacted by changes
in technology and society. Media audience unlike all other concepts are linked to
media as receivers and they have exposure to a common message. They have
their likes and dislikes, interests and preferences and expectations in their
engagement with the media.
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2.3.2 Characteristics of Media Audiences Media Audiences
Media audiences can be examined based on the following characteristics.
1) Numbers: Most media audiences are largely perceived in terms of numbers.

Being technologically mediated and involving large capital investments to
reach them, audiences inevitably were looked at as ‘numbers’. With the
advent of multiple media outlets and distribution mechanisms, the physical
number of audience still matter to the ‘sender’ media institution. But in
academic discourses, audiences do not only refer to ‘number’ but also to
the ‘social’ context. So, audience is not mere quantity but has qualities as
well.
2) Anonymity: The audience members do not know each other. Their nature
varies depending upon the medium. There is no face to the audience. At
times the audience gets appropriated and at times rejects messages that
sender would have thought would succeed. Public knows everything but
the senders do not know them.
3) Heterogeneity: Media audiences vary in their primary characteristics as

individuals. They could be people of different age, gender, political ideology
having differential social and economic standing. They are not organised
and self-acting.
4) Geography/Place: Usually in the world prior to the Internet, transnational

television and satellite radio, audiences were geographically constituted.
In concerts and lecture halls, audiences are face-to-face but media audiences
are most often not. Cinema halls and early television changed ‘locatedness’
of print media readers. With new media technologies, both time and place
of audiences became much more anonymous, large and passive.
5) Time: The audiences are also defined in terms of ‘daytime’, ‘prime time’,
‘first telecast’, and ‘repeat show’, ‘regular’ or ‘one-time’ and so on. Prime
time audiences are usually assumed to be working people whereas afternoon
shows are for home makers. With newer technologies like Video on Demand,
recording of live telecast and digital media, the notion of real-time audiences
need to be further studied.
6) Medium/Channel/Content: Media organisations try to define those they
attempt to reach out as their audiences. The type of medium by its very
nature also defines broad characteristics of its audiences. For example,
newspapers are usually for literates whereas radio programming language
will define its intended listeners. Even within the same medium, genre/
type of content defines its audience. Language, semantic codes, genres,
subjects and styles define who the audiences are for that message. We see
that in today’s television environment channels differentiate themselves
through content. Researchers have shown how genre defines its audiences
like soap operas for women and sports and news for men. There is also a
concept of ‘gendered audience’. Gendered audience refers to the nature,
type, volume of particular media usage by males or females and how their
roles, preferences, interests influence these choices.
7) Expectations: Audience has certain expectations from media to address

their information, entertainment and education needs. Media makers also 25
Mass Media & Society attempt to address audience expectations. Print and electronic media
continue to ‘measure’ their audiences as precisely as possible so as to change
their message content in line with audience expectations. Filmmakers often
visit cinema halls to assess viewers’ response to their films.
8) Longevity: Audiences for any given medium may or may not be fixed for
a continuous period of time, depending upon the medium; audience may
change their preferences or shift away. Even in a medium like television,
the audience for a given programme may vary as people move in and out of
channel or programme using remote control.
As student of mass communication, you need to be aware that media
audiences are rooted in the society’s social and cultural systems and techno-
economic base. Members of the audience produce, reproduce, develop and
distribute culture through media. In the following section, an attempt has
been made to discuss different types of audiences.
2.3.3 Types of Audiences

There is no consensus on the types of audiences in media studies as scholars
have suggested varied classifications. For our purpose, we can broadly define it
based on the size, geography, and the sphere of usage.
There can be group audience or a mass audience. As you know from earlier
discussions, group refers to ‘taste’ culture or ‘class’ culture, such as people who
like watching a particular programme or like an actor. There is also a ‘fan culture’.
Group audiences usually have similar interests and are interested in particular
‘type’ of media content. Mass audience represents audiences created for mass
media like television or film. The same media content is mass distributed to
people for mass consumption.
We also refer to audiences in term of local national or transnational audiences.

Unlike earlier music concert or lecture hall ‘local’ audiences, mass media channels
made most audiences ‘national’ or ‘regional’. Satellite broadcasting and Internet
made transnational audiences possible. It is often argued that local audiences are
likely to have similar interests and homogenous characteristics. Local cable
channels, community or campus radio station, newsletters create local audience.
Public service broadcasting creates national audience.
By sphere of usage we imply public or private sphere. Certain mass media have
public character for example films in cinema halls which the audience not only
watches away from home but also experience a sense of being part of society/
collective in theatre. Research has shown that in non-western societies cinema-
hall audiences have a distinctly different character than western societies. Even
in folk performances like Ram lila or bhavai or lavani, the performer/viewer
dichotomy does not exist, and audience members also become part of the
performance. Private sphere media usage depends upon an individual’s likes,
needs, interest or motivation. It is usually within the confines of the privacy of
the home. Digital technologies, especially hand-held devices like mobiles or
tablets have merged the public-private divide. Today you listen to people’s most
personal conversations in most public spaces or see individuals watching films
on smart phones or tablets while travelling in train or bus with you.
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2.3.4 Audiences Typologies Media Audiences
There are three main ways of defining sender-audience relationship; Audience

as target, audience as participant and audience as spectator. Mass media in its
early and even present avatars transmit information and beliefs to its potential
‘target’. Audiences are perceived as destination for sending signals or messages
for the purpose of control or influence. Public service advertisements for anti-
smoking or rural health mission are examples of target framework. In ‘participant’
framework, based on Carrey’s expressive/ritualistic model, audiences share and
increase commonality with the sender. Communication being normative does
not want to change the receiver. Television shows with studio audience, dial-in
radio shows, online response/comments by readers to newspaper articles are
examples of a participating audience. In the spectator audience, the sender only
seeks attention and does not want to transmit information or influence. The
examples of sports matches advertising, to catch attention are spectatorship
instances.
Ien Ang (1991) in her landmark book “Desperately seeking the audience” takes
an institutional perspective. Referring to television audiences, she notes American
television audience as ‘market’ whereas European television audience as ‘public’.
She uses Rom Harre’s concept of audience as ‘taxonomic collective’ which is
“an entity of serialised, in principle unrelated individuals who form a group
solely because each member has a characteristic that is like that of each other
member” (Harre, 1991).
1) Mention some differences in ‘participant’ and ‘spectator’ audiences.
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2.4 THEORIES ON AUDIENCES

Some of the following theories of mass communication define relationship of
media and audiences.
2.4.1 Bullet Theory

Hypodermic Needle or Magic Bullet theory came into being in 1940s and 1950s.
It was born out of the stimulus-response assumption. It believed that media had
direct, immediate and powerful impact on its audience. It also presumed that
media changed behaviour of its audience. Messages were viewed as bullets and
the audiences as sitting ducks to be struck by the media.
The theory came at a time when Hitler had monopolised mass media to unify
German public; radio and television were becoming popular and persuasion
industries such as advertising and propaganda were emerging. Walter Lippman,
in his 1922 work titled ‘Public Opinion’ gave importance to the role of media.
27
Mass Media & Society There were also studies during that time examining the influence of motion
pictures on children and number of propaganda theories. It was a time when
power of media was over-estimated.
The theory views a needle or bullet being ‘injected’ or ‘shot in’ at the ‘mass’
audience and audience get immediately influenced. The underlying assumptions
are that audiences are passive, do not have other sources of information and they
are going to believe whatever media transmits. There have been few examples
of this. The Indian media telecast of Lord Ganesha idols drinking milk, which
made everyone else go and try it or the American experience of ‘War of Worlds’
in forties when millions of Americans believed that aliens were invading earth
and so they fled their homes. Bullet theory assumes audience as an enormous,
undifferentiated mass.
The theory was refuted when evidences of audiences rejecting media messages
or differentially interpreting them came through researches.
2.4.2 Individual Difference Theory

Rooted in psychology, after World War II, this theory negated Bullet Theory. It
stated that even if media presents messages, members of the audience interpret
them selectively. This selection is influenced by the individual characteristics
such as knowledge, attitudes, practices, mode of personal gratification from the
media consumption and so on. Individuals selectively choose exposure, attention,
perception and retention.
This theory presented that since the media messages are perceived selectively by
the individual member, the retention, interpretation and influence are also
individual specific as each individual possess diverse psychological mechanisms.
Media content while activating them do not do so indiscriminately. Unlike bullet
theory, the media effect is limited as it is based on the individual differences.
This theory negated the role of social structures and membership of the individual
with the social group. Since it isolated the individual from his/her social
environment, it gives no framework to media producers to make messages for
individuals. Uses and gratification approach to audiences also stems from this
theory.
2.4.3 Social Category Theory

This theory assumed that in any given society, there are groups or categories of
people with specific characteristics. Members of those groups or social categories
react to the media messages in a similar way. Let us take an example of response
to an English music video or reality show on a Western channel, which would be
easily accepted by young college-going youth compared to an elderly who may
disapprove of the presentation. Unlike individual difference theory, here the
selection by the individual could be based on his/her age, occupation, sex, income,
education, prior exposure and so on. The social category or context of individual
influences the pattern of media attention and response.
All the three theories discussed above define the nature of audience in relation to
the mass media. By now you know that, no single theory is right or wrong and
each explains the context in which they were born. It also needs to be understood
28 that mass communication as a discipline is still inventing its own foundation.
Most of the earlier theories were born out of sociology, psychology, anthropology Media Audiences
and so on. Also, being a behavioural science, most theories are normative and
culture-specific. You will read more about theories in Course MJM-030.
Activity-1
Select a television programme of your choice. List your primary characteristics

(age, education, sex, occupation, income etc.) of the audience for that
programme. Now try and talk to five people who belong to similar
characteristics and examine which of the above theory is applicable in the
context of that television programme.
2.5 AUDIENCE CONCEPTION TRADITIONS

Now you understand that audience has varied typologies and theories to relate
them to mass media. Here we would discuss how audiences have been conceived
in three main traditions. Each of these traditions in a way represents progression
of audience concept through research methodologies and their relationship with
media.
2.5.1 Structural
With the development of mass media, it became essential to know who was
using which medium. This tradition looks at media system and individual media
use. Also known as audience measurement, it examined ‘reach’ of print media
based on circulation figures, gathering data essential for managements to seek
advertisements. Apart from size of the audience, the need to know basic social
compositions, linked advertising with market research industry. Structural
tradition looks at demographics, amount and kind of media exposure, ‘flow’ of
audience from one media to another and so on. It is centered on questions like
‘who does what with which media’.
2.5.2 Behavioural
This tradition explores effects and use of media by its audiences. As we discussed
earlier, the early mass media research was based on ‘effects’ of media on children
or young people. Early studies viewed audience as passive, receiving media
unknowingly, getting exposed to ‘impact’ or ‘influence’. Most of the effects
research adopted experimental methods and manipulated communication
(channel, content, reception) to examine audience response. Another type of
behavioural tradition is media ‘use’ research. A lot of structural data was
juxtaposed with the media use data to draw conclusions about media effects. A
great deal of research on motives and selection patterns of audiences have also
been undertaken within this tradition. Here the questions are ‘what does the
medium do to people’ unlike socio-cultural tradition which questions ‘what people
do with media’.
2.5.3 Cultural
Unlike both the previous traditions, this tradition looks at media as institutions
and how audiences negotiate meaning of media texts. Reception analysis, cultural
studies and everyday life approaches represent this tradition. It not only looks at
media content but also the context of reception. More qualitative and ethnographic
29
Mass Media & Society in nature, this tradition examines social and cultural context of meaning
production by audiences. It also attempts to examine how media messages are
embedded in ideology and how audiences negotiate their meanings from those
messages. The objective here is not to examine influence or use but the nature of
relationship and rituals associated with the consumption by the audiences.
Outline the main characteristics of the following traditions of audience research:
1) Structural
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......................................................................................................................
2) Behavioural
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3) Cultural
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2.6 APPROACHES TO AUDIENCE RESEARCH

In the previous sections we have discussed how theories and traditions have
evolved over the years in media studies that have influenced conception of
audience. Now we shall discuss varied ways of researching audiences and how
that reveals their relationship with mass media. By now you must have understood
that the paradigms of role and relationship between media, audiences and society
influence the approach to audience research. Following is the brief description
of more prominent approaches to audience research.
2.6.1 Media Effects

One of the oldest approaches, it came into existence to understand response of
audiences to media content. Rooted in media stimulated immediate response
model, effects approach tried to establish correlation between media messages
and their influence on its receivers. This approach presumed that media messages
are sent and received by audiences mostly passively. This approach was aligned
to bullet theory but eventually it was realised that the message (sent and received)
and response (as recorded) was interfaced by numerous other variables.
Characteristics of source, message itself, channel, context of reception, receiver
30
motivations and needs besides many extraneous factors questioned effects Media Audiences
research tradition. There are varied effects traditions, each having their own
assumptions about ‘image of audience’, ‘text’, ‘societal context’, basis of
involvement, and hypothesised effects. Persuasion studies, knowledge gap, uses
and gratification and diffusion also borrow from effects approach.
2.6.2 Cultivation Analysis

George Gerbner and his colleagues are credited with this ‘influential and
sometimes controversial’ research approach. In 1969 it was named as cultural
indicators research programme, applied mainly for television audiences. There
are three different elements to it:
a) Institutional processes impacting production of media content through

decision making and policy formation.
b) Message System Analysis, as messages are reflection of mainstream modern

culture.
c) Relationship between exposure to television messages and audience beliefs

and behaviours by comparing groups of light and heavy users of medium
under study.
This approach to audience analysis examines macro system oriented as well as

individual oriented micro phenomenon. Structure of culture and changes in that
structure as well as processes occurring within that structure are examined. It
was criticised for having emphasised the ‘quantum of exposure’ and negation of
other sources of information to the audience members.
2.6.3 Uses and Gratification

This approach was based on the works done on the use of radio by listeners in
1937 by Paul F Lazarsfeld (1901-1976), attitude change work by Carl Iver
Hovland (1912-1961) and many others. Lazarsfeld’s work intended to measure
impact of radio on attitudes of listeners and it led to the development of opinion
poll as a methodological tool for audience research. Hovland’s work in social
psychology examined propaganda studies and attitude change of people.
Gratification studies built on the notion of selectivity give active role to audience
members. It states that viewer/listener chooses messages and media not only to
define prior opinions and habits but also to satisfy needs, interests and strivings.
Media are used to escape, achieve social mobility or for reassurance. Rooted in
functional analysis, this approach links content as well as effects research.
2.6.4 Cultural Studies

Developed during the sixties and seventies, on the ‘borderland’ of social sciences
and humanities, cultural studies most directly take on question of audience. It
focuses on actual message or discourse of communication as well as genre of
media message. Critical approach of research, it considers media as principal
instruments of ruling elites for maintaining ideological control over its audiences.
Unlike literary criticism, it explores popular and mass culture. Unlike all the
three approaches discussed above, cultural studies are qualitative and critical in
nature.
31
Mass Media & Society 2.6.5 Reception Analysis
From the quantitative tradition of audience research, reception studies brought
in qualitative analysis in audience research. In last twenty years, reception analysis
has become an established field of study. David Morley’s pioneering work of
‘Nationwide’ television audience in 1980 is considered the beginning of reception
analysis. You need to understand that cultural studies and reception analysis
overlap and cultural studies has broader concerns. Based on Hall’s encoding/
decoding model, reception analysis viewed television programmes as
‘meaningful’ discourses or texts structured in dominant ideology. It refers to
studies focusing on meaning, production and experiences of audiences and their
interaction with media texts.
2.6.6 Everyday Life

Unlike earlier works on ‘researching audiences’, everyday life or day-to-day life
approach borrows from humanities and focuses on subjectivity. It examines
audience experiences and role of media in their daily life. Rooted in reception
analysis, it acknowledges that member of the audience interprets the media
messages contextually. The circumstances, outlook and prejudices in ‘everyday
life’ situation influence the reception of media content. Unlike the earlier passive
audiences who were consuming media commodities, this approach, like uses
and gratification, looks at audiences as active beings. The active role of the
audience is in interpreting the meaning from the media messages.
Activity-2
List your expectations as a member of an audience for television news channel

as well as newspaper. Do you find any difference? Analyse the reasons.
2.7 FUTURE OF THE AUDIENCES

While you are reading this, more and more content would have been generated
by the audiences themselves on social media. With User Generated Content on
social networking sites and acknowledgement of it by the Main Stream Media
(MSM), another dichotomy of writer-reader has disappeared. Now is the time of
collaborative content generation and real time interactivity. While the State is
becoming more and more rigid about forms of reaction and action by audiences,
technology and society keep surprising everyone. There have been numerous
examples of citizen journalism, user posted personal accounts of disasters or
political insurgency, blogger protests, online petitions, flash mobs and so on.
People who are not ‘trained’ to create media content are today becoming
‘producers’. Alvin Toffler used the term ‘prosumers’ (producer/professional-
consumers) way back in 1980 in his book The Third Wave which has turned out
to be true.
From Ang’s question of ‘what it means, or what it is like to live in a media

saturated world’ in 1996 to Liz Bird’s ‘audiences are everywhere and nowhere’
in 2003, audience research has come a long way. From the one-to-many and
centre-to-periphery conception of mass media to the more diverse, one-to-one
and many-to-many media will create newer audiences. Audiences today use media
in multi-fold. For instance, you watch television on mobile, and SMS your friend
and update your status on social media new areas for audience research.
32
Media Audiences
2.8 LET US SUM UP
This unit exposed you to the concept of media audiences – their evolution,
characteristics, theories, approaches and traditions to research them. The very
nature of defining communication influences the way one views audiences. In
public service broadcasting the audience becomes ‘public’ whereas in a
commercial broadcasting they are ‘consumers’. Audiences differ in terms of
geography, time, heterogeneity, longevity, medium and expectations. There are
mainly three traditions of audience research- structural, behavioural and socio-
cultural. Audience research approaches have differed from effects to everyday
life and cultural studies to reception analysis.
Now you can appreciate that in understanding media and society relationship,
audience is an important element. Media audiences define the communication
and it is because of them that communication takes place. With digital
technologies the future of audience has become more dynamic as audience has
become media producer now.
In the next unit we shall discuss the concept of media literacy and its need in the
present times.

Ang, I. (1991), Desperately seeking the audience, Routledge, London
Barnouw, E. (1989) (ed.), International Encyclopedia of communications, OUP,

New York
Fiske, J. (2001) Television Culture, Routledge, London
Hagen, I and Janet, W. (2000) (ed.), Consuming Audiences? Production and

Reception in Media Research, Hampton Press, New Jersey
McQuail, D. (1997), Audience Analysis, Sage, California
McQuail, D. (2000), Mass Communication Theory, Sage, London
Nightingale, V. (2011) (ed.), The Handbook of Media Audiences, Wiley and

Blackwell, United Kingdom
Ross, K. and Nightingle, V. (2003), Media and Audiences: Issues in Cultural

and Media Studies, McGraw-Hill International, England
2.10 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS: POSSIBLE

ANSWERS
1) The ‘participant’ audience is based on Carrey’s expressive/ritualistic model.
It shares and increases interaction and commonality with the sender.
Television shows with studio audience, dial-in radio shows, online response/
comments by readers to newspaper articles are examples of a participating
audience. Spectator audience on the other hand, the sender only seeks 33
Mass Media & Society attention and does not want to transmit information or influence. The
examples of sports matches, advertising to catch attention are spectatorship
instances.
1) Structural tradition looks at media system and individual media use. Also
known as audience measurement, it examined ‘reach’ of print media based
on circulation figures, data essential for managements to seek
advertisements. It is centered on questions like ‘who does what with which
media’.
2) Behavioral tradition explores effects and use of media by its audiences.

Lot of research on motives and selection patterns of audiences have also
been undertaken within this tradition. Here the questions are ‘what does
the medium does to people’.
3) Cultural tradition looks at media as institutions and how audiences negotiate

meaning of media texts. Reception analysis, cultural studies and everyday
life approaches represent this tradition. The objective here is not to examine
influence or use but the nature of relationship and rituals associated with
the consumption by the audiences.
34
Media Audiences
UNIT 3 MEDIA LITERACY
Structure
3.0 Introduction
3.2 Media Literacy: Concept and Definition
3.2.1 Need for Media Literacy
3.2.2 Functions of Media Literacy
3.3 Process of Media Literacy
3.4 Core concepts of Media Literacy
3.4.1 Messages are constructed
3.4.2 Messages are constructed using creative language
3.4.3 Different people experience same media message differently
3.4.4 Media have embedded values
3.4.5 Messages are organised to gain power
3.5 Evaluation of the Credibility of Information
3.6 Let Us Sum up
3.0 INTRODUCTION
We have discussed in the previous unit that the globalised media environment
and unlimited avenues for information generation and dissemination have led to
most people falling under the category of media audiences and being influenced
by it. We begin our interaction with media at a very early age and the relationship
strengthens as years go by. New media and messages make an inroad into our
everyday existence and leave an imprint on our minds.
McLuhan’s famous adage, ‘Medium is the message’ clearly emphasised the role
of the medium in comprehending the message. We come across various media
sending forth messages – some complimentary and some contradictory. In such
a scenario, it is easy for us to get into the habit of imbibing the messages without
comprehending them. We face, what is commonly termed as ‘Information
overload’.
The information we receive through the vast network of disseminating media;

appears to be simple, and easy to understand. It caters to all the areas of interest,
entertainment, news, current affairs etc. It comes to us in our spoken language
that we recognise both linguistically and cognitively. The reality, however, is
that the media uses a complex audio-visual ‘language’ which has its own grammar.
The language of word, pictures, moving pictures and music can be used to express
many-layered concepts and ideas about the world. It can also be used to create
false ideas and notions as everything may not be obvious at first. The images fly
by the mind’s eye and stay on in the deep recesses of our mind. If we wish to be
able to navigate our lives through this multi-media culture, we need to be fluent
in ‘reading’ and ‘writing’ the language of images and sounds just as we have
always been able to ‘read’ and ‘write’ the printed language. 35
Mass Media & Society The all encompassing prevalence of media makes it imperative that we learn the
language of media and learn how to derive meaning out of all its messages. Just
as computer education became necessary to be a part of the literate world, media
literacy is now equally important.

After studying this unit, you should be able to:
• define media literacy;
• describe the process of media literacy;
• outline the core concepts of media literacy;
• evaluate the credibility of information;
• explain the power of visual images; and
• critically analyse media messages.
3.2 MEDIA LITERACY: CONCEPT AND

DEFINITION
Media literacy involves learning to access, analyse, evaluate and create media in
a variety of forms (Aspen Media Literacy Leadership Institute, 1992). The
definition lays stress on creating media messages, which is only one aspect of
media literacy. We need to understand media literacy as a wholesome education
which is more about helping audiences of different age groups become competent,
critical and literate in all media forms so that they are able to make meaning of
all that they see or hear, rather than letting the medium control their thinking.
Media literacy empowers you to understand the media, the rationale of media,
the reasons for messages, the implication of visual images and the economics of
the media industry. You will be capable of not only finding the answers to your
questions from the media but also raise pertinent questions when required. Thus,
you will not get carried away by the images of real or imaginary world that are
put before you by the media.
Media literacy also helps you understand your surroundings. It helps you make
more informed decisions, as you are able to see the hidden meanings behind the
messages. In brief, media literacy makes you a more discerning user of media
outputs.
3.2.1 Need for Media Literacy

The first and most important requirement for a healthy democracy is to have
enlightened electorate. Media literacy creates educated electorates, who are able
to see through the campaign strategies and are capable of critically evaluating
manifestoes and election speeches. The other important reasons for media literacy
are:
a) Influence of media on our daily life: You must have observed that even
little toddlers and small children are addicted to mediated communication
all day. For some of our children, television acts as a baby sitter and internet
36
as a friend. In such a situation, it is important that children should also be Media Literacy
media literate and understand that Tom and Jerry are only cartoons and in
real life one can get hurt if one runs like them!
b) Media shapes our perception of the world: If we watch too much of a

certain type of programme, we start to believe that the society is just like
that. Media literacy frees us from the stereotypes created by the images
projected at us.
c) Media is urban and elite oriented, but the society is not: In our real
lives, we have to work hard for a living and in our films and television
serials; life is depicted to be very rosy. A media literate person will not feel
frustrated at this situation and will understand that real life is different from
what is depicted. Thus, media literacy helps us to see the difference.
d) Technology changes the look of the world every day: Media products
flood the market and change the way people read, talk, write and understand.
A media literate person is able to follow the media as per his/her individual
requirement and is not led by the diktats of the market.
Healthy Educated
Democracy electorate
Critical
evaluation of
political
manifestoes
Fig. 3.1: Importance of Media Literacy in Democracy
3.2.2 Functions of Media Literacy

Media literacy as an area of education, must explore the nature and influence of
media and media messages in our culture. As far as our culture is concerned,
media no longer only influences it; but is already a part of it. From mobile phones,
cameras, computers, laptops, internet, newspapers, television to cinema, all the
products of media are part of our everyday life and hence our culture. Media
literacy therefore helps us understand our culture.
Media literacy does not intend to create critiques of media systems or the society
who are forever looking for political agendas, stereotypes or misrepresentations;
it however, does intent to create a media consumer who is capable of taking wise
decisions and is not unintentionally influenced by media.
Media literacy does not function as a means to criticise the media and find faults
with all the messages as it would amount to taking a very narrow dimension to
this vast field. However, it involves critically analysing the media only when
you have thoroughly understood the meaning behind the messages.
37
Mass Media & Society Although some experts believe that media literacy is the knowledge of media
production - it is not. Creating media products is a very specialised aspect of
media literacy which actually begins from understanding media messages and
systems.
Media literacy aims to help you look at the media experience from multiple
perspectives, which would include your own educated opinion about media
messages. Media literacy does NOT tell you to not interact with the media. It
only teaches you to interact carefully, think critically and understand intelligently.
3.3 PROCESS OF MEDIA LITERACY

In order to understand the process of media literacy it will be useful to revisit the
famous Model of Communication Process given by the political scientist Harold
Lasswell (1948) who defined an act of communication in terms of the following
questions:
• Who (Communicator)
• Says What (Message)
• In Which Channel (Medium)
• To Whom (Receiver)
• With what effect? (Effect)
According to Lasswell there are three functions for communication:
1) Surveillance of the environment;
2) Correlation of the parts of society in responding to the environment; and
3) Transmission of social heritage from one generation to next.
Lasswell model suggests that a media message flows in a multicultural society
with multiple audiences through various channels. Understanding media is also
about understanding different players in the system of mediated communication.
Each of the entities outlined by Lasswell can be understood in terms of media,
messages and audiences.
‘Who’ or the Communicator is the savvy individual or media organisation who

can use the media systems to send forth their messages.
‘What’ is the message that is being sent forth by the medium - it is influenced by
many factors and may not be error free.
Channel refers to the medium being used. Each medium has its own
characteristics and the nature of the message changes.
‘To Whom’ refers to the consumers of media products and
‘With what effect’ implies the repercussion of the message.
The process is not as simple as it appears; so let us understand it in the context of

Media Literacy. The process of Media Literacy begins with the audience - the
consumers of media products. When we become media literate, we start to collect
relevant and useful information and comprehend its meaning effectively. We
38
gather and interpret information, appreciate the good and the bad, and become Media Literacy
media savvy. Given below are the ways in which this process is carried out:
• Each message is understood independently and in relationship with others.

The message may come from any media. This is understood as
‘deconstruction of message’.
• After deconstruction the messages are analysed in their context and

presentation - this is called ‘decoding’.
• Messages are now ‘read’ in the real sense.
The above process will also help you to look at the messages coming from the
media with a new perspective.
• Biases and prejudices can be recognised and treated likewise;
• We can read between the lines;
• The intent of the sender becomes clear;
• The media and media channels are understood from the messages they
send forth and also how they do it;
• We understand the ideology of a media organisation that brings out these
messages; and
• We understand our society better.
The fact that you have learnt how to ‘read’ the media messages will also help
you to ‘write’ in a better format. You will be able to organise your thoughts, draft
your text, add images and/or sounds, edit, and present the final message.
Activity-1
Watch a popular advertisement and analyse the following:
• What is being sold?
• How is it being sold?
• How is it different from other products/ads?
• Are the claims verifiable?
• What is the character sketch and product placement like?

Notes 1) Use the space below for your answer.
2) Compare your answers with those ones given at the end of this Unit.
1) Explain the term Media Literacy.
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39
Mass Media & Society 2) Why do we need to become media literates?
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3) Describe the process of Media Literacy.

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3.4 CORE CONCEPTS OF MEDIA LITERACY

The core concept of media literacy challenges the premise of mere consumption
of media messages. It postulates that if we do not ask questions about media
messages and media products we will not be able to distinguish between beneficial
and harmful messages. In our language classes, we are taught to differentiate
between a poetry, essay, letter, note, memo, and article. Does a common newspaper
reader know the difference between a news story and a feature article or main
news and paid news? If we knew the difference we would know which is factual
and which contains elements of storytelling.
According to the Centre for Media Literacy (2003), the five core concepts of
media literacy are:
1) All media messages are ‘constructed’;
2) Media messages are constructed using a creative language with its own
rules;
3) Different people experience the same media message differently;
4) Media have embedded values and points of view; and
5) Most media messages are organised to gain power.
Let us understand this through a diagram:
40 Fig. 3.2: Core Concepts

Business decisions : Profit making, Market acceptability, Image enhancement Media Literacy
Message : Based on stereotypes, crossing several barriers

Audience : Accept or reject message as per their knowledge and
interest levels
Production : Visuals, sound, dialogues and other imagery used to create
a perfect, believable message for the audience.
We will try to understand each concept one by one.
3.4.1 Media Messages are ‘Constructed’

Whenever we receive any message from any of our media, we need to realise the
fact that the message has been designed by somebody for us. We tend to believe
that the news being shown is the most important event of the day and that is why
it is on television. Let us look at the same situation in another way.
The world is full of people, all of them are engaged in doing something in their
lives but only some actions of some people become news. Some actions are told
to the rest of the world because some people in some organisations think that the
action was important. Are you able to understand where this whole series of
thought is leading? This means that ‘news’ is different from the ‘event’. An
event has to be worthy of becoming news and for this it goes through a process
of news selection and gathering by a news organisation. It should therefore have
specific qualities to qualify as news. Once it qualifies, the reporter narrates the
event in his/her words to the audience. Thus by the time, an event becomes
news, it has gone through a lot of additions and subtractions.
Let us further understand this with a diagram:
A limited number of events from all the events in the world
Selected by reporters on the basis of news values
Written in nverted pyramid giving clear priorities Elements of interest added to

it, such as photos, tables, graphs, line drawing, etc. in newspapers and audio
visual clips, peoples bytes on TV. This is done on the basis of availability and
understanding of the reporter
Appears as a news story in our media
Audience/readers believes it as the most important event of the day
Fig. 3.3: News is a ‘constructed’ narrative 41

Mass Media & Society From this diagram it is clear that news is a narrative prepared by the media
persons for the audience. We do not get to know about the events that were
rejected. If this can happen to the most factual section of our media messages,
imagine how much ‘construction’ goes into preparing fiction? Will you be able
to consume media messages with an understanding that ‘All media messages are
‘constructed?’
3.4.2 Messages are Constructed Using Creative Language

Each of these media messages are a combination of many elements. These
elements have their own way of saying things and no message is narrated in
isolation. Let us try to understand with the help of the same example that we
used to illustrate the first point.
A news story on television is a narrative of the events as we have already seen.

This comes to us along with the use of multimedia elements. These elements are
moving pictures (video) and sound (audio). If the news is about a train accident,
the camera hovers over the crying face of a victim, it takes a close up of tear
filled eyes, a mother carrying a crying child on her shoulders, dead bodies visible
at a distance, the reporter comes and goes but the camera relays the pictures of
grief.
The camera acts as our eye - it decides what we should see. The cameraperson’s
judgment at the site of the accident gives shape to the enormity of damage and
anguish. We see the world through the eye of the camera. In addition to the video
is the audio. The sound adds its own pathos to the scene. Sorrowful music is
played to make the scene come alive, but in real life no music is played when we
are sad. The music in messages gives us the cue to laugh or cry and the medium
tells us that this is a sad story and you should feel bad. The surprising aspect is
that we start to feel just as the media tells us to. This means that we get caught in
the mood created by the medium and start understanding the world from its
point of view. If we could understand the language of the medium we would not
be so naïve and yet be able to appreciate the message.
3.4.3 Different People Experience the Same Media Message

Differently
Do all of us understand the messages sent out by the media in the same manner
or do different people react differently? The reality is that each individual
understands the media messages on the basis of his/her own uniqueness. When
we understand media messages, we see them through the prism of perception.
Our level of interest, previous knowledge, stereotypes in our heads, values and
culture all play a part in understanding the message. The message therefore is
not just constructed by the sender but is also reconstructed by the receiver.
3.4.4 Media have Embedded Values

We have seen that media messages are parts of reality constructed by media
persons, but are the messages totally free of bias? Let us try to understand the
process of news creation before it is served to us.
The news gathering process involves
• The reporter gets a list of events.
42
• S/he decides to attend one. Media Literacy
• S/he reaches the venue and searches out the person from whom s/he can
get to know more about the event.
• S/he talks to few persons about the event.
• S/he takes note of the ongoing activity and returns to office.
• S/he writes the story.
That is why, it is important to understand that media are always viewpoint oriented
even when they are trying to be objective.
3.4.5 Messages are Organised to Gain Power

In the previous units we have discussed at length that media is a big business. In
fact, it is a sector of economy and big media houses control everything that goes
into the media. A business person would go into the business of media to gain in
terms of finances and power. If a media house gets the audience to tune into its
programmes day after day, it can sell space/time to the advertisers at a good rate
and make profit. The media house can also tailor messages to suit a certain political
ideology, philosophy, lifestyle or image. This way, in a democratic country mass
media messages can be used to tilt the power equation towards the highest bidder.
A well-informed user of media will apply discretion and power of judgment

while exposing him/herself and dear ones to these messages. S/he will critically
evaluate the messages while watching or listening to them and gauge their
credibility. The best way to analyse media messages is through the use of the
Media Triangle, which focuses on Text, Production and Audience.
Analysing Audience
Analysing Text Why this message?
What text type is this? Who is the intended reader?
What is attracting my How does the message show
attention? reality?
Am I able to understand the Is the message meant for me?
message in one reading? Will everybody understand the
message the way I do?
Media
Triangle
Analysing Production
Who wrote this story? Why?
How have the parts of the story been used?
How does the placement of the story matter?
Who benefits from this story?
Who may be disadvantaged because of the story?
Fig. 3.4: The Media Triangle

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Mass Media & Society With the help of this framework we will try to understand the questions to ask
while analysing a newspaper story or a magazine article.
Notes: 1 Use the space below for your answer.
2 Compare your answers with those ones given at the end of this Unit.
1) What are the five core concepts of media literacy?

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2) Who decides the content and treatment that is to be given to media

messages? How is this decision making done?
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3) Who benefits from the message?

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3.5 EVALUATION OF THE CREDIBILITY OF

INFORMATION
Having understood the market dynamics of mass media let us try to evaluate
media messages coming from different sources. The process of evaluation would
comprise understanding the background of the message, the medium used for its
dissemination, interpretations arising from it, intentions and purpose.
When we watch a TV programme, we are so engrossed in the story telling

technique and the powerful narrative created by the visuals and the audio that
we do not care much about the deeper meaning that might have been intentionally
or unintentionally being formed in our minds. This deeper meaning will eventually
rest in our memory bank in the form of stereotypes. In our effort at media literacy,
we should stop and check. Let us together analyse a popular film Sholay which
most of us have seen at some point of time.
• Notice the characters. How are they dressed? Do they tell you anything
from their clothes? The colours chosen? The way they speak? The hairstyle?
Are you able to identify a definite effort that has gone into creating the
characters in order to make them believable?
• Now, turn off the sound and watch the characters again. Do they seem
similar to what they were last time? Are they less effective?
44
• Now, turn off the video and listen to the sound. Are you able to imagine the Media Literacy
character from the background score? Are you able to recognise the accents
in their voices? Are you able to ‘see the film in your mind’?
• Have you been able to see the effort put in by the film maker with the help
of so many other people in creating an ambience and atmosphere for you?
He has succeeded in making you believe that these are real people leading
real lives.
Try this exercise with an advertisement, a news cast, a news story and you will
be able to see the layers of meaning. While watching TV or a film it may not be
possible to conduct this type of analysis but after some time, it becomes a habit
and the mind is able to understand the messages as narratives and not ‘real’.
Base rate and Exemplar

Most news stories can be categorised under two categories: Base rate and
Exemplar. Base rate comprises of all the information that is verifiable and specific.
It could be data, illustrations, sometimes actual percentages and sometimes
generalisations such as ‘lots’, ‘many’ etc. In contrast, exemplar is episodic
information that describes causes, importance and consequences of a problem
with an individualistic perspective. These are stories. (Potter, 2004)
Studies have found that audience like to believe the exemplars more than the
base rate. When they read the news stories they understand the narrative from
their own perspective and relate them to their personal lives.
Example: Exemplar about Accident/Fire News
Fire claims City heart hotel
City loses heritage structure
City heart hotel, the oldest building in Shanbag, was reduced to ashes in a fire
mishap last night. No loss of life or injury is reported. One of the proprietors Mr.
Hari Gupta, 64, made a miraculous escape from his first-floor office by jumping
out of a window.
The fire is believed to have started at about 9.00 p.m., when many customers
were finishing dinner. It is suspected to have originated in the kitchen on the
ground floor. The two storey building with a timbered frontage was engulfed in
flames almost immediately. The cause of the fire is not known.
Talking to the press, the Divisional Officer R. Sinha, who commanded the rescue
operations, said “The building was already burning fiercely by the time we arrived.
It was a pretty desperate situation.” The fire control operation proved to be
difficult because of narrow streets and presence of onlookers. The fire department
was assisted by the police and auxiliary firemen to clear the street and carry out
the fire fighting operation.
City heart hotel in Main market was built in 1825 and was fairly unique in the
Shanbag area because of its historic appearance. It had recently been purchased
by brothers, Mr. Hari Gupta and Mr. Ravi Gupta. None of them was available
for comment.
45
Mass Media & Society With the loss of City heart hotel, Shanbag has lost not only its oldest building
but also a famous tourist destination.
This is the 5th incident of fire in the city this month. Approximately goods worth
Rs. 5 Crores have been lost in this fire.
The facts in the story are divided into Base rate and Exemplars:
Base Rate
1) Age of proprietor: 64
2) Time of the start of fire: 9.00 pm
3) The year of establishing of the hotel: 1825
4) Place of origin of fire: Kitchen
5) Number of floors of the building: 2
6) Type of facade: Timberage frontage
7) Number of fire incident: 5th
8) Loss estimate: Rs 5 Crores
Exemplar
1) Timber frontage is a risky material to use for façade. All owners of houses
with timber frontage will be worried
2) All those who dined in the hotel in the past will remember their experiences
3) Neighbouring building owners will be worried about the safety of their
buildings.
4) Other hotels will worry about their fire safety measures.
A look at the above data clearly depicts the parts of the news story that will be
remembered by the readers. Try this method with some other media messages,
films, advertisements, television serials etc. and you will find yourself recalling
the exemplars more than the base rate.
3.6 LET US SUM UP

In this unit you were exposed to look at media messages as a constructed
phenomenon purposely created to influence us in many ways. It was explained
that since we live in a mediated environment, we need to understand media
better and educate ourselves on the methods in which these messages are created
and used.
The meaning of media literacy, its need, purpose and process was explained.
Media Literacy was defined as education which helps audiences of different age
groups becomes competent, critical and literate in all media forms. The five core
concepts of media literacy were examined to help you to evaluate the credibility
of information from different sources. The deconstruction of a media message
was explained - how emotions are deliberately created for us with a lot of effort
by experts. The difference between base rates and exemplars in the media
messages was described and how you can create your own messages using a
variety of media tools explained.
46
We hope that the discussion will enable you to navigate through the media Media Literacy
messages and access information from a variety of sources. You will be able to
analyse and explore how messages are “constructed “in any of the media (print,
verbal, visual or multi-media) and evaluate media’s explicit and implicit messages
with your own interpretations.

Herman, E., & Chomsky, N. (2002). Manufacturing Consent: The Political
Economy of the Mass Media.
Potter, W. (2004). Theory of Media Literacy: A Cognitive Approach. Thousand

Oaks, Ca.: Sage.
Tyner, K. (2000). Literacy in a digital world: Teaching and Learning in the Age
of Information. Mahwah, N.J.: Erlbaum.

ANSWERS
1) Media literacy helps audiences of different age groups become competent,

critical and literate in all media forms so that they are able to make meaning
of all that they see or hear rather than letting the medium control their
thinking. Media literacy empowers us to understand the media, the reasons
for messages, the economy of media, the implication of visual images.
We are capable of not only finding the answers to our questions but also
raise pertinent questions when required. We will not get carried away by
the images of real or imaginary world that are put before us by the media.
We will not only be able to distinguish between fact and fiction but also
between half truths and lies.
2) There is a need for us to become media literate for the following reasons:
a) The first and most important requirement for a healthy democracy is

to have enlightened electorate. Media literacy creates educated
electorates, who are able to see through the campaign strategies and
are capable of critically evaluating manifestoes and election speeches.
b) Media literacy reduces the influence of media on our daily life. As

even little toddlers and small children are addicted to mediated
communication all day, it is important that children should also be
media literate and understand that Tom and Jerry are only cartoons
and in real life one can get hurt if one runs like them.
c) Media literacy helps us understand the world better and free us from
the stereotypes created by the images projected at us.
d) Media is urban and elite oriented but the society is not. Media literacy
helps us to see the difference. In our real lives, we have to work hard
47
Mass Media & Society for a living and in our films and television serials; life seems to be
very rosy. A media literate person will not feel frustrated at this situation
and understand that real life is different from what is depicted.
e) Technology changes the look of the world every day. Media products
flood the market and change the way people read, talk, write and
understand. A media literate person is able to follow the media as per
one’s individual requirement and is not led by the diktats of the market.
3) The process of Media Literacy begins with the audience. We are the
consumers of media products. When we become media literate, we start to
collect relevant and useful information and comprehend its meaning
effectively. This process is carried out in the following manner:
• Each message is understood independently and in relationship with

others. The message may come from any media. This is understood as
deconstruction.
• After deconstruction the messages are analysed in their context and

presentation. This is called Decoding.
• Messages have both base rates and exemplars and a media literate
person can discern the difference between the two.
• Messages are now ‘read’ in the real sense.

1) Five Core Concepts of media literacy are:
a) All media messages are ‘constructed.’
b) Media messages are constructed using a creative language with its
own rules.
c) Different people experience the same media message differently.
d) Media have embedded values and points of view.
e) Most media messages are organised to gain power.
2) At different points of time the content and treatment is decided by various

stakeholders in media business. The decision making is done at the
individual and organisational level keeping in mind the profits. However,
some decisions are taken at a level which lies in the sub conscious mind in
the form of stereotypes and biases. These decisions are not just taken by
the creator of media messages but also the receivers of the same.
3) The benefits gained from the media messages are not only in terms of
financial gain. All the participants of the media message process will gain
from the messages if they understood how to read, understand and create
media messages. The public gains when it is media literate and is able to
distinguish between the real and the contrived. It also gains when it can see
through propaganda, publicity, advertisement, and storytelling. Private
interests are limited to media owners at the financial level but at the personal
level each participant gains through one’s ability to give and take media
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messages. Media houses gain in terms of finances and also in terms of Media Literacy
power. If a media house is able to get the audience to tune into its
programmes day after day, it is able to sell space to the advertisers at a good
rate and make profit. The media house can also tailor messages to suit a
certain political ideology, a life philosophy, a lifestyle or an image. This
way, in a democratic country mass media messages can be used to tilt the
power equation towards the highest bidder.
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UNIT 4 MASS MEDIA POLICIES
Structure
4.0 Introduction
4.2 Meaning of Media Policy
4.3 Objectives of Media Policies
4.4 Divergent Views on Media Policies
4.4.1 Regulated Media Policy
4.4.2 Unregulated Media Policy
4.5 Obstacles in Adopting Media Policies
4.6 Media Policies: Global Perspectives
4.7 Experts’ Recommendations in Media Policies
4.8 Let Us Sum Up
4.0 INTRODUCTION
As you are aware, mass media plays a significant role in the life of the people of
any country. The main objectives of a nation’s mass media organisations are to
inform, educate, and entertain all sections of a nation’s people. Mass media are
also termed as the Fourth Estate of a democratic country, the other three pillars
being: the Legislature or the Parliament; the Executive or the government’s
administrative machinery; and the Judiciary.
While the main functions of the legislature or parliament are to make, enact,
legislate and pass laws, including rules and regulations for the administration
and governance of the country; the primary responsibility of the executive is to
implement these laws. The main job of the judiciary is to adjudicate the disputed
issues and resolving diverse contentious conundrums that may arise between the
parties within the government and among the common people. The most important
job of a nation’s mass media is to inform the people about its government’s day-
to-day functioning, and how it conducts its administrative business. In addition,
the mass media are also charged with the work of educating the people to ensure
that the government is performing that job effectively, to the satisfaction of the
people. Besides, they are also expected to entertain the people seeking leisure
through media. The mass media also perform the duty of being a watchdog on
government, and public leaders to warn and alert them in case they happen to
deviate from their requisite responsibilities and duties ascribed to them under
the rules and regulations, and to be in tune with the constitutional provisions.
Keeping in view the important roles that mass media perform in a nation’s running,
it is pertinent to discuss the policies that govern the media systems and operations.
In this unit, we shall examine various issues related with mass media policies in
India.
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Mass Media Policies
After reading this unit, you should be able to:
• discuss the meaning, role and objectives of media policy;
• describe the divergent views on media policies;
• outline the media policy scenario in India;
• describe the global perspectives on media policies;
• examine the obstacles and impediments in adopting media policies; and
• discuss the policy contours in the print media.
4.2 MEANING OF MEDIA POLICIES

Now, let us examine what is the meaning of ‘Policy’ and ‘Media Policy?’ The
literal meaning of the word ‘Policy’ as stated by the Webster’s New Universal
Unabridged Dictionary is ‘a definite course of action adopted for the sake of
expediency, facility or a document embodying a contract. Or, a course of action
adopted or pursued by a government, ruler, or political party or, action or procedure
conforming to or considered with reference to the prudence or expediency.’
Ordinarily speaking, Policy denotes among other ‘elements, guidelines for action,
and may take the form of:
a) Declaration of goals and objectives;
b) A declaration of courses of action;
c) Declaration on societal values.
A policy may be general or specific, broad or narrow, simple or complex, public
or private, written or unwritten, explicit or implicit, discretionary or detailed,
and qualitative or quantitative. For example, editorial guidelines that govern
foreign radio or television stations operating within the purview of Indian political
and legal systems.
Therefore, ‘Media Policy’ means ‘formal as well as informal strategies,

underpinned by specific interests, values and goals that shape the emergence of
mechanisms designed to structure the direction and behaviour in a particular
media environment.’ The policy tools in such circumstances include legal norms
and rules that are deployed on the media (for instance ownership, licensing or
the imposition of public remit obligation and tax exemptions). Generally speaking,
media policies are broader than media regulations. However, according to the
Sean MacBride Commission Report (1980), ‘Communication policies do not
necessarily imply rigid, centralised planning, but may simply constitute a
favourable framework for the coordination of activities, allowing flexibility and
a wide choice of approaches to communication strategies.’
In addition, media policies will entail the government rules and regulations for
encouraging media businesses to flourish and also levying strict controls and
regulations on the media establishments, and their owners to operate their media
units under the rigour of laws and rules of the land. This includes the terms and
requirements to be abided by, to set up a newspaper, magazine, television or a
radio station, or other media outlets. This may involve issuing licenses, according
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Mass Media & Society sanctions for provision of facilities to the media entrepreneurs to buy equipment
- transmitters, printing presses, television studios and camera equipment. Above
all, allowing commercial use of these facilities as deemed crucial by media
establishment owners to earn profits.
According to Robin Mansell and Mark Raboy, “Global media and communication
policy must take into account ‘technological innovation, institutional dynamics,
democratisation and processes favouring inclusiveness and plurality… must
embrace formal mechanisms of the state — legislation, regulation, and
prescriptive practices — and informal settings, offering opportunities for non-
state actors to express their opinions about the ideals (e.g., affordable and universal
access to networks or diverse content) to which the media should aspire.”
In the Indian context, the objectives of media policies have been identified
differently by different persons and different media organisations. Pran Chopra,
former editor of a prominent English daily, The Statesman, says, “National media
policy should help media fulfill the objective of providing access to information
to the largest number of people, preserve their credibility and work as two-way
channel”. By media policy, he adds, “I mean those decisions of the national
government which might help the media fulfill functions that are appropriate for
them in a democratic and pluralistic country like India. I consider four functions
of the media to be the most important in the Indian context. First, the media
should provide to the largest number of people easy access to information which
is reliable, relevant, and abundant. Second, the media must provide reasonably
free channels of expression for opinions which are well informed, responsible
and adequately reflect all relevant points of view. Third, media should be a two-
way channel; not only addressing messages to the audience but also giving the
audience a forum for the expression of its concerns. The fourth overrides all
these three functions: the media must preserve their credibility’.”
Why are media policies important?

But, why should there be national media and communication policies, and why
are media policies important for national government or, for that matter, for any
national executive authority/organisation? In India, the central government has
laid down and prescribed policies for almost all important matters: we have a
fertiliser policy, we have a sugar policy, we have telecommunication policy, and
we have a policy for newsprint. Why not a national media and communication
policy?
Since mass media continuously, by their very nature, churn out information, day
in day out, that deeply and comprehensively touch and impact our lives, and our
relationship with the government, it is desirable that media policies make citizens’
life meaningful and productive. Massive developments, particularly in evolution
of new media have taken rapid strides during the last few decades. These trends
are widely discernible in government functioning and government-public ties
and it will be risky to ignore these new trends in media technologies.
Besides, mass media have always been, ubiquitously influencing every area of
human life all over the world. Mass media provide information to the government
about what’s shaping people’s views, and how government and all its departments
are affecting their lives. Such regular communication flow facilitates the
government in formulating its own programmes and schemes of action in
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multifarious areas of the nation’s developmental tasks for overall good of all Mass Media Policies
levels of society. Media persons being in constant touch with the powers are
able to keep their fingers on the pulse of the public thinking and help maintain
live channels of feedback about what is happening in government circles and
vice-versa.
Moreover, transnational mass media corporations are creating all pervasive impact
of their operations and contents on the ideals, opinions, thought processes, values
and lifestyles of the developing countries’ masses. The situation in India is peculiar
- while the print media, mass-circulation daily newspapers especially, are in private
sector, the government-owned and operated electronic media, radio and television,
are fast losing audiences. The privately-owned cable and satellite electronic media
(more than 800) are thronging and are speedily luring away the audience.
Moreover, with the constitutional guarantee of freedom of press, the government
cannot have any direct influence on the private media – print or electronic.
Consequently, any type of government-structured media policy fails to deliver
government-directed information. In such a scenario, media policies prepared or
enforced in Indian environment cannot possibly have any controlled, promotional
or propagandist flavour about government programmes and schemes. Keeping
these factors in view, former Press Council Chairman, A.N. Sen, opined that it
might not be ‘wise to seek to lay down firm national media policy, as the effective
implementation of such policy may create more problems than it is likely to
solve.’
Check Your Progress: 1
1) What does ‘media policy’ mean?
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2) Why should a country have a media policy?

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4. 3 OBJECTIVES OF MEDIA POLICIES

We will now discuss the primary objectives of media policies. Referring to the
importance of national media and communication policies, the MacBride
Commission observed: “Communication be no longer regarded as an incidental
service and its development left to chance… formulation of comprehensive
communication policies linked to overall social, cultural, economic and
interdisciplinary consultations…. Media should be involved in progress of
democratising communication.”
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Mass Media & Society Therefore, deliberating on the objectives of national media and communication
policies, Government of India’s Ministry of Information and Broadcasting
appointed a sectoral innovation council. It has suggested that the primary
objectives of the media policies should be ‘promoting, preserving, and protecting
India as a free, independent, sovereign democratic, dynamic, progressive nation.’
Mass media will have to fully support the nation’s aspirations, freely, fully and
creatively at community, regional, national and international levels, and help
express, exchange, disseminate, information, knowledge, experiences and ideas
for building India as a prosperous, just, equitable and secular nation. Also
encourage setting up, managing, and supporting such operations, institutions for
achieving this objective.
The government expects that media policies in India, should relate, cover and
affect nation’s all media of mass communication, such as radio, television, news
agencies, films, Internet, video, theatre, outdoor media, advertising and public
relations. Therefore, it is fully maintained that the country’s mass media are
public trust; the nation’s independence and sovereignty are paramount. The
nation’s media should serve the deprived and disadvantaged sections.
The uncontested fact is that media policies should encourage media pluralism,
universal access, cultural enrichment, developing all languages of the country,
education and development, promotion of human rights and inculcate
accountability. Thus, it is extremely important that national media and
communication policies are conceived in the context of national realities, free
expression of thought, and respect for individual and social rights.
Media Policies in India: An Overview

In the Indian context, in March 1996, a sub-committee of the Consultative
Committee of the government of India’s Ministry of Information and Broadcasting
spelt out national media policy objectives as under: ‘Laying down a broad
framework of the relationship of the government with both national and
international media, such as television, domestic and foreign and cable, video,
internet, radio, newspaper, film, etc. In the Indian context, broad objectives of
media and communication policies should be to help a citizen of the country to
realise his or her potential best.’ To sum up, the following main objectives of
national media policy were proposed by the I&B ministry’s sub-committee:
• Not to permit growth of monopoly in any media;
• to project the developmental needs and social, cultural and economic
aspirations of the people, particularly in the rural areas who constitute bulk
of our population;
• to strengthen, preserve and promote our democratic traditions, culture, and
values, national integrations and scientific temper;
• to promote and strengthen sense of national integrity built on secularism,
socio-cultural pluralism and linguistic diversities (unity in diversity);
• to facilitate greater access to information, education and entertainment in
that order to all sections of the people;
• to enable development in the wake of challenges thrown up by the rapid
technology;
54
• to provide wider choice to the people in matters of information and Mass Media Policies
entertainment;
• to act as catalyst for social change; to broadly ensure that discrimination

based on gender, religion, caste, language, etc., is not directly or indirectly
practiced or promoted and portrayal of any action of the society is not
done in a derogatory manner.
Indian Scenario
It is essential to point out here that while the Republic Constitution of India
guarantees freedom of speech and expression under the Article 19(1) (a), the
national media scenario in the country these days scarcely inspires general
confidence. Print media, particularly the daily press, are almost under the control
of private sector. Though the Government of India has its own radio and television
channels, several well-known private electronic media companies also
individually own, control and successfully operate multi-lingual radio and
television networks and are extremely popular with the audiences all over the
country.
This may not be true in case of the government-owned and operated channels,
such as, Akashvani, Doordarshan, Films Division; and telecommunication
networks have been laid down in their individual operational charters by
competent authorities.
However, the fact remains that all media outfits, irrespective of their ownership,
generally abide by journalistic, standards, rules and norms laid down by Central
Ministry of Information and Broadcasting and other national journalists and media
ethics and standards bodies, such as the Press Council of India, Electronic Media
Advisories Councils, Advertising Standards Council, Editors Guild of India,
National Union of Journalists, Audit Bureau of Circulation, among others.
Perhaps the most remarkable characteristics of all these private media

organisations is that while they operate and function mainly to earn profits, they
do rarely abrogate the nation’s general aspirations, and generally support people’s
valid and justified yearnings and aspirations. All responsible media organisations
in the country have strongly backed common causes such as anti-rape laws, anti-
terrorism measures, poverty alleviation programmes of the union government,
and anti-corruption regulations enacted by the central and state governments.
4.4 DIVERGENT VIEWS ON MEDIA POLCY

While it is generally accepted that media and communication policies play a
crucial role in the life of a nation, there are immensely divergent views on the
nature and content of such policies among Government, policy makers, media
functionaries and media researchers. They hold diverse opinions on the
desirability, and otherwise, of democratic nations’ need and importance of framing
and adopting such policies, their content, operational modes and limitations.
There are strong views on both sides: in favour of and against adopting such
policies. However, a vast majority doesn’t favour prescribing, or laying down in
black and white, rigid or fixed policies by democratic countries for the nation’s
mass media and communication agencies. We will examine some of the prominent
views on both sides.
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Mass Media & Society Although there are several schools of thought on the contents and types of media
policies, the following two are known to be the most favoured ones: According
to Leo Bogart, a noted American media person, media policies are of two distinct
kinds: Regulated, and Unregulated.
4.4.1 Regulated Media Policy

In a society that cherishes free expression and freedom of press, prescribing or
regulating mass media content would amount to ‘risking conjuring up images of
thought control; while other democratic nations pursue media policies in a
deliberate fashion without falling prey to Big Brother.’ He illustrates his view
thus: Sweden provides newsprint subsidies that permit the survival of political
minority press. Germany places strict limits on the amount of advertising
broadcasters may inflict on viewers. Under any democratic rule, that would mean
‘government interference with business, and also the notion that the intrusion of
the state into the exercise of market forces inevitably leads to the control of
ideas.’ This type of control would be termed as ‘regulated media policy.’
4.4.2 Unregulated Media Policy

The Unregulated media policy, or free media play, according to Leo Bogart, on
the other hand, would ‘encourage a variety of channels for expression, and
discourage concentration of control; insure that the necessity of freely awarding
franchises to use scarce public goods (like the frequency spectrum) does not
result in financial exploitation of the public; facilitate an extensive and fair
exchange of ideas, and that protect society, and specially children, from abuse;
and subsidise forms of expression that enrich the national culture and intellectual
resources, but that are not necessarily viable in the commercial marketplace.
Another view in this regard is that of a noted media researcher, Professor Ben
Bagdikian of University of Southern California, USA, who opines, “Modern
democracies need a choice of politics and ideas, and that choice requires access
to truly diverse and competing sources of news, literature, entertainment and
popular culture.”
4.5 OBSTACLES IN ADOPTING MEDIA POLICIES

As you may be aware, the roles that free mass media play in open societies, such
as India, USA, UK, France, Germany, Italy, Australia, etc., have generally received
popular support from people and governments of those countries. But, quite
often one hears that even many democratic governments also deny information
and keep public in the dark. Late British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher had
denied permission to the media for reporting UK-Argentina war on the issue of
the ownership of Falkland Islands. Besides, there were several cases in India
where public was not kept in loop about crucial national affairs, such as many
defence equipment purchase deals by the Indian Air Force and Indian Army. In
the past, this also happened in case of the Bofors gun deal, 2G scam, and the
Coalgate fraudulent transactions, etc. Though mass media have investigated and
researched innumerable crimes and frauds, crucial story leads were denied time
and again by well known government leaders and functionaries.
In many controlled societies of West Asia, Latin America, Africa, and one-party
governments of Cuba, Venezuela, North Korea, China and Russia, maintain a
56
strict vigil on media ownership, operations and performances. Frequent Mass Media Policies
government interferences in most of these countries have often created
interminable obstacles in media organisations’ routine operations. In addition,
numerous other hurdles created in media’s free play include: denying or delaying
grant of licensing to set up media equipment such as transmitting stations, studio
services, channel broadcasts, printing plants etc. Authorities also very often
maintain strict supervision on media persons’ daily news reporting and
investigating scams and feature stories. Also, reporters function under a constant
fear of information denial by government agencies on the issues of public interest
and public concern; questioning sources of information and news, and compelling
journalists to disclose sources, fear of censoring stories, and jailing reporters.
It would be pertinent to mention here that government-owned and centrally-

controlled departments conduct most of the print and electronic media operations;
their media policies are also structured to serve the rulers, and governments in
power, perhaps more than the public at large. Therefore, there rarely are rifts in
media and government. But then, under such media scenario, the common people
are kept in dark about the functioning of their government.
Thus, while many a media specialists support and ardently advocate adoption of
free media and communication policies, the ground reality is that it’s a hard path
to tread on. There are practical and genuine difficulties in supporting free national
media and communication policies in given national exigencies, or constitutional
provisions.
We have seen the diverse pattern of media policies structured in some countries
detailed above. It will therefore be noticed that every nation has its own rules
and regulations under which the mass media units operate and function. Generally
speaking, a nation’s political, economic, religious and cultural considerations
limit and demand the media to operate within those goals; media’s own views
are immaterial. These could also be deemed as the government’s strict terms and
conditions or requirements. But such conditions or restrictions could ultimately
become impediments, dictated by a government in adoption of a particular pattern
of the media and communication policies.
In addition to governmental settings, there are several known and unknown basic
physical and infrastructural obstacles that could impede a smooth and easy
ushering in of the desired media and communication policies in many developing
countries. Robin Mansell and Marc Raboy have specifically underlined the
following: technological innovations; institutional dynamics; democratisation;
and, the processes favouring inclusiveness and plurality rather than exclusion
and inequality. These impediments will stand in the path of adopting newer and
modern media policies. In such situations, the state itself is a veritable impediment.
However, it is a fact that while democratic governments may encourage or allow

a good measure of freedom to the media, one-party, one-person, or totalitarian
governments may prescribe strict control or even censorship. China, Russia, and
most of the West Asian countries are examples where mass media function under
the whims and fancies of a few individuals. For, it is well known that free media
can spell death-knell of many a powerful regime, ruthless dictatorships and
untamed leaderships. Investigative news stories into their misdoing are known
to have totally decimated any number of rulers and governments. History is a
57
Mass Media & Society witness that mass media writings have been responsible for the fall and undoing
of the most powerful and the wealthy. Therefore, these fears impel the powers
that be to exercise oppressive and suppressive restrictions on media’s free
working.
Thus, they can create and innovate insurmountable impediments in the adoption
of independent media policies. There is a lot of substance that the MacBride
Commission asserts: the success of communication, in both form and content, is
inextricably linked with steps to make society itself less oppressive and unequal,
more just and democratic. This fact should be highlighted rather than concealed.
By now, most countries have realised these truisms.
1) Briefly indicate what in your view should be the basis of forming media
policy.
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
2) What difficulties do you foresee in framing, adoption, and pursuing the

media policy in a parliamentary democracy?
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
4.6 MEDIA POLICIES: GLOBAL PERSPECTIVES

Noted media researchers, Denis McQuail and Jan Van Cuilenburg, have argued
that global media policies have slowly evolved during the last sixty years or so.
The authors have classified this evolutionary period in three phases:
Phase I- Emergence of media policies-from mid-nineteenth century until the

start of the World War II;
Phase II- Public service media policies during 1945 and 1980; and
Phase III- New communication paradigm, 1980 onward.
During the early period, communication programmes were pursued by fits and
starts until state’s authority stepped in to regularise the tools and means of
58
communication that existed then. These tools and prominent means of media Mass Media Policies
included: printing press, radio stations, telegraph and telephony.
However, when the state discovered that media could be manipulated against
the authority of the state, it came forward to license, control, and regulate these.
This was done ‘mainly to enhance’ the state’s interest.
MacBride Commission in 1976 recommended formulation of national and

international communication policies in the context of national realities, free
expression of thought and respect for individual and social rights. It was not an
easy task. UNESCO experts suggested three basic requirements of a nation’s
communication and media policies:
i) Values that determine the structure of communication systems and guide
their operations;
ii) Systems of communication, their structures, and operation; and
iii) Outputs of these systems and their impact on social functions.
Taking into consideration, a country’s particular and general current needs at
global levels, these factors and essential elements are briefly elaborated as under:
1) Political and legal parameters constrict the country’s focus on politically

and constitutionally sanctioned aspirations, and national goals. In the case
of India, for example, the Preamble of India’s Constitution details these
aspirations and goals.
2) Range and expanse of media available nationally will define its availability
in terms of geography and social, language, religious and economic
groupings of the population in the country.
3) Economics of the media will determine the type, size, and design of the
media establishments, as dictated by the nation’s economic and commercial
rules and regulations for conducting business in media — print, electronic
or digital.
It is from these considerations that we will examine briefly the media policy
logistics currently in operation in some countries:
USA: In the United States of America, the Federal Communication Commission

(FCC) created in 1934, regulates the mass media and telecommunications
including radio, television, satellite, cable, telephone, and Internet. America’s
FCC determines US media policies ‘in the era of rapid and dazzling technological
change, FCC hands down the governments’ policies. The 1934 FCC law prohibits
foreign companies to buy control of an American radio station, though Canadian
companies can do that. But many US magazines, books and recording industries,
film and television production studios and cable systems are now also foreign-
owned. The FCC law now requires broadcast stations to operate in “public interest,
convenience and necessity.”
Every newly established mass media enterprise in the U.S. has to seek a license
to start work in its chosen area. The license is issued for eight years; the renewal
of this license depends upon the number and kinds of objections and complaints
against the media unit. Though there are several restrictions on starting new
59
Mass Media & Society media enterprises, including the newspaper— broadcast cross-ownership rule
that prohibits common ownership of a full-service broadcast station and a daily
newspaper in the same market. Identical rules apply on radio and television cross-
ownerships.
AUSTRALIA: In Australia, one television station cannot operate in more than

the 75% of the country’s population or area. Not more than two licenses are
allowed to one person in the same area; one proprietor cannot control a
commercial television station, a radio station and a newspaper; foreigners are
not permitted to control more than 20% of business in one licensed media
organisation. There are some other cross-media ownership restrictions along with
these few.
U.K.: The United Kingdom regulates media through the OFCOM, Office of
Communications, created in 2003. The UK’s ownership rules prescribe that in
every local area, there must be three separate media companies for radio, television
and newspapers; there is a 20% control limit on ownership in respect of television,
radio and newspaper. Separate conditions apply on the television—radio areas
covered; and on circulation in case of newspapers.
FRANCE: In France, the Consel Superieur de I’ Audiovisuel (CSA) regulates

the communications industry and also manages the issues of media ownership
and concentration. There are three conditions on television industry in France:
capital share, number of licenses and audience share, and the number of companies
in each media industry: one person cannot own more than 49% of a national
television channel, or 33% of a local channel, subject to certain conditions of
audience share. For newspapers also; cross ownership is not allowed with more
than two units of radio or television, subject to the number of audiences in the
particular areas. Investment by any non-EU members is restricted to 20% share
of the capital of a daily newspaper, television or radio station in the French
language. Separate restrictions apply on political parties and other organisations
for owning media units.
MEXICO: In Mexico, government is directly involved in regulating broadcast

media, with some liberal conditions now prevailing in the country due to it being
a close neighbour of the United States. Most media units in Mexico are
commercial and privately-owned, including television and radio. The government
issues licenses but Internet and newspapers are not licensed. The government
does partially fund a 26-station commercial radio network. Mexican newspapers
are guaranteed freedom from government regulations.
Media in Mexico function under the 1940 General Communication Law, updated
by the Federal Radio and Television Law of 1960. Two Mexican agencies
administer media: Communication and Transportation Ministry, and the Interior
Ministry. These agencies, however, keep strict vigil on the contents of media
advertising, objectionable programming on television and the criticism of national
government.
GHANA: The national media policy of Ghana applies on the following mass
communication media: print, broadcasting, and film. It also covers the following
mass communication services: wire services, advertising, and public relations.
A fundamental goal of the policy is that the media shall serve the well-being of
60 all Ghanaians, especially the disadvantaged. The policy places the print,
broadcasting and film media as well as the news services into the working Mass Media Policies
categories, i.e., public media, commercial media, and community media. It regards
all the media and media services as public trust. It therefore holds that the public
interest shall be paramount in the operations of all media, public, commercial
and community.
The policy broadly sketches the main national and global influences and issues
and principles that arise from the influences and developments. These include,
in addition to the principles of media as a public trust, the freedom and
independence of the media, media pluralism, and universal access. Issues include
cultural impoverishment, marginalisation of local languages, education and
development, technological competence, human resources, institutional capacity
and public accountability. The definition of policy followed in Ghana: policy
that’s common to all the media and policy that’s specific to individual media and
services. Policy statements and implementation guidelines have been given in
both the cases.
4.7 EXPERTS’ RECOMMENDATIONS IN MEDIA

POLICIES
Though there are varied views on the quality of contents and ingredients essential
for formulation of national media and communication policies, most experts are
unanimous that sovereign and independent nations should frame and provide
directions for the media and communication policies, and also prescribe
reasonable guidelines for promoting and assisting the multifarious developmental
national schemes and works. While mass media in majority of democratic
countries enjoy fair measure of autonomy, in any case they have to operate within
the framework of the nation’s ideals, and its constitutional provisions.
But, as could be seen from the above discussion on the media policies, there are
several schools of thought supporting, and opposing a particular set of national
media and communication policies. One school of thought opines that the
governmental authorities should lay down the nation’s media policies that should
be strictly adhered to by all media of mass communication. Whereas, the liberal
school of thought argues that the governments should suggest some broad
principles and parameters taking into consideration nation’s constitution,
international relations, national aspirations, national values and customs and
traditions and cultural heritage. Within these broad guidelines, media should be
free to adopt, self regulate and observe these national goals, and global codes of
conduct in performing their day-to-day functions.
In addition, a vital view expressed by the MacBride Commission should also be

taken note of while media policies are set up. The commission suggests a
completely ‘new development approach to communication policies. It asserts
that ‘communication policies must provide for the development of resources
needed to satisfy the requirements of the various population sectors – children,
young workers, students, old men and women. This should be the crux of media
and communication policies in the twenty-first century. The commission also
asserted that ‘while the need for communication policies may be more or less
universal, it should be noted that their formulation and content differ widely.
This do not necessarily imply rigid, centralised planning, may simply constitute
a favourable framework for the coordination of activities, allowing flexibility 61
Mass Media & Society and a wide choice of approaches. On the other hand, what they do call for is the
allocation of public resources, decisions about general structures for
communication activities, elimination of internal and external imbalances, and
definition of priorities, which naturally vary from one country to another.’
Meanwhile, while framing media and communication policies, the commission

felt that countries should make sure that these should:
a) serve to marshal national resources;
b) strengthen the coordination of existing or planned infrastructures;
c) facilitate rational choices with regard to means;
d) help to satisfy the needs of the most disadvantaged and to eliminate the
most flagrant imbalances;
e) emphasise universal and continuing education;
f) help in strengthening cultural identity and national independence; and,
g) enable all countries and all cultures to play a more prominent role on the
international scene.
1) What in your view should be the ingredients of an ideal media policy?

......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
2) What mechanism would you suggest to properly implement such policy?
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
4.8 LET US SUM UP

This unit deliberated on the role and significance of national media and
communication policies in the life and daily affairs of the people of a country.
How and why media policies were of great relevance to the Indian situation was
also discussed. First, we defined the meaning of ‘policy’, and how do media
policies impact people. We also detailed upon the objectives, and presented the
divergent views of media experts, and the recommendation of the 1980 UNESCO-
appointed Sean MacBride Commission. We discussed various hurdles in the
adoption and implementation of such policies and the reasons why so many
governments worldwide resist adopting and implementing open media policies
in the true spirit.
62
Since media policies are deemed globally important, we looked at some of the Mass Media Policies
elemental and important determining considerations of media policies as offered
by media researchers. We also talked about the position of media policies’ adoption
in some of the important foreign countries, such as the U.S.A., U.K., Germany,
Ghana, France, Mexico, etc., in this regard
Finally, we presented the policy contours for the media policies impacting print
and electronic media in India. The question as to what will happen to media
policies, what shape, content and affect these will exercise on the national and
global politics in the near future though hard to forecast, and the current
meteorically developing media and information technologies will surely hold
the key.

Gupta, V., & Dyal, R. (1996). National media policy. New Delhi: Published for
AMIC, Friedrich Ebert Stiftung by Concept Pub. Co.
Mansell, R., & Raboy, M. (2014). The Handbook of Global Media and
Communication Policy. Chichester: Wiley Blackwell.
Mohammadi, A. (2005). International communication and globalization. London:

Sage Publications.
Raboy, M., & Landry, N. (2006). Civil society, communication, and global
governance. New York: Peter Lang.

ANSWERS
Check Your Progress: 1
1) ‘Media Policy’ means formal as well as informal strategies, underpinned
by specific interests, values and goals that shape the emergence of
mechanisms designed to structure the direction and behaviour in a particular
media environment.
2) Mass media provide information to the government about what’s shaping

people’s views, and how government and all its departments are affecting
their lives. Such regular communication flow facilitates the government
in formulating its own programmes and schemes of action in multifarious
areas of the nation’s developmental tasks for overall good of all levels of
society. Media persons being in constant touch with the powers, are able
to keep their fingers on the pulse of the public thinking and help maintain
live channels of feedback about what is happening in government circles
and vice-versa.
1) Media policies should encourage media pluralism, universal access, cultural
enrichment, developing all languages of the country, education and
development, promotion of human rights and inculcate accountability. The
national media and communication policies are conceived in the context
63
Mass Media & Society of national realities, free expression of thought, and respect for individual
and social rights.
2) Government policies along with technological innovations; institutional

dynamics; democratisation; and, the processes favouring inclusiveness and
plurality rather than exclusion and inequality hinder the formation of
beneficial media policies.
1) Ideal media and communication policies should:
• serve to marshal national resources;
• strengthen the coordination of existing or planned infrastructures;
• facilitate rational choices with regard to means;
• help to satisfy the needs of the most disadvantaged and to eliminate
the most flagrant imbalances;
• emphasise universal and continuing education;
• help in strengthening cultural identity and national independence; and,
• enable all countries and all cultures to play a more prominent role on
the international scene.
3) One school of thought opines that the governmental authorities should lay
down the nation’s media policies that should be strictly adhered to by all
media of mass communication. Whereas, the liberal school of thought
argues that the governments should suggest some broad principles and
parameters taking into consideration nation’s constitution, international
relations, national aspirations, national values and customs and traditions
and cultural heritage. Within these broad guidelines, media should be free
to adopt, self regulate and observe these national goals, and global codes
of conduct in performing their day-to-day functions.
64
Mass Media Policies
REFERENCES
Media Effects and Society, Elizabeth M Perse, Lawrence Erlabaum Associates,
Publishers Mahwah, New Jersey, 2001.
The Media Politics and Public Life, Geoffrey Craig, Allen & Unwin, 2007.
Comparing Media Systems: Three models of Media and Politics, Daniel C Hallin
and Paolo Mancini, Cambridge University Press, 2004
Media and Society Into the 21st Century: A historical Introduction (Second
Edition), Lyn Gorman and David McLean, Wiley – Blackwell Publication, UK,
2009
New Media: A Critical Introduction: 2nd edition, Martin Lister, Jon Dovey, Seth
Giddings, Iain Grant and Kierran Kelly, Routledge Taylor and Francis Group,
London and New York, 2009
Media Effects and Society, Elizabeth M Perse, Lawrence Erlabaum Associates,
Publishers Mahwah, New Jersey, 2001.
Deming, Caren J., Becker, Samuel L., Media in society: readings in mass
Communication (Scott Foresman & Co (1988).
Fred S. Siebert, Theodre Peterson Wilbur Schramm, Four Theories of the Press
(University of Illinois Press ) 1984.
Daniel C Hallin and Paolo Mancini, Comparing Media Systems: Three models
of Media and Politics (Cambridge University Press) , 2004.
Geoffrey Craig, The Media Politics and Public Life (Allen & Unwin: 2004)
Mosco, V. and Lewis, K. (2000), Questioning the concept of the Audience, Ch-1,
p-31-46 in
Hagen I and Janet Wasko (2000) (ed.) Consuming Audiences? Production and
Reception in
Media Research, Hampton Press, New Jersey
Media Literacy, W. James Potter, Sage Publications, Inc; Fifth Edition (May 27,
2010), ISBN-10: 1412979455, ISBN-13: 978-1412979450
Media Literacy and New Humanism by José Manuel Pérez Tornero and
TapioVaris, © UNESCO Institute for Information Technologies in Education,
2010, ISBN 978-5-905175-05-3
Zengotita de Thomas, Mediated: How the Media Shapes Our World and the
Way We Live in It, Bloomsbury, 2006.
Kaliyadan Ratheesh, Indian media literacy: a critical analysis of television
experiences from itv to iptv found on the site ‘http://www.freireproject.org/blogs/
indian-media-literacy%3A-critical-analysis-television-experiences-itv-iptv’
Many Voices One World, UNESCO, 1980, Report of the International
Commission for the Study of Communication Problems, UNESCO, Paris, France.
The Media and the Public, ed. Casey Ripley, The H. W. Wilson Company, New
York, 1994.
65
Mass Media & Society The Handbook of Global Media and Communication Policy, ed. Robin Mansell
and Marc Raboy, Wiley-Blackwell, West Sussex, UK, 2011.
Communication Technology, Media Policy, and National Development, ed. V.S.
Gupta, Concept Publishing Company, New Delhi, 1998.
Communication Policy in the Global Information Economy, by W.H. Melody in
‘Public
Communication- the new imperatives,’ ed. M. Ferguson, Sage Publication, 1990
Communication Policy and Globalization as a social project by Marc Raboy in
Communication Citizenship and Social Policy, ed. Calabrese, et. al. 1999.
http://iml.jou.ufl.edu/projects/Spring04/Vance/pennypress.html. Accessed on
17.2.2019.
https://www.facinghistory.org/resource-library/teaching-holocaust-and-human-
behavior/power-propaganda
1
https://indianexpress.com/article/research/a-blank-editorial-how-ie-protested-
censorship-during-emergency-5232599/
https://www.britannica.com/topic/communism. Accessed on 17.2.2019
https://sites.highlands.edu/faculty-sstuglin/wp-content/uploads/sites/77/2017/12/
Intro-Mass-Communication-1.pdf
https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/industry/energy/oil-gas/government-
accuses-ril-of-armtwisting-over-natural-gas-pricing-norms/articleshow/
48430216.cms. Accessed on 17.2.2019.
https://www.thehindu.com/opinion/lead/of-reliance-by-reliance-for-reliance/
article4866611.ece. Accessed on 17.2.2019.
https://brocku.ca/MeadProject/Young/1930/1930_24.html
http://oer2go.org/mods/en-boundless/www.boundless.com/political-science/
textbooks/boundless-political-science-textbook/public-opinion-6/public-opinion-
44/defining-public-opinion-253-1821/index.html
http://www.afirstlook.com/docs/spiral.pdf
http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.505.7251
&rep=rep1&type=pdf
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/249277555_Viewer_Characteristics_
and_Agenda_Setting_by_Television_News
http://faculty.sacredheart.edu/castonguayj/ms101reader/severin.htm
http://www.medialit.org/media-literacy-definition-and-more
http://www.p21.org/about-us/p21-framework/349
http://mediasmarts.ca/digital-media-literacy/general-information/digital-media-
literacy-fundamentals/media-literacy-fundamentals
http://www.medialit.org/
http://www.unesco.org/new/en/communication-and-information/media-
development/media-literacy/
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MJM-024

Media & Society

PROGRAMME COORDINATORS : DR. KIRON BANSAL, MA (JMC)

Block 2: Media and Development looks at the concept and theories of

Thus, this Course provides you with necessary theoretical perspectives on

Unit 1: Understanding Media and Society outlines the conceptual framework

1.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES

1.2 DEFINING SOCIETY AND MASS MEDIA

1.2.1 Historical Context

1.2.2 Information Age Context

Information now reaches, to put it proverbially, at the speed of thought. The

1.3 INTERPOLATION OF MEDIA AND POLITICAL

1.4 CORPORATE CONTROL OF MEDIA

1.5 REGULATION VERSUS SELF-REGULATION

1.6 MEDIA AND PUBLIC OPINION

American sociologist Herbert Blumer saw public opinion as an aspect of social

1.6.1 Role of Media in forming public opinion

To take an example of a natural disaster, the cloudburst in Uttrakhand in 2013

1.6.2 Relationship between Media and Society

1.7 NEW MEDIA AND ITS IMPACT ON SOCIETY

1.7.1 Evolution of Internet

Internet, simply speaking is a network of computers across the world connected

1.7.2 Emergence of Social Networking Sites

Information is power, is best elucidated by the fact that a simple message on a

2) Surveillance: In order to curb cyber and real-life terrorism, security agencies

3) Censorship: Even though censorship on World Wide Web is a long standing

2) In your opinion, is the Internet really free from control?

1.8 LET US SUM UP

1.9 FURTHER READINGS

Media in Society: Readings in Mass Communication, Caren J Deming, Samuel

Introduction to Mass Communication: Media Literacy and Culture by Stanley J

2) The journey of media from penny press that meant distribution of

2) Governments exert control on media in varied ways. It may clamp various

2) It is a debatable subject among scholars whether media reflects public

2.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES

2.2 HISTORY OF THE TERM ‘AUDIENCE’

McQuail (2000) elaborates the features of Graeco-Roman audience, many of

Audience, unlike in the past, now is defined more as a ‘sociological’ concept

Media audiences can be examined based on the following characteristics.

1) Numbers: Most media audiences are largely perceived in terms of numbers.

3) Heterogeneity: Media audiences vary in their primary characteristics as

4) Geography/Place: Usually in the world prior to the Internet, transnational

7) Expectations: Audience has certain expectations from media to address

2.3.3 Types of Audiences

We also refer to audiences in term of local national or transnational audiences.

There are three main ways of defining sender-audience relationship; Audience

2.4 THEORIES ON AUDIENCES

2.4.1 Bullet Theory

2.4.2 Individual Difference Theory

2.4.3 Social Category Theory

Select a television programme of your choice. List your primary characteristics

2.5 AUDIENCE CONCEPTION TRADITIONS

2.6 APPROACHES TO AUDIENCE RESEARCH

2.6.1 Media Effects

2.6.2 Cultivation Analysis

a) Institutional processes impacting production of media content through

b) Message System Analysis, as messages are reflection of mainstream modern

c) Relationship between exposure to television messages and audience beliefs

This approach to audience analysis examines macro system oriented as well as

2.6.3 Uses and Gratification

2.6.4 Cultural Studies

2.6.6 Everyday Life

List your expectations as a member of an audience for television news channel