Contents

Series Preface V

Preface vii

About the Author ix

1 Introduction 1
1.1 Rock engineering problems 1
1.2 Determination of engineering properties of rocks 5
1.3 Examples on determining engineering properties of rocks 7
1.4 Content of the book 12

2 In situ stresses 15
2.1 Introduction 15
2.2 Strategy for estimating in situ rock stresses 17
2.3 Variation of in situ stresses with depth 19
2.3.1 Vertical stress 19
2.3.2 Horizontal stresses 20
2.4 World stress map 26
2.5 Comments 27

3 Intact rock 31
3.1 Introduction 31
3.2 Classification of intact rocks 31
3.2.1 Geological classification 31
3.2.2 Engineering classification 34
3.3 Index properties of intact rocks 37
3.3.1 Porosity 37
3.3.2 Density 39
3.3.3 Wave velocity 42
3.3.4 Point load index 42
3.3.5 Schmidt hammer rebound number 43
3.3.6 Slake durability index 44
3.3.7 Correlations between different index properties 44

4 Rock discontinuities 53
4.1 Introduction 53
4.2 Types of discontinuities 53
4.3 Description of discontinuities 55
xii Contents

4.4 Discontinuity orientation 56

4.5 Discontinuity intensity 61
4.5,l Discontinuity spacing and frequency 61
4.5.2 Rock Quality Designation (RQD) 64
4.5.3 Areal and volumetric frequency 68
4.5.4 Block size 72
4.6 Discontinuity persistence, trace length and size 74
4.6.1 Discontinuity persistence 74
4.6.2 Discontinuity trace length 78
4.6.3 Discontinuity shape 84
4.6.4 Discontinuity size 85
4.7 Fracture tensor 92
4.8 Discontinuity roughness 93
4.9 Discontinuity aperture 95
4,lODiscontinuity filling 96

5 Rockmasses 99
5.1 Introduction 99
5.2 Classification of rock masses 99
5.2.1 Rock quality designation (RQD) 99
5.2.2 Rock mass rating (RMR) 100
5.2.3 Rock mass quality (Q) 104
5.2.4 Geological strength index (GSI) 106
5.3 Correlations between different classification indices 114
5.4 Classification of weathering of rock 115

6 Deformability 119
6.1 Introduction 119
6.2 Deformability of intact rock 120
6.3 Deformability of rock discontinuities 125
6.3.1 Normal stiffness 125
6.3.2 Shear stiffness 135
6.3.3 Dilation of discontinuities 136
6.4 Deformability of rock mass 137
6.4.1 Empirical methods for estimating rock mass deformation 137
modulus
6.4.2 Equivalent continuum approach for estimating rock mass 146
deformation modulus
6.5 Scale effect on rock deformability 168
6.6 Effect of confining stress on rock deformability 169
6.7 Anisotropy of rock deformability 171
 Contents xiii

7 Strength 175
7.1 Introduction 175
7.2 Strength of intact rock 175
7.2.1 Unconfined compressive strength of intact rock 175
7.2.2 Tensile strength of intact rock 187
7.2.3 Empirical strength criteria of intact rock 192
7.2.4 Mohr-Coulomb parameters of intact rock 196
7.3 Strength of rock discontinuities 196
7.3.1 Mohr-Coulomb model 196
7.3.2 Bilinear shear strength model 198
7.3.3 Barton model 199
7.3.4 Shear strength of filled discontinuities 202
7.4 Strength of rock mass 202
7.4.1 Unconfined compressive strength of rock mass 202
7.4.2 Tensile strength of rock mass 205
7.4.3 Empirical strength criteria of rock mass 206
7.4.4 Mohr-Coulomb parameters of rock mass 210
7.4.5 Equivalent continuum approach for estimating rock mass 212
strength
7.5 Scale effect on rock strength 223
7.6 Anisotropy of rock strength 226

8 Permeability 231
8.1 Introduction 23 1
8.2 Permeability of intact rock 232
8.3 Permeability of discontinuities 23 3
8.4 Permeability of rock mass 237
8.5 Effect of stress on rock permeability 238
8.6 Variation of rock permeability with depth 242
8.7 Effect of temperature on rock permeability 245
8.8 Scale effect on rock permeability 246
8.9 Interconnectivity of discontinuities 25 1
8,lOAnisotropy of rock permeability 25 1

References 253

Index 277