Ramesh Singh - Designing Weldments-Wiley-Scrivener (2022)

Designing Weldments
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Designing Weldments
Ramesh Singh
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
ISBN 978-1-119-86515-5
Cover images: supplied by the author

Cover design by Russell Richardson
Set in size of 11pt and Minion Pro by Manila Typesetting Company, Makati, Philippines
Printed in the USA
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Contents
List of Figures xi
List of Tables xv
Foreword xvii
Preface xix
1 Properties and Strength of Material 1
1.1 Introduction 1
2 Properties of Metals 3
2.1 Material Properties 3
2.1.1 Structure Insensitive Properties 4
2.1.2 Structure Sensitive Properties 4
2.1.3 Mechanical Properties 5
2.1.3.1 Modulus of Elasticity 5
2.1.3.2 Tensile Strength 6
2.1.3.3 Yield Strength 7
2.1.3.4 Fatigue Strength 7
2.1.3.5 Ductility 8
2.1.3.6 Elastic Limit 9
2.1.3.7 Impact Strength 10
2.1.3.8 Energy Absorption in Impact Testing 10
2.1.3.9 Transition Temperature for Energy Absorption 11
2.1.3.10 Transition Temperature for Lateral Expansion 11
2.1.3.11 Drop-Weight Tear Test (DWTT) 11
2.1.3.12 Fracture Toughness 11
2.1.4 Low Temperature Properties 14
2.1.4.1 Metal Strength at Low Temperature 16
2.1.5 Elevated Temperature Properties 16
2.1.6 Physical Properties 17
2.1.6.1 Thermal Conductivity 17
2.1.6.2 Coefficient of Thermal Expansion 17
2.1.6.3 Melting Point 17
2.1.7 Electrical Conductivity 18
2.1.8 Corrosion Properties 18
v
vi Contents
3 Design: Load Conditions 19

3.1 Design of Welds 19
3.2 Design by Calculations 20
3.2.1 Different Types of Loading 21
3.2.2 Tension 23
3.2.3 Compression 24
3.2.4 Bending 25
3.2.5 Shear 28
3.2.6 Torsion 29
3.2.7 Flat Sections 31
3.2.8 Round Cross Sectionals 32
3.2.9 Transfer of Forces 33
4 Design of Welds and Weldments 35
4.1 Introduction 35
4.1.1 Structural Types that Affect Weld Design 38
4.2 Full Penetration Welds 38
4.3 Partial Penetration Welds 39
4.4 Groove Welds 39
4.4.1 Definitions of Terms Applicable to Groove Welds 39
4.4.1.1 Effective Length 40
4.4.1.2 Effective Size of CJP Groove Welds 40
4.4.1.3 Effective Weld Size (Flare Groove) 40
4.4.1.4 Effective Area of Groove Welds 40
4.5 Weld Grooves 42
4.5.1 Square Groove Welds 42
4.5.2 Single Bevel Groove Welds 43
4.5.3 Double Bevel Groove Weld 43
4.5.4 Single-V-Groove Weld 43
4.5.5 Double-V-Groove Welds 44
4.5.6 Single or Double-J-Groove Weld 44
4.5.7 Single or Double-U-Groove Weld 44
4.6 Fillet Welds 44
4.6.1 Definitions Applicable to Fillet Welds 45
4.6.1.1 Effective Length (Straight) 45
4.6.1.2 Effective Length (Curved) 45
4.6.1.3 Minimum Length 45
4.6.1.4 Intermittent Fillet Welds (Minimum Length) 45
4.6.1.5 Maximum Effective Length 45
4.6.1.6 Calculation of Effective Throat 45
4.6.1.7 Reinforcing Fillet Welds 46
4.6.1.8 Maximum Weld Size in Lap Joints 46
4.6.1.9 Effective Area of Fillet Welds 46
4.7 About Fillet Weld 46
4.7.1 Filet Weld Defined and Explained 47
4.7.1.1 Single Fillet Welds 52
Contents vii
4.7.1.2 Double Fillet Welds 52

4.7.1.3 Combined Groove and Fillet Welds 52
4.8 Weld Design and Loading 54
4.8.1 Common Conditions to Consider When Designing
Welded Connections 55
4.8.2 Marking the Fabrication and Construction Drawings 55
4.8.3 Effective Areas 57
4.8.4 Effective Area of Groove Welds 57
4.9 Sizing Fillet Welds 59
4.9.1 Effective Length of Straight Fillet Welds 59
4.9.2 The Determination of Effective Throat of a Fillet Weld 59
4.9.2.1 Fillet Welds Joining Perpendicular Members 59
4.9.2.2 Fillet Weld in Acute Angle 60
4.9.2.3 Fillet Welds That Make Angle Between 60o and 80o 60
4.9.2.4 Fillet Welds That Make Acute Angle Between 60o and 30o 61
4.9.2.5 Reinforcing Fillet Welds 61
4.9.3 Fillet Welds - Minimum Size 61
4.9.4 Maximum Weld Size in Lap Joints 62
4.9.5 Skewed T-Joints 63
4.9.5.1 T–Joint Welds in Acute Angles Between 80° and 60°
and in Obtuse Angles Greater Than 100° 63
4.9.5.2 T-Joint Welds in Angles Between 60° and 30° 63
4.9.5.3 T-Joint Welds in Angles Less than 30° 63
4.9.5.4 Effective Length of Skewed T-Joints 64
4.9.5.5 Effective Throat of Skewed T-Joints 64
4.9.5.6 Effective Area of Skewed T-Joints 64
4.10 Fillet Welds in Holes and Slots 64
4.10.1 Slot Ends 64
4.10.2 Effective Length of Fillet Welds in Holes or Slots 64
4.10.3 Effective Area of Fillet Welds in Holes or Slots 64
4.10.4 Diameter and Width Limitations 64
4.10.5 Slot Length and Shape 65
4.10.6 Effective Area of Plug and Slot Welds 65
4.11 Designing Calculations for Skewed Fillet Weld 65
4.12 Treating Weld as a Line 66
4.12.1 Calculation Approach 67
4.12.2 Finding the Size of the Weld 67
4.12.3 Calculated Stresses 73
4.12.4 Stress in Fillet Welds 73
4.12.5 Joint Configuration and Details 74
4.12.6 Compression Member Connections and Splices 75
4.12.7 Where There is an Issue of Through-Thickness Loading
on the Base Plate 75
4.12.8 Determining the Capacity of Combinations of Welds 75
4.12.9 Corner and T-Joint Surface Contouring 75
4.12.10 Weld Access Holes 75
viii Contents
4.12.11 Welds with Rivets or Bolts 76

4.12.12 Joint Configuration and Details 76
4.12.12.1 Groove Welds - Transitions in Thicknesses and Widths 76
4.12.12.2 Partial Length CJP Groove Weld Prohibition 76
4.12.12.3 Flare Welds, Flare Groove and Intermittent PJP
Groove Welds 76
4.12.12.4 Joint Configuration and Details 77
4.12.12.5 Termination of Fillet Welds 77
4.12.12.6 Fillet Welds in Holes and Slots 78
4.13 Design of Tubular Connections 80
4.13.1 Weld Joint Design 82
4.13.2 Uneven Distribution of Load 88
4.13.3 Collapse 91
4.13.4 Lamellar Tear and Lamination 91
4.13.5 Fatigue 92
4.14 Design for Cyclic Loading 93
4.14.1 Improving Fatigue Performance of Welds, and Evaluation
of S-N Curves for Design 105
4.14.1.1 Typical Weld Flushing Plan 107
4.15 Aluminum 107
4.15.1 Aluminum Alloys and Their Characteristics 108
4.15.1.1 Aluminum Alloys Series 1xxx 108
4.15.1.2 Aluminum Alloy Series 2xxx 109
4.15.2 The Aluminum Alloy Temper and Designation System 110
4.15.3 Wrought Alloy Designation System 111
4.15.4 Cast Alloy Designation 111
4.15.5 The Aluminum Temper Designation System 112
4.16 Welding Aluminum 114
4.16.1 Aluminum Welding Electrodes 115
4.16.2 Electrical Parameters 115
4.17 Design for Welding Aluminum 116
4.17.1 Effect of Welding on the Strength of Aluminum and its Alloys 117
4.17.2 Effect of Service Temperature 119
4.17.3 Type of Weld Joints for Aluminum Welding 120
4.17.3.1 Butt Joints 120
4.17.4 Lap Joint for Aluminum Welding 121
4.17.5 Use of T-Joints in Aluminum Welding 121
4.18 Distribution of Stress in Aluminum Weld Design 122
4.18.1 Shear Strength of Aluminum Fillet Welds 123
4.18.2 Fatigue Strength in Aluminum Welds 123
4.19 Heat and Distortion Control 124
Contents ix
4.19.1 Angular Distortion 125

4.19.2 Longitudinal Distortions 126
5 Introduction to Welding Processes 131
5.1 Introduction 131
5.2 Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW) 134
5.3 Gas Tungsten Arc Welding 139
5.4 Gas Metal Arc Welding 142
5.5 Flux Cored Arc Welding (FCAW) 145
5.6 Submerged Arc Welding (SAW) 145
5.7 Electroslag Welding (ESW) 146
5.8 Plasma Arc Welding 146
5.9 Stud Welding 146
5.10 Oxyfuel Gas Welding 147
5.11 Hyperbaric Welding 152
5.12 Application of Welding Processes 153
6 Welding Symbols 155
6.2 Common Weld Symbols and Their Meanings 156
6.2.1 The Basic Structure of Welding Symbol 156
6.2.2 Types of Welds and Their Symbols 157
6.3 Fillet Welds 158
6.3.1 The Length of the Fillet Weld 159
6.4 Groove Welds 160
6.4.1 Square Groove Welds 161
6.4.2 V-Groove Welds 161
6.5 Bevel Groove Welds 162
6.5.1 U-Groove Welds 163
6.5.2 J-Groove Welds 163
6.5.3 Flare-V Groove Welds 164
6.5.4 Flare Bevel Groove Weld 164
6.6 Plug and Slot Welds 166
7 Structural Design and Welding Specifications,
and Other Useful Information 169
7.2 Structural Welding Codes 169
7.3 Useful Engineering Information 174
Index 201
List of Figures
Figure 1.1 typical strain and stress diagram, describing various elements
A
of tensile test. 2
Figure 2.1 A typical strain and stress diagram, describing various elements
of tensile test. 7
Figure 2.2 Low temperature behavior of metals. 15
Figure 3.1 Deflection in a cantilever beam. 21
Figure 3.2 Typical tensile test specimen. 23
Figure 3.3 Column under compressive load. (a) Straight beam, (b) column
starts to deflect with increasing load, (c) bending moment diagram,
and (d) increased deflection with increased loading. 25
Figure 3.4 Bending. 26
Figure 3.5 Bending stresses. 26
Figure 3.6 Simply supported beam. 27
Figure 3.7 Shear in a structure. 28
Figure 4.1 Types of weld joints. 37
Figure 4.2 Types of weld joints. 37
Figure 4.3 Double flare joint. 38
Figure 4.4 Fillet weld with weld nomenclatures. 47
Figure 4.5 Transvers fillet weld. 48
Figure 4.6 Theoretical throat of a fillet weld. 48
Figure 4.7 Fillet weld under tensile load. 49
Figure 4.8 Fillet weld in shear load. 50
Figure 4.9 Fillet weld in shear load. 51
Figure 4.10 Combined fillet and groove weld. 52
Figure 4.11 Skewed joints. 62
xi
xii List of Figures
Figure 4.12 Weld as a line (no area). 66

Figure 4.13 Weld as line, and mathematical relationships of various elements. 68
Figure 4.14 Example of calculations treating weld as a line. 71
Figure 4.15 Welded tubular connections, T, K, and Y and nomenclature,
inserted within the figure is the description of joint parameters, its
variation for Box and Circular sections. 81
Figure 4.15.1 83
Figure 4.16 Joint design for PJP groove weld in simple T, K, and Y tubular
connections.88
Figure 4.17 Applicable location of PJP groove weld design. 89
Figure 4.18 Weld set up for same size members. 90
Figure 4.19 Load on the tubular welded connections. 90
Figure 4.20 Impact of cyclic loading on the strength of steel and weld metal. 93
Figure 4.21 Fatigue categories. 94
Figure 4.22 Typical approaches to aluminum weld design. 116
Figure 4.23 Distribution of tensile strength across the aluminum weld. 117
Figure 4.24 Typical extrusions used to design joint geometry. 118
Figure 4.25 Showing the transition of two different thicknesses for butt weld. 120
Figure 4.26 Lap joints (a) and (b). 121
Figure 4.27 Angular distortion, double-sided fillet welds in a T-joint. 125
Figure 4.28 Weld CG and neutral axis. 125
Figure 4.29 Angular distortion, single-sided groove weld in a butt joint. 126
Figure 5.10.1 Oxy-fuel cutting process. 148
Figure 5.10.2 Oxyacetylene gas jet and nozzle design. 151
Figure 5.10.3 Propane gas jet and nozzle design. 151
Figure 6.1 The structure of welding symbol. 156
Figure 6.2 Use of pointing reference line arrows in welding symbols. 156
Figure 6.3 Meaning of arrow pointing. 156
Figure 6.4 Significance of circle at the inflexion point of the arrow line. 157
Figure 6.5 Symbols to denote various types of welds. 158
Figure 6.6 Symbol of fillet weld. 158
Figure 6.7 How the fillet welds are shown for the given weld on top. 158
List of Figures xiii
Figure 6.8 Typical fillet welds symbols and their as built appearance with size
of the weld. 159
Figure 6.9 Symbol and the as built: full dimensioning of a fillet weld, note the
length of the weld. 159
Figure 6.10 Symbol and As-built: Showing an intermittent fillet weld and its
size. Shown is the size ¼ inch fillet weld that is 2-inch long and end
to end spaced by 4-inches. 160
Figure 6.11 Symbols used to denote groove welds. 160
Figure 6.12 Sq. groove weld symbol and As-built. 161
Figure 6.13 V-groove welds and their as built, note the positioning of arrows. 161
Figure 6.14 Groove welds, full penetration and partial penetration welds note
the sizing of PJP and positioning of arrow. 162
Figure 6.15 Symbol and as built of a PJP weld that shows the depth of
penetration and also the effective throat. 162
Figure 6.16 Symbol and as built of a bevel weld. 163
Figure 6.17 Symbol and as built of a U-groove weld. 163
Figure 6.18 Symbol and as built J-groove weld; note the positioning of arrow
and method to show PJP weld. 164
Figure 6.19 Symbol and as built flare-weld note the practice of showing the
depth of the weld. 164
Figure 6.20 Symbol and as built with desired dimensions of the weld, and
supplementary symbol to show backing bar. 165
Figure 6.21 Symbol and as built and shown depth of desired and achieved weld
penetration.165
Figure 6.22 A weld symbol and as built with the backing bar. 166
Figure 6.23 A symbol of a Plug-weld. 166
Figure 6.24 Shows the symbols and as built welds for both plug and slot welds. 167
List of Tables
Table 2.1 Properties of materials. 4

Table 2.2 Modulus of elasticity of common engineering metals. 6
Table 3.1 Load components of design formulas and symbols used. 22
Table 3.2 Member components and symbols used in the formula. 22
Table 3.3 Member components (stress and strain) and symbols used in the
formula.22
Table 3.4 Shear modulus of elasticity (modulus of rigidity of some common
materials).30
Table 4.1 Type of weld joints. 36
Table 4.2 Flare groove weld sizing. 40
Table 4.3 Allowable stress and strength level for steel welds. 41
Table 4.4 Allowable unit load on steel fillet welds. 53
Table 4.5 Z loss table. 56
Table 4.6 Minimum weld size for PJP welds. 58
Table 4.7 Fillet weld (leg) size for skewed fillet -tee welds. 60
Table 4.8 Minimum fillet weld sizes. 61
Table 4.9 Stress on welds for different loading. 67
Table 4.10 CJP joints designed for T-K-Y tubular structures. 86
Table 4.11 Suggested allowable stress range in steel weldments. 104
Table 4.12 Aluminum alloy designation system. 108
Table 4.13 Cast aluminum designation and numbering system. 112
Table 4.14 Temper designation letters and meaning. 113
Table 4.14 Effect of service temperature on, as welded and heat treated and
aged welds. 119
Table 5.1 Master chart of welding and joining processes. 132
xv
xvi List of Tables
Table 5.10.1 Fuel gas characteristics. 149

Table 5.12 Application of various welding and joining processes for different
types of metal and materials. 154
Table 7.1 Mechanical properties of various metals. 178
Table 7.2 Mechanical properties of copper grades and alloys. 180
Table 7.3 Mechanical properties of aluminum and its alloys, with temper. 184
Table 7.4 Mechanical properties of various grades of Austenitic stainless steels. 186
Table 7.5 Comparison of mechanical properties of grades of steel. 187
Table 7.6 HSS rect property table. 187
Table 7.7 Metric to US standard unit conversion. 199
Foreword
Designing Weldments by Ramesh Singh, addresses the importance of how properly designed
welds in a structure can change the approach to its design, leading to greater structural
integrity and potentially reduced cost. This book seeks to strengthen frequently neglected
elements of design engineering involving structural load-bearing members of various met-
als, but particularly those of steel, and aluminum manufacture. Ramesh’s real-world expe-
riences have led him to conclude that many engineers possess only a basic education about
the welding. Consequently, many are ill-equipped with sufficient understanding of how
welded structures respond to loading versus, for example, a wrought steel member in a
structure. How do the presence of welds within the structure change stress types and con-
centrations, thereby having significant impact on the long term integrity of the structure?
How can the designer take strategic advantage of welding technologies to strengthen the
structural design while also reducing its weight and finished cost. Finally, this book also
addresses the differences between a cast structure and a welded structure, and what factors
need to be addressed when converting a cast structure design to a welded structure design,
as might be done for a machine component.
The importance of the type of weld joint preparation, for full penetration, or partial pen-
etration, butt weld or fillet weld, or a combination of fillet and groove welds is addressed in
detail. The book also provides an introduction to various welding processes, materials of
construction, and their classifications.
I have worked professionally with Ramesh for more than two decades. He is passionate
about his work in metallurgy, corrosion, fabrication and welding, which spans more than
half a century and multiple industries. Unlike many whose background is primarily aca-
demic; his knowledge has been acquired through practical experience in a variety of set-
tings around the globe. An avid long distance bicycle rider, and dedicated marathon runner,
Ramesh brings that same level of devotion and commitment to his profession.
Designing Weldments will be an important resource and reference tool for structural
designers and engineers. The book is replete with illustrations, tables and figures to bring
visual clarity and substance to the technical nomenclature necessary for such a complex
subject.
W. M. Olson
Sr. Vice President | Operations
Gulf Interstate Engineering, in Houston TX
xvii
Preface
The idea of writing about the specifics of weld design has been in my mind for nearly all
through my career. The concept of the Designing Weldments was inspired, and motivated by
my experience with engineers that were often responsible for designing major structures for
offshore platforms, PLEMS, risers, roads and bridges, and buildings etc.
Most of the time very excellent design concepts got bogged down due the limited knowl-
edge the of the impact welding does on materials’ behavior, and how a welded structure is
different from other materials say, an extruded structural member.
The subject is also complicated by the fact that different types, and grades of material
have different metallurgical response to the fabrication processes, including welding which
is a major component of such complex fabricated structural members. The details of metal-
lurgical aspects of material is discussed in another book Applied Welding Engineering (ISBN
978-0-12-821348-3) published by the Elsevier publication. Interested readers are encour-
aged to read and reference this book.
While the basic engineering principles related to loading, and stresses remain same, as
for the design of any other structural member, the presence of weld changes the stress loca-
tions, stress direction, and develops stress concentration points. This significant change,
demands different approach to the calculations, and providing for those specific conditions.
A structure with weld is no longer a straight forward member. The presence of weld in a
structural member is not all that bad news, welds are complex part of any structure, with
good understanding of them, welds can be designed to be useful and contributing part of
any structure. Welds can, and are also used to strengthen and stiffen any structure. The
knowledge of all these attributes helps improve the design of welded structures.
This book discusses properties of materials, as structure sensitive and insensitive proper-
ties, and how these properties affect the integrity of the structure, and how to evaluate these
sensitive properties of material and use them to the advantage in design evaluation.
The book further discusses the design load conditions with various joint configurations,
and placement of welds, and with the consideration of how they have been made, and
inspected.
Weld types are discussed in details, and how the load is distributed through these welds.
Where in the structure is the primary stress? What type of primary stress working on the
weld? What is the stress category? These are all discussed and graphically shown for easy
understanding.
The chapters also discusses the nomenclature of welds, especially that of fillet welds.
The use of complex joint designs, and their application in tubular connections. And factors
that affect such complex designs. Structures are not only made of steel, and iron, other
materials are also used for structures, aluminum is other most common material used
xix
xx Preface
for construction. The properties and grades of aluminum is explained in the chapter. The
unique properties of aluminum brings in other design challenges that needs engineers and
designer’s attention.
A weldment cannot be without welding, a basic introduction to most common cutting
and joining process is introduced in the book. For more detailed information of arc welding
process, readers are direct to another book Arc Welding Process (ISBN 978-1-119-81905-9),
published by Scrivener Publishing.
The knowledge of these welding specific structural challenges are often missing, or at
least available in limited form, to the engineering and design groups. This deficiency is often
filled by an experienced welding engineer. If no such help is available at the design stage,
then those deficiencies are identified at the fabrication shop, and then corrective action,
and reverse engineering ensues, causing costly repairs and delays. In the extreme cases if
those design deficiencies are not caught intime and corrected, they lead to the structural
failures. Often such failures occur several years in the service of the structure, and at that
point very little can be attributed to the design failure. Phrases like “weld failed” and “weld
became hard” are often used to pass of the cause of failures, pinning responsibility on weld-
ers, rather than finding if the weld was designed correctly.
There are number of construction codes that address these issues, some of them are man-
dated as national standards, AWS D1.1 and W59 in Canada are the examples, but there are
several segments of fabrication, and construction that do not fall within the construction
codes’ scope or jurisdictions. And there are also places where there is no national build-
ing codes to get any guidelines. The details of joint configurations, and its impact on the
integrity of the designed structure can be determined before any fabrication or construc-
tion begins, and suitable modifications can be incorporated in the design, and shown on
the construction drawings. That includes, inclusion of welding related instructions, use of
universally accepted and understood welding symbols to specify specific types of weld edge
preparations, necessary inspections (NDE), and use of specific welding procedure, distor-
tion control, and necessary heat treatment, where it is required.
Designing Weldments intends to fill that serious gap, or at least bring awareness among
engineers and designers to seek help of an experienced welding engineer when plan-
ning to design a structure, or replacing a cast, forged, or wrought component to a welded
component.
Ramesh Singh
Katy, TX
February 2022
1
Properties and Strength of Material
Synopsis
This chapter defines what is meant by the term weldment. How it is distinguished from other struc-
tures. What are the factors that should be considered in deciding the conversion of a Cast structure
to a welded structure? This introduction chapter gives essential basic knowledge quired for design
of weldments.
Keywords
Weldment, static, dynamic, structure, cast, forged, NDE, distortion
1.1 Introduction
A weldment is an assembly of various members of a structure that are joined by welding.
The word structure may include from a simple joint of two members, for a trailer hitch,
motor vehicle chassis, building frame, or a more complex joint of say a bridge-spurs of
road over pass, construction of a ship, of an offshore platform, where multiple members are
joined by welding in complex configurations to address varying static or dynamic stresses.
The joining of different members by welding to create a complex structure is a preplanned
activity with following basic objectives.
(i) to provide the intended purpose of the structure and

(ii) to be a reliable and safe structure.
Of course, the technical feasibility, ease of fabrication, availability of the material, and the
cost are the other important factors that are associated and woven with the basic objectives,
and all those are considered at the design stage.
Often to reduce the weight and/or the cost of a cast structures it may be selected for
conversion to a welded structure. It may be noted with caution that a machines or a com-
ponent constructed (Cast) out of a cast-steel or cast iron is not an automatic fit-design for
welded design of the same component. This is a very common error among the designers of
machine parts. Same caution also applies for any forged part, considered for the conversion
to a welded design.
Ramesh Singh. Designing Weldments, (1–2) © 2022 Scrivener Publishing LLC
1
2 Designing Weldments
tensile strength
0.2%
OFF-SET
upper drop point
down drop point
(kg/mm3)
fracture
0.5% Extension Under Load

strain
S elongation E
0.20.5 estrain (%)
Figure 1.1 A typical strain and stress diagram, describing various elements of tensile test.
When welded design is used to convert Cast and Forged components, it can significantly
reduce the cost of the component, the weight of the component, and also improve its aes-
thetics. But it needs very careful, and in depth study of both the designs, for usability, and
the end objective of the component.
As a minimum the weldment designer should have good knowledge and experience of
the following manufacturing processes.
1. Casting and Forging process by which the original component is made of,
2. Welding and other joining processes,
3. Cutting and machining process,
4. Inspection and testing methods,
5. Fabrication activities and tools available for the task,
6. Properties of various materials,
7. Weldability of materials,
8. Effects of restrains on welds,
9. Distortion control,
10. Design for appropriate stiffness and or flexibility as desired of the structure,
11. Designing to address, required tension, compression and torsional load on
the structure,
12. Weld and NDE symbols,
13. Knowledge of nondestructive inspection (NDE) methods, with their specific
advantages and limitations.
14. Applicable codes, regulations and practices,
15. Selection of suitable weld design for welding.
The strength of steel is an important aspect of design, typically the tensile strength is used
for the design purpose. A typical stress and strain diagram of steel shown the Figure 1.1
above with various strength related elements of the steel that can be determined by testing
a specimen of the steel.
2
Properties of Metals
Synopsis
This chapter discusses the properties of material, structure sensitive and structure insen-
sitive properties are defined. How properties are determined for engineering applications.
Behavior of metal in extreme environ conditions like heat and cold are introduced.
Keywords
Mechanical, physical, corrosion, modulus of elasticity, tensile strength, fatigue strength,
cyclic loading, HAZ
2.1 Material Properties

Knowledge of the properties of the metal is an essential aspect of welding engineer’s ability
to be a good welding engineer. This knowledge allows the engineer to choose the most suit-
able material to improve upon the cost and functioning of the component being designed.
Various metals and non-metals are used in fabrication and construction, they all possess
certain specific properties that differentiates them from others to be more desirable for the
specific demands of the design to be an engineering material. All these metal properties are
assessed and classed in three specific metal properties that are relevant to the engineering
evaluations, for the suitability for the project.
Metal properties can be classified as,
1. Mechanical properties
2. Physical properties and
3. Corrosion properties.
These are the primary properties however they can also be classified on the basis of their
nuclear and optic properties. Further they can be classified on the basis of, if these prop-
erties are structure sensitive, or structure insensitive etc. Some details of these properties
given the Table 2.1 below.
3
Table 2.1 Properties of materials.

General group Structure-insensitive properties Structure–sensitive properties
Mechanical Elastic moduli • Ultimate strength,
• Yield strength,
• Fatigue strength,
• Impact strength,
• Hardness,
• Ductility,
• Elastic limit,
• Damping capacity,
• Creep strength,
• Rupture strength.
Physical Thermal Expansion, Ferromagnetic properties
Thermal conductivity,
Melting point,
Specific heat,
Emissivity,
Thermal evaporation rate,
Density,
Vapor pressure,
Electrical conductivity,
Magnetic properties,
Thermionic emission.
Corrosion • Electrochemical potential, Corrosion of metals does affect

• Oxidation resistance some of the mechanical properties
leading to metals failures.
Optical • Color,
• Reflectivity.
Nuclear • Radiation obsorbtivity,
• Nuclear cross section,
• Wavelength of characteristic
X-rays
The following is the discussion on these material properties.
2.1.1 Structure Insensitive Properties

These are well stablished and defined properties of a metal. These properties are standard
from one piece of metal to another, from the engineering aspect they do not change. These
properties are verifiable and can be tested for verification. These can be calculated, rational-
ized by consideration of the chemical compositions and crystallographic structure of metal.
2.1.2 Structure Sensitive Properties

These properties are dependent upon chemical and microstructural details of the metal.
These chemical and microstructural details get altered through the manufacturing and
Properties of Metals 5
processing history of the metal. Even the size of the sample can affect these properties. All
mechanical properties of metal except the Elastic Moduli are Structure sensitive properties.
And all the physical properties except the Ferromagnetic properties are Structure insen-
sitive properties of the metal. Corrosion, Optical, and Nuclear properties are all structure
insensitive properties.
Now we briefly discuss these properties as they apply to metals in engineering application.
2.1.3 Mechanical Properties

Mechanical properties of metals make them useful for engineering applications. These
properties make them strong, playable, to form shape and still retain their strength. Metals
possess a combination of properties like toughness, strength and ductility that vary from
metal to metal this variation allows the choice of specific metal for specific needs of the
structure. These properties of some metals like steel, and aluminum can be altered and
improved to make them more suitable for specific objectives.
Through a combination of both alloy selection and heat treatment gives design engineers
a selection of mechanical properties in metals to choose from. During the fabrication pro-
cess too, the applied heat, joining methods like welding and brazing choice of filler metal
for welding all affect metal’s mechanical properties. Some of these properties are counter
to each other; that is, if you increase one property the other may be lowered and vice versa.
This leads to some compromises in selection process. This brings in the importance of fully
knowing the properties of metals. To know the specific properties of metal in given condi-
tion and during its formation during fabrication it is essential to test and know exact prop-
erties of the material that is being used for design purpose.
In the following paragraphs a brief introduction to some of the mechanical properties is
discussed.
2.1.3.1 Modulus of Elasticity

The ability of a metal to resist stretching (stain) under the stress is defined by the ratio of
the two. This is called the Modulus of Elasticity and indicated by letter E. This is a constant
value for specific metal. The Table 2.2 below gives Modulus of Elasticity values of some of
the common engineering metals.
E = σ/ϵ
where;
σ = the unit stress, psi

ϵ = the unit strain, in in/in.
Table 2.2 Modulus of elasticity of common engineering metals.

Metal Modulus of elasticity, psi
Aluminum 9.0 x 106
Beryllium 42.0
Columbium 15.0
Copper 16.0
Iron 28.5
Lead 2.0
Molybdenum 46.0
Nickel 30.0
Steel, (Carbon and alloy steels) 29.0
Tantalum 27.0
Titanium 16.8
Tungsten 59.0
The elastic modulus is a structure sensitive property, (see Table 2.1) is not changed by
metal’s gain size, cleanliness, by significant alloying, or by heat treatment. However, modu-
lus of elasticity decreases with increasing temperatures, and the rate of change is not same
for all metals.
The modulus indicates that, how much a beam would deflect elastically under the load,
or a bar would elastically stretch, when loaded. In welding engineering the modulus is fre-
quently used to determine the level of stress created in a piece of metal when it is forced
to stretch elastically for a specific amount. In this case the stress (σ) can be determined by
multiplying the strain (ϵ) by the modulus of elasticity (E) which is a constant for the given
metal.
2.1.3.2 Tensile Strength

By far the most often used property is the metals’ ability to sustain the load while it is put
under tensile strain. During testing, it is determined by the sustained load at which the
test specimen breaks or the metal has lost its elasticity and entered in the Plastic state and
deformed. This value is divided by the cross-section of the specimen being tested to obtain
the Ultimate Tensile Strength (UTS) of the metal under test. The Figure 2.1 below is the
tensile test graph of typical mild steel, it indicates the key points of mechanical behavior
during the testing.
90
80 Tensile Strength (UTS)
70
Rt 0.5 Strain Hardening
60 Y. S
50 Limit of Proportionality
40 0.5% Method (Total extension)

30 0.2% OFF-SET (Non-proportional Extension)
20
10
0
0.02 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25
Strain (ε) in/in
Figure 2.1 A typical strain and stress diagram, describing various elements of tensile test.
2.1.3.3 Yield Strength

The yield strength of a metal is the load at which the metal transits from being elastic to
plastic. This load is reached at a point called yield point, however it also transits and peaks at
one point, where metal exhibits total plasticity and YIELDS to the applied load. Both these
points are shown in the Figure 2.1 above.
Note that there is a line at 0.2 percent offset, this value of the yield is often the engineer-
ing yield value that is used for design calculations.
2.1.3.4 Fatigue Strength

When a metal structure is subject to repeat (a cyclic load) loading, the metal is subject to
specifically more stringent conditions. The cyclic loading fatigues the metal structure and
reduces the life of the structure, and ultimately fractures and fail. Fatigue strength is an
important mechanical property to know about the metal and welds if cyclic loading is one
of the demands of the designed structure. Metal’s ability to sustain cyclic loading, for longer
time of its design life is the Fatigue strength of that metal. Fatigue strength is a measures of
load versus the time.
The fatigue fracture develops as each successive applied load advances the tip of the
crack further to a point where the metal has no more ability to resist fracture. This type
of crack progression is called stable growth of the crack. The rate of advance of the crack
increases with the time and applied load, and the growth becomes unstable, and sudden
failure occurs. It is important to know that any crack growth can occur only under cyclic
loading in combination with residual tensile stresses in the metal itself, if there is a com-
pressive stress, at the crack tip the crack growth will stop.
The stress that the metal can endure without fracture successively decreases as the num-
ber of cycles increases. Each successive stress cycle reduces the metal’s ability to sustain
further.
For steel the fatigue strength is almost constant beyond about two million cycles. Several
million more cycles are needed for steel to cause reduction in steel’s fatigue strength.
Therefore, the Fatigue Limit becomes maximum stress or a range of stress which metal will
be able to bear for infinite number of cycles without fracture, this is called the Endurance
Limit. This leads us to the definition of the Fatigue Life. Fatigue life is the number of cycles
of stress that the metal can sustain in the stipulated conditions.
Several tables are published that list various metal’s endurance limits. These are developed
using a polished round test bars that are tested in air. These values may be useful in cer-
tain calculations for parent metal that may closely meet the test conditions. However, these
endurance-limit values are not applicable to welds, and weld and metals that are in service in
very specific environment. One of them very specific to welds is that welds have very abrupt
changes in cross section, geometry, and also metallurgical make up, HAZ that has coarse
grains, is one of them. Also welds contain some very specific discontinuities for example lack
of fusion, lack of penetration, undercuts, etc., that is not found in the parent metal.
The life cycle of a welded structure is dependent on the welds that it contains. And the
number of repeated variations of tensile or alternating between the tensile and compres-
sive stresses that the weld goes through. These stresses are initially within the elastic range,
and as long as it remains within that elastic range the structure is deemed safe, however if
there are any stress concentrating anomaly in the weld (or even in the structure itself) will
change that equilibrium, and subsequently and over the time they transfer to plastic stage
and that leads to eventual failure through that weld and structure anomaly. When we say
the structural detail or weld geometry, we include aspects like, type of joint, type of weld,
surface finish, and structural details, all these are capable of amplifying the stress to the tip
of the mechanical notches.
When designing welded built-up members, or welded connections for fatigue loading,
the local codes and standards must be followed for its safe operation. In the absence of
such guidance of code and standards full finite element analysis should be conducted for
the design to be safe. Structural construction contain significant amount of residual stress,
these residual stress are enhanced in a welded structure. It is understood that residual stress
themselves do not cycle and cause fatigue stress, but they augment or detract from applied
stress. The augmentation or detraction is dependent on the signs (positive or negative) of
the residual stress. What we derive from the just preceding is statement? That we can reduce
the impact of the residual stress y inducing compressive stresses, and that can be achieved
by either or a combination of following
(1) Welding in sequence,

(2) Localized heat treatment
Both the above methods can develop compressive stress on welds, reducing or at least
not augment the effect of cyclic loading.
2.1.3.5 Ductility
Ductility is defined as the amount of plastic deformation that metal undergoes in resisting
the fracture under stress. This is a structure sensitive property and is affected by the chem-
ical composition.
From the above Figure 2.1 we see that the material shows some level of ductility, the stress
range between the limit of proportionality and ultimate tensile strength (UTS) defines the
metals ductility. This varies from metal to metal. The amount of plastic deformation that
the metal or the weld undergoes all through the fracture as shows in the stress and strain
diagram above is the measure of metal or weld metals ductility. The Stress and strain plot
do not actual characteristics of ductility but shows a relative value as a comparative number
for the metal in identical condition. The plasticity of the metal is the deformation during the
yielding process, as shown in the Figure 2.1.
Ductility is a structure sensitive property; hence it is affected by the test conditions, that
may include any or a combination of several of the following.
• Test temperature,
• Shape and size of the test specimen,
• Rate of straining,
• Metallurgical structure of the metal,
• The surface condition of the specimen.
The ductility values obtained through the testing is used only as an indicator of materials
ductility. For design purpose the precise values obtained through the testing is seldom used.
Most structures are designed to operate much below the yield strength of the material; thus,
the metal is rarely tested (in real operation) for its ductility. Often metals are tested to deter-
mine some degree of ductility and Toughness through Impact testing at given temperature.
The subject of impact testing spans through the low temperature ductility of metals , this is
discussed in much detail further in the chapter, however this is the place to discuss various
approaches to impact test a metal.
2.1.3.6 Elastic Limit

As we know that metals have elastic property, this elastic behavior reaches a limit at a level
of stress called elastic limit. The term Elastic limit is more a definition than an exact indica-
tor of the stress level that indicates the limit. The stress level of course varies for each metal,
it is structure sensitive, and also depends on the rate at which the metal is strained.
Elastic Limit is the upper bound of the stress where when the stress is released the metal
will return to its original dimensions. On the other side of this limit, a permanent deforma-
tion in the metal would result.
The Figure 2.1 above shows the typical stress and strain diagram. The stress σ is plotted
on the Y axis and the resulting strain ϵ is plotted on the X axis.
As the metal under test is stressed, the strain on the X axis increases. To a point this
increase is proportional to the increasing stress, up to this point the load is proportionally
balanced by the strain, if the stress is removed at or below this point the metal will show
no permanent stress - damage. Further loading deviates from the proportionality however
the metal remains elastic to the point where elastic stain is reached, this means that further
from this point the metal is not elastic, and it will not revert back to its original form or
shape – a permanent damage has taken place. The stress below this limit allows the metal to
revert back to its original shape and size if the stress is removed. This is the point where the
limit of metal’s elasticity is reached.
2.1.3.7 Impact Strength

Impact properties are related to the toughness of the material. It establishes the material’s
inherent ability to resist fracture on application of sudden and high impact. In subsequent
paragraphs more details is discussed on this very important structure sensitive property of
metals.
Impact properties are determined by tests. These tests are conducted to assess metals
ductility and toughness. These two properties in combination define metal’s ability to resist
fracture on sudden impact.
2.1.3.7.1 Types of Impact Tests

Recognition of the influence of temperature, strain rate and distribution of stresses on
the toughness of metals has led to development of several test methods. The initial testing
methods were carried out at room temperature, however in present day the lowering of
temperature is possible with especial baths.
Most of the later developments are named after the originators of the test methods like
Charpy, Izod and Mesnager. The Charpy and Izod methods are industrially more acceptable
tests, and they use notched specimen.
2.1.3.7.2 IZOD Method

IZOD method uses notched specimen of round or squire cross section. The specimen is
held as a cantilever beam in the gripping anvil of a pendulum machine the specimen is bro-
ken by a single overload of the swinging pendulum. A stop pointer moved by the pendulum
records the energy absorbed. Izod specimen can be un-notched bar or it may have a 45o
V-Notch in the face struck by the pendulum.
2.1.3.7.3 Charpy Impact Method

The Charpy teste specimen design has the choice on the type of notches to use. There
are three options of the notch design to choose from, 45o V-Notch, Labeled keyhole, or
U-Notch. By far the most common notch used for steel testing is 45o V-notch. The specimen
is cooled to the required temperature and placed as a simple beam in horizontal position on
the anvil and is struck in the middle by the edge affixed to the swinging pendulum which
strikes the specimen on the opposite face of the notch. A single over load breaks or tries to
break, the specimen and the absorbed energy is recorded on the stop pointer.
2.1.3.8 Energy Absorption in Impact Testing

The energy absorption is a different way to evaluate toughness, and gain unanimity in deci-
sions regarding the acceptance of the values. The results are analyzed in a number of ways.
The minimum energy absorption is often specified but it must be noted that the typical
values differ significantly. When “leak-before-break” is the criteria of design that is in most
cases including the pipeline design, the Cv must be set to a higher values at the given design
temperature. Generally, the test temperature is also changed to about 5oC below the least
anticipated service temperature (LAST), this practice is common in design of deep-sea risers
and other structures. However, for pipeline the reduction in temperature is further reduced.
2.1.3.9 Transition Temperature for Energy Absorption

The transition temperature provides somewhat similar criteria for analyzing Cv test results.
This method requires Cv test over a range of temperatures from a relatively high tempera-
ture where the metal exhibits its best toughness down to a low temperature at which cleav-
age can initiate. The obtained energy levels are then plotted against temperature. Metal with
bcc crystalline structures undergo a precipitous drop in energy over a relatively narrow
mid-range span of temperature. The drop in energy coincides with the occurrence of cleav-
age during the fracture.
2.1.3.10 Transition Temperature for Lateral Expansion

The extent of plastic deformation that occurs in the Cv specimen’s cross section during test-
ing also is a quantifiable value, and this feature undergoes a marked transition in the bcc
metals with the lowering of test temperature. When a Cv specimen is broken, a small amount
of lateral contraction ordinarily occurs across the width, close to and parallel with the root
of the notch, conversely expansion should occur across the width opposite the notch. Both
changes in dimension from original 10 mm (0.394 inch) width of the specimen are easily
measured, and both dimensional changes are indicators of ductility in the presence of a
notch. The extent of lateral expansion opposite the notch is the value presently favored for
appraising the capacity of metal flow plastically during fracture under impact load.
2.1.3.11 Drop-Weight Tear Test (DWTT)

Drop-Weight Tear Test is another way of determining fracture behavior of steel. The method
owes its origins to Naval Research Laboratories tests for determining the NDT of steel, in
1950s.
The process involves use of a 4” wide full section steel plate with a sharp notch in the
middle. The notch is made with a sharp chisel that has small cutting tip ground to a radius.
The DWTT specimen is broken via three-point impact loading using a drop-weight or pen-
dulum hammer that has a velocity of no less than 5 meters/Second (16 ft/s). The specimen
is cooled in the bath to required temperature. The specimen is broken in one single blow.
In this method no attempt is made to measure the absorbed energy. Evaluation of broken
surface is based on the texture of the fractured ends. The appraisal is made on the percent-
age of ductile shear facture.
2.1.3.12 Fracture Toughness

In a very unique way, the ductility is related to another metal property that is metal’s tough-
ness. Most of the metals that show ductility through the stress and strain diagram, often fail
in a very brittle manner in very different type of test. Thus, the only conclusion about the
ductility that can be made from the bend tests and elongation from the tensile test is that
the metal is not likely to behave in a ductile fashion in any other type of mechanical test
carried to its failure. In such tests the metal show very little to no plastic deformation, and
fracture in brittle manner.
Such fractures with lack of deformation, indicate that the metal did not resist the frac-
ture, and that the metal failed at very little energy. This observation lead metallurgists to
talk of another property “Toughness” of the metal.
Toughness is the ability of the metal to deform plastically and absorb energy in the pro-
cess before fracturing. This mechanical and structure sensitive property is the indicator of
how the given metal would fail at the application of stress beyond the capacity of the metal,
and will that failure be ductile or brittle. Despite tremendous development in testing com-
plete understanding of ductile/brittle behavior is not yet fully understood. Only one assess-
ment of toughness can be made with some reasonable accuracy from ordinary tensile test
is that the metal displays either ductile or brittle behavior. From that it can be assumed that
the metal displaying little ductility is not likely to display a ductile failure if stressed beyond
its limits. The failure in this case would be brittle.
The temperature of metal is found to have profound influence on the brittle/ductile
behavior. The influence of higher temperature on metal behavior is considerable. The rise in
temperature is often associated with increased ductility and corresponding lowering of the
yield strength. The rupture at elevated temperatures is often Intergranular, and little or no
deformation of the fractured surface may have occurred. As temperature is lowered below
room temperature, the propensity to brittle fracture increases.
Before we proceed further on the subject let us take note of some terminology that we
would use in this discussion. ASTM E 616 defines some of the terminology associated with
Fracture Mechanics and Testing. The following definitions are taken from ASTM E 616, it
is recommended that latest version of these referenced specifications is referred for more
accurate use.
• The term fracture is strictly defined as irregular surface that forms when
metal is broken into separate parts. If the fracture has propagated to only part
way in the metal and metal is still in one piece, it is called crack.
• A Crack is defined as two coincident free surfaces in a metal that join along a
common front called the crack tip, which is usually very sharp.
• The term fracture is used when the separation in metal occurs at relatively low
temperature and metal ductility and toughness performance is chief topic.
• The term rupture is more associated with the discussion of metal separation
at elevated temperatures.
As pointed out above, basically there are two types of fracture that occur in metals:
Ductile fracture and Brittle fracture. These two modes are easily recognized when they occur
in exclusion, but fractures in metal often have mixed morphology and it is aptly called
mixed mode.
The mechanisms that initiate the fracture are Shear fracture, Cleavage fracture, and
Intergranular fracture.
Only shear mechanism produces ductile fracture.
It may be noted that like modes discussed above, the failure mechanism also have no
exclusivity.
Irrespective of the fracture being ductile or brittle, the fracture process is viewed as hav-
ing two principal steps.
1. Crack initiation and

2. Crack propagation
The knowledge of these two steps is essential as there is noticeable difference in the
amount of energy required to execute the two steps. The relative levels of energy required
for initiation and for propagation determine the course of events, which will occur when
the metal is subjected to stress.
There are several aspects to the fracture mechanics that tie-in with the subject of metal
ductility and toughness but this short discussion is not planned for the detailed informa-
tion on those aspects hence these are not discussed, but listed below are fracture mechanic
topics that are directly related to assessing the toughness of material. The list is provided
to raise awareness to these important factors that help determine the performance of metal
under various stress conditions including in low temperature conditions.
• Effects of axiality of stress,

• Crack arrest theory,
• Stress intensity representation,
• Stress gradient,
• Rate of Strain,
• Effect of Cyclic Stress
• Fatigue Crack,
• Crack Propagation, (KIc= σ √πa)
• Griffith’s theory of fracture mechanics,
• Irwin’s K = √E x G,
• Crack Surface Displacement Mode,
• Crack Tip Opening Displacement (CTOD), (BS 5762-1979 and BS 7448
Part -I and Part II)
• R-Curve Test methods
• J- Integral Test method
• Linier-Elastic Fracture Mechanics (LEFM) (ASTM E 399),
• Elastic-Plastic Fracture Mechanics (EPFM),
• Nil Ductility Temperature (NDT)
Three conditions significantly influence the toughness behavior of a metal. These are
listed below.
1. The rate of straining,

2. The nature of the load, (the imposed load is uniaxial or multiaxial.)
3. The temperature of the metal.
Weld metals are easily subject to these conditions. Hence the critical welds are subject
to toughness testing. The toughness tends to decrease if the rate of straining is raised, or
temperature is reduced, or stresses are changed from uniaxial to multiaxial.
The safety of ductile metal structure is often ensured by keeping the designed stress
below the material’s yield strength. This is the fails safe approach to design. The more spe-
cific approach is to conduct stress analysis to assess that the nominal stresses are below the
yield strength of the metal. However, there are metals in design conditions that may fail
below the yield strength, such fractures are classified as brittle fracture. These fractures can
occur from the effect of critical flaw size, in welds or base metal, often these are planner
defects, and they are altered in any significant way the stress distribution and they are often
neglected in the stress analysis.
The lateral restraint in a structure are often cause of brittle fracture, a discontinuity in a
weld in a restraint condition can greatly reduce the ductility, leading to the brittle fracture.
For many classes of structures, that may include, ships, bridges, pressure vessels and
structures that lie in the environment such as the seismic zone, or subject to cyclic stresses –
like risers (SCRs) in offshore construction. A correlation has been established between
material’s performances to its notch toughness test values. These values relate to both the
base metals well as welds.
The designer often assume the weld as a flawless solid lump of metal in the given shape,
but that is not true. While a practical restriction can be placed on acceptable type and size
of these flaws through inspection, their existence and their impact cannot be totally elimi-
nated. Welded joints always contain some discontinuities, the challenge is to find a way to
determine the type and extent of acceptable discontinuities. While the conventional test
methods for the toughness cannot fully resolve this challenge, the application of concept of
Fracture Mechanics, comes handy in such situation, and ensures the safety of the structure.
This approach permits the direct estimation of allowable flaw sizes, and geometries in the
operating conditions.
In the critical design conditions like cyclic stresses, the allowable flaw size, and orientation
and its location within the weld are assessed. This is a fracture mechanics approach and is
often referred as Engineering Critical Evaluation of ECA in many codes and specifications.
2.1.4 Low Temperature Properties

Lowering the temperature of metal profoundly affects fracture behavior, particularly of met-
als that have bcc structure. Strength, ductility, toughness and other properties are changed
in all metals when they are exposed to temperature near absolute zero. The properties of
metals at very low temperatures are of more than casual interest, because pipeline, welded
pressure equipment and vessels are expected to operate satisfactorily at levels below room
temperatures. For example, moderate sub-zero temperatures are imposed on equipment
for de-waxing petroleum and for storage of liquefied fuel gases and pipelines. Much lower
temperatures are involved in cryogenic services, metal temperature –100oC (–150 oF) and
below. The cryogenic service may involve storage of liquefied industrial gases like oxygen
and nitrogen. Down near the very bottom of the temperature scale, there is a real challenge
for metals that are used in the construction of equipment for producing and containing liq-
uid hydrogen and liquid helium, because these elements in liquefied form are increasingly
important in new technologies. Helium in liquefied form is only slightly above absolute
zero, which is 1 Kelvin (–273.16oC or –459.69oF).
Absolute zero (1oK) is the theoretical temperature at which matter has no kinetic energy,
and atoms no longer exhibit motion. Man has yet to cool any material to absolute zero, so it
is not known how metals would behave when cooled to this boundary condition.
However, metal components have been brought to the temperatures very close to abso-
lute zero, hence it presents a special challenge to metals and welded components as they
would be required to serve in this extremely low temperature.
On cooling below room temperature every metal will reach a temperature where the
kinetic energy will be reduced to nil. The atoms of the element will move closer and the
lattice parameters would become smaller. All these changes would affect the mechanical
properties of the metal.
With above information on the physics of metal in mind, let us review the behavior of an
un-notched specimen without flaws. It may be pointed out that in real life, there is no mate-
rial without flaw, every material has some flaw in it, and hence the assumption to a material
without flaw is more of hypothetical in nature. It is the flaw that has to be considered as
initiator of the material behavior in the given environment.
Consider the graph in Figure 2.2 below, the material is ductile until a very low tempera-
ture, point A, where Y.S. equals the UTS of the material (σo = σu). Point A represents the
NDT temperature for a flaw-free material. The curve BCD represents the fracture strength
of a specimen containing a small flaw (a < 0.1mm). The temperature corresponding to point
C is the highest temperature at which the fracture strength σf ≈ σo. Thus point C represents
the NDT for a specimen with a small flaw.
The sub-ambient temperature dependence of yield strength σo (Rp0.2) and ultimate tensile
strength σu in a bcc metal is shown in Figure 2.2 below.
A σu
D
FL
σO
Small flaw
Limit for
Stress
C large flaws
K
B CAT
E
H J
5,000 psi
NDT NDT FTE FTP
Flaw free With flaw
Temperature
Figure 2.2 Low temperature behavior of metals.
The presence of a small flaw raises the NDT of steel by about 200°F (110°C). Increasing
the flaw size decreases the fracture stress curve, as in curve EF, until with increasing flaw
size a limiting curve of fracture stress HJKL is reached. Below the NDT the limiting safe
stress is 5,000 to 8,000 psi (~35 to 55 MPa).
Above the NDT the stress required for the unstable propagation of a long flaw (JKL) rises
sharply with increasing temperature. This is the crack-arrest temperature curve (CAT).
The CAT curve defines the highest temperature at which unstable crack propagation can
occur at any stress level. Fracture will not occur for any point to the right of the CAT curve.
The temperature above which elastic stresses cannot propagate a crack is the fracture
transition elastic (FTE). The temperature defines the FTE, at the point K, when the CAT
curve crosses the Yield Strength, σo curve. The fracture transition plastic (FTP) is the tem-
perature where the CAT curve crosses the Ultimate Tensile Strength σu curve (point L).
Above this temperature the material behaves as if it is flaw-free, for any crack, no matter
how large, cannot propagate as an unstable fracture.
2.1.4.1 Metal Strength at Low Temperature

As we have seen as temperature is lowered from room temperature 75oF (24oC or 297oK) to
absolute zero 1oK the atoms of an element move closer together by dimensions easily com-
pounded from the coefficient of thermal expansion. Number of changes occurs as a result
of this smaller lattice parameter. For example, the elastic module increases. In general the
tensile strength and yield strength of all materials increase as the temperature is lowered to
the extent that at NDT the yield and Tensile strength are equal (σo = σu). The change in these
properties is variable in degree for different metals but change does occur.
When the temperature of low carbon or low alloy steel is lowered the corresponding
increase in strength of metals is attributed to an increase in resistance to plastic flow. Since
plastic flow is strongly dependent upon the nature of the crystalline structure, it would be
logical to assume that metals with the same kind of structure would react in similar manner.
Because toughness tends to decrease as temperatures are lowered, especially for
bcc-structured material like steel. Testing is often carried out to measure and monitor this
property of steel. The most frequently used test specimen is notched-bar impact specimen,
despite the shortcomings of this test. The popularity of impact test is due to its long estab-
lished position in standards and relatively easy procedure available with laboratories to test
standard Charpy V-notch specimen.
2.1.5 Elevated Temperature Properties

The behavior of metal at the elevated temperature assumes importance for primarily fol-
lowing reasons.
1. Welding operation involves heat, and higher temperature, it is essential that

we understand the changes in the metal’s mechanical properties, and predict
its behavior under induced strain during welding. Going through the cycle of
heating and cooling can significantly alter the properties of base metal, and
the weld itself.
2. Metals are formed and shaped to be useful for the specific structural appli-
cations. It is important that the metal so formed and worked on possess the
desired. During hot working the metal may develop flaws that may subse-
quently reduce the strength of the structure.
3. May weldments are exposed to high temperature service.
Strength of the metal reduces as the temperature rises, the elastic modulus is reduced,
and plastic deformation is more active.
A weldment during welding experiences rapid rise of temperature to its melting point,
and then it rapidly cools. If the structure or its any member is restrained the hot weld metal
and the HAZ area goes through complex thermal strains. This can lead to weld or HAZ or
both cracks, or distortion occurs in the structure, due to the shrinkage stress.
Apart from the normal strength and ductility parameters are not very effective in pre-
dicting the behavior of metal at elevated temperature. Other properties such as time at the
elevated temperature, and the applied stress give a new parameter to consider, the creep
property of the metal. The metal at high temperature and under stress continues to creep
over the time to its failure, the time is an important factor here.
2.1.6 Physical Properties

In the following paragraphs we discuss some of the physical properties of metals that have
significant impact on the welding and weldments.
2.1.6.1 Thermal Conductivity

Thermal conductivity is one of the physical properties of the metal. For a welding engi-
neer this is an important property to know and understand about the metal they intend to
use for welding. Metals are a good heat conductors and they transmit (welding) heat away
from the heat source, some metals conduct heat much faster than the other; for example,
Aluminum and Copper conduct heat much faster than steel. This difference in thermal
conductivity explains the varying degree of weldability and use of low heat welding process
for Aluminum and Copper and their alloys.
2.1.6.2 Coefficient of Thermal Expansion

Metals when heated, expand in volume. The coefficient of thermal expansion is the liner
measure of this expansion. It give a unit change in the liner dimension per unit increase in
temperature. Note that the term used in the description above is change, because coefficient
of thermal expansion also gives the change in dimension as contraction as the metal cools.
But the expansion and contraction with the change in the temperature is not just liner, it is
volumetric. Engineering data and table only give the Liner values as coefficient of thermal
expansion.
The volumetric expansion is of interest to welding engineers, and fabricators, because
the expansion and subsequent cooling causes shrinkages and distortions in the structure. A
welding engineer is concerned about these changes in dimension and provides solutions to
avoid, or eliminate the effect of thermals effect on the dimension of the weldment.
2.1.6.3 Melting Point

Welding is an activity significantly aligned with melting of metals by application of heat.
Elemental metals have different melting points, and alloy metals have different range of
melting temperature. Higher the melting temperature larger amount of heat is required
to melt the metal being welded. This requires proper selection of welding process by the
welding engineer.
If however joining is planned by Brazing or soldering then too, selection of heat source
assumes importance because the heat source should be able to melt the brazing rod to wet
both joining surfaces.
For welding two different metals that have significantly differing melting points or ranges
becomes a challenge to a welding engineer, a well-considered heat source is necessary and
welding procedure should be developed to regulate application and control of welding heat.
2.1.7 Electrical Conductivity

Electrical conductivity is an important property to consider if electric resistance welding
is the process used for joining two metals. Metals are relatively good electrical conduc-
tors, however as the temperature is raised the electron flow is reduced, making them rela-
tively less conductors. The cold work and alloying elements in the metal also affect metal’s
conductivity.
2.1.8 Corrosion Properties

Corrosion is an electrochemical reaction by which the metal deteriorates to its natural state.
The deterioration is initiated and affected by the environment the metal is placed, or the
environment around it.
Different metals have different resistance to corrosion, this resistance is further affected
by the environment. The selection of specific metal to serve in specific environment
requires that the weld also meets those corrosion resistant properties. Careful consideration
is required in selection of welding electrode/welding wire, and impact of heat on the weld
and HAZ of the base metal being welded.
3
Design: Load Conditions
Synopsis
This chapter is about various types of load that develop stresses in the structure, especially
structures that contain welds, and how those stresses affect welded joints. The discussion is
about how to distribute and transferred from a potential concentration point in a structure.
Keywords
Applied load, cyclic loading, stiffness, slenderness, safety factor, rigidity, dihedral angle,
groove weld
3.1 Design of Welds

The service criteria for various weldments would determine the load considerations. The
load applied would differ significantly on types of and extent of loading that weldment
would experience in its life time. For example, the load on a beam in a railroad bridge, or
a road bridge, is cyclic, similarly steel catenary risers (SCRs) are in constant cyclic loading
by their own weight and the sea waves, whereas the load on a beam in an office or dwelling
building is deemed static in nature. This is because the load on such structures is not high
enough to flex the structural members.
The cyclic loading implies that the member is going through the frequent change from tensile
stress to compressive stress. The piles in any of the structures would be in the compressive load.
For designing it is essential to know what type of and how much load the structure would
experience in its designed life cycle. The following should be considered as a broader guide-
line while planning to design a structure.
1. Design should satisfy the strength and stiffness requirements,

2. Over designing should be avoided,
3. Avoid using unrealistic safety factors,
4. Deep symmetrical sections should be used to prevent bending,
5. Welding of beam ends, provides rigidity, stiffness and increases strength of
the structure,
6. Welded stiffeners not only provide stiffness, rigidity and strength but helps
reduce overall weight of the structure,
19
7. Where possible consider use of the tubular members as bracings, to reduce

effects of torsional loadings,
8. Select material that are more standard to reduce cost by special production
run and delays in procuring these special materials,
9. Aesthetics is important, but that should be used for the parts of the structure
that is visible to public from outside.
The other points that should also be considered while designing a weldment, be it a
structure, an equipment or a machinery, is listed below. The designer should evaluate any
additional information that may be available for their project.
1. The ease of welding and fabrication,

2. The manufacturing cost,
3. Operational accessibility, and ease of operation,
4. Aesthetic appearance,
5. Cutting and preparation of weld edges,
6. Accessibility and ease of inspection,
7. Standardizing the parts and cutting of blanks with welding in mind,
8. Use Squire grove welds for joining thinner sections,
9. Use of J and U-grove preparation instead of V-grove welds,
10. Use of double V-groves, in place of single V-groves in thicker sections to be welded,
11. Where possible provide access to back gouge and weld. (This reduces weld
cost and ensures full penetration of the weld).
12. For corners joints specify the depth of penetration to ensure desired strength
of the weld,
13. Where fatigue is not a concern use double filet weld to make a T-joint.
14. Avoid joining members where the dihedral angle is ≤ 30o, this provides little
access to weld, and cause poor weld quality.
15. Sizing and amount of weld is important, these topics are discussed in this book.
3.2 Design by Calculations

The terms load, stress, members, deformation strain etc., are associated with designing for
strength and rigidity. The answers to these are obtained by calculations through established
structural engineering formulas. Since welds are part of the structure, they too fall under similar
calculations except that weld themselves have additional considerations to be used to verify their
soundness for the purpose. The design activity surrounds around the following key points,
a) Finding an external load that may initiate a deformation in a member,

b) Finding an internal stress that may start deformation of a member,
c) Finding a member that would support the two loads pointed above without caus-
ing any distortion.
In a structure a useful member is the one that can withstand the stress developed by the
external load. In other words, the member is the one that is designed within the allowable
Design: Load Conditions 21
limits. These limits are established through the use of established formulas. For example, if
we want to know required stiffness in a cantilever beam, by calculating the vertical deflec-
tion ∆ under the concentrated load F as shown in the Figure 3.1 below. The formula used
for this calculation goes as described,
∆ = (FL3) (3EI)
Where:
∆ = the deflection,
F = the applied load
L = the length of the cantilever beam,
E = the modulus of elasticity of the metal,
I – the area moment of the inertia of the beam section
ω x
δmax
y
l
Figure 3.1 Deflection in a cantilever beam.
In the Figure 3.1 if this member has a splice weld, then that weld needs to be carefully
evaluated, and it should be designed to withstand the stresses caused by this external load,
to avoid the possible deflection, and be able to withstand the applied load.
The objective of the designer is to have minimum deflection, to get to that goal the mod-
ulus of elasticity E, and the area moment of the inertia of the beam section should be as
large as possible. Since the material selection limits much variation in modulus of elas-
ticity E, as the steel is the most common material of construction, the only thing that can
be varied much to make any difference is the area moment of the inertia of the beam (l).
The values of l can be increased by selecting a member that has large moment of inertia
about its horizontal axis, this should be able to limit the deflection to an acceptable value.
This is the simple case solution, for any beam shape, if the in-plane inertia to the vertical
deflection. If however, the beam (or the structural member), is subject forces transverse to
its principle axis i.e., out of plane loading, or in torsional stress then, the selection of beam
shape assumes significance. The designer has to select a beam shape that addresses these
transverse forces working on the member.
The design formulas and various components of design are listed in the Tables 3.1 to 3.3.
3.2.1 Different Types of Loading
When a member is subject to loading, they induce stress in the member. These stress are in
addition to the residual stress already built in the member itself. The value of the combined
stresses are the cause of design concern. The stresses result in strains that is movement
Table 3.1 Load components of design formulas and symbols used.

Method of
application Type of load Concept Symbol
1. Steady 1. Tension Force F
2. Variable 2. Compression
3. Cyclic 3. Shear
4. Impact 4. Bending Moment M
5. Torsion Torque T
Table 3.2 Member components and symbols used in the formula.

Member components
Properties of material Symbol Properties of section Symbol
1. Tensile strength σt 1. Area A
2. Compressive σc 2. Length L. l
strength
3. Yield strength σy 3. Moment of Inertia I
4. Shear strength τ 4. Section modulus, S
elastic
5. Fatigue strength FS 5. Torsional resistance R
6. Modulus of elasticity E 6. Radius of gyration r, k
(Young’s modulus)
7. Modulus of rigidity G
in shear
Table 3.3 Member components (stress and strain) and symbols used in the formula.
Stress Symbol Strain or deformation Symbol
1. Tensile σt Unit shear ∊
2. Compression σc Total ∆
3. Shear σy Angular rotation Ѳ
within the member. The magnitude of these strains or movement are a function of materi-
al’s modulus of elasticity (E). When a load is applied to a member some movement always
takes place, but as long as it induces an acceptable limit of deflection it is considered safe.
There are five different type of loading at the basic level, these are, Tension, Compression,
Bending, Shear, and Torsion.
3.2.2 Tension
This is the load that is applied in the direct line of the metal’s principle axis. The member does
not tend to bend under this type of loading. This loading causes the metal to elongate and may
reduce the cross section at some point of load application. From design point of view adequate
cross sectional area to carry the load should satisfy the structural stability. If the member
contains a weld, then the strength of the weld, its location, and its quality assume significant
importance for the integrity of the structure. A typical tensile test specimen is shown in the
Figure 3.2 below. Note the two types of specimen, the Round Bar, and Flat strip bars are used.
SSR Test
HON# 19545-T3B
After Test
Tensile test specimen( Round Bar)

a
f e
Flat bar tensile test specimen (Note the shape and the dimensional annotations)
Where: a = full length of the specimen,
b= test length,
c = actual interest of the test and used for measuring elongation,
d = thickness of the test specimen,
e = the width of the test specimen (note that the area stressed during testing is calculated as d x e)
Figure 3.2 Typical tensile test specimen.

3.2.3 Compression
Compression by its very definition is just opposite of tension. This is the force applied along
the axis in opposite of tension, and creates stress that tends to shortens the length of the
beam. The best example of a structural member under compression is column. In the Figure
3.3 below the figure A is a slender beam that is under compressive load. It is loaded through
its center of gravity, and the stress caused is through its axis causing axial compression.
As the load is increased, and the column is slender it will start to bow laterally, and
the line of force will start to separate from the center of gravity and move away from the
axis of the column. This would happen at a load lower than the materials yield strength.
The bowing of the column is shown in the Figure 3.3 b below. As the central position of the
column is increasingly moving off the central axis of the column, it induces the bending
moment in the column, see Figure 3.3 (c). Under the steady load, the column will remain
stable as result of the combined effect of bending moment and the axial stress, however due
to the increasing load, and increasing curvature as shown in Figure 3.3 (d), a point will be
reached where the column would buckle, collapse and fail. Note that as the load is increased
the central axis of the column moves further away from the straight line the applied load.
Slenderness of a beam or a column is defined as the ratio of a column’s length I to its radius
of gyration.
To support the column without buckling the calculation of maximum compressive load
can be calculated, for this the area of the column is multiplied by the allowable compres-
sive stress. There are two properties that the column should have to counter such buckling
and failure. These are the (1) Cross-sectional area, and the (2) Radius of gyration. Cross
sectional area is the area of the face of the structure. The Radius of gyration is the ability
of the column to resist buckling. This is the distance from the neutral axis of the section to
an imaginary line in the cross section about which the entire area of the section could be
concentrated and still have the same moment of inertia about the neutral axis of the section.
This can be calculated using the following formula,
r = (l/A)0.5
Where;
r = radius of gyration,
l = moment of inertia about the neutral axis,
A = cross-sectional area of the member
While designing for compressive loading, the approach is to experiment with few chosen
data and then work closer to the acceptable solution. Often industry supplied data tables
come handy in this process. American Institute of Steel construction has a vast array of
such data and guidelines, similarly American Welding Society (AWS) has structural design
and construction specifications both for steel (AWS D1.1) and aluminum (AWS D 1.2) that
provide some good guidance for designing structures.
F F F
F F F
(a) (b) (c) (d)
Column Under Compressive Load

(a) - Straight beam
(b) - Column starts to deflect with increasing load
(c) - Bending moment diagram
(d) - Increased deflection with increased loading
Figure 3.3 Column under compressive load. (a) Straight beam, (b) column starts to deflect with increasing
load, (c) bending moment diagram, and (d) increased deflection with increased loading.
3.2.4 Bending
The engineering definition of bending is the behavior of a slender structural element that is
subjected to an external load applied perpendicularly to a longitudinal axis of the element.
Figure 3.4 shows the bending of a beam under uniform load, note the direction of the
applied load is perpendicular to the neutral axis of the beam.
The load may be nonuniform, or concentrated at a specific location on the beam. When
the load is within the elastic range, the bending stresses are zero along the neutral axis and it
(the bending stresses) increases linearly to a maximum value at the outer fibers. This a very
important fact to note, this will come up several times in the study of fracture mechanics.
In the beam, the bending stress at any distance, d, from the neutral axis in the cross-section
of the straight beam can be calculated using the following formula given with the Figure
3.5 below.
σ = Md/l
Where;
σ = bending stress, tension, or compression, psi.
M = bending moment at the point of interest, lbf *inch
Load
on
σc p ressi
Com
xis
tral A
Neu
Tension
σt
Uniform Loading – Bending of a beam
Figure 3.4 Bending.
d = distance from the neutral axis of bending to point d, inch,

l = moment of inertia about the neutral axis of bending, in4.
The maximum bending stress is of interest in most design situations, and for that calcu-
lation the following modified formula is more appropriate.
σm = Mc/l = M/S
Where;
σm = maximum bending stress, psi.
M = bending moment, lbf *inch
σd
Neutral Axis
Bending stress at point ‘d’ in the cross-section

of a straight beam
Figure 3.5 Bending stresses.

c = distance from the neutral axis of bending to the extreme fibers, in.
l = moment of inertia, in4.
S = section modulus (l/c), in3.
In a simply supported beam, as the moment decreases along the length of the beam
and moves towards the end of the beam, the bending stress which comprises of either
or both tensile and compressive stress, also decreases. Consider a beam in a shape of an
I-section, in this beam the bending stress in the flange decreases towards the end of the
beam. Consider further a short length of this beam, shown in the Figure 3.6 below, here
we will note that a difference exist in the tensile forces F1 and F2 at the two locations. Here,
the value of the F is derived as the product of the tensile stress σt and the cross-sectional
area of the flange, A.
As the tensile force decreases a corresponding increase in shear force between the flange
and web of the I-Beam is noted. The fillet weld joining the web and the flange become the
path to transmit the searing force. On the upper flange which is under compression (as
the lower flange is under tension) similar reaction takes place. This change in the tensile
force in the lower flange transfers to through the web to the upper flange as shear force,
this shear force is equal to the change in compression in that (upper) flange. The lateral
buckling resistance of the compression flange should also be considered, this should have
adequate width and thickness to resist total buckling, and meet stiffness requirements.
For that to happen the beam depth should be as large as possible, should be properly sup-
ported to prevent twisting or lateral movement and subject to compressive stresses within
allowable limits.
Short length of
lower flange Shear M2
M F2 =
F1 = 1 2d
2d
Uniform Load
2d
M1
M2
Bending Moment
Figure 3.6 Simply supported beam.

3.2.5 Shear
The shear capacity is dependent on the slenderness proportions of the web. This is true for
beams that are either in the form of an I-section or a box section. For all hot rolled sections,
and welded beams of similar proportions, the slenderness ratio is less than 260. Slenderness
ratio is the ratio of the height of the beam and its thickness. To prevent shear yielding in
this type of beams the design is based on keeping the shear stress on the gross area of the
web below the allowable value of 0.4 σy thus, the vertical shear load is resisted by the pure
beam shear without lateral buckling to a level of loading well above that where unacceptable
deflection will develop. The shear forces in a web of a beam under load are shown in the
Figure 3.7 below, note that these are both horizontal and vertical, and create diagonal tensile
and compressive stresses.
The shear resistance in plate girders with slender web, is by plane beam shear, this is up
to a level of stress which will cause shear buckling. It may be noted that web subject to shear
stress develop significant strength after buckling, and this increase in strength is considered
into most design calculations. Once buckling occurs, the web resists larger shear loads by a
combination of beam shear and diagonal tension.
In such beams if the length to depth ratio is greater than about three (3), the direction of
the diagonal tension becomes too near to the horizontal for it to be effective, to counter this
(welding of) additional support stiffeners would be required. Visualize this as a Pratt truss,
the stiffeners in this case would act in a similar manner, as compression vertical members.
With the use of cross stiffeners, the diagonal compression buckling is reduced to negligible,
and web continues to resist the increased shear loading, this resistance is effective till the
diagonal tension starts to yield.
Load
Vertical
Shear
Horizontal
Reaction at Shear
Support
Diagonal Diagonal
tension Compression
Shear forces acting in the web of a beam
Figure 3.7 Shear in a structure.

The cyclic loading of plate girders with fillet welds, and welded stiffeners.
The cyclic loading would eventually initiate fatigue cracking, if such is the design situation
it is advised that stress in web should be limited to values slightly below the number, where
sear buckling is produced.
In the weld fabricated beams, the unit shear on the weld joining the flanges to the web are
designed through the calculation of sear load Ws as the following formula,
Ws = (Vay) / In
Where;
Ws = Load per unit length of weld.
V = External shear force on the member at this location.
a = Cross-sectional area of the flange.
l = Moment of inertia of the whole section about the neutral axis of bending.
n = number of welds used to attach the web to the flanges.
3.2.6 Torsion
Torsion is the twisting of a member, (beam or a column) due to an applied force that tends
to twist the member.
Torsion is expressed in either the Pascal (Pa), an SI unit for newtons per square meter, or
in pounds per square inch (psi) while torque is expressed in newton meters (N·m) or foot-
pound force (ft·lbf). In sections perpendicular to the torque axis, the resultant shear stress
in this section is perpendicular to the radius.
In non-circular cross-sections, twisting is accompanied by a distortion called warping, in
which transverse sections do not remain plane.
The fabricated frames experience greater problems of torsion, this is notices as one cor-
ners is lifted during or after the welding is done. Often the solution is easy to rectify if
tubular sections are used to design the frames or cross bracing is used. Tubular sections
are significantly better in resisting torsion than open sections, like I-sections, channels.
However, these open sections can be used to make a closed section by joining them by
welding, often intermittent tack welds suffice to achieve the required torsional resistance.
The torsional resistance of a flat strip, channel, or an I-Section is very low, compared to the
resistance of a solid rectangular section that has its width multiple times greater than its
thickness, this value can be estimated by following formula.
R = bt3/3
Where;
R = torsional Resistance in in4
b = Width of the section, inch.
t = Thickness of the section, inch.
The total angular twist – the torsion - is estimated as following in radians.
θ = Tl/GJT (radians)
The unit angular twist ø is equal to the total angular twist, Ɵ divided by the length l, of
the member.
Table 3.4 below gives the shear modulus of elasticity, G value for a list of common con-
struction materials.
Table 3.4 Shear modulus of elasticity (modulus of rigidity of

some common materials).
Shear Modulus - G -
Material (106 psi) (GPa)
Aluminum Alloys 3.9 27
Aluminum, 6061-T6 3.8 24
Aluminum, 2024-T4 4.0 28
Beryllium Copper 6.9 48
Brass 5.8 40
Bronze 6.5 44.8
Cadmium 19
Carbon Steel 11.2 77
Cast Iron 5.9 41
Chromium 115
Concrete 3.0 21
Copper 6.5 45
Glass 26.2
Glass, 96% silica 2.8 19
Inconel 11.5 79
Iron, Ductile 9.1 - 9.6 63 - 66
Iron, Malleable 9.3 64
Kevlar 2.8 19
Lead 1.9 13.1
(Continued)
Table 3.4 Shear modulus of elasticity (modulus of rigidity of

some common materials). (Continued)
Shear Modulus - G -
Material (106 psi) (GPa)
Magnesium 2.4 16.5
Molybdenum 17.1 118
Monel metal 9.6 66
Nickel Silver 6.9 48
Nickel Steel 11.0 76
Nylon 0.59 4.1
Phosphor Bronze 5.9 41
Plywood 0.09 0.62
Polycarbonate 0.33 2.3
Polyethylene 0.12
Rubber 0.0003
Structural Steel 11.5 79.3
Stainless Steel 11.2 77.2
Steel, Cast 11.3 78
Steel, Cold-rolled 10.9 75
Tin 18
Titanium, Grade 2 5.9 41
Titanium, Grade 5 5.9 41
Titanium, 10% Vanadium 6.1 42
Tungsten 161
Wood, Douglas Fir 1.9 13
Zinc 43
Z-nickel 11 76
3.2.7 Flat Sections

The resistance to torsion for a structural member fabricated out of flat plate, I-section,
or a channel, is estimated to be equal to the sum of the torsional resistance of the
individual flat sections into which the member can be divided. As stated above, the
torsional resistance of a closed section is significantly greater than the resistance of

the individual flat sections, that they may be fabricated from, and this significantly
reduces the angular twist of closed sections. The angular twist varies inversely with the
torsional resistance.
The torsional resistance (R) of a closed section frame, can be determined by calculating
the area of the frame (A) using the centerline of each member. And further obtain the ratios
of length (Lx) to corresponding thicknesses (tx) of each sections of the frame. Sum of all
these ratios is input in the following formula to obtain the value of R.
R = 4A2/ Σ (Lx/tx)
We know that the maximum shear stress in any rectangular section is on the surface at
the center of the long side. With the knowledge of the unit angular twist, the maximum
shear stress at the surface of the rectangular part can be calculated using the following
formula.
τ = øtG = Tt/R
Where;
τ = Maximum unit share stress, psi,
ø = unit angular twist, radians/in.
G = Modulus of elasticity in shear (ref. Table 2-9-6)
T = Applied Torque, lbf*in.
t = Thickness of the section, in.
R = Torsional resistance, in4.
A flat bar will not resist twisting, but the same bar will be tough to bend if bent parallel to
its width. Its stiffness is significant in this condition. Transvers members, or members that
are at 90o to the main member are not very strong against the torsional force. They do not
add torsional resistance to the frame, however if the bracings are oriented diagonal across
the frame, they are significant is resisting torsional forces. The diagonal braces should have
good stiffness perpendicular to the plane of the frame.
The understanding of the direction of forces involved, helps determine the placing of
effective diagonal bracing that would be very effective in preventing twisting.
3.2.8 Round Cross Sectionals
For members that have uniform cross-section (Round cross-section, as are shafts), unre-
strained against warping, the torsion can be determined using the following formula.
T = (JT/r) τ = (JT/l) GƟ
Where:
T = Applied torque or moment of torsion in lbf.in.
τ = Maximum shear stress at the outer surface, psi.
JT = Torsion constant for the section. It is almost equal to the second moment of area
about the neutral axis. Jz = Iz for twisting about axis z. (More accurate value can be
obtained by the finite element analysis (FEA). Shear flow approximation, and Membrane
analogy can also be used to determine JT value.)
r = The perpendicular distance between the rotational axis and the farthest point in the
section, at the outer surface.
l = The length of the object to or over which the torque is being applied, in inch.
Ɵ = The angle of twist in radians.
G = The shear modulus, also called the modulus of rigidity, and is usually given in lbf/in2
(psi). (The value for structural steel is 11.5 x 106 psi, other construction materials are
listed in the following table.).
The product JTG is called the torsional rigidity WT.
For a member that has round cross-section, the shear stress at a point can be calculated
by using the following formula.
τƟz = Tr/JT
As we know that the maximum shear stress occurs on the surface of the member, where
the radius is maximum. High stresses at the surface may be compounded by stress concen-
trations such as, notches, dents, or rough spots, weld undercuts, transition etc. This requires
that members that are designed for high torsion stress are free from such surface blemishes,
and even polished in some cases of high precision like turbine shafts etc., to increase their
service life.
3.2.9 Transfer of Forces

The essence of design is to be able to transfer the applied loads to different parts of the
structure. Loads develop forces within the structure that needs to be transmitted for coun-
teraction. It is basic knowledge that forces applied transverse to a member will travel to that
portion of the structure that is parallel to the applied force.
Consider a lifting lug welded to a beam made of an I-section, such that the fillet weld is
in line (parallel) with the web length, when this lug is used to lift the beam, the load will
be transferred parallel in direction to the web, and distribute across the length of the web.
Consider the same beam of I-section, and that the same lug is welded across the flange at
90o to the length of the web. When this beam is lifted using the lug, the load will be applied
on the flange, as a point load acting only on the flange, not distributed through the length
of the web, and it has potential to bend the flange. This situation can be corrected by weld-
ing additional stiffeners to the bottom flange, distribute the applied load on a wider area,
covering the web.
This brings us to the specifics of weld design. So far, we have only discussed the general
principles of structural design. In the next chapter we will discuss the weld design.
4
Design of Welds and Weldments
Synopsis
In this chapter specifics of weld design is discussed, with respect to the type of loading in a welded
structure. Various options of weld design is discussed, including groove welds, bevel welds, fillet
and flare welds. Weld sizing, acute angle and obtuse angle welds are described. Approach on how to
evaluate welds as a line as opposed to the volume of weld for design is explained. Partial joint pene-
tration, and complete joint penetration welds are defined and evaluated.
Keywords
Full joint penetration weld, complete joint penetration (CJP), partial joint penetration weld (PJP),
single belvel, double bevel, groove weld, fillet weld, effective throat
4.1 Introduction
To understand about the design of welding, it is important to understand some very basic
ways a weld can be made, that includes the way members of a structure are configured, what
kind of service they are in, what type or types of load -stress they are likely to face in their ser-
vice life. It also includes what type of welding process(s) is used to make specific joint. Design
of welds and Wedments involves ensuring a sound weld, which will meet the expectation of
the structure itself for its designed life and service conditions, and that the structure’s failure if
it ever happens will not be due to the failure of the weld. For this to happen, it is essential that
the designed weld has adequate penetration, and is free from harmful discontinuities, and
meets metallurgical properties as expected of the material of construction itself.
There are several types of weld joints, and they are formed by a combination of metal
position and their configurations, and the details of the joint designs. The joint designs
are based on the safety, strength, and by the service conditions. Table 4.1 shows the types
of joints and their corresponding weld design types. The design type are also dictated by
steps and direction of stress applied to the weldment. These stresses could be, in tension,
compression, shear, bending, or torsional. Further distinction could be made based on, if
the applied load is static or dynamic, if there is an element of fatigue etc. If fatigue is a factor
to consider then, residual stresses, and stress risers must be considered too, design may be
done to remove the fatigue effects caused by stress risers, in the presence of residual stress
combined with stresses developed by the loading.
35
Table 4.1 Type of weld joints.
Butt welds Corner welds Edge joints Lap- joints T-welds

Squire –grove Fillet welds Square groove Fillet Fillet
welds
J- groove Square groove V-groove Plug Plug
V- groove V-groove Bevel groove Slot Slot
U- groove Bevel groove U-groove Bevel groove Bevel groove
Bevel groove U-groove J-groove Spot Square groove
Flare groove J-groove Edge flange Seam J-groove
Flare V-groove Flare V-groove Seam Projection Flare-bevel-groove
Edge -flange Flare bevel groove Edge J-groove Spot
Corner Flange Corner flange Projection
Spot Seam
Projection
Seam
Further for consideration are the effects of corrosion, on the material, while all corrosion
modes reduce the strength of the material, leading to metals’ ultimate failure below its yield
strength. Some corrosion modes are very progressive, and they have different ways of affect-
ing the strength of the metal in use. Other important factors are the efficiency of the weld,
it varies by the process used, and referred as the joint efficiency of the welding process that
is used for making those welds.
One aspect of that is the design of the weld edges, where the weld would be made by fusion
and deposition of molten material to join two abutting pieces of metal. The metals could be
flat plates, extruded shapes, as in angle iron, channels, box sections, pipes, or round bars.
They may be welded to another member that has similar shape and thickness, or they may
be welded in a mix of shapes and sizes. The Figures 4.1, 4.2, and 4.3 describe some of these
situations, and these figures show various ways to obtain the desired depth of penetration for
sound weld. The alignment of the metal pieces to be welded too can be important factors, in
various configurations, like two flat pieces of metal on the same plane, one of them in verti-
cal plane, aligned at an angle or different shapes of sections in similarly different planes and
combinations. This can be further complicated by the position of welding in different planes.
To align two abutting faces for welding, it is sometimes necessary that the edges to be
welded are prepared to achieve necessary quality of weld. This edge-preparation are done in
multiple ways depending on the type of metal being welded, degree of quality demanded,
and size and shape of the metal being welded. They can be precision machined to the tight-
est tolerances, just machined to remove rough edges, machine or flame cut, ground etc.
From these figures and also from Table 4.1 above, we gather that there are various ways
to prepare a welding end, and furthermore that the welds are also referred by the extent of
Design of Welds and Weldments 37
Square-groove Weld Single bevel and weld
Weld
Single V-
Single V-groove Backing
J-groove U-groove
Weld
Weld
Single flare Single flare

bevel Flare V-groove
weld Weld
Figure 4.1 Types of weld joints.
Double SQ - Groove Weld Double bevel - Groove Weld
Double V - Groove Weld Double J - Groove Weld
Double U - Groove Weld
Figure 4.2 Types of weld joints.

Double-flare- V-groove weld

Double-flare-bevel
Figure 4.3 Double flare joint.
weld-metal penetration in the parent metals welded, for example a weld could made by full
or complete joint penetration (CJP), or partial joint penetration (PJP) welds. We start with
describing these terms with the most common and frequently use method called Groove
weld.
4.1.1 Structural Types that Affect Weld Design

In combination with the types of loading discussed in the chapter 3 earlier, and weld joint
design, the type of structural members also have significant impact on the total design
activity of weldments.
Members of a structure could be plates, extruded shapes, and they can also be tubular,
and in that tubular groups they can be either round tubulars or box sections. A complex
structure may have a combination of some or all types of members.
The loading could be static or dynamic. The static loaded structures normally face ten-
sion, compression or in some situations, torsional stresses. In dynamic loading the load
can be all that the static loaded structure faces and it also faces fatigue stresses hence the
evaluation of fatigue on the structure becomes an important part of the design calculation.
4.2 Full Penetration Welds

Full penetration or complete joint penetration welds are the joints that achieve the fusion
and joining to the full depth of the material thickness, the coalescence is complete with both
sides of the metal and to the full cross-sectional depth of the weld faces. These welds are
also called as the Complete Joint Penetration and abbreviated as FJP or CJP welds. If they
meet the specified quality criteria, they are intended to be almost identical in strength to
the parent metal welded. They are expected to be suitable in all types of loading. CJP welds
are often restricted by the metal thickness, in such cases double welded joints are made to
achieve full penetration of the weld. In such cases the weld is deposited on one side, then
the other side (the root side of the weld) is prepared for welding either by grinding, or
gouges to the sound metal, and welded from that side.
4.3 Partial Penetration Welds

Contrasted with the full penetration welds described above, the partial penetration or par-
tial joint penetration welds do not achieve fusion to the full depth of the material thick-
ness, the complete coalescence is limited to a limited part of the both sides of the metal,
and full cross section of the weld faces is not fused and joined. A partial joint penetration
(PJP) weld has an unwelded section of the metal at the root of the weld. A PJP can be
either a single sided weld or as two side welded joint. From the service conditions point
of view, the unwelded portion of the grove weld is a stress riser. Where, in a transversely
loaded cyclic loading this portion of the weldment (hence, entire weldment) is weak and at
considerable risk of failure. This subject assumes significance, as an important criteria for
fatigue strength of the structure. However, PJP may not be so bad if the cyclic loading is in
longitudinal direction. The specific condition should be evaluated in detail and if possible
simulated by testing.
From the welding engineering point of view, where heat and shrinkage is considered, the
shrinkage is not evenly distributed, this eccentricity of shrinkage force away from the center
of gravity of the structure causes angular distortion, and causes rotation of the transverse
axial load across the weld joint. This situation must be acknowledged as potential weakness,
leading to failure of the structure both during the fabrication, and more so during the ser-
vice life of the structure.
In case of static loading too, the direction of loading must be determined and considered
as potential failure issue. For steel the allowable stress in tension and shear should be lim-
ited to below 30 percent of the tensile strength of the weld-metal. In tension or compres-
sion parallel to the axis of the weld, the allowable stress is determined based on the metal
being welded. However, in no case the actual tensile or shear in the base metal near the
weld should exceed the allowable stress for the weld metal. Many regulatory bodies have
developed codes to guide on these issues, they must be applied and followed diligently.
Examples of such codes are, CSA W59 in Canada, and AWS D 1.1 for steel construction,
and AWS D 1.2 for aluminum structural construction in USA. We start with some defini-
tions of terms that will be used in further discussions of design.
4.4 Groove Welds

Figure 4.1 shows some basic type of weld configurations, they all are unique in their appli-
cation and the way they transfer stress away from the being concentrated at one point. The
Figure 4.2 details the type of weld face preparations that make the groove, giving the groove
welds. Following is referenced to the information in the Figure 4.2.
4.4.1 Definitions of Terms Applicable to Groove Welds

The terminology used for different aspects of welds especially that of a groove welds is
defined below. The definitions include the use of some tabulated values, and calculations
for how to obtain these values.
4.4.1.1 Effective Length

The maximum effective weld length of any groove weld, regardless of orientation, is
the width of the part joined, perpendicular to the direction of tensile or compressive
stress. For groove welds transmitting shear, the effective length is the specified length
of the weld.
4.4.1.2 Effective Size of CJP Groove Welds

The weld size of a CJP groove weld shall be the thickness of the thinner part joined. An
increase in the effective area for design calculations for weld reinforcement is not considered.
Groove weld sizes for T-, Y-, and K type connections in tubular construction will be
discussed further.
4.4.1.3 Effective Weld Size (Flare Groove)

The effective weld size for flare groove welds when filled flush to the surface of a round bar,
a 90° bend in a formed section, or rectangular tube is as shown in Table 4.2 below.
Table 4.2 Flare groove weld sizing.

Flare-Bevel-Groove weld Flare-V-Groove weld
0.3125R 0.5R
R = Radius of the outside surface For GMAW process when R is ≥ 0.5

inch or 12 mm the value of R is
0.375 times the R. (GMAW–S is
an exception to this.)
4.4.1.4 Effective Area of Groove Welds

The effective area of groove welds is the effective length multiplied by the effective weld size.
Welds are designed based on the allowable stress that a typical weld joint can support.
This is given in the Table 4.3 below.
Table 4.3 Allowable stress and strength level for steel welds.
Weld Required weld
type Stresses in weld Allowable stress strength level
CJP Tension normal to the Same as base metal Matching weld
groove effective weld area**. metal must be
welds used
Compression normal to the Same as base metal Weld metal with
effective weld area. a strength
level equal
to or one
classification
(10 ksi) less
than matching
weld metal
may be used.
Tension or compression Sam as base metal. Weld metal with
parallel to the axis of the a strength
weld. level equal to
or less than
Shear on the effective weld 0.30 nominal tensile strength matching weld
area. of weld metal in ksi, metal may be
except that the shear stress used.
on base metal shall not
0.40 Y.S of the base metal.
PJP Compression Joint not 0.50 nominal tensile strength Weld metal with
groove normal designed of weld metal, except stress a strength level
welds to the to bear on base metal shall not equal to or less
effective compression. exceed 0.60 Y.S. of the base than matching
weld area. metal. weld metal may
Joint designed Same as base metal be used.
to bear
compression.
Tension or compression parallel Same as base metal.
to the axis of the weld.
Shear parallel to the axis of the 0.30 nominal tensile strength
weld. of weld metal, except shear
exceed 0.40 Y.S. of the base
metal.
Tension normal to the effective 0.30 nominal tensile strength
weld area. of weld metal, except shear
exceed 0.60 Y.S. of the base
metal.
(Continued)
Table 4.3 Allowable stress and strength level for steel welds. (Continued)
Weld Required weld
type Stresses in weld Allowable stress strength level
Fillet Shear on the effective weld 0.30 nominal tensile strength Weld metal with
weld area. of weld metal in ksi, a strength
except shear stress on base level equal to
metal shall not exceed 0.40 or less than
Y.S. of the base metal. matching weld
metal may be
Tension or compression Same as base metal. used.
parallel to the axis of the
weld.
Plug and Shear parallel to the faying 0.30 nominal tensile strength Weld metal with
slot surfaces on the effective of weld metal in ksi, a strength
welds weld area. except shear stress on base level equal to
metal shall not exceed 0.40 or less than
Y.S. of the base metal. matching weld
metal may be
used.
** Effective weld area = Effective weld throat x length of the weld.
4.5 Weld Grooves

Weld are made with different types of groove configurations. The choice among them, is to
choose which configuration to use is based on various factors that specifically apply to the
job at hand. This could depend on several factors, some of these are listed below. Various
types of basic Groove welds are shown in the Figure 4.2.
• The material being welded,

• Thickness of the metal being welded,
• Welding processes available, and
• Accessibility to the weld single side or from both side,
• Accessibility to inspect the weld,
• If the weldment can be post-weld heated or not,
• Degree of distortion control possible in the way the members are welded.
• Economics,
• Suitability of specific design to the project at hand.
As stared above there are number of ways grooves are prepared for welding. And they
are based on number of factors identified above. The most common and prevalent groove
preparations are described below.
4.5.1 Square Groove Welds

Square groove welds are associated with joining thinner sections of metals, though there is
an exception to welding process Electroslag Welding (ESW) where much heavier section is
welded in square groove. The square groove preparation is much easy to make, it is much
economical, and easy to manage. The strength of theses welds are compatible with suitable
weld metal and parent metal, and the depth of the penetration of the weld is often to the full
cross-section of the metal welded.
The limitations of this type of weld is that they should be avoided in use, where bending
load is applied that develops tension on the root side of the weld.
By most welding processes achieving a complete joint penetration (CJP) by welding from
one side is possible only in thin sections, this limitation can be improved to a certain extent
by root opening and also by using backing strip. This way sections as thick as 10 mm (about
3/8 inch) can be joined by SAW, GMAW, and FCAW processes. SMAW process can be used
to weld up to 6.5 mm (about 0.25 inch) thick sections, and a SAW process which is not suited
for open root welding, would use a backing-strip to support the weld metal being deposited.
4.5.2 Single Bevel Groove Welds

A full penetration Single bevel groove welds with full effective throat can provide good
strength. However, since these welds are welded only from one side, they are not a very
good candidate for loading where the root side is placed in tension stress. Similarly, they are
not very good in situations where impact loading or transverse fatigue is expected.
The partially penetrated joints (PJPs) have all the above limitations and also have limited
protection from the corrosive environment.
4.5.3 Double Bevel Groove Weld

It is somewhat difficult to weld as the one face of weld in perpendicular, while the other
member is beveled, as is shown in the Figure 4.2, this leaves a possibility that lack of side-
wall fusion or even trapped inclusions in the weld. However, if a full penetration weld is
made, and it meets the acceptance criteria of weld inspection, then the double bevel groove
weld with full size effective throat thickness will meet the strength requirements of the
weld. The effective throat thickness determines the strength of the weld. For all kind of
loading a full penetration weld is a good solution. The double bevel groove welds are good
joint design for specific applications, on relatively thicker sections. The double bevel groove
welds are good joint design for specific application, on relatively thicker sections.
It is economical to use this type of joint preparation for thickness where the depth of the
groove does not exceed 19 mm (0.75 inch).
4.5.4 Single-V-Groove Weld

This type of weld preparation is suitable and economical, for material thickness where the
depth of the groove does not exceed 19 mm (0.75 inch). The strength of the weld is deter-
mined by measuring the effective throat thickness.
Single-V-groove joints welded only from onside, are not suitable for any bending stress
where root is in tension, or in transvers fatigue or in impact loading situation. Partially pen-
etrated welds are especially susceptible to corrosion in a corrosive environment. Solution
from these restrictions can be obtained by either of the following steps.
• Complete joint penetration is achieved.

• Back of the weld is machined smooth, to sound metal.

• Backing strip is used to ensure complete joint penetration and then the back-
ing strip is removed and surface is made free from any stress risers in the
weld and parent material.
4.5.5 Double-V-Groove Welds

This type of weld preparation is most economical for the weld groove depth not exceeding 19
mm (0.75 inch). It is economical up to weld metal thickness of 38 mm thickness. As the thick-
ness increases beyond this threshold, other type of weld edge preparations should be considered.
The double-V-groove weld if welded with full penetration can be suitable for all kind of
loading, if the root is back gouged to sound metal and welded and if they meet the inspec-
tion acceptance criteria. Strength of this type of full penetration and back gouged and weld
is full, then such weld is compatible with the strength of the weld-metal. The strength is also
dependent on the effective throat of the weld.
Partial penetration weld can be suitable only for static loading, transverse to the weld
axis, and for other types of loads parallel to the weld axis.
The other type of weld edge preparations that can be used where Double and Single-V-
groove welds can’t be used, primarily due to the thickness of the metal and economics of
the weld are described below.
4.5.6 Single or Double-J-Groove Weld

These are similar to the bevel-groove welds describe above. They have similar advantages
and limitations. The only difference is that instead of wide angled V-groove, the signifi-
cantly reduced angle J-groove is made, the J also includes a small land to strike arc in a
controlled manner to achieve good penetration. The J-groove also reduces the volume of
the deposited weld metal.
4.5.7 Single or Double-U-Groove Weld

These are similar to the J-groove welds describe above. They have similar advantages and
limitations. The only difference is that instead of relatively tight groove opening of J-groove,
U-groove offer relatively wider opening. Similar to the J-grooves, the U also includes a small
land to strike arc in a controlled manner to achieve good penetration. The U-groove also
reduces the volume of the deposited weld metal, compared to the wide angle V-bevel welds.
4.6 Fillet Welds

Fillet welds are used in preference to groove welds, where it is possible to use them, they are
more economical and demand much less preparation time and efforts. Fillet welds are pre-
ferred where the stress required on the weld is low. By many construction codes the maxi-
mum allowed fillet weld size is 16 mm (0.625 inch), if the design calculations demand larger
fillet size, then a groove weld is designed in combination with the fillet weld to increase the
effective throat of the weld. Some useful terms related to fillet welds are defined here. Also,
refer to the paragraph 4.6.1.7 for reinforcing fillet weld.
4.6.1 Definitions Applicable to Fillet Welds

The fillet welds are geometrically different, they serve different purpose in the structure
and present very different approach to calculations of their length, size, and strength. The
following definitions will explain the difference from a groove weld nomenclature, and cal-
culation approach.
4.6.1.1 Effective Length (Straight)

The effective length of a straight fillet weld is the overall length of the full size fillet, end-re-
turns are included. No reduction in effective length is assumed in design calculations to
allow for the start or stop crater of the weld.
4.6.1.2 Effective Length (Curved)

The effective length of a curved fillet weld is measured along the centerline of the effective
throat for the full length of the curve. The calculations to determine the effective length of
a fillet weld is given in paragraph 4.9 of this chapter.
4.6.1.3 Minimum Length

The minimum length of a fillet weld is at least four times the nominal size, or in other words,
the effective size of the weld is considered not to exceed 25 percent of its effective length.
4.6.1.4 Intermittent Fillet Welds (Minimum Length)

The minimum length of segments of an intermittent fillet weld should not be less than 38
mm (1.5 in).
4.6.1.5 Maximum Effective Length

For end-loaded fillet welds with a length up to 100 times the leg dimension, it is allowed
to take the effective length equal to the actual length. When the length of end-loaded fillet
welds exceeds 100 but is less than 300 times the weld size, the calculation to determine the
effective length of a fillet weld is given in the paragraph 4.9 of this chapter.
When the length exceeds 300 times the leg size, the effective length is taken as 180 times
the leg size.
4.6.1.6 Calculation of Effective Throat

1. For fillet welds between parts meeting at angles between 80° and 100° the effective throat
is taken as the shortest distance from the joint root to the weld face of a 90° diagrammatic
weld.
2. For welds in acute angles between 60° and 80° and, for welds in obtuse angles greater
than 100°, the weld leg size required to provide the specified effective throat is calculated to
account for the geometry.
3. For welds in acute angles between 60°and 30°, leg size is increased by the Z loss dimen-
sion to account for the uncertainty of sound weld metal in the root pass of the narrow angle
for the welding process to be used. The Z-loss factors are given in Table 4.5.
4.6.1.7 Reinforcing Fillet Welds

The effective throat of a combination PJP groove weld and a fillet weld is the shortest dis-
tance from the joint root to the weld face of the diagrammatic weld minus 3mm (0.125 in.)
for any groove detail requiring such deduction.
4.6.1.8 Maximum Weld Size in Lap Joints

The maximum fillet weld size detailed along the edges of base metal in lap joints is described
as the following.
1. For the base metal thickness ≤ 6mm (0.25-inch), to the full thickness of the base
metal.
2. For the plate thickness ≥ 2 mm (0.0625 in.) reduce the fillet weld size up to 2 mm
from the actual thickness of the plate, unless the weld is designated on the shop
drawing to be built out to obtain full throat thickness for a leg size equal to the base
metal thickness.
In the as-welded condition, the distance between the edge of the base metal and the toe
of the weld may be less than 2 mm (0.0625 in.) provided the weld size is clearly verifiable.
4.6.1.9 Effective Area of Fillet Welds

The effective area is the effective weld length multiplied by the effective throat.
The above are the initial description of terms, and basic understanding of various nomen-
clatures that are used in designing and understanding of welds.
4.7 About Fillet Weld

Having discussed some important terms and aspects of fillet weld above, we get some more
details about fillet welds. Fillet welds can be classified in three groups based on the angle at
which the members are joined.
(a) Where the members are joined at 90o angle, this perpendicularity is allowed
to deviate 10o on either side. In effect, T -joint with the dihedral angle rang-
ing from 80o to 100o is an acceptable perpendicular fillet weld.
(b) Where the joining members make and angle between 60o and 135o is
termed as a fillet weld, note that the perpendicular fillet welds described
above are included in this group.
(c) Then there are fillet welds that that have their dihedral angle outside this
range. Normally a groove weld is recommended where this situation arises.
It is important that we fully understand what is a fillet weld, and how it is different from any
groove and bevel weld. It is also the time to familiarize with the nomenclatures of fillet weld.
4.7.1 Filet Weld Defined and Explained

Fillet weld can be continuous or intermittent, depending on the strength required of the
weld, or if the weld need to seal the environment it contents within.
Fillet welds can be grouped in single sided or double sided or they can be combined with
the bevel welds to gain additional strength, and when maximum permissible weld size is
not adequate to support the applied load.
The significance of correct sizing of weld is twofold, (a) it is related to the required
strength of the weld (b) it is economic to weld only as much as is the demand of the applied
load to the weld.
Effective throat
Penetration
Face of weld
Toe of weld
Leg
size
Fillet Weld
Figure 4.4 Fillet weld with weld nomenclatures.
The collection of all relevant data for calculations is important first step. As far as possi-
ble, the fillet weld sizing should be based on caculations.
In the absence of such calculations, the normal reaction is to over weld. That is both
detrimental to the strength and properties of the material, as well as it is a costly exercise.
Welding engineers must know and understand the basics of weld design.
Over-welding is an epidemic in the industry. Over-welding stems from lack of knowl-
edge and understanding about how to size a weld. Unfortunate part of this lack of knowl-
edge and understanding is seen even among engineers that have the luxury of using finite
element analysis software, and yet they specify oversized weld. This over-welding can have
a tremendous impact on the property of the material that may in future be the cause of
failures, and it also increases the welding cost.
Sizing of the fillet weld is an important aspect of weld designing, and to determine the
required size of the fillet weld, we need to determine the strength of the weld. To explain
how to determine the strength of a weld we will start with a simple example, we start with
understanding how to determine the strength of a transverse fillet weld. A transverse fillet
weld is one that is perpendicular to the force applied as seen in the Figure 4.5 below.
F
F
F F
Figure 4.5 Transvers fillet weld.
Because the load is perpendicular to the weld it is a tensile load. The formula we use to
determine the load carrying capacity of the weld is:
σt = F
A
where:
σt is the tensile strength of the weld (determined by the filler metal being used) in psi.
F is the force the weld can handle, in other words, the strength of the weld in lbf.
A is the effective area of the weld.
The effective area of a weld is calculated by multiplying the effective length of the weld
times the effective throat of the weld. For design purposes we use the theoretical throat as
shown in Figure 4.6 below.
Theoretical
Throat
Figure 4.6 Theoretical throat of a fillet weld.

In the Figure 4.6 above, the specified equal sided fillet weld leg size is ω. To obtain the
theoretical throat we need to factor the given fillet weld size ω by the cosine of the angle of
the weld between the base and the hypotenuse of the right angle triangle, which is 45°. So,
we multiply the specified leg length (ω) of the fillet weld, times the cosine of 45° which is
1/√2 = 0.707. For all fillet welds with both legs being of the same size, the theoretical throat
will be 0.707 times the leg size (ω).
Since we are determining the strength of entire weld, to which the length of the weld also
is a factor. The given length of the weld on each side is 10-inch, thus the total length is 2 x
10 = 20 inch.
Now we have all data of the weld and can calculate the effective area of the weld. Which
is Length x Effective size of the weld.
20 x 0.707 ω.
We require one more data to determine the strength of the weld. That is the strength of
the weld metal. The weld is carried out using FCAW process using E70T-1 wire. That means
the tensile strength of the weld metal is 70,000 psi.
F F
¼”
¼”
20”
¼”
¼”
F F
Figure 4.7 Fillet weld under tensile load.

First, determine the throat size.
Throat = ω cos 45° = (0.25) x (0.707) = 0.177”
Now determine the effective area of the weld. Remember, there are two 10-inch long
welds.
Effective Area (A) = 2 × length × throat = (2) × (10) × (0.177) = 3.54 sq.-in
Now we go back to our main formula.
σt t F
A
Because we are using an E70T-1 welding-wire, the value of σ is equal to 70,000 psi. Now
we have all the values except for the one we are solving for, F.
We rearrange the formula to solve for F.
F = σt A
F = (70,000) × (3.54) = 247,800 lbf.

So, our 20-inch long (Total length), double-sided, 0.25 inch fillet welds have a load car-
rying capacity that is able to withstand a tensile force of almost quarter a million pounds.
Now that is lot of strength and it can lift a lot of weight.
However, there are several conditions to this seemingly extreme strength, if these condi-
tions exist the weld may fail at significantly lower load. The example of such conditions are
listed below.
• If the lifting force is applied rapidly the weld can fail at a significantly lower
load
• If the force is not applied perfectly evenly along both welds the welds can fail
at a significantly lower load
• If there are any weld discontinuities such as cracks, craters on undercut, the
welds can fail at a significantly lower load
• If the load is not perfectly static, the welds can fail at a significantly lower load
• If the load is not perfectly perpendicular to the welds, the welds can fail at a
significantly lower load
The list of “ifs” keeps growing, and due to these unknown factors, welding codes intro-
duce a factor of safety. Factors of safety are used to ensure that the structures are not over
loaded. The factor of safety tries to cover as many “Ifs” as is possible, especially among
them is the weld loaded in shear. The shear load is essentially the worst case scenario, and it
limits the maximum force that can be applied to a weld before it fails. Most design is done
with the assumption that fillet welds will be loaded in shear that is the worst case situation
approach to design. We have discussed the fillet weld under tensile load as shown in Figure
4.7 above.
Let us now consider the fillet weld strength in shear as shown in Figures 4.8 and 4.9 below.
If the load applied is not perfectly perpendicular to the fillet weld, the weld is under shear
stress, and its load carrying capacity is significantly diminished. Because of this reason,
welds are always assumed to be loaded in shear.
Figure 4.8 Fillet weld in shear load.

In this case the applied load is parallel to the welds. The forces are pulling the members
being joined in opposite directions, which places the welds under shear. When a weld is
in shear, we can no longer use the tensile strength of the weld - from the used filler wire or
electrodes - to determine the strength of the weld. Instead, the weld-metal tensile strength
is reduced by a factor in order to assure safety. Some regulatory bodies have specified a fixed
coefficient to calculate minimum tensile strength, for example, AWS D1.1 The structural
welding code, requires that the minimum tensile strength of the filler metal be multiplied
by 0.30 to obtain the allowable shear stress on the weld.
The calculation is the exact same as when calculating the strength of a transverse fillet
weld, except for the safety factor. The notation now shows the maximum shear stress (τ)
allowed, rather than the maximum tensile stress (σ).
F
τallowable
A
where,
τ = allowable is the maximum allowed shear stress on the weld
F = the force the weld can handle, in other words, the strength of the weld in lbf
A = is the effective area of the weld.
Notice that instead of tensile stress, we now have allowable shear stress.
The weld is made with an E70T-1 filler metal with minimum tensile strength of 70,000
psi. There are two 20-inch long lap welds on both sides of the joint.
¼”
20”
Figure 4.9 Fillet weld in shear load.
The allowable shear stress for the welds would be 70,000 psi × 0.30 = 21,000 psi. A reduc-
tion of 70% compared to the case where the fillet weld was in pure tension.
The leg length of the fillet weld is 0.25 – inch, then the shear strength – the load carrying
capacity of the weld is calculated as follows.
To solve the F (force that is the shear-strength of the weld) the above discussed formula
is suitably rearranged, as following.
F = τallowable * A
We know that the allowable shear stress is 70,000 × 0.30 = 21,000 psi.
The theoretical throat size 0.25 × 0.707 = 0.177
Thus, the effective area of the weld (A) = (2 x 20) × 0.177 × 2 = 7.08 Sq.-in.
The value of force F we get is;
F = 21,000 × 7.08 = 148,680 lbf
This fillet weld can safely (support) lift a load of 148,680 lbf.
Note that the use of allowable shear stress introduces the phrase Safety to the lift load.
4.7.1.1 Single Fillet Welds

Single fillet welds as the name suggests are the welds that are made on only one side of the
member. It is usable where the load is low and the weld is not subject to bending moment
in such a way that the tension stresses develop in the root side of the weld. Single fillet welds
are not suitable and should not be used with Lap joints that can rotate under the load. This
type of fillet weld is not recommended where impact load, or fatigue loading is a possibility.
4.7.1.2 Double Fillet Welds

Double fillet weld can be used where full plate (material being welded) strength is desired
from the weld, under the static loading. Double fillet welds can restrict rotation in T- welds,
and corner welds in the members, about the longitudinal axis of the joint, this also mini-
mizes the tension stresses at the root of the weld. Double fillet welds are suitable for cyclic
loading if load is parallel to the weld axis.
4.7.1.3 Combined Groove and Fillet Welds

When the required strength is difficult to achieve without welding a fillet weld of excessive
size, that may adversely affect the strength of parent metal, defeating the very purpose of
obtaining strength by welding, in such situations, it is advised that other options should be
actively considered. One of those options are to use a combined weld.
We have mentioned combined welds several times in descriptions above. In the above
Figure 4.10 a combined weld is shown, compare it with Figure 4.4 and note how it differs
from fillet welds. It is akin to a fillet weld superimposed on the groove weld. Combined
welds are used to enhance weld size, to obtain necessary strength.
t t
Combined groove and fillet joints
Figure 4.10 Combined fillet and groove weld.

In the earlier paragraphs we have discussed the types of weld joints, but that alone is not the
solution for resolving static and cyclic loading on a structure. Size of the weld is also a major
factor to resolve the load, and sustainability of given weld joint type. The size and area of weld,
especially the effective area, are important factors in determining the load that can be placed
on any weld structure. These important definitions for various type of welds is given below.
Once we have understood the definitions we can proceed further, note that some of these
terms are used in earlier discussions on the determination of fillet weld strength.
The allowable shear stress in steel weld metal in groove and fillet welds is about 30 percent of
the nominal tensile strength of the weld metal. This ratio of shear stress to tensile strength is sta-
blished by series of fillet weld tests conducted by the American Institute of Steel Construction
and American Welding Society. The values given the Table 4.4 for various sizes of fillet welds
are based on the formula given below. These values and calculations are based on the equal leg
fillet welds that make 45o angle, refer Figure 4.4 above for nomenclature of filet welds.
The allowable shear stress γ = 0.30 (Weld metal strength).
Unit force, f = Cos 45o (size of the weld) (value of γ i.e., allowable shear from above calculations)
= 0.707 (size of weld) (γ)
Table 4.4 Allowable unit load on steel fillet welds.

Weld-metal strength in ksi (as in electrode ER 6010, 7010, 7018 or 11018 etc.)
60 70 80 90 100 110
Fillet weld size Allowable load 1000 lbs./inch length of the weld Fillet weld
(inch) size (mm)
0.063 0.795 0.928 1.061 1.193 1.326 1.458 1.6
0.125 1.591 1.856 2.121 2.386 2.651 2.916 3.2
0.188 2.386 2.784 3.182 3.579 3.977 4.375 5
0.250 3.182 3.712 4.242 4.772 5.303 5.833 6.4
0.313 3.977 4.640 5.303 5.965 6.628 7.291 8
0.375 4.772 5.568 6.363 7.158 7.954 8.749 10
0.438 5.568 0.344 7.424 8.351 9.279 10.207 11
0.500 6.363 7.424 8.484 9.545 10.605 11.666 12.7
0.625 7.954 9.279 10.605 11.931 13.256 14.582 16
0.750 9.545 11.135 12.726 14.317 15.908 17.498 19
0.875 11.135 12.991 14.847 16.703 18.559 20.415 22
1.000 12.726 14.847 16.968 19.089 21.210 23.331 25.4
Note: Normally, Fillet welds are restricted to 8 mm or 0.313 inch
Only in some specific cases Fillet welds are permitted over 16 mm or 0.625” beyond this depth a groove weld
is specified.
The restriction on the size of fillet weld is introduced to control the heat input,
and the possible cracking, especially in the restrained weld joints, and high strength
alloy steels. The primary cause of the appearance of cracks is dependent on several fac-
tors that includes the metallurgical conditions of the metals being welded, heat input,
restraint on the weld, etc. These cracks may appear in the weld metal, or in the HAZ of
the weld.
The note in the Table 4.4 says that the maximum fillet weld size is restricted to 5/16 or
about 8 mm, this requires further explanation, especially when different thickness are joint
in a fillet weld. Fillet weld size is determined by the thicker section, but it is controlled
by the thinner member of the joint, the weld size should not exceed the thickness of the
thinner member of the structure, to the limit of 5/16 inch or 8 mm. When larger weld
size is required due to the load conditions, a groove and fillet weld combination should be
considered.
In case of a structure is loaded cyclically, and it contains fillet welds, then such fillet
requires few more points to be considered. The alternating tensile or compression and
both loading on a structure leads to fatigue failures. The properties of weld assumes signif-
icance in such demanding conditions. The very nature of a fillet weld – the abrupt change
in section - puts a limit on structure’s fatigue life. This is not withstanding the fact that weld
metal strength may be matching the base metal’s strength. Other factors like the following
act as a stress riser leading to fatigue failure.
• Change in cross section of the weld,

• Internal cracks
• And in a CJP weld, (Including CJP fillet welds)
• lack of penetration,
• undercut
• a transition in reinforcement,
• incomplete fusion,
• any notches,
• internal cracks
4.8 Weld Design and Loading

Welds are part of the structure, all load conditions that are considered to design a struc-
ture, and to ensure the stability and safety of the structure apply to the welds. However,
welds are in a unique situation because of their metallurgical make up and also due to
the fact that they become stress concentration points in a structure, hence they are to be
treated in some specific ways. In the subsequent paragraphs of this chapter, we discuss
those.
4.8.1 Common Conditions to Consider When Designing Welded Connections

The common points to consider for weld-designing for either a tubular or a non-tubular
member of a structure is dependent on the type of load on the member. The specific loading
detail must always be indicated on the drawing.
4.8.2 Marking the Fabrication and Construction Drawings
These details must be included in the construction plan, and also on the construction and
fabrication drawings. Complete information regarding base metal specification designa-
tion, weld locations, type, size, of weld desired, and its finish must be clearly shown on these
documents.
Where field joints are required, they must be so annotated on the drawing, using welding
symbols, if plan requires field erection that drawing should also follow similar detail on
both the erection plan and drawing.
Specific design requirements such as through thickness strengths, or low temperature
ductility etc. must be detailed on the drawings and required test and inspection methods
must be included. Use of welding symbols to indicate most information is the best practice.
Welding symbols and their meanings, and how to use them is explained in Chapter 6 of this
book.
The requirements for Welding Procedure qualifications must be fully specified. The pro-
cedure should specify if the complete joint penetration (CJP), or a partial joint penetration
(PJP) weld is desired. In the case of PJP weld, the depth of the penetration must be specified.
Other weld details such as weld size, effective length, welding sequence, welding technique,
or any other special precautions should be detailed in both the construction plan and on
drawings. Specific attention should be given to the fillet weld sizes, and skewed T- joints,
also refer the Figure 4.11 for more details.
For the skewed joints, the following information is essential, and must be detailed in the
construction or fabrication drawing and plan documents.
1. For fillet welds between parts with surfaces meeting at an angle between 80°
and 100°, the drawing must show the fillet weld leg size.
2. For welds between parts with the surfaces meeting at an angle less than 80°
or greater than 100°, the fabrication or construction documents including the
drawings, must clearly specify the effective throat, taking in account the changes
in the geometry of the weld. The Z loss reduction given in the Table 4.5 below,
is factored specific to the welding process, position and the dihedral angle Ψ.
End returns and hold-backs for fillet welds, if so, designed must clearly show on the
drawings, with welding symbols, and extended details of the weld edge preparation and
weld-joint set up requirements.
Table 4.5 Z loss table.

Z loss table
Dihedral angle Ψ Vertical and over-head Horizontal and flat
weld position weld position
Value of Z in Value of Z in
Weld process (mm/inch) Weld process (mm/inch)
Ψ ≥ 60o SMAW 0 0 SMAW 0 0
FCAW-S 0 0 FCAW-S 0 0
FCAW-G 0 0 FCAW-G 0 0
GMAW N/A N/A GMAW 0 0
GMAW-S 0 0 GMAW-S 0 0
60o > Ψ ≥ 45o SMAW 3 0.125 SMAW 3 0.125

FCAW-S 3 0.125 FCAW-S 0 0
FCAW-G 3 0.125 FCAW-G 0 0
GMAW N/A N/A GMAW 0 0
GMAW-S 3 0.125 GMAW-S 3 0.125
45o > Ψ ≥ 30o SMAW 6 0.25 SMAW 6 0.25

FCAW-S 6 0.25 FCAW-S 3 0.125
FCAW-G 10 0.375 FCAW-G 6 0.25
GMAW N/A N/A GMAW 6 0.25
GMAW-S 10 0.375 GMAW -S 6 0.25
mm Inch mm Inch
The fabrication drawing must also include the base metal thickness, width, and other
information, and either by noting the material specification, or by detailed descriptions
of material composition and heat treatment and finish information. If a partial penetra-
tion weld (PJP) is specified, then the drawing must indicate the weld grove depth -often
indicated with letter “S” - that will produce the desired weld leg size, which is indicated by
letter “E”. This information should be coordinated with the qualified welding procedure to
be used, as these factors are significantly affected by the choice of welding process, and the
position of the weld.
Similar to the butt welds, the drawings must also detail the information about the fillet
welds and Skewed T-joint welds. Welding symbols must be used to describe the details of all
welds, their sizes, penetration depth, end termination and if required additional informa-
tion by use of the supplementary symbols. For this, in depth knowledge of welding symbols
is an essential requirement for the welding-design engineer. Welding symbols are given in
the Chapter 6 of this book.
Some welding-construction specifications and codes allow for the use of prequalified
welding procedures. These pre-qualified welding procedures are limited by some very spe-
cific conditions. If such pre-qualified procedures are selected then it is duty of the welding
engineer and his team to ensure total adherence to those requirements. This must be veri-
fied by a dedicated team of inspection personnel on the shop floor, or in the field, wherever
the welding may be taking place.
4.8.3 Effective Areas

As described earlier in paragraph 4.7, the strength of the weld joint is dependent on the size
and the area of the weld. Both the size and area are factored in the strength calculations.
Due to variations in weld type and specifically the depth of penetration of welds there is
difference in the apparent area of the weld, and the effective area of the weld.
Both the actual length, and the actual size, can differ significantly from the effective
length and size of the weld. For engineering calculation purposes, the effective length and
effective size is used.
We will discuss the effective length and size for both groove and fillet welds, and in that
the partially penetrated (PJP) and fully penetrated (CJP) welds in the following paragraphs.
4.8.4 Effective Area of Groove Welds

The effective Length of any groove weld, regardless of orientation, is the width of the part
joined by the weld, taken perpendicular to the direction of tensile or compressive stress. For
groove welds transmitting shear, the effective length is the length specified.
Effective Size of CJP Groove Weld is the thickness of the metal joined, if however, the
joint is between two different thickness of metals, then the effective size is the thickness of
the thinner part joined.
It may be noted that the reinforcement of the weld is not considered in the size of the
weld, and it is not considered for calculation of the effective area of the weld.
Groove weld sizes for T-, Y-, and K connections in tubular construction are evaluated
differently due to its very nature, these welds in a tubular connections change their profile
around the tubular surface. Various welding codes have developed their own tables for the
profiles in these connections, the tables in the applicable code should be referred to for
design purpose.
Sizing of a partially penetrated (PJP) groove weld, is of utmost importance because
unlike CJP the PJP-weld has two important thigs associated with it.
(1) t he minimum depth of a PJP-weld is through the full thickness of the thinner
member of the joint, if the two different members are involved. Or to the
specified thickness of the metal if single thickness metals are being welded.
(2) Th
ese PJPs are prone to have inbuilt stress risers at the root of the weld, that
will certainly increase the stress concentration factor and may lead to failure.
Thus, the minimum Size of PJP Groove-welds should be equal to or greater than the size
of the thinnest base-metal thickness of the joint or if the members being joined are of the
same thickness, then the sizes given in the Table 4.6 below should be the most suited mini-
mum sizes. This type of tables are developed by several welding codes and where applicable
those welding code guidelines should be consulted and used.
Table 4.6 Minimum weld size for PJP welds.

Minimum weld thickness in
Base metal thickness (T) partial penetration welds
mm Inch mm Inch
3-5 0.125 – 0.188 2 0.06
>5-6 > 0.188 – 0.25 3 0.125
> 6 - 12 > 0.25 – 0.5 5 0.188
> 12 - 20 > 0.25 – 0.75 6 0.25
> 20 - 38 > 0.75 – 1.5 8 0.31
> 38 - 57 > 1.5 – 2.25 10 0.375
> 57 - 150 > 2.25 - 6 12 0.5
> 150 >6 16 0.625
The weld sizes given in the Table 4.6 above are applicable to various weld edge prepara-
tions, including the Single-V, Double-V, Bevel welds that may include J-groove or U-groove
welds, and in either case the maximum base metal thickness is unlimited. However, the
depth given in the Table 4.6 is not achievable in the flare grove welds. The flare grove welds
are in different geometric configuration, they have a radius on their external profile. The
effective weld size for flare groove welds when filled flush to the surface of a round bar,
or on a 90° bend of a formed section, or on a rectangular tube that has rounded edges, all
these profiles require different approach to the weld size determination. For this reason, the
sizing of groove-welds made on the flare joints is factored on the basis of the radius (R) of
the outer surface.
This is 0.312 x R (the Radius).
&
The factor for the V-groove-flair weld is 0.5 R (the Radius).
From the above information the effective area of the weld can be calculated, using the
effective size, and the effective length of the weld.
4.9 Sizing Fillet Welds

Fillet welds are discussed earlier in this chapter, where we have discussed some calculations
about the strength determination of fillet welds, with nomenclatures and how the size is
calculated. In the subsequent paragraphs we will elaborate further on the subject.
4.9.1 Effective Length of Straight Fillet Welds

The effective length of a straight fillet weld is the overall length of the full size fillet, includ-
ing end returns. No reduction in effective length is considered in design calculations to
allow for the start or stop crater of the weld. This demands good quality of weld, and that
the start and stop is sound, and no craters are created. The effective length of a curved fillet
weld is measured along the centerline of the effective throat.
The minimum length of a fillet weld should be at least four times the nominal size of the
weld, or conversely, the effective size of the weld is considered to be maximum at the 25%
of its effective length. This however is limited by not welding excessively. Acceptable size of
fillet weld is described further in the chapter.
The minimum length of a segment of an intermittent fillet weld is a fixed measure. The
minimum length of segments of an intermittent fillet weld is 38 mm or 1.5 inch.
The actual length of an end loaded fillet weld which is not greater than x 100 times of the
leg of that fillet weld is the maximum effective length of that weld. If the length of the weld
exceeds more than x 100 of the weld leg size, but is less than x 300 times then the effective
length is determined by multiplying the actual length by the reduction coefficient β.
β = 1.2 - 0.2 (L/100w) ≤ 1.0
where;
β = Reduction Coefficient (factor)
L = Actual length of the end-loaded weld measured in mm or in inches.
w = Weld’s leg length measured either in mm of in inches.
When the length exceeds 300 times the leg size, the effective length is determined by x
180 (times) of the leg size of that fillet weld.
4.9.2 The Determination of Effective Throat of a Fillet Weld

As we know fillet welds are used to join members in different planes, they transmit stress
in an angle. Most of the time these welds are simple where members are attached at about
perpendicular to the main member. However sometimes they are not.
4.9.2.1 Fillet Welds Joining Perpendicular Members

Fillet welds between parts meeting at angles between 80° and 100° are deemed to be in
perpendicular attachment. The effective throat for this type of fillet-weld is the shortest
distance from the root of the joint to the weld face of a 90° diagrammatic weld.
4.9.2.2 Fillet Weld in Acute Angle

This type of acute welds are grouped in two groups one that make an angle between 60o and
80o and the other that make an angle between 30o and 60o. Both this groups are discussed
separately.
4.9.2.3 Fillet Welds That Make Angle Between 60o and 80o
For welds in acute angles between 60° and 80° and for welds in obtuse angles greater than
100°, the weld leg size required to provide the specified effective throat is determined by
calculation, to account for geometry. The table below and the following paragraphs explains
how to determine the equivalent leg sizes for specific dihedral angles of fillet welds.
The Table 4.7 below, is the tabulation showing equivalent leg size factors for the range of
dihedral angles between 60° and 135°. The fillet welds considered are assumed to have no
root opening.
Table 4.7 Fillet weld (leg) size for skewed fillet -tee welds.
Dihedral angle Ψ → 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95
Comparable fillet weld leg 0.71 0.76 0.81 0.86 0.91 0.96 1.00 1.03
size for same strength
Dihedral angle Ψ → 100 105 110 115 120 125 130 135
Comparable fillet weld leg 1.08 1.12 1.16 1.19 1.23 1.25 1.28 1.31
size for same strength
If root gap (opening) is between 2 mm (0.063 inch) and up to 5 mm (0.188 inch), then
that value is directly added to the measured leg size of the specific fillet weld.
The required leg size for fillet welds in skewed joints is calculated using the equivalent leg
size factors for desired dihedral angle. The sample calculation is shown below.
Assume a Skewed T-joint, at an angle of 80°; and that weld has a root opening of 0.063-
in. This weld is required to meet the strength equivalent to a 90° fillet weld of size of a size
0.313-in.
To calculate should follow following steps,
(1) Factor for 80° from Table 4.7: 0.91

(2) Equivalent leg size, w, of skewed joint, without root opening: w = 0.91 ×
0.313 = 0.285 in.
(3) With root opening of: 0.063 in.
(4) Required leg size, w = (2) + (3) = 0.348 in. of skewed fillet weld.
(5) Rounding up to a practical dimension: w = 0.375 or 3/8 in.
For fillet welds having equal measured legs (wn), the distance from the root of the joint to
the face of the diagrammatic weld (tn) may be calculated as follows:
tn = (wn -Rn) / {2 Sin (Ψ/2)}

For root openings > 0.063 in. (2 mm) and ≤ 0.188 in. (5 mm), the following relationship
of factors is used;
Rn = 0
And
tn’ = tn
Where the measured leg of such fillet weld (wn) is the perpendicular distance from the
surface of the joint to the opposite toe, and (R) is the root opening, if any, between joining
members.
4.9.2.4 Fillet Welds That Make Acute Angle Between 60o and 30o
Where the fillet welds makes an acute angles between 60°and 30°, the leg size is increased by
the Z loss dimension. This factored number is to account for the uncertainty of sound weld
metal in the root pass of the narrow dihedral angles, these Z factors are welding process
specific and they are given the Table 4.5 above.
4.9.2.5 Reinforcing Fillet Welds

The effective throat of a combination PJP groove weld and a fillet weld is the shortest dis-
tance from the joint root to the weld face of the diagrammatic weld minus 3 mm or 0.125
inch, for any groove detail requiring such deduction.
4.9.3 Fillet Welds - Minimum Size

The minimum size of a fillet weld should not be smaller than the size required to transmit
the applied load. Should the calculation determine the minimum fillet weld size to be less
Table 4.8 Minimum fillet weld sizes.

Minimum fillet weld size
Base metal thickness
(See the note below) Minimum fillet weld size
mm Inch mm Inch
≤6 ≤ 0.25 3 (5 mm for cyclically 0.125 (0.188 inch for
loaded joints) cyclically loaded joints)
6 to 12 included 0.25 to 0.5 included 5 0.188
> 12 to ≤ 20 > 0.5 to ≤ 0.75 6 0.25
20 > T 0.75 > T 8 0.313
The weld size given above is Single-Pass welds for non-critical weldments.
For crack controlled, and low hydrogen welds more than one pass fillet weld is recommended.
T = thickness of the thinner member.
than the sizes given in the Table 4.8 below, then the value of the fillet weld size given in the
table should prevail over the calculates smaller size, any other design considerations must
also be considered and suitable changes in the design approach may be taken.
4.9.4 Maximum Weld Size in Lap Joints

Lap joints are fillet weld though they are differently loaded then a conventional fillet weld.
This requires that lap joints are considered separately.
The maximum fillet weld size detailed along the edges of base metal in the form of a lap
joint.
(1) The sizing is based on the thickness of the base metal. However, if the metal
thickness is less than 6 mm (0.25 inch) then the fillet weld is reduced by 1.6
mm (0.0625 inch) from the thickness of the base metal, keeping the edges
clear from the fusion or overlap of the weld.
w
2
Dihedral angle
Ψ2
135° max w
1 Dihedral angle
60° minimum Ψ1
Leg size f2
w2 Leg size
b2 b1
t2 t1 f1 w1
For each weld b2
w t
t= or w = 2t sin Ψ b=
2
sin Ψ cos Ψ
2 2
w w2
f= = 2t tan Ψ A= = t2 tan Ψ
2 2
cos Ψ 4sin Ψ cos Ψ
2 2 2
when b1 = b2 and t = t1 + t2
Ψ2 Ψ1
cos cos
2 2
t1 = t t2 = t
Ψ1 Ψ2 Ψ1 Ψ2
cos + cos cos + cos
2 2 2 2
For minimum total weld-metal
t t
t1 = t2 =
Ψ1 Ψ2
1 + tan2 1 + tan2
2 2
t2 tan Ψ
2
At =
Ψ1
1 + tan2
2
Figure 4.11 Skewed joints.

(2) If the parent metal exceeding thickness including from 6 mm (0.25 inch),
the designer may consider to show a of 1.6 mm (0.0625-inch) distance
between the edge of the base metal and the toe of the fillet-weld. This is
only if the throat thickness of the fillet weld meets the load bearing lim-
its. Alternatively, the weld is designated and welded to obtain full throat
thickness for a leg size matching the base metal thickness, that may include
redesigning the weld with a combination of groove and fillet weld.
4.9.5 Skewed T-Joints

When a T-joints is designed with an angle between joined parts, and that angle deviates
from the perpendicularity by over 10o it is called as Skewed T-Joint. In other words, the
T-joint with angle greater than 100° or less than 80° is a skewed T-joint. Typical skewed weld
is shown in Figure 4.11 with elements of the weld, and their mathematical relationships.
As stated earlier in the chapter, there are several construction codes that have recognized
some common and very specific parameters of welds, made with specific welding processes,
that if followed will produce the desired mechanical properties in the weld, because of this
understanding they need not be qualified with testing. Such welds are termed as prequali-
fied welds, these prequalified procedures also apply to Skewed welds.
The details of joints for the obtuse and acute sides can be used either independently or
in combination as required for the specific design demands, however with proper consider-
ation for effects of eccentricity.
In the subsequent paragraphs various groupings of skewed weld joints are described.
4.9.5.1 T–Joint Welds in Acute Angles Between 80° and 60° and in Obtuse Angles
Greater Than 100°
When welded members are positioned in an angles between 80° and 60° or in angles that
is greater than 100° then their effective throat must be calculated and given on the shop
drawings. The drawing should show very clearly the placement of welds and the required
leg dimensions, that would achieve the satisfy the designed effective throat.
4.9.5.2 T-Joint Welds in Angles Between 60° and 30°

When welding is required at an acute-angle of less than 60° but ≥ 30°, then in that situation
the effective throat should be increased by the Z-loss allowance, as given in the Table 4.5.
The designer should specify the required effective throat, complete with the added Z-loss
value, on the fabrication drawings.
4.9.5.3 T-Joint Welds in Angles Less than 30°

The welded members making an acute angle of < 30° are not effective in transmitting the
applied load. There is some exception to this in case of tubular structures where such acute
members do transmit load that is discussed further in the book.
4.9.5.4 Effective Length of Skewed T-Joints

The effective length of skewed T-joints is the overall length of the full size weld. The start
and stop of the weld is the part of the full length.
4.9.5.5 Effective Throat of Skewed T-Joints

The effective throat of a skewed T-joint in angles between 60° and 30° is the minimum
distance from the root to the diagrammatic face, minus the Z-loss reduction dimension,
shown in the Table 4.5 above. The effective throat of a skewed T-joint in angles between 80°
and 60° and in angles greater than 100° is taken as the shortest distance from the joint root
to the face of the weld.
4.9.5.6 Effective Area of Skewed T-Joints

The effective area of skewed T-joints is derived by multiplying the specified effective throat
multiplied and the effective length.
4.10 Fillet Welds in Holes and Slots

Diameter and Width Limitations.
The minimum diameter of the hole or the width of slot in which a fillet weld is to be depos-
ited should not be less than the thickness of the part in which the slot or the hole is made
plus 8 mm (0.32-inch).
4.10.1 Slot Ends

The ends of the slot is designed to be semicircular or the corners of the slot are rounded to
a radius ≥ the thickness of the member in which the slot is made, the only exception should
be where the slots are extended to the edge of the member.
4.10.2 Effective Length of Fillet Welds in Holes or Slots

The effective length of the fillet welds in holes and slots, is the measured length of the weld
along the centerline of the throat.
4.10.3 Effective Area of Fillet Welds in Holes or Slots

The determination of the effective area of the fillet welds in holes and slots is done by mul-
tiplying the effective length to the effective throat. In the case of fillet welds of such size that
they overlap at the centerline when deposited in holes or slots, the effective area assumed
to be less than the cross-sectional area of the hole or slot in the plane of the faying surface.
4.10.4 Diameter and Width Limitations

The minimum diameter of the hole or the width of slot in which a plug or slot weld is to be
deposited is kept minimum to the thickness of the part which it is made plus about 8 mm
or 0.32 inch. The maximum diameter of the hole or width of slot allowed is the minimum
diameter plus 3 mm or 0.125 inch or up to 2.25 times the thickness of the part, whichever
is greater. These conventions are followed in most structural codes however the specific
limitations of each code must be followed for the structure.
4.10.5 Slot Length and Shape

The length of the slot in which slot welds are to be deposited is not to exceed ten times the
thickness of the part in which it is made. The ends of the slot should be semicircular or the cor-
ners should be rounded to a radius of not less than the thickness of the part in which it is made.
4.10.6 Effective Area of Plug and Slot Welds

The effective area of plug and slot welds is the nominal area of the hole or slot in the plane
of the faying surface.
4.11 Designing Calculations for Skewed Fillet Weld

The special condition that is developed by skewed weld connections, require some addi-
tional considerations. The skewed angle weld relationship is created between the dihedral
angle Ψ and the leg size b, and the effective throat t, of each weld. Specific formulae are
developed and used to analyze the effective throat for a weld to be deposited with the given
area At of the weld deposit.
In the Figure 4.11 above the leg sizes, b1 and b2 are determined for the respective effective
throat.
For each weld the formula is given below:
The effective throat t = w/sin(0.5Ψ) Or = 2t sin (0.5 Ψ )

The face of the weld f = w/cos(0.5Ψ) Or = 2t tan (0.5 Ψ )
The leg of the fillet weld b = t /cos (0.5Ψ)
The weld area A = w2 / 4 sin (0.5Ψ) cos (0.5Ψ ) = t2 tan (0.5Ψ )
If the leg sizes of fillet weld are equal b1, = b2, and both legs of the fillet weld t = t1 + t2) the
following relationship exists.
t1 = t x {cos (0.5Ψ2 )} / cos (0.5Ψ1) + cos (0.5Ψ2)
and
t2 = t x {cos (0.5Ψ1)} / cos (0.5Ψ1) + cos (0.5Ψ2)
For determining the minimum weld-metal, the following factors are used.
t1 = t / 1+ tan2 (0.5Ψ1)
t2 = t /1 +tan2 (0.5Ψ2)
and
At = {t2 tan (0.5Ψ1)} / 1 + tan2 (0.5Ψ1)
4.12 Treating Weld as a Line

For the design purpose, when the total length of the weld is large, as compared to its effec-
tive throat, the weld is treated as a line of a definite length, and configuration, as opposed
to an area. In such approach the weld calculation uses the length of the weld in place of the
area as given in fillet weld calculations earlier in the chapter.
Note that we are still discussing about the strength of fillet welds.
This approach makes it convenient to determining some attributes easier to design for
the required weld strength.
In the Figure 4.12 below the weld is shown in gray line, this weld with same outline along
the connection area, is considered as a line. This welded connection now has a line in place
of the effective area. Note that we do not know the size of the weld , a number needed for
the calculation of effective area. This shifts the focus of the calculation from determining
the stress on a weld, to determine the force on per unit length of the weld. This allows the
use of force per unit length.
The Table 4.9 below gives the stress and corresponding force per unit length formulae for
different types of loading.
The symbols used in the table are given below.
σ = Normal Stress
τ = Shear stress
f = force per unit length
P = Concentrated load
V = Vertical shear load
A = Total cross sectional area of the weld
Lw = Total line length of the weld
c = The distance from the neutral axis to the extreme fiber of a line weld.
Twisting Load
b
Bending b
Load
d
Weld d
Figure 4.12 Weld as a line (no area).

Table 4.9 Stress on welds for different loading.

Common formula used for Formula for determining force
Type of loading unit stress on the weld per unit length of the weld
Tension or Compression σ = P/A f = P/Lw
Vertical shear τ = V/A f = V/Lw
Bending σ = M/S f = M/Sw
Torsion τ = TC /J f = TC /Jw
T = Torque on the weld

S = The section modulus of an area
Sw = The section modulus of a line weld
J = Polar moment of inertia of an area
Jw = Polar moment of inertia of a line weld
I = Moment of inertia
4.12.1 Calculation Approach

The calculation should consider all applied forces, more than one applied forces should be
vectorially combined. All combined forces should be vectored at a common location on the
weld.
4.12.2 Finding the Size of the Weld

Weld size is determined by dividing the resulting unit force on the weld by the allowable
strength of the type of weld used.
The step by step calculation is described here, these steps can be applied to any welded
construction.
I. Locate a position on the welded connection where the combined forces are
maximum. Number of combinations should be considered.
II. Determine the value of every force applied on the weld connection at the
selected position from step-I above.
III. Select the applicable formula from the Table 4.9 above, to find the unit force
on the weld.
IV. From the set of sketches (A to J) with associated formulae in the Figure 4.13
select the one that is the most appropriate to the properties of the welded
connection treated as a line.
V. Vectorially combine all of the unit forces acting on the weld.

VI. Now, determine the weld size, by dividing the total unit force by the allowable
stress in the weld.
(A)
3
Ix = d
12
x x
2
d=L Sx = d
6
Weld as
a line
(B)
y
3 3
Ix = d Sx = d Jw = d 3b2 + d2
b 6 6 6
d
x x
c b2 + d2
0.5
2
Iy = b d Sy = bd c=
2 2
y L = 2d
(C)
y
b d3 4b + d b3 b + 4d
Ix = Iy =
12 b+d 12 b+d
c1 cxT d 4b + d b b + 4d
SxT = SyL =
x x 6 b+d 6 b+d
d2 4b + d b2 b + 4d
d SxB = SyR =
c2 6 b+d 6 b+d
cxB
b3 + d3 bd b2 + d2
Jw = +
cyR 12 4 (b + d)
d2
cyL CxT =
2(b + d)
y
d 2b + d
CxB =
L=b+d 2 b+d
0.5
C1 = CxT2 + CyR2
b2 b b + 2d
CyL = CyR =
2(b + d) 2 b+d
0.5
C2 = CxB2 + CyL2
Figure 4.13 Weld as line, and mathematical relationships of various elements. (Continued)
(D)
b
y
d2 b3 b + 2d
Ix = (6b + d) Iy =
12 3 2b + d
c
d b
d x Sx = (6b + d) SyL = (b + 2d)
6 3
3
b b + 2d
SyR =
3 b+d
y b2 b (b + d)
CyL = CyR =
CyL 2b + d 2b + d
CyR
2 0.5
d
C = CyR2 +
L = 2b + d 2
b3 b + 2d d2
Jw = + (6b + d)
3 2b + d 12
= (SyR + Ix)
(E)
b d2
y Ix = (3b + d)
6
b2
c Iy = (b + 3d)
6
x x
d d
Sx = (3b + d)
3
b
Sy = (b + 3d)
y 3
(b + d)3
L = 2(b + d) Jw =
6
(b2 + d2)0.5
C=
2
(F)
b
y
c Cr d3 2b + d d
Ix = SxT = (2b + d)
x 3 b + 2d 3
x
d b3 b2
Iy = Sy =
12 6
Ca
d3 2b + d b3 d2 2b + d
Jw = + SxB =
3 b + 2d 12 3 b+d
y = Ix + Iy
d2
L = b + 2d CT =
b + 2d
b+d
Cb = d
b +2d
2 0.5
b
C = CT2 +
2
Figure 4.13 (Conitnued) Weld as line, and mathematical relationships of various elements. (Continued)
(G)
b
y d3 4b + d b2
Ix = Iy =
6 b+d 6
c CT d d2 4b + d
SxT = (4b + d) SxB =
x x 3 3 b+d
b CT =
Sy = 2(b + d)
d 3
2 0.5
d 2b + d b
Cb Ca = C = CT2 +
2 b+d 2
d3 4b + d b2
Jw = +
y 6 b+d 6
= Ix + Iy
L = 2(b + d)
Note: A - CT is measured from the center of the weld.

B - C is measured from the outer weld edge.
(H)
b
y d2 b3
Ix = (3b + d) Iy =
6 6
d b2
Sx = (3b + d) Sy =
3 3
c
(b + d2)0.5
2
C=
x x 2
d d2 b3
Jw = (3b + d) +
6 6
= Ix + Iy
L = 2(b + d)
(I)
b
y
d2 b3
Ix = (6b + d) Iy =
6 3
c d 2 2
Sx = (6b + d) Sy = b
3 3
d x x 2 + d2)0.5
(b
C=
2
d2 b3
Jw = (6b + d) +
6 3
= I x + Iy
y
L = 2(2b + d)
Figure 4.13 (Continued) Weld as line, and mathematical relationships of various elements. (Continued)
( J)
y
I = πr3
r Sw = πr2
x x
Jw = 2πr3
L = 2πr
Figure 4.13 (Continued) Weld as line, and mathematical relationships of various elements.
The example of a calculation is shown below.
200 mm
100 mm
5,000 kg
Max combined forces

d
2
200 mm
CG
CYR
fh fh
fv ch
cv
fr
fs fv
Figure 4.14 Example of calculations treating weld as a line.
Assume that a vertical column is fillet welded to a bracket. That bracket is supporting a
load of 5,000 kg. See Figure 4.14 for details.
We follow same step by step calculation, as described above.
Step 1: the point of maximum combined unit force is at the right ends of the top and
bottom horizontal welds.
Step 2: The twisting force caused by the eccentric loading is divided into horizontal (fh),
and vertical (fv) components. The distance from the center of gravity to the point of com-
bined stress Cyr is calculated from the selected sketch and associated formula in the Figure
4.14. Where from we get the following.
(a) Cyr = {b (b +d)} / (2b + d)

Inserting the values of b and d;
Cyr = {100 (100 +200)} / 2*100 + 200 = 30000 / 400 = 75 mm
(b) The polar moment of inertia – in mm3
Jw = (b3 / 3) {(b + 2d) / (2b + d)} + (d2/12) (6b +d)
={ (100)3 / 3 } {(100 + 400) / (200 +200)} + (2002 / 12) (6*100 + 200)
= (333333.33) {(500)/ 400} + 3333.33 (800)
= 3083330.625 mm3 (or 3083.33 cm3)
Horizontal component of twisting,

Torque T = 5000 x 200 = 1000000 mm.*kg
fh = {(T)* (d/2)} / Jw
= {1000000 (200/2)} / 3083330.625
= 32.43 kg/mm
Vertical component of twisting,
fv = (T*Cyr) /Jw = (1000000 x 75) / 3083330.625 = 24.32 kg/mm
Vertical shear force,
fv = P/Lw = 5000 /400 = 12.5 kg/mm
Step 3
fv = [fh2 + (fv + fs)2] ½
= [32.422 +(24.32 +12.5)2]1/2
= 1051.056 + 591.46 + 156.25 + 608 = 2406.766 kg/mm

Step 4: In this step we need to know the UTS of the weld metal, for this calculation we
assume that the welding is done using E 7018 electrode. That will give a nominal UTS of
32,000 kg, from 70 ksi strength specified for the welding consumable.
τ = 0.3 x 32000 = 9600 kg/mm
Therefore, the effective throat (E) is;
E = fv (from step 3 above) / τ

2406.766 /9600 = 0.25 mm
For the simplicity we assume that this is going to be an equal leg fillet weld.
S = E / 0.707 = 0.25 /0.707 = 0.35 mm

Since this is too small size for a fillet weld, the minimum fillet weld of 3 mm is specified.
4.12.3 Calculated Stresses

Design approach of weld joint connections common to both Statically or Cyclically Loaded
nontubular members, include determining the applied load and balancing the stress
through the structural members through welds joints.
The calculated stresses are compared with the allowable stresses, they should be nominal
stresses determined by analysis or stresses determined from the minimum joint strength
requirements that may be specified in the prevailing design coed, or the specifications for
the welded connections.
The calculated stresses caused by the eccentricity of members being welded should include,
the misalignment, the thickness of th e members in the joint, the type of weld used to join them.
The analysis is generally not required for the statically loaded structures. In the statically
loaded joints, the location of fillet welds is done with the intent of balancing the forces about
the neutral axis (or axes). This is for the end connections of either a single-angle, double-
angle, members of the weld arrangements, and at the heel and toe of angled members, and
the load can be distributed to conform to the length of the various available edges.
4.12.4 Stress in Fillet Welds

Stress in fillet welds are the shear applied to the effective area for any direction of applied
load.
The allowable shear stress on a fillet weld, considered as a line, and loaded in-plane
through the center of gravity can be determined by the mathematical relation of electrode
strength and established factors, as given in the formula below.
Fv = 0.30 FEXX (1.0 + 0.50 sin1.5Θ)

where Fv = allowable unit stress.
FEXX = Welding consumable classification number, i.e., electrode strength
Θ = Angle in degrees, between the direction of force and the axis of the weld element,
Instantaneous Center of Rotation.
The allowable stresses in weld elements within a weld group that are loaded in-plane and
analyzed using an instantaneous center of rotation method to maintain deformation com-
patibility and the nonlinear load-deformation behavior of variable angle loaded welds
should be determined using the following relations ship of the total internal force, moment
of forces, inertia, fillet weld size, distance from the center of rotation and other factors as
shown in the formula below.
Fvx = Σ Fvix
Fvy = Σ Fviy
Fvi = 0.30 FEXX (1.0 + 0.50 sin1.5Θ) F(ρ)
F(ρ)= [ρ (1.9 – 0.9ρ)]0.3
M = Σ [Fviy (x) – Fvix (y)]
Where;
• Fvx = Total internal force in x direction

• Fvy = Total internal force in y direction
• Fvix = x component of stress Fvi
• Fviy = y component of stress Fvi
• M = Moment of internal forces about the instantaneous center of rotation
• ρ = ∆i/∆m ratio of element “i” deformation to deformation in element at max-
imum stress
• ∆m = 0.209 (Θ + 6)–0.32 W, deformation of weld element at maximum stress,
in. [mm]
• ∆u = 1.087 (Θ + 6)–0.65 W, < 0.17 W, deformation of weld element at ultimate
stress (fracture), usually in element furthest from the instantaneous center of
rotation, in. [mm]
• W = leg size of the fillet weld, in. [mm]
• ∆i = deformation of weld elements at intermediate stress levels, linearly pro-
portioned to the critical deformation based on distance from instantaneous
center of rotation, in. [mm] = ri∆u/rcrit.
• x =xi component of ri
• y =yi component of ri
• rcrit. = distance from instantaneous center of rotation to weld element with
minimum ∆u/ri ratio, in. [mm]
4.12.5 Joint Configuration and Details

All welded connections should be designed to meet the strength and stiffness or flexibility
requirements specified in the design specification.
4.12.6 Compression Member Connections and Splices

Connections and splices designed that is not connected to the base plate, such as the col-
umn splices, which are finished to bear – which are sufficiently required to hold the mem-
bers together such joints can be made by welds that is either a partially penetrating welds,
or a fillet weld.
Weld Connections to the Base Plates

Welds at the base plates of columns and other compression members, are required to hold
the members securely in place. Various factors to consider are discussed below.
4.12.7 Where There is an Issue of Through-Thickness Loading on the Base Plate

Welds in T-and corner joints are used to transmit stress normal to the surface of a con-
nected part, especially when the base metal thickness of the branch member or the required
weld size is 20 mm or 0.75-inch or greater. This situation requires special attention during
design, the quality of the base metal selected is very important, it’s through thickness prop-
erties should be established before using them in construction of this type. The Joint details
should be such that minimizes the stress intensity on base metal under the stress, in the
through-thickness direction. Specifying weld sizes larger than necessary to transmit calcu-
lated stress should be avoided.
4.12.8 Determining the Capacity of Combinations of Welds

When two or more welds of different type. For example, groove, fillet, plug, and slot welds
are combined to share the load in a single connection, the capacity of the connection must
be calculated as the sum of the individual welds determined in the direction of applied load.
The method of adding individual capacities of welds does not apply to fillet welds that are
reinforcing the PJP groove welds.
4.12.9 Corner and T-Joint Surface Contouring

It is practical method to reduce stress concentration at 90o corner welds, to apply additional
fillet welds over a CJP or PJP groove welds, this can be done for both at the corner and
T-Joints.
When such surface contouring fillet welds are used in statically loaded applications, the
size of the fillet weld should not exceed 8 mm or 0.32 inch. This fillet-like reinforcement
on the surface of T and corner joint welds that naturally occurs is an acceptable method to
reduce stress concentration and need not be removed, if they do not interfere with other
elements of the construction.
4.12.10 Weld Access Holes

Weld access-holes are designed to provide necessary clearance to deposit sound weld across
the interfering members of the structure. When weld access holes are required, they are
sized to provide necessary clearances for the deposition of sound weld metal, but the size
and the shape of the hole should not compromise the maximum net area available in the
connected base metal.
4.12.11 Welds with Rivets or Bolts

Some designs include connections that are welded to one member and bolted or riveted to
the other. In consideration of load bearing ability, the welded connection is not considered
as sharing the load with bolted and riveted connections.
Welds in such connections is designed to be of adequate size to carry the entire load in
the connection. Some structural codes allow the use of High-strength bolts installed for the
slip-critical connections prior to welding as sharing the stress with the welds. Applicable
code must be referred to meet the specific requirements.
4.12.12 Joint Configuration and Details

The general practices of design of weld joints described earlier in the chapter apply, for both
static and cyclically loaded joints. With some specifics being added here.
4.12.12.1 Groove Welds - Transitions in Thicknesses and Widths

Tension butt joints between axially aligned members of different thicknesses or widths, or
both, and subject to tensile stress greater than one-third the allowable design tensile stress
should be so designed that the slope in the transition is not exceed 1 in 2.5 as is shown in
Figure 4.14, sketches C, I, and J. The transition is made by chamfering the thicker part,
tapering the wider part, sloping the weld metal or by a combination of all these methods.
Note: If the transitions in thickness or width are designed where tensile stress is less than
the allowable tensile stress, this information should be clearly stated on the drawing.
4.12.12.2 Partial Length CJP Groove Weld Prohibition

Intermittent or partial length CJP groove welds is not designed, except that members
built-up of elements connected by fillet welds may have groove welds of limited length at
points of localized load application to participate in the transfer of localized load. This sit-
uation must be carefully analyzed by calculations, to support making such weld decisions.
The length of the uniform sized groove weld should be determined by calculation,
and should be minimum the length as required is able to support the transfer of the load.
Beyond this length, the groove weld should be designed with a transition in depth to zero
over a distance of not less than four time, (x 4) the depth. The groove should be filled flush,
and then the fillet weld of the required size should be deposited.
4.12.12.3 Flare Welds, Flare Groove and Intermittent PJP Groove Welds
Intermittent PJP groove welds, flare bevel, and flare groove welds can be made to transfer
shear stress between connected parts.
4.12.12.4 Joint Configuration and Details

In lap joints the Transverse Fillet Welds, that transfer the stress between axially loaded parts
double-fillet welded are recommended. The exception could be where deflection of the joint
is sufficiently restrained by any other means to prevent opening under load.
The minimum overlap of parts in stress-carrying lap joints should be five times (x5) the
thickness of the thinner part, but should be limited to not less than 25 mm (1 inch). The
exception here is if out-of-plane deflection of the parts is prevented, and such joints are,
• double fillet welded, or

• joined by at least two transverse lines of plug or
• slot welds, or
• two or more longitudinal fillet, or
• slot welds.
If longitudinal fillet welds are used alone in lap joints of end connections of flat bar or
plate members, the minimum length of each fillet weld should be equal to or greater than
the perpendicular distance between them.
The transverse spacing of longitudinal fillet welds used in end connections is limited to
16 times the thickness of the thinner part connected, unless suitable provision is made, such
as by intermediate plug or slot welds, to prevent buckling or separation of the parts. The
longitudinal fillet welds may be either at the edges of the member or in slots. The design of
connections using longitudinal fillet welds for members other than flat bar cross sections
should detailed in the general design specifications.
4.12.12.5 Termination of Fillet Welds

Fillet weld terminations may extend to the ends or sides of parts or may be stopped short or
may have end returns except as limited by the following cases:
1. In lap joints subject to tension, in which one part extends beyond the edge or
side of a part subject to calculated tensile stress, fillet welds must terminate
not less than the size of the weld from the start of the extension.
2. Welded joints are designed to allow for the flexibility assumed in the con-
nection. If the outstanding legs of connection base metal are attached with
end-returned welds, the length of the end return should be up to four times
the nominal size of the weld.
3. Fillet welds joining transverse stiffeners to girder webs should start or termi-
nate not less than four times nor more than six times the thickness of the web
from the web toe of the web-to-flange welds. This limitations are not applied
to the welds where the ends of stiffeners are welded to the flange. Figure 4.5
shows the transvers fillet weld.
4. Fillet welds on the opposite sides of a common plane must be interrupted at
the corner, that is common to both welds.
4.12.12.6 Fillet Welds in Holes and Slots

Fillet welds in holes or slots in lap joints are used to transfer shear, or to prevent buckling,
or separation of lapped parts. Minimum spacing and dimensions of holes or slots for fillet
welds shall conform to the requirements discussed in above paragraphs. These fillet welds
are allowed to overlap if they meet effective area requirements set forth in earlier para-
graphs for the welds in slot and holes. Note that the fillet welds in holes or slots are not
considered to be plug or slot welds.
Intermittent fillet welds are used, and can be used, to transfer stress between connected
parts. Subject to the welds meeting load bearing requirements, and are not otherwise
restricted, due to other service conditions.
Spacing of plug welds

Plug welds should be spaced center to center, four times the diameter of the hole.
Spacing of Slot welds

Slot welds are spaced center to center in the direction of transverse to their length for not
more than four times the width of the slot.
The minimum center-to-center spacing in a longitudinal direction is maintained at two
times the length of the slot.
It is essential that materials that are of high strength be considered separately. Plug
and slot welds are not to be designed for such high strength material, that have their
minimum specified yield strength greater than 490 MPa or 70 ksi. The ASTM A 514
Quench and Temper steel is one such material grade that is often used for structural
members, refer most recent ASTM A 514 to understand more details of this material’s
properties.
Filler Plates
Some designs, such as over a splice weld joint, may require the use filler plates to transfer
applied force, the filler plates and the connecting welds they are to be designed keeping in
mind the following.
• Thinner Filler plates of less than 6 mm or 0.25 inch thick are not recom-
mended, as a means to transfer stress. If however, the thickness of the filler
plate is less than 6 mm, or when the thickness of the filler plate is greater than
6 mm but not adequate to transfer the applied force between the connected
parts, the filler plate is designed to be kept flush with the edge of the outside
connected part, and the size of the weld is increased over the required size by
an amount equal to the thickness of the filler plate.
• Thick Filler Plates, of thickness that is adequate to transfer the applied force
between the connected parts, are extend beyond the edges of the outside con-
nected base metal. The welds joining the outside connected base metal to the
filler plate should be sufficient to transmit the force to the filler plate, and
designed to ensure that the area able to support subject the applied force in
the filler plate, and should not overstress the filler plate. The welds joining
filler plate to the inside connected base metal should be adequate to transmit
the intended applied force.
The arrangements of filler plate, and weld with their size should be shown on the fabri-
cation and construction drawings.
Built up members
There are situations when members are built-up by welding to meet or match the thickness
or other dimensions of the abutting plates, or rolled shapes are used to makeup that mem-
ber. Sufficient fillet, plug, or slot type welding as required, should be deposited to make the
parts to act in unison, the term “sufficient weld” is limited by the fact that the weld should
not be less than that would be required to transmit the calculated stress between the joined
parts.
Spacing of Intermittent Welds

Intermittent welds are used to provide strength to the structure. The maximum longitudinal
spacing of intermittent butt-welds connecting a plate component to other components is
limited to 24 times the thickness of the thinner plate, but may be limited to 300 mm or 12
inch in length.
The longitudinal spacing between intermittent fillet-welds connecting two or more rolled
shapes is limited to 600 mm or 24 inch between two welds.
The longitudinal spacing of an intermittent fillet weld of a built up member that is subject
to compression stress, is limited to 300 mm or 12 inch. Alternatively, the maximum spacing
can be calculated as the following.
Maximum spacing = Plate thickness x 0.730 x (E/Fy)0.5
Where;
E = the modulus of elasticity of the steel in use, and
Fy = the specified minimum yield strength
In a situation, where the intermittent fillet weld segments are staggered along opposite
edges of outside plate components narrower than the width provided by the next sentence,
the spacing is determined by the following or limited to 450 mm or 18 inches.
Spacing = Plate thickness x 1.10 (E/Fy)0.5.
The unsupported width of web, cover plate, or diaphragm plates, between adjacent lines
of welds, is restricted to maximum, plate thickness times 1.46 (E/Fy)0.5. When unsupported
transverse spacing exceeds this limit, but a portion of its width no greater than 1.46 (E/Fy)0.5
times the thickness would satisfy the stress requirement, the member should be analyzed to
ensure its acceptability, or design should be altered.
Special requirements of Weathering Steel

These steels are high strength low alloy (HSLA) structural steels with a minimum yield point of
50 Ksi, and a minimum tensile strength of 70 ksi. ASTM A588 and ASTM A 242 are weather-
ing steel standards, very common use in structural fabrication. Because of their higher strength
much thinner sections can be used to reduce the weight of the structure, and these steels also
provide aesthetic appeal due to the coloration they develop on light oxidation. These steels are
resistant to atmospheric corrosion, and are used for their properties including strength and
durability. These steels are often used in unpainted conditions to allow the formation of thin
oxide scale, that prevents any further atmospheric corrosion. It is very important to not remove
the corrosion resistant scale by welding. Especially important is the use of intermittent fillet
welds, open ends of intermittent welds allow the corrosion cells to develop. Where it is very
essential to use an intermittent weld the spacing should not be greater than 14 x the thinner
plate thickness in the joint, and the spacing should not exceed 180 mm or about 7 inches.
4.13 Design of Tubular Connections

In structural construction use of tubular members is common practice. They are used in
construction of trusses, space frames for bridges, dwellings, commercial buildings, indus-
trial buildings, they are also extensively used for the construction of offshore structures.
The advantages of using tubular members includes the rigidity, that resists the deflection.
The joining of tubulars requires different approach towards weld design.
There are several advantage of using tubular members for structural fabrication, for
example to make a branch connection a hole need not be cut, this one aspect of the con-
struction gives additional strength to the structure, and due to this very special condition
the weld has to be made from one side only, requiring quality for strength demanded of
the structure. These Complete penetration joints (CJP) also require more skilled welders to
accomplish the desired quality of welds. The strength of tubular members allows the use of
relatively thinner wall tubes, this also puts the skill of fitters to cut and prepare the edges to
properly abut against the main member to be welded. Thus, the use of tubular construction
puts special emphasis on the importance on how to design these welds.
There are various combinations of joint configurations that are commonly used to meet most
of the structural design requirements. This includes designing branch connections by weld-
ing to support type load bearing, or bracing structural members. The tubular members can be
round tubes or they may be with squire and rectangular cross-sections, often referred as Hollow
Structural Steel (HSS). These sections are either drawn out of steel blocks, or they are transformed
out of steel strip into hollow structural sections (HSS), the HSS formation is the result of opera-
tions including forming, welding and sizing. The steel strip methods use welding two half of the
section either by electric resistance welding (ERW) or submerged arc welding (SAW) process.
Both ERW and HFW methods meet ASTM A 500 and CSA G-40.21 requirements for
the manufacture of HSS, and the SAW method is not included as a manufacturing process
in the ASTM or CSA specification. SAW sizes listed in this publication can be specified to
meet desired physical and dimensional criteria of ASTM A500 and CSA G-40.21. Note that
SAW process is mostly used for very thick wall thicknesses to be welded, so they are very
specific sections. All three welded process are briefly described below.
Electric Resistance Welding (ERW) Process for making tubes In the tube mill, follow the
following steps to manufacture flat steel strip is formed continuously around its longitudinal
axis to produce a round tube. This is done by moving the strip through a progressive set of
rolls, ranging from 2 to 6 rolls.
The strip edges are heated by either high frequency induction or contact welding and
then forged together by weld rolls to create a continuous longitudinal weld without the
addition of filler metal. The weld seam is then cooled and processed through a set of sizing
and shaping rolls which cold-form it into a round, square, or a rectangular section.
The second approach produces only square or rectangular section tubes. In this method,
there is a set of forming dies, that progressively shape the flat strip by forming the top half
section of the square or rectangular tube in the initial forming station. Subsequent stations
form the bottom half of the shape. There is no cold working of the sides of the shape in this
process. The shape’s seam is welded by high-frequency (HFW) contacts when the tube is
near its final shape and size. The welded tube is cooled and then driven through a series of
sizing stations which qualifies the tube’s final dimensions
In the Submerged Arc Weld (SAW) process of tube making, two identical pieces of flat
strip are placed in a press brake and formed into two identical halves of a finished tube size.
A backup bar is tack welded to each leg of one of the half-sections. The two half sections are
fitted together toe-to-toe, and welded by the submerged arc process to complete the square
or rectangular section.
Figure 4.15 below, contains several sketches that indicate types of connections with tubu-
lar members.
tb
tb
If build-up is
ω required Root face or
ω
Ø inside bevel
option Ψ
Ψ Ø
R Back-up weld w
Theoretical weld
T
L
T
(C)
(A)
tb
tb Ψ >90°
ω
Root face
Ø
Ψ ≤90° 0 to 1.6 mm
ω
R
R Ø
T
T
(B)
Figure 4.15 Welded tubular connections, T, K, and Y and nomenclature, tb inserted within the figure is the
description of joint parameters, its variation for Box and Circular sections. (Continued)
R Ø
T
T
(B)
tb
Ψ and Ø
Back-up weld
from outside
w
Theoretical
weld (T)
(D)
Transition from (c) to (d) tb
Variable Ψ
w Ø
Back-up weld
from outside
T
Figure 4.15 (Continued) Welded tubular connections, T, K, and Y and nomenclature, inserted within the
figure is the description of joint parameters, its variation for Box and Circular sections.
4.13.1 Weld Joint Design

The difference in fitting a tubular member or a brace for welding creates a unique challenge,
due to the contouring of the main member which is also a tubular. This contouring is fur-
ther complicated if the members are joint at an angle, other than being perpendicular, in
which case it will be termed as “T” joint, a tolerance of +/- 10o is allowed for the perpen-
dicularity of joints. More information is available in paragraphs 4.9.5 for the description of
skewed joints and the tolerance for perpendicularity of the “T” joints.
Other skewed joints are termed as “K” and “Y” joints as their configuration appears simi-
lar to the letters used to describe them. Together such weld joint configurations are referred
as “TKY” joints. With tubes shape as either round or box shape (square or rectangular), and
the branch members may be of smaller size. Such situation creates a joint angle between
the adjacent outside tube or their tangents in plane perpendicular to the joint, - local dihe-
dral angle – can vary around the joint from about 150o to 30o. This changing angle is to be
addressed by proper design approach and welding procedures. These joints are shown in
Figure 4.15.1 where the T joints are shown in sketch marked as T, Y-joints are marked Y,
and K-joints are appropriately marked Y.
Tubular joints are often accessible for welding only from one side, that is from external
side only, this results in weld design is single groove welds, or fillet welds. The groove welds
may be designed as CJP or PJP welds depending on the load on the members, and result-
ing stress on welds. Most favored welding processes for joining (CJP) tubular members in
structural construction is with are shielded metal arc welding (SMAW), gas metal arc weld-
ing (GMAW) and its variants, and flux core arc welding (FCAW). The Table 4.10 below
shows the joint design for complete joint penetration (CJP) groove welds in simple T,K,Y
tubular connections using SMAW, GMAW and FCAW processes. The sections of circular
and box connections to which the groove designs apply are shown in figures A and B, respec-
tively. The specified root opening designated with letter R or the width of a back-up weld W,
in the table depends on what welding process is used, and also the groove angle of the joint.
Parameter Circular sections Box sections

β rb/R b/D
η - ax/D
Refer sketch B above
γ R/tc D/2tc
τ tb/tc tb/tc
Θ Angle between centerlines of members
Ψ At given point on weld, the local dihedral angle
Heal
al n er
He Corner Cor
b al
He
Side ax Side
Branch Side ax Branch
Member Member
Toe Toe Toe
Corner
Main Member Main Member
1 - Circular Sections 2 - Box Sections
T-Connection Y-Connection
Angel limit on Tzone 90°

‘T’ configuration θ
±10°
10° Side zone

>10°
10°
Figure 4.15.1 (Continued)

K-Connection TKY Connections
Deviations from Concentric Connections

Overlap
Positive
eccentricity
Offset
Gap
Through
Member
Simple Tubular Connections Complex Reinforced Connections
Interior Stoffening ring

Joint diaphrams from outside
Can
Gusset
Compressing Load
Figure 4.15.1 (Continued) (Continued)

Flared & Transitioned Connections
Transition Transition
Matched Stepped
Box Section Connection
yb
tb tb
Weld
tc
tc C
R
D D
Geometric Parameters
Figure 4.15.1 (Continued)

86
Table 4.10 CJP joints designed for T-K-Y tubular structures.
(A) (B) (C) (D)
Ψ = 180o -135o Ψ = 150o -50o Ψ = 75o -30o Ψ = 37.5o -15o
Weld edge
Preparation
(ω)
Maximum 90o 90o As needed to achieve
the required Ф
Designing Weldments
Minimum 45o 10o or 45o for Ψ > 105o 10o

Root opening FCAW-S, SMAW GMAW-S, FCAW-S, GMAW-S, FCAW-S, SMAW W max* Ф
or Fit-up FCAW-G SMAW FCAW-G see note,
specifics (R)
0.125 inch, 22.5o –
(3.2 mm), 37.5o
0.188 inch 15o –
(5mm) 20.5o
Maximum 0.188 – inch (5 mm) 0.188 – inch 0.25 – inch 0.25 – inch (6 GMAW -S, FCAW-G 0.188 inch 30o –
(5 mm) (6 mm) mm) for Ф (5mm 37.5o
> 45o and
0.32 inch 0.25 – inch 25o – 30o
(8 mm) for (6 mm)
Ф ≤ 45o 0.375 inch 20o – 25o
(10 mm)
Minimum 0.0624 – inch (1.6 mm) 0.0624 – inch 0.0624 – inch 0.0624 – inch 0.5 -inch 15o – 20o
No minimum for (1.6 mm) No (1.6 mm) (1.6 mm) (12.7 mm)
Ф > 90o minimum for
Ф > 120o
(Continued)
Table 4.10 CJP joints designed for T-K-Y tubular structures. (Continued)
(A) (B) (C) (D)
Ψ = 180o -135o Ψ = 150o -50o Ψ = 75o -30o Ψ = 37.5o -15o
Joint included
angle Ф
Maximum 60o for Ψ ≤ 105o 37.5o if more, use
design in column
(B)
Minimum 37.5o if less then choose details in 0.5 Ψ
column C
Completed
Weld
T ≥ tb ≥ t for Ψ > 90o ≥ t/sin Ψ but need not ≥ 2tb
≥ t/sinΨfor Ψ ≤ 90o exceed 1.75 t, weld
L ≥ t/sinΨ but need not exceed 1.75t may be built-up
to meet this
requirement.
A B C D
*Reference figures A, B, C or D as indicated in the columns
**Initial passes of back weld is discounted, unless the width of the groove (W) is sufficient to assure sound welding, the required width of weld groove (W) is provided
by the backup weld.
Design of Welds and Weldments
87
For the partial penetration joints the groove weld design for the circular and box are
shown in the Figure 4.16 below, note the designation of parts of the weld and their nomen-
clature, in Figure 4.17.
As in any other tubular members, in the box weld connections the members may be of
different sizes, and the branch connections may be fit on a face of the main member or they
may be of the same size. The weld configurations would vary because of the size differences.
The joint design to weld the sides are different. The same size members are joint in a differ-
ent fit-up design as is shown in the Figure 4.18 below, where required weld dimensions are
shown in relation to the corner radius of the main member.
Where the weld is designed with root gap, use of Z allowance is strongly recommended.
Z loss is not caused by root gap alone, it may be necessary due to the possible gap arising
from the fitting challenges, that must be kept in mind when designing such welds. The Z
allowances are varied, according to some welding variables, those variable include weld
groove angles, welding positions, and welding process, the Z-loss Table 4.5 considers these
variables in listing required Z-loss values.
4.13.2 Uneven Distribution of Load
The balancing of load is an important aspect of designing, however that is not always possible,
for example if under the load the main member bends - even within its design limits – putting
extra stress on the welds. Some yielding and redistribution of load would take place within the
structure. The weld joint will have to take such unbalanced load condition in design the joint.
To address this situation welds like T, K, and, Y as shown in Figure 4.15 must be designed to
withstand at their ultimate tensile strength of developing the following as a minimum.
• The yield strength of the branch member
• Ultimate punching shear strength of the shear area of the main member.
Z E
E Z
E
60°min 45°min
45°min
1 to 1.5t 1 to 1.5t 1 to 1.5t

Ψ > 105° 105° > Ψ > 90° 90° > Ψ > 75°
1t
o1
1t .5t
o1
.5t E
E
Ψ Z
45°min Z
Ø
Sketch for Angular 1 to 1.5t

Definition 1 to 1.5t min Varies min
150° ≥ Ψ ≥ 30° Transition 60° > Ψ > 30°
90° > Ø ≥ 30° Heel
Figure 4.16 Joint design for PJP groove weld in simple T, K, and Y tubular connections.
Ψ
Toe Heel
Side Transition
Circular Connection
Toe Heel
Corner Corner
transition Side transition
Box Connection
Figure 4.17 Applicable location of PJP groove weld design.
The Figure 4.19 shows the location of these in graphical manner, and described below
with mathematical relationship of shear stress per unit area, of the members.
The calculation is best addressed by using the unit force to the weld.
The Figure 4.19a shows the breaking strength. The ultimate breaking strength for of
a fillet or a PJP groove weld is determined by multiplying a constant K to welding-wire/
electrode UTS used to make the weld.
• For welding wire/electrode of 60ksi or 70 ksi specified UTS, the value of K is,
K = 2.67.
• For welding wire/Electrode of higher strength the value of K the constant = 2.2
The unit force on the weld from the brace member at the yield strength is calculated as;
f1 = σy tb
where,
f1 = unit force, lb/in
σy = yield strength of the brace material, psi,
tb = thickness of the brace, inch
tb
Corner Radius ≥2tb
1 to 1.5 / 2tb minimum

or as required to flush two faces
(whichever is less to be used)
tc
Side
Figure 4.18 Weld set up for same size members.
Fw tb
f1
Weld
(a) (b)
f2 f2
f3 =
sin θ
θ
f2 θ
w Weld
t R
Unit Length of Weld
(c)
Figure 4.19 Load on the tubular welded connections.
The ultimate shear strength of the main member shear area at the failure is determined
as the following. The area and applied forces are shown in the Figure 4.19c.
f2 = 1.8 τa t
where,
f2 = ultimate unit shear normal to the weld, , lb/in
τa = allowable shear stress, psi,
t = thickness of the main member, inch
The unit shear force per inch on weld f3 is determined as following, where Ѳ is the angle
between the axes of the two members making the joint.
f3 = f2 / sin Ѳ
or
1.8 τa t / sin Ѳ
4.13.3 Collapse
The strength of the connection among other factors, also depends on the general collapse.
The strength and the stability of the main member in a tubular connections must be ana-
lyzed using suitable software to meet the specific requirements of the code of construction.
If the thickness of the main member is capable of withstanding the punching shear stress,
and this thickness is extended beyond the branch member to a distance equal or greater
than 0.25 times the diameter of the main member, then general collapse should not be an
issue of concern.
4.13.4 Lamellar Tear and Lamination

The lamination in steel is a manufacturing anomaly amounting to a defect, while the lamellar
tearing of a metal is due to the stress that may or may not be associated with any material defect,
like lamination. Both these conditions require understanding for the integrity of the welded
structure, and draws attention of the weld designers. Lamination, which is a preexisting weak-
ness in the metal, as a defect of the metal caused during its production. And lamellar tearing is a
crack caused by increasing stress that exceeds materials through thickness strength.
In tubular connections, where the branch member is welded to the outside surface of the
main member the capacity to transmit through thickness stress is a desired, and essential
property of the metal. This property allows the transfer of stress, without failure. Cracks
parallel to the tube surface open up in the metal due to the high localized and thermal stress
caused by welding, often occurring at the restrained corners, and T-joints. Such defects if
caused, in a weldment may result in serious structural failures.
Welding design should consider possibility of such occurrences and modify their design
approach suitably, making the weld more suited to prevent such buildup of local stresses. To
support the design aspect following additional steps should be taken.
• Procure steel from reputed steel mill that uses clean steel making process,
• The steel is tested for through thickness strength,
• Welding procedures should be developed,
• Avoid over-welding
• Follow a welding plan, with sequenced welding.
Note that these steps are only as support to a proper design that would not stress the
steel under the weld. In components where lamellar tearing might be an issue, the design
approach should be to reduce shrinkage stress and promote maximum component flexibility.
At the design level following steps could be taken,
• Reduce or best still. Eliminate joint restrains.
• On T and corner joints, Bevel the through thickness stress member,
• Size of the weld groove should be kept to the minimum,
• Consider pre fabricating subassemblies involving T-joints, as far as possible

the final assembly should be a Butt-joint. This will reduce through thickness
stress buildup.
• Avoid using high strength weld metal, while keeping consistency with the
designed strength level.
• Buttering with the low strength (ductile) weld-metal, prior to joint welding,
peening, should be considered to reduce stress on the through thickness
strength of the member.
In critical areas where through thickness strength is a concern, apart from specifying suitable
material, and use of good welding technique, inspection by ultrasonic method must be specified.
Designer should also consider establishing defect acceptance criteria, and on the defect repair
policy, where minor defects could be left unrepaired to avoid causing more weld and thermal
stresses, leading to through thickness stress and lamellar tearing. If repair is extremely essential, a
low heat input welding procedure should be used to minimize further damage to the weldment.
4.13.5 Fatigue
Fatigue is the initiation and propagation of cracks in a material due to cyclic loading. Once
a fatigue crack has initiated, it grows a small amount with each loading cycle, typically pro-
ducing striations on fracture face. These cracks continue to grow until it reaches to a critical
size, which occurs when the stress intensity factor often denoted with letter K, exceeds the
fracture toughness of the material, at this point a rapid acceleration in crack propagation
occurs, leading to the fracture of the structure, this last phase often results in a sudden failure.
In the tubular structure weld design, that is subject to cyclic loading is addressed in sim-
ilar manner as the non-tubular structures, and further from that, specific construction code
requirements must be followed. In most of the construction, at least in USA, AWS D1.1 and API
RP 2A are the codes to follow. The section 4.14, Table 4.11, and Figure 4.21 below describe the
cyclic loading design and stress categories associated with cyclic loaded welds in any structure.
Total cyclic fatigue stress range for a given service life of the structure and weld can be
determined and various graphs have been developed to show that range of cyclic cycles.
Figure 4.20 below shows a modified stress diagram for a Quenched and Tempered steel, CJP
singe V-groove weld in as welded condition in 500,000 to 2,000,000 cycles.
In this graph, the vertical axis represents the maximum stress, σmax, and the horizontal axis rep-
resents the minimum stress σmin, which is either positive or negative. A static load is represented
by the 45o line to the right and is marked K = +1.0, and a complete reversal by the 45o line to the
left and marked K = -1.0. The region to the right of the vertical line K = 0, represents minimum
tensile stress. The region to the left represents compressive minimum stress. The allowable cyclic
stress levels for weld-metals of 60ksi, 70 ksi, 100 ksi, and 120 ksi, strength are plotted on the graph.
The fatigue behavior can be improved by actions listed below, one or a combination of
these actions can be employed to improve.
• The capping layer of the weld can be added to provide a smooth contour, and
transition at the toe of the weld.
• The weld face can be ground in the transverse direction of the weld axis.
• Toe of the weld may be peened with a blunt chisel, to cause local plastic
deformation, and relive stress and smooth the tension between the weld and
the base metal.
60 ksi
60
Q & T ASTM-A 514 Type E110 Welds
Steel
E100 Welds 54 Ksi
50
Maximum Stress σmax K = 0 Ksi

40
Low alloy structural steel (Typ ASTM-A441)

Mn, alloy – HSLA
30 30 Ksi
E70 Welds
Structural steel (Typ. ASTM A 36 steel)
22 Ksi
20 E60 OR E-70
Welds
Re
ve 10
rsa
= d,
K Loa
l, K
1.0
=
ic
-1
at
.0
St
0
-20 -10 10 20 30 40 50 60
Minimum stress, Ksi
Figure 4.20 Impact of cyclic loading on the strength of steel and weld metal.
4.14 Design for Cyclic Loading

When metals are subjected to cyclic tensile or alternating tensile-compression stress, they
may fail by fatigue. The performance of the weld under cyclic loading is an important con-
sideration in structural design, it also applies to machine design that is under similar stresses.
American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC) https://www.aisc.org, American
Railroad Engineers Association (AREA) https://www.arema.org, and American Association
of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) https://www.transportation.org
have published data, and developed specifications relating to this subject. And these valu-
able data and specifications must be referenced as applicable, while designing any structure.
Normally a sound weld metal should have same fatigue strength as the parent metal,
but we know is that (1) weld metals are not sound and homogenous throughout. (2) any
changes in the cross section can adversely affect the strength of weld metal, this includes for
a full penetration weld a change in reinforcement, undercuts, incomplete fusion, or incom-
plete penetration cracks, etc., that work as a notch, and as the stress risers for the fatigue. All
these conditions are detrimental to the structures; fatigue life.
The very nature of the fillet weld provides an abrupt change in transition of stress, or is a
concentrator of stress, hence a stress riser, this limits the fatigue life of the structures at the
fillet welds. Any weld anomalies (Defects) increases that probability.
Figure 4.21 illustrates various types of weld joints and assigned fatigue categories.
The Figure 4.21 contains number of different types of sketches, they show how various
joints and conditions of weld and metals, that are subject to various stresses. Linked with
this Figure 4.21 is the Table 4.11 which gives the suggested allowable fatigue stress range for
all six categories of weld joints from letter A to F in the table.
Legend for the Figure 4.21:
• Letters A to H-1 in Circle are the sketch identifier, as Figure 4.21 sketches A
through X followed by A-1 to H-1.
• Stress location: Is the part of the structure were the specific stress is. For
example, it can be in the weld (W), or in the parent metal (M), or in both.
This is described on the sketch itself.
• Letters, used and their meaning;
M = Metal
W = Weld
S = Shear stress
T = Tensile stress
R = Reversal of the tensile stress (Causing fatigue)
• Curved arrows indicate the region of applicable fatigue allowances.
• Streight arrow(s) indicate applied forces,
• Slopes are 1 inch in 2.5 inch, and are indicated on the sketch.
• Grinding (of welds) is in the direction of stressing.
(A)
Stress Location: (M) Metal

Stress Type:
• Tension - T
• Reversal - R
Stress Category - A
Table 4.11
(B)
Stress Location: M and W
Stress Type:
• Tension - T
• Reversal - R
Stress Category - B
We Table 4.11
ld ed
Bea
m
Figure 4.21 Fatigue categories. (Continued)

Stress Location: M&W
(C) Stress Type:

Both We • Tension - T
lds
Not grou
nd flush • Reversal - R
No UT or
RT Stress Category - C Table 4.11
1i This weld
n2
½
tap
er
Stress Location: M & W

Stress Type:
• Tension - T
• Reversal - R
Stress Category - B Table 4.11
(D)
Stress Location: M
Stress Type: T & R
Stress Category: C
Figure 4.21 (Continued) Fatigue categories. (Continued)

(E)
Stress Location: M
Stress Type: T & R
Stress Category: E
(F)
Stress in Metal (M)

Stress Type:
• Tension (T)
• Reversal (R)
Stress Category: E
Table 4.11

(G) Stress Location: M (Metal)

Stress Type: Tension (T) & Reversal (R)
Stress Category: A Table 4.11
(H) Stress Location: Metal & Weld (M & W)

Stress Type: T & R
Stress Category:
Groud flush & NDE Weld – B
As-Welded & NDE Weld – C
C – Ground flush
NDE

(I) Stress in Metal & Weld (M & W)

Stress Type: Tension & Reversal (T & R)
Stress Category:
• As welded no NDE–C
• Weld Ground flush and NDE–B
Table 4.11
Slope: 1:2.5
(J) Stress in Metal & Weld (M & W)

Stress Category:
• As welded with cut NDE–C
• Weld Ground flush and NDE–B
Table 4.11
Slope: 1:2.5
(K) Stress in Weld only (W)

Stress Category – F
Table 4.11
n
tio
etra
en
alP
rti
Pa ld
W e
(L) Stress in Metal & Weld (M & W)

Stress Category –B
Full or Table 4.11
Partial penetration
Weld.

(M) Stress in Weld. (W)

Stress Type: Shear (S)
Table 4.11
Par
tial
Pen
We etra
ld tio
n
(N) Stress in Metal (M)

Stress Type: Tension & Reversal
(T & R)
Table 4.11
(O) Stress in Metal

Stress type: Tension & Reversal
(T & R)
Stress Category: E
a
b Transition Radius ≤ 2”
a < 4” or 12b
(Q)(P) Stress in Metal

Stress in Metal
Stress type:
Stress Tension
type: Tension& Reversal
& Reversal
Stress Category:
(T &C R)
Stress Category: E
Fillet Weld
Plug or Slot
Weld
(R) Stress in Metal
Figure 4.21 (Continued) FatigueStress type: Shear (S)
categories. (Continued)
Stress Category: F
Shear
attachments
a < 4” or 12b
(Q) Stress in Metal

(T & R)
Stress Category: E
(P) Stress in Metal
Stress Category: C
Fillet Weld
Plug or Slot
Weld
(R) Stress in Metal

Stress type: Shear (S)
Stress Category: F
Shear
attachments
(S) Plug & Slot
Stress in Metal
Stress type: Tension & Reversal (T & R)
Stress Category: F
(T)
Stress in Weld & Metal
Stress Category: D
Double
Bevel
Groove &
Fillet
Weld

(U) Stress in Metal

Stress Category: C (see box)
R ≥ 24” B
24” > R ≥ 6” C
6” > R ≥ 2” D
Stress
R value
Cat.
Parallel fillet welds
Termination ground
flush to a radius (R)
(V)
Stress in Metal
Stress type: (T & R)
Stress Category: E
Fillet Welds
(W) Stress in Metal (see table)

Stress
Stress Category: See table Radius
Cat.
≥ 24” B
24” ≥ 6” C
Longitudinal 6” > R ≥ 2” D
Groove Weld
Metal Stress
T&R
Radius Categoryu E
R ≤ 2”
(X) Stress in Metal

(T & R)
Stress Category: E

(A-1) Stress in Weld (W)

Stress Category (F)
(B-1)
Stress in Weld (W)
Stress Category (F)
(C-1) Stress in Weld (W)

Stress Category: (F)
(D-1)
Stress in Weld (W)

Stress in Weld (W)

(E-1) Stress Type: Shear (S)
(F-1)
Stress in Metal & Weld (M & W)

Stress Category: (B)
(G-1) Stress in Metal (M)

note, stress points at weld ends
Stress Category (E)
(H-1)
Stress in Metal (M)
Stress Type: Tension &
Reversal (T & R)
Stress Category (E)
Figure 4.21 (Continued) Fatigue categories.

Table 4.11 Suggested allowable stress range in steel weldments.

Allowable fatigue stress range in steel weldments
Fatigue life range (in hours)
20,000 to 100,000 to 500,000 to Over 2,000,000
100,000 500,000 2,000,000
Stress
category Stress range, ksi Type of stress
A 60 16 24 24 Normal, σsr
B 45 27.5 18 16
C 32 19 13 10
12
at the toe of weld
on girders webs
or flanges.
D 27 16 10 7
E 21 12.5 8 5
F 15 12 9 8 Shear, τsr
Stress rage is defined as, the magnitude of the change in stress that occurs with the appli-
cation or removal of the cyclic load that causes the tensile stress, or a reversal of that stress.
Note that, loads that cause only changes in magnitude of compression stress do not cause
fatigue.
The data in the Table 4.11 applies to all steels that have yield strength equal to or
exceeding 36 ksi, to 100 ksi, and steel weldment with tensile strength from 60 ksi to 129
ksi.
Let us understand the Figure 4.21, the figure has 32 types of weld joints, showing various
fatigue stress categories. In the figure each sketch has letter designations to the bottom-
right, indicating various stress applied to that specific weld-joint sketch. Where letters M
and W indicate whether the allowable stress range applies to the base-metal (M), or to the
weld-metal (W) or if both letters are used in a particular sketch for both the base-metal and
the weld-metal. More details of the letters used and their meaning is given in the legend
below the figure.
In every case, the allowable stress is restricted to the allowable static stress of base-metal,
weld-metal or both. For calculations fatigue formula is used to reduce the allowable stress
caused by the cyclic loading. When the value of K is high, where K is the ratio of two
stresses, maximum calculated stress may exceed the allowable static stress, if such situation
is encountered, the design is controlled by the allowable static stress.
In the sketch B of Figure 4.21 which has a beam fabricated by welding the web to two
flanges. The full penetration single grove weld joins the web to two flanges. The fatigue
stress category assigned is category B, in the base metal of the welded member in bending
is really determined by the welds parallel to the direction of the applied stress. This because
the discontinuities within, or surface ripples would be the sites to initiate fatigue cracks.
If stiffeners as used as shown in sketch-D, to reinforce the structural shape, the allowable
fatigue stress in the connected material is the calculated stress at the termination of the
weld or adjacent to the weld. This is because the weld ends are the stress risers. This stress is
assigned category C reducing the fatigue life range.
If intermittent welds are used, that are parallel to the direction of stress, then the allow-
able fatigue stress range in the plate adjacent to the termination of the weld is assigned even
lower stress category E, this is shown in sketch GG.
The allowable fatigue conditions for a PJP groove weld can be determined by the help
of sketches K. L, and M of Figure 4.21. And similar approach can be taken to determine
allowable fatigue stress for any member that is attached with transvers welds, as is shown
in sketches N, and O, note that the stress category assigned to these transvers welds E, and
that stress rises with the rising length of the transvers weld. Conversely, the allowable stress
decreases as the of the transvers weld increases.
The static strength of a fillet weld loaded transversely is about 33% stronger than the
fillet weld loaded axially. But the allowable fatigue stress range for parallel and transversely
loaded fillet weld is the same, and assigned same fatigue stress category F compare loading
directions shown for sketches B-1, and E-1.
In design, complexities may arise from the cases of obliquely loaded welds. Although
transverse fillet-weld T-joints may have slightly lower fatigue strength than a transverse
fillet-welded lap joint (for reference, compare sketch E-1 to Sketch D-1) both are assigned
fatigue stress category F, because of stress concentration at the root of welds.
4.14.1 Improving Fatigue Performance of Welds, and Evaluation of S-N

Curves for Design
In Figure 4.21 above, one will note that the stress category is improved where the weld has
been ground flush. Flush-grinding of a butt weld is an established method for improving
weld’s fatigue performance. A good planned and executed flush-grinding proses will elim-
inate the stress concentration points created by the weld profile, and remove the inherent
weld toe flaws from which fatigue cracks typically initiate, and propagate.
As a result, a fatigue performance is achieved, that is far superior to that is typically
assigned to conventional structural welds in the as-welded condition is expected, see and
compare sketches H, I, and J in Figure 4.21 above, where the stress category is B, versus the
stress category C, for the same weld if it is not ground flush.
Normally, the fatigue designs are governed by various standards or codes, and standard
data is provided, and normally these fatigue test data is not based on from flush-ground
girth welds, but on data for joints between flat plates, much of these data is very old, and the
welding procedures, type of consumables have significantly changed since they were first
adopted.
To design any fatigue sensitive welds, it is recommended that the design engineering
team consider tests to develop specific S-N curve based on the structure specific material,
and welding procedure. This is especially true in case of highly fatigue sensitive off shore
structures and any other structure that is similarly stressed. The tubular structures benefit
from the data from flush-ground girth welds in steel pipes, that are available now. This
allows the structural analysis and re-evaluation of the design S-N curve(s) for such welds
on the basis of relevant experimental data.
The design should be based on fatigue tests on full-scale flush-ground girth welded
pipes, in order to include the proper effects of size and residual stresses. However, it is too
expensive and, in some cases, impractical to conduct such tests. Only data available on the
public domain is from Wirsching et al. 1995 and Salama, 1999.
Traditionally small specimens have been used to assess the fatigue performance of large
components after appropriate consideration of the differences between the two. The test
data from strip specimens of flush ground welds in steel pipes, are used to re-evaluate the
design S-N curves. The prevalent fatigue design curves for girth welded pipes are tradition-
ally based on plate specimen data.
To assess the effect of embedded flaws on fatigue performance, fatigue data from flush-
ground welds with reportable defects are investigated to develop data. The test data were
compared with acceptance criteria that are currently used (BS 7910, 1999; ASME, 1993) to
determine the actual maximum acceptable flaw size for a designated classification. The abil-
ity of relevant NDT methods to detect them reliably was also examined. The recommended
S-N curves for flush ground welds with the material thickness corrections should be used.
The plate specimen tests, show the presence of flaws which are too small for reliable detec-
tion using the current NDT methods, but they could be of sufficient size to reduce the fatigue
strength of the joint. Therefore, it is necessary to examine the defect acceptance criteria for flush-
ground welds using data from girth welds, particularly for embedded defects, this is because the
imbedded defects become the weak link in the fatigue performance. In this regards it is import-
ant to assess the minimum defect sizes against the detectability of the NDT methods used.
Several research bodies have developed their data and curves, that includes DNV, AWS
and the TWI in UK.
TWI in UK has been involved in fatigue testing of flush-ground welded pipes for their
clients, that included API 5L X60 grade of steel pipes that had 609 mm diameter with wall
thickness of 21.4 mm for tendons, and API 5L X 80 pipes for risers. All weld root and caps
were ground flush with the pipe surfaces after welding. Comprehensive NDT examinations
was conducted, that included examination by Radiography, Ultrasonic and Magnetic parti-
cle testing, none of the methods reveal any defects.
Six girth welds in the two tendon specimens and another girth welds in the three riser
specimens were fatigue tested under tension-tension axial loading at a mean stress of ~
175 MPa and 125 MPa, respectively. All the tests gave run-outs with no evidence of fatigue
cracking in any of the welds. These results are reported in TWIs HSE report© in 2003, ISBN
0 7176 2184 7.
The results are more appropriate for fatigue design for flush-ground welds. However,
results of earlier tests Wirsching et al 1995 and Salama 1999 should be taken with due cau-
tion especially in critical applications where the stress category is higher.
Similar, tests are conducted and design curves have been developed by other bodies, and
depending on the type of design code they should be selected and used.
4.14.1.1 Typical Weld Flushing Plan

A well planned flush grinding procedure could be somewhat as described in the following
for a very fatigue sensitive weld joint.
The full circumference of the weld cap should be completely ground flushed using power
sanding disk of 60 grit or finer in such a way that there is no more than 0.0312 inch (0.8 mm)
weld reinforcement remaining. All evidence of undercut or weld toes should be removed.
Flapping of the parent material should be kept to a minimum, where required to ensure
a smooth transition between weld toe and parent material. The transition from ground
regions of weld into the base metal must be contoured in a way that stress concentration
effects are minimized. Ground surfaces, particularly weld toes, should not have less than 3
inches (76.2 mm) on the circumference of the pipe. The slope of the transition into the base
metal from ground regions should be better than 1 in 4. Base metal surfaces within 0.5 inch
of the weld cap should also be ground flush, taking care to minimize the extent of flushing
to the adjacent parent material within a target maximum distance of up to 2 inches.
Sanding movement should in the circumferential direction, resulting in the sanding
marks are in the parallel to the longitudinal axis of the pipe, or deviate from longitudinal
axis and should not be more than 45o.
Surfaces that do not meet Verification of achieved smoothness of weld flush grinding can
be made using surface comparators. A surface comparator may be used to compare flapped
surfaces to the gauge finish surface, and control that roughness does not exceed 125 RMS.
The minimum finish requirement can be lightly flapped again with a 60 grit flapping disc
with minimum metal removal, and re-compared. Utmost care should be taken to keep the
weld metal as flush as possible to the surface of the pipe.
While doing all the above, care should be taken to maintain and retain the remaining
wall thickness of the pipe. Well within, or above the minimum acceptable wall thickness
limits as specified in the design documents and the qualified welding procedures, to meet
the load requirement.
4.15 Aluminum
Steel is the primary material for any structural construction, aluminum is sued for con-
struction of such structures that have relatively very low loading. Steel is often considered
the ‘default’ metal to for structural construction, and therefore for welding, and its design.
The use of aluminum for lighter structural members with relatively lower loads is often
the case, aluminum is also used for smaller components that do not have heavy loading,
and reduce the weight of the overall structure. There could be number of reasons to use
aluminum to select it as the material of construction.
Like steel aluminum is not one single metal, they can be wrought or in cast forms.
Aluminum has number of alloys, and these alloys are available in varying strength levels,
they are also strengthened by heat treatments, aging and also a combination of the two
methods. Knowledge of these different grades of materials is an essential part of being a
good designer, and this applies to aluminum also.
The above, underscores the importance of understanding the availability of aluminum in
the market for construction, fabrication and welding. The designer should familiarize with
and take advantages of the lightweight aluminum by selecting available structural forma
Table 4.12 Aluminum alloy designation system.

Alloy Grade, primary Secondary alloying Weldability and heat
designation alloying element element treatment
1xxx 99.000% Pure Weldable and requires no
Aluminum PWHT
2xxx Copper Magnesium may be Weldable and PWHT

added. required
3xxx Silicon, Copper and Weldable and PWHT not
Manganese required
4xxx Silicon Weldable and PWHT not
required
5xxx Magnesium Weldable and PWHT not
required
6xxx Magnesium Silicon Weldable and PWHT is
required
7xxx Zinc Copper and Weldable and PWHT is
magnesium may be required
added
8xxx Tin
9xxx All other alloys Weldability and heat
treatment to be determined
and shapes into their designs. This involves gaining the knowledge of various grades of
aluminum, and how they are universally identified.
4.15.1 Aluminum Alloys and Their Characteristics

There are seven series of wrought aluminum alloys, and as a welder, or a welding engineer,
or manager of aluminum fabrication, it is imperative to know these alloys and their differ-
ences and understand their applications and characteristics.
4.15.1.1 Aluminum Alloys Series 1xxx

Aluminum in 1xxx grade classification is non-heat treatable, their ultimate tensile strength
varies from 10 to 27 ksi, this series is often referred to as the pure aluminum series because
it is required to have 99.0% minimum aluminum. They are weldable. However, because of
their narrow melting range, they require certain considerations in order to produce accept-
able welding procedures. When considered for fabrication, these alloys are selected primar-
ily for their superior corrosion resistance such as in specialized chemical tanks and piping,
or for their excellent electrical conductivity as in bus bar applications. These alloys have rel-
atively poor mechanical properties and would seldom be considered for general structural
applications. These base alloys are often welded with matching filler material or with 4xxx
filler alloys dependent on application and performance requirements.
4.15.1.2 Aluminum Alloy Series 2xxx

Aluminum under 2xxx classification is heat treatable, and their ultimate tensile strength
ranges from 27 to 62 ksi.
These grades are alloys of aluminum and copper where copper is added ranging from
0.7 to 6.8%, these are high strength aluminum alloys, higher strength makes these grades
most useful for aerospace and aircraft applications. They have excellent strength over a
wide range of temperature. Some of these 2xxx grade aluminum alloys are considered non-
weldable by the arc welding processes, because of their susceptibility to hot cracking and
stress corrosion cracking. However, others are successfully arc welded, with the correct
welding procedures. These base materials are often welded with high strength 2xxx series
filler alloys designed to match their performance, but can sometimes be welded with the
4xxx series fillers containing silicon or silicon and copper, dependent on the application
and service requirements.

Alloys in the 3xxx series are non-heat treatable, their ultimate tensile strength is relatively low
ranging from 16 to 41 ksi. These are aluminum, manganese alloys, where the added manga-
nese is between 0.05 to 1.8%. The alloy has moderate strength, but it has very good corrosion
resistance, good formability, and are suited for use at elevated temperatures. They are com-
monly used for manufacture of cooking utensils, but in the industrial sector they are used, for
the equipment where heat is a factor, such as the heat exchangers in vehicles and power plants.
Their moderate strength, however, often precludes their consideration for structural applica-
tions. These base alloys are welded with 1xxx, 4xxx and 5xxx series filler alloys, dependent on
their specific chemistry and particular application and service requirements.

These aluminum alloys comprise of some heat treatable and some non-heat treatable grades.
Their ultimate tensile strength varies from 25 to 55 ksi. These are alloys of aluminum and
silicon, where the silicon additions range 0.6 to 21.5%.
As noted above the series consists of both heat treatable and non-heat treatable alloys.
The aluminum alloyed with the Silicon, reduces the melting point and improves its fluidity
when molten. These characteristics are desirable for filler materials used for both fusion
welding and brazing. Consequently, this series of alloys is predominantly found as filler
material. Silicon, independently in aluminum, is non-heat treatable; however, a number of
these silicon alloys have been designed to have additions of magnesium or copper, which
provides them with the ability to respond favorably to solution heat treatment. Typically,
these heat treatable filler alloys are used only when a welded component is to be subjected
to post weld heat treatments.

Aluminum alloys in 5xxx series are non-heat treatable, their ultimate tensile strength varies
from 18 to 51 ksi. Alloys of aluminum and magnesium where the alloying magnesium is
between 0.2 to 6.2%. The alloys in series have the highest strength of the non-heat treat-
able alloys. In addition, this alloy series is readily weldable, and for these reasons they are
used for a wide variety of applications such as shipbuilding, transportation, pressure ves-
sels, bridges and buildings. These magnesium-based aluminum alloys are often welded with
filler alloys, which are selected after consideration of the magnesium content of the base
material, and the application and service conditions of the welded component. Alloys in
this series with more than 3.0% magnesium are not recommended for elevated tempera-
ture service above 66oC (150o F) because of their potential for sensitization and subsequent
susceptibility to stress corrosion cracking. Base alloys with less than approximately 2.5%
magnesium are often welded successfully with the 5xxx or 4xxx series filler alloys. The base
alloy 5052 is generally recognized as the maximum magnesium content base alloy that can
be welded with a 4xxx series filler alloy. Because of problems associated with eutectic melt-
ing and associated poor as-welded mechanical properties, it is not recommended to weld
material in this alloy series, which contain higher amounts of magnesium with the 4xxx
series fillers. The higher magnesium base materials are only welded with 5xxx filler alloys,
which generally match the base alloy composition.

These alloys are heat treatable, and have the ultimate tensile strength between 18 to 58 ksi.
These aluminum magnesium and silicon alloys contain alloying element up to 1%. Often the
Silicon content is about 0.40 to 0.7 x actual magnesium content. Rest being the aluminum.
These alloys are widely used throughout the welding fabrication industry, predominantly in
the form of extrusions, and incorporated in many structural components. The addition of
magnesium and silicon to aluminum produces a compound of magnesium-silicide, which
provides this material its ability to become solution heat treated for improved strength. These
alloys are naturally solidification crack sensitive, and for this reason, they should not be arc
welded autogenously, that is, without filler material. The addition of adequate amounts of
filler material during the arc welding process is essential in order to provide dilution of the
base material, thereby preventing the hot cracking problem. They are welded with both 4xxx
and 5xxx filler materials, dependent on the application and service requirements.

These are heat treatable alloys. Their ultimate tensile strength ranges from 32 to 88 ksi.
The series is alloys of aluminum with 0.8 to 12.0% zinc. This makes these alloys one of the
highest strength aluminum alloys. These alloys are often used in high performance applica-
tions such as aircraft, aerospace, and competitive sporting equipment. Like the 2xxx series
of alloys, this series incorporates alloys which are considered unsuitable candidates for arc
welding, and others, which are often arc welded successfully. The commonly welded alloys
in this series, such as 7005, are predominantly welded with the 5xxx series filler alloys.
4.15.2 The Aluminum Alloy Temper and Designation System

Further from the 7 series of aluminum alloys discussed above, they are identified and desig-
nated by number system, that indicates their series, their specific heat treatment, and other
methods used to impart strength, and their hardening level to the specific alloy.
Since we are discussing about welding of aluminum and its various alloys, it is neces-
sary to learn how the material is designated and identified. The Aluminum Association
Inc. https://www.aluminum.org is registers, maintains, and allocate new designations to
aluminum alloys. It is estimated that there are over 400 wrought aluminum, and wrought
aluminum alloys and over 200 aluminum alloys in the form of castings and ingots regis-
tered with the Aluminum Association.
The alloy chemical composition limits for all of the registered alloys are contained in the
Aluminum Association’s two books.
(1) T
eal Book entitled “International Alloy Designations and Chemical
Composition Limits for Wrought Aluminum and Wrought Aluminum
Alloys” and
(2) The Pink Book entitled “Designations and Chemical Composition Limits
for Aluminum Alloys in the Form of Castings and Ingot”.
These two publications can be extremely useful to the welding engineer when developing
aluminum welding procedures, and when the consideration of chemistry and its associa-
tion with crack sensitivity is of importance.
Aluminum alloys can be categorized into a number of groups based on the particu-
lar material’s specific characteristics, theses could be its ability to respond to thermal and
mechanical treatment, or the primary alloying element added to the aluminum alloy. When
we consider the numbering and identification system used for aluminum alloys, the the-
ses characteristics are identified through these numbers. The wrought and cast aluminums
have different systems of identification; the wrought having a 4-digit system, and the cast-
ings have a combination of a 3-digit and 1-decimal place system.
4.15.3 Wrought Alloy Designation System

So far, the discussion has been about various grades of aluminum, we need to further
extend this body of knowledge about those four digits in the alloy designation system.
These 4-digits together tell a detailed story about that specific alloy. The numbering XXXX,
for the wrought aluminum alloy identification system consist of following;
The first digit (Xxxx) indicates the principal alloying element, which has been added to
the aluminum alloy and is often used to describe the aluminum alloy series, i.e., 1000 series,
2000 series, 3000 series, up to 8000 series.
The second single digit (xXxx), if different from 0, indicates a modification of the spe-
cific alloy, and the third and fourth digits (xxXX) are arbitrary numbers given to identify
a specific alloy in the series. Example: In alloy 5183, the number 5 indicates that it is of the
magnesium alloy series, the 1 indicates that it is the 1st modification to the original alloy
5083, and the 83 identifies it in the 5xxx series.
The only exception to this alloy numbering system is with the 1xxx series aluminum
alloys (pure aluminums) in which case, the last 2 digits provide the minimum aluminum
percentage above 99%, i.e., Alloy 1350 would mean that the alloy has 0.50% more purity
above the 99% aluminum, the meaning of this alloy 1350 in pure aluminum group, contains
99.50% of aluminum purity and this alloy has had three modification.
4.15.4 Cast Alloy Designation

The cast alloy designation system is based on a 3 digit-plus decimal designation xxx.x, for
example 356.0. The first digit (Xxx.x) indicates the principal alloying element, which has
been added to the aluminum alloy as shown in Table 4.13 below.
The two successive digits (xXX.x) together are arbitrary numbers given to identify a spe-
cific alloy in the series. The number following the decimal point is a binary system of iden-
tification where .0 is casting and 0.1 or 0.2 signify that the metal is an ingot. If a capital letter
prefix is used it indicates a modification to a specific alloy.
Example: Alloy - A356.0 the capital A (Axxx.x) indicates a modification of alloy 356.0.
The number 3 (A3xx.x) indicates that it is of the silicon plus copper and/or magnesium
series. The 56 (Ax56.0) identifies the alloy within the 3xx.x series, and the .0 (Axxx.0) indi-
cates that it is a final shape casting and not an ingot.
4.15.5 The Aluminum Temper Designation System

From the description and Table 4.13, presented above, one can see that there are different
series of aluminum alloys, what is important to note is the considerable differences in their
characteristics. The first point to recognize, after understanding the identification system, is
that there are two distinctly different types of aluminum within the series described above.
These are the Heat Treatable Aluminum alloys that can be imparted strength through the
treatment of heat and cooling cycle. The other group consist of the non-heat Treatable
Aluminum alloys. This distinction is particularly important when considering the effects of
arc welding on these two types of materials.
Table 4.13 Cast aluminum designation and numbering system.
Alloy series Principal alloying element
1xx.x 99.000% minimum Aluminum
2xx.x Copper
3xx.x Silicon Plus Copper and/or Magnesium
4xx.x Silicon
5xx.x Magnesium
6xx.x Unused Series
7xx.x Zinc
8xx.x Tin
9xx.x Other Elements
The 1xxx, 3xxx, and 5xxx series wrought aluminum alloys are non-heat treatable and are
strain hardenable only. The 2xxx, 6xxx, and 7xxx series wrought aluminum alloys are heat
treatable and the 4xxx series consist of both heat treatable and non-heat treatable alloys.
The 2xx.x, 3xx.x, 4xx.x and 7xx.x series cast alloys are heat treatable. Strain hardening is not
generally applied to castings.
The heat treatable alloys acquire their optimum mechanical properties through a process
of thermal treatment, the most common thermal treatments applied are the Solution Heat
Treatment and Artificial Aging.
Table 4.14 Temper designation letters and meaning.

Designating
letter What the letter means
As fabricated – Applies to products of a forming process in which
F no special control over thermal or strain hardening conditions is
employed
Annealed – Applies to product which has been heated to produce the
O lowest strength condition to improve ductility and dimensional
stability
Strain Hardened – Applies to products which are strengthened through
cold-working. The strain hardening may be followed by supplementary
H
thermal treatment, which produces some reduction in strength. The
“H” is always followed by two or more digits
Solution Heat-Treated – An unstable temper applicable only to
W alloys which age spontaneously at room temperature after solution
heat-treatment
Thermally Treated - To produce stable tempers other than F, O, or H.
Applies to product which has been heat-treated, sometimes with
T
supplementary strain-hardening, to produce a stable temper. The “T” is
always followed by one or more digits
Solution Heat Treatment is the process of heating the alloy to an elevated temperature
to around 482oC (about 990o F) in order to put the alloying elements or compounds into
solution. This is followed by quenching, usually in water, to produce a supersaturated solu-
tion at room temperature. Solution heat treatment is usually followed by aging. Aging is
the precipitation of a portion of the elements or compounds from a supersaturated solu-
tion in order to yield desirable properties. The aging process is divided into two types:
aging at room temperature, which is termed natural aging, and aging at elevated tempera-
tures termed artificial aging. Artificial aging temperatures are typically about 160oC (about
320oF). Many heat treatable aluminum alloys are used for welding fabrication in their solu-
tion heat treated and artificially aged condition.
The non-heat treatable alloys acquire their optimum mechanical properties through
Strain Hardening. Strain hardening is the method of increasing strength through the appli-
cation of cold working. The Temper Designation System addresses the material conditions
called tempers. The Temper Designation System is an extension of the alloy numbering
system and consists of a series of alpha-numeric identification, which follow the alloy des-
ignation number that we previously discussed, and are connected by a hyphen. Examples:
6061-T6, 6063-T4, 5052-H32, 5083-H112.
Further to the basic temper designation, there are two subdivision categories.
(i) addressing the “H” Temper – Strain Hardening, and

(ii) The other addressing the “T” Temper – Thermally Treated designation.
(iii) H Temper – Strain Hardened
• The first digit after the H indicates a basic operation:

H1 – Strain Hardened Only.
H2 – Strain Hardened and Partially Annealed.
H3 – Strain Hardened and Stabilized.
H4 – Strain Hardened and Lacquered or Painted.
• The second digit after the H indicates the degree of strain hardening:
HX2 – Quarter Hard,
HX4 – Half Hard
HX6 – Three-Quarters Hard
HX8 – Full Hard
HX9 – Extra Hard
• Subdivisions of Temper – Thermally Treated
T1 - Naturally aged after cooling from an elevated temperature shaping process,
such as extruding.
T2 - Cold worked after cooling from an elevated temperature shaping process
and then naturally aged.
T3 - Solution heat treated, cold worked and naturally aged.
T4 - Solution heat treated and naturally aged.
T5 - Artificially aged after cooling from an elevated temperature shaping process.
T6 - Solution heat treated and artificially aged.
T7 - Solution heat treated and stabilized (overaged).
T8 - Solution heat treated, cold worked and artificially aged.
T9 - Solution heat treated, artificially aged and cold worked.
T10 - Cold worked after cooling from an elevated temperature shaping process
and then artificially aged.
Additional digits indicate stress relief.

Examples:
TX51 or TXX51 – Stress relieved by stretching.
TX52 or TXX52 – Stress relieved by compressing.
4.16 Welding Aluminum

Since we are designing for welding, it is important to know some basic aspects of alumi-
num and its behavior during welding. This basic introduction to welding aluminum should
be supplemented with more detailed knowledge related to aluminum welding by various
welding processes, Arc Welding Processes Hand book, ISBN 9781119819059 details various
welding process and it includes a section about welding aluminum with those processes.
Aluminum is an active metal and it forms oxides while being heated for welding, this
makes it harder to develop a weld-metal pool suitable for welding aluminum. When com-
bined with the metal’s high heat conductivity and low melting point, it is very easy for a new
welder to completely melt the aluminum pieces involved in the process. As a result, and to
prevent such situation, two very important steps need to be taken.
(1) First step to arc welding aluminum is to clean the base metal of any oxides
or solvent oils, and prevent oxide formation during welding. And
(2) The second step is to be mindful of aluminum’s behavior under heat,
(i) Aluminum does not change color,
(ii) Aluminum does not show molten pool,
(iii) Aluminum has high conductivity of heat,
(iv) Aluminum has very low melting point as compared to the steel.
On the positive side, if the welding technique is mastered, the welding of aluminum is
less energy intensive, and therefore easier to weld than steel.
Another important point to note is that most of the welding machines are tailored to
weld steel, they are mostly calibrated and set with those parameters. So, it is important to
know the features of the welding machine, and if required reprogram the machine to suite
aluminum welding.
SMAW process is the least expensive method for aluminum welding, whereby the shield-
ing is provided by the coating around the electrode itself. And since it does not use shield-
ing gases as other processes like GTAW or GMAW use, it has some advantages over other
welding processes used for welding aluminum, especially when it comes to weld in rela-
tively open area where protection from wind may be of particular concern.
SMAW electrode do create some slate while welding, and this requires considerable
cleanup at the end of the job.
4.16.1 Aluminum Welding Electrodes

Number of electrodes producers supply electrodes in various diameter and lengths.
Common diameters are 3/32” (2.4 mm) and 1/8” inch (3.2 mm). Electrodes are available
in 12-inch, 16-inch and 18-inch lengths. For welding with 1/8” electrode with 120 amps to
maximum 160 amps works very well for flat downhill position on plate.
Alloy 4043 is one of the oldest and most widely used welding and brazing alloys. E 4043
electrode can be classed as the general-purpose welding electrode that can be used for welding
a variety of aluminum grades, like, 3003, 3004, 5052, 6061-T4, 6061-T6, 6063-T6 and 2014-T6.
The alloy contains about 4% to 6 % silicon in it, silicon is a wetting agent, and it allows
the weld metal fluidity, and this property makes the electrode use a very welder-friendly
experience. This improved fluidity (wetting action) makes the alloy a preferred choice of
welders. The weld metal is less sensitive to weld cracking, and produces brighter, almost
smut free welds.
4.16.2 Electrical Parameters

Welding is done using DC with electrode positive current (DCEP).
Electrode positive polarity (DCEP) helps constant removal of oxide layers that form
during welding, on the base metal, while the electrode flux keeps oxides from forming on
the electrode metal and the molten pool. The flux protects the weld as it cools and forms
a protective barrier, which works great even in breezy conditions. The key to welding alu-
minum is (a) to move faster than the welding speed used for welding steel. (b) No weave
movement, since the aluminum flows better than steel, and helped by presence of silicon
the fluidity is even better.
AC welding electrodes are also marketed, these electrodes have AC suffix at end of the
electrode class marking. Some welders find alternating current very helpful, the alternating
current functions in somewhat similar manner to remove oxides from the surface as the
welding progresses.
4.17 Design for Welding Aluminum

The design for welding aluminum is unique because of metal’s low density, resulting in light
weight, and low melting temperature. However basic principles of designing the structure
are almost same as designing with steel. In general, smaller root opening, larger groove
angles, are used, this is to meet with the higher fluidity of aluminum under the welding arc
and the larger gas nozzles on welding guns and torches. On thickets sections of aluminum’s
using excellent machinability the weld edge preparation of grooves like J-groove, and U-
grooves easy, and cost effective. The strength of the metal is to be considered, and loading of
any type must not exceed certain limits beyond the theoretical level of the given alloy, that
is called the allowable stress level reference to Aluminum Association publication is made
earlier in this chapter and their tables and data must be referenced for correct values to use.
The stress values allowed for aluminum alloys can be found in Aluminum association’s pub-
lications. A good designing process is where the number of joints are reduced as little as is
Eight welds
joining five pieces
of sheet-metal.
(a)
Six welds
joining three pieces
of sheet-metal.
(b)
Further reduction
in welds - this
option may cause
distortions
(c)
Figure 4.22 Typical approaches to aluminum weld design.

possible, and for that to happen the design engineer should strive to use as much of strength
building, and branch connection members, with prepared edge to facilitate transitions etc.,
out of the extruded forms and sections as can be obtained from the market. The designer
should use any forms of aluminum from wrought and extruded sections to cast material to
supplement their design. Keeping in mind to use least expansive, forms and sections as is
possible. The result of such efforts in cost control, and engineering evaluated design would
be considered to reach the optimum efficiency class of design. One of the simplest example
of an efficient design can be understood by evaluating the Figure 4.22 below; where Figure
4.22(a) where the bin is made out of five pieces of sheet, resulting in eight corner welds, as
shown. This same bin can be made by using three pieces of sheet and six corner welds, see
Figure 4.22(b). In this design option the one member is formed in U shape reducing two
corner welds. A further reduction in weld is possible, but now we would face the distortion
due to welding, as shown In Figure 4.22(c).
4.17.1 Effect of Welding on the Strength of Aluminum and its Alloys

To take most advantage of the aluminum alloy’s weight to strength ratio, aluminum alloys
are often used in its strain hardened, heat treated, and aged conditions, as applicable to the
specific alloy. During the welding, as the metal is exposed to high temperatures, the effect
of stain hardening or heat treatment are eliminated, the heat of welding softens the heat
affected zone (HAZ) of the metal.
The extent of this softening is dependent on the thickness of the metal and how long the
metal is exposed to high heat. The design calculations must consider this softer HAZ, the
Varies with thickness of base metal

Strength (Y or UTS)
Actual decline
in strength
Assumed design
strength
Weld Centerline ( CL )
3 2 1 0 1 2 3
Distance from Weld CL
Figure 4.23 Distribution of tensile strength across the aluminum weld.

direction and orientation of loading, along with HAZ area ratio to the total cross section of
the load bearing surface of the metal must be assessed for the allowable load on the joint.
The variations in tensile strength of aluminum plate vis-a-vis the softening HAZ of alu-
minum weld is illustrated in the Figure 4.23 that shows safe design loading, in relation to
the actual allowed for the design versus the actual loading.
The band of HAZ varies based on the thickness of the metal and the welding process
used. Mechanized welding process, and thinner plate sections will show thinner bands of
HAZ against the thicker plates and manual welding processes. So, this must be pre-assessed
and data obtained, by the qualification of a welding procedure. Alternate will be to use, one
of the data table developed by the Aluminum association in their publications.
However, following general points must be kept in consideration while designing weld
for aluminum structures.
• When designing, transverse welds in columns and beams should be located

at points of lateral support to reduce to minimum the effect of welding on
buckling strength.
• The effect of longitudinal welds in structural members can be ignored if the
softened by welding area is less than 15 percent of the total cross sectional
area.
• Circumferential welds in piping or tubing can reduce bending strength.
• Longitudinal welds in tubular members usually have little or no adverse
impact on the buckling strength, when the HAZ area is small in relation to
the total area of the cross section.
• Consider use of extruded sections, to reduces complicated shape formations,
and transition welds in the weld-design, as shown in Figure 4.24 below.
Typical extrusions used in AL

Weld-design
Figure 4.24 Typical extrusions used to design joint geometry.

Proper selection of welding filler metal, and ability to post weld heat treatment and aging
can resolve the loss of strength issue. Normally the weldment would regain full strength
but may lose some ductility. This may be the best option in many cases, if that option is not
economically prohibitive or just impossible to heat treat due to the size of the weldment or
the available furnace or possibilities of distortions.
Another option, where it is practicable, is to design on the basis of solution treated con-
ditions, and then age it after welding operation is completed. This option would increase
the strength better of the as-welded condition, and avoid the distortion problem associated
with solution heat treatment.
4.17.2 Effect of Service Temperature

Most alloys of aluminum lose a substantial proportion of their strength at about 150oC, that
corresponds to 300oF.
Table 4.14 Effect of service temperature on, as welded and heat treated and aged welds.
Service temperature oF and oC
Ultimate tensile strength, ksi
Alloy Filler metal used
designation for welding -300 -200 -100 100 300 500
2219-T37 2319 48.5 40 36 35 31 19
as-welded
2219-T62 Heat 2319 64.5 59.5 55 50 38 22
treated and
aged after
welding
3003 ER 1100 27.5 21.5 17.5 14 9.5 5
5052 ER 5356 38 31 26.5 25 21 10.5
5083 ER5183 54.5 46 40.5 40 Not recommended to
use this Al grade
5086 ER 5356 48 40.5 35.5 35
5454 ER5554 44 37 32 31 26 15
5456 ER5556 56 47.5 42.5 42 Not recommended to
use this Al grade
6061-T6 ER4043 34.5 30 26.5 24 20 6
as welded
6061-T6 Heat ER4043 55 49.5 46 42 31.5 7
treated and
aged after
welding
Service Temperature oC -184 -129 -73 38 149 260
Though some alloys are developed to work at relatively higher temperatures, with certain
limitations on their application. The 5000 series of alloys which contain 3.5 percent magne-
sium, or more are not suitable for use at temperatures above 65oC (150oF).
In low temperature service aluminum is an ideal material in its strength limitations. They
exhibit higher tensile strength at low temperature as the Table 4.14 indicates, suitable for
some very useful fabrications that are used for low temperature service.
4.17.3 Type of Weld Joints for Aluminum Welding

For joining aluminum by welding Butt, lap, T-edge, and corners joints are the most pre-
ferred design for general fabrication. For structural construction, edge and corner joint are
best avoided because they are harder to fit, they make structure weaker, and compared to
other joint designs, they are more subject fatigue failure.
4.17.3.1 Butt Joints

This type of joint is much easier to design and often easier to weld, their look is good, they
perform better under cyclic loading.
They demand accuracy in alignment and fit-up, this is possible by very accurate weld-
edge preparation, which demands accuracy in itself. The welds especially on metal sec-
tion of ≥ 6 mm (≥ 0.25-inch) demands better alignment to achieve good root penetration.
Where sections of different thicknesses are to be welded, the weld-edge preparation should
be transitioned which is often specified to be from 3x to 6x of the thickness difference of two
abutting sections at the weld joint. This is graphically shown in Figure 4.25 below.
Bevelling the thicker member to

reduce stress concentration
3 to 6 h
Figure 4.25 Showing the transition of two different thicknesses for butt weld.
The transition made in this way reduces stress concentration, this is especially important
if the weld is subject some cyclic loading.
It was pointed out earlier about the heat flow in aluminum welding, when a thin section
is to be welded to a relatively very thick section, it becomes very difficult to heat and melt
the thicker section for welding, often the thicker section is not heated, and the thinner sec-
tion is melted away.
The designer should foresee such situation and design a weld-edge lip just about as thick
as the abutting thinner section. This can be either pre-extruded or can be machined before
welding. Such design steps provide heat balance to the welding joint.
4.17.4 Lap Joint for Aluminum Welding

Aluminum construction uses Lap joints more often than possibly any other construction
material. This is because often the lap joint configuration gives added metal thickness at the
joint, and it is much easier, and less expensive to weld lap fillet welds than a butt weld. For
section thickness up to 13 mm (0.5 -inch) such joint design is more economical too. Use of
single lap joint with fillet weld on both sides, is much more economical than CJP butt weld.
Depending on the alloy type, and its temper, lap joints give 70% to 100% joint efficiency.
The edge preparation is easy and simple, they fit easily and mot much jigging is demanded
in the fabrication of lap joints. Typical Lap-joints are shown in the Figure 4.26 below.
The disadvantage of using a lap-joint in design is that, the joint creates an offset in the
plane od the structure surface. This can cause a rotation under load. Lap-joints may be
impossible if the joint cannot be reached from both sides. Overhead welding as is shown
in Figure 4.26 (b) may not be practical, if the weld can’t be reached out from both sides in
flat position.
In large, structures it may be more economical to design and weld a butt weld joint.
2t
min
(a)
2t 2t + 0.125” 2t
min min min
(b)
Lap joints
Figure 4.26 Lap joints (a) and (b).
4.17.5 Use of T-Joints in Aluminum Welding

T-joints are used to connect members normal to each other, some angular tolerance is per-
mitted. And there might be some exceptions like skewed weld joints, but such acute angle
joints in aluminum is best handled by using extruded section than trying to weld. T-joints
are easy to fit, and access from the other side (back of the weld) is generally not required. In
shop fabrication the welding jigs are simple and can be easily improvised.
It is very rare that a t-joint would require a weld-edge preparation, because they are usu-
ally a fillet weld. Weld must achieve full penetration, at the corner of the joint. Sometimes if
the material thickness ≥ 19 mm (0.75-inch) a groove weld is combined with the fillet weld,
that can be either a single-bevel, or double bevel-joint, depending on the thickness and
accessibility of the weld joint.
T-joints with single fillet weld are weak in many ways, they may sustain the necessary
shear and tensile stress, but the root of the weld is the weakest link, if loaded in tension.
When designing a T-joint with fillet weld, it is advised to make the fillet weld of multiple
passes, in other words single pass fillet weld is not recommended.
4.18 Distribution of Stress in Aluminum Weld Design

As sated earlier the basic principles of load and its distribution in any structure remain
same, however its application is varied only due to the inherent properties of the metal or
material being used to construct the structure.
Aluminum is a light weight and relatively ductile material, with lower strength range,
some of the alloys are strengthened by adding alloying elements, that allow possibility of
heat treatment and aging to acquire strength and be useful as a construction material. These
added properties are not permanent and are often lost if the metal is heated to and beyond
certain temperatures, all these properties are discussed and demonstrated in the Figure 4.23
and Table 4.14 above in paragraph 4.17.
In Figure 4.23 it may be noted that a band of heated zone that is heated in the process of
welding loses strength, similarly the Table 4.14 indicates which alloys and welding consum-
able combinations give strength to the weld.
If welds are located in a critical areas but do not cover the entire cross-section, the
strength of the section depends on the percentage of the cross-sectional area affected by the
heat of the weld.
In case members are joined at high stress locations, designing the weld to keep the weld
parallel to the principal member, and to the main stress in that member.
Transvers welds in such stress situations must be avoided. Consider a longitudinal welds
that join a web to a flange of an I-beam usually have very little effect on the strength of the
member, this is because most of the beam cross-section still retains the base-metal proper-
ties, and weld is just a small percentage of the cross-sectional area.
The ends of the weld are often the stress concentration points, they are more stressed
than the rest of the length of the weld. One of the methods used to avoid use of thicker
section to meet the stress demands, is to use a technique called “snipping”. The process
involves beveling the ends of a member to limit stress concentration at the weld ends.
The weld sound not be left open and exposed at the ends, instead they should be wrapped
around the ends. At the design stage, it should be possible to preempt the location of
welds to lower stress areas. Consider, making weld connections between a main member
and accessories such as braces by welding at the horizontal axis or other point of low
stress.
Joints of low efficiency can be used, but that involves additional fabrication and welding
cost.
In aluminum as in any metal construction, welds are subject to various types of stress
putting demands on their shear and fatigue strengths. We discuss these properties of alu-
minum welds.
Like any structure, or even more than any simple structure, welded structures develop
considerable stresses during fabrication and installation process. This is even more promi-
nent based on the design and type of material and its behavior.
Most of the aluminum, grades are easily formable, and weldable, but it also distorts
during cooling that increases stresses in the weldment. Some of these stresses can be relived
by heat treatment, but not all grades are heat treatable, and not all fabricated parts can be
heat treated.
These stresses need to be evaluated, and considered when designing the avoidance or
better still reduction of stresses must be one of the considerations of design team.
4.18.1 Shear Strength of Aluminum Fillet Welds

Shear strength of aluminum fillet welds is dependent on the alloying elements in the weld-
filler-metal. Typical shear strengths of a longitudinal, and transverse fillet welds of specific
size.
It may be noted that the highest strength filler metal is grade in E or ER 5556, the table
compares various weld sizes with the given filler-metal that would give the corresponding
shear stress values in either the longitudinal welded A, fillet weld or in the transverse (B)
direction welded fillet welds.
Fillet weld sizes depend on the (1) thickness of the metal being welded and (2) the weld-
ing process being used to weld. However, for reference, one may use the recommendations
that are made for the steel welding, and adjust according to the need. Use of lower strength
welding filler metal is used, to take the advantage of its ductility, and also to build in the
desired size of the fillet weld.
4.18.2 Fatigue Strength in Aluminum Welds

Fatigue strength in a member is based on the peak stresses at the point of stress concentra-
tion. Eliminating stress risers to reduce the peak stresses certainly reduces the risk of fatigue
related failure, and increases the fatigue life of the structure.
Fatigue strength of aluminum structures follow the same rules that apply to other metal
structures. Up to 104 (10,000) cycles, the fatigue strength of various aluminum alloys are
markedly different, and it is designer’s choice on which alloy suits their structural needs.
But above one million (106) cycles the difference between various alloys is marginal. If this
is the situation, the designer has to look at modifying their design to meet required fatigue
strength of the structure. Use of symmetry in the design and seek balanced loading, as the
mitigating steps, avoidance of notches, sharp changes in directions, and any other stress
risers are strongly recommended.
The fatigue strength of a groove-weld is significantly improved by removing weld rein-
forcements, and peening. Reducing the transition angle of the weld to blend in the parent
metal at the toe of the weld, use of welding process that produce smoother weld face, can
also help improve the fatigue life of the structure. Note that reducing the cap of the weld is
not one of the methods that can improve the fatigue life, it is the smoothness of the transi-
tion that is required. Excessive spatters, undercuts, and other surface discontinuities along
the weld can be stress concentration points and they should be avoided or very carefully
blended in to the parent metal.
Often the residual stress of the fabrication and welding are not considered in to design
calculations, mainly because they do not affect static strength of aluminum, they are an
important factors to consider in cyclic loading to reduce fatigue stresses. Residual stress in
aluminum can be mitigated relatively easily, by hydro-pressurizing slightly above normally
not above 10% above metal’s yield point, heat treatment (often called Thermal treatment)
or by peening using multiple pin-gun for peening of larger area. Peening is able to relive
stresses if the stress either by compression or by tension is up to the depth of 0.005 to 0.030
inch. If the stress is deeper than this limit other methods may be more beneficial.
Thermal treatment as a stress relief, can increase the fatigue life, if the resulting distortion
is not an issue, or it is effectively controlled, then this method can increase the fatigue life of
the structure. This step is most useful for those alloys that are non-heat treatable, alloys that
are produced by alloying various elements, and do not depend on any heat treatment for
strengthening them alloys in series 1xxx, 3xxx, 4xxx, and 5xxx come in this category. The
thermal treatment can relive up to 80% of the residual stress.
4.19 Heat and Distortion Control

Welding and fabrication involves application of heat, very high temperatures are developed
for a very short time and often on relatively small sections of material. This situation causes
uneven cooling in equally fast time, putting multi directional stresses in the material. Fast
cooling causes shrinkage, which manifest itself in the form of distortions of the weldment.
This alteration of the intended shape and size defeats the purpose of intended fabricated
member, hence distortion control should be one of the primary concerns of the designer.
It is to be noted that complete elimination of distortion is neither possible, not
expected. What is expected is that, it can be controlled to an acceptable level. Sometimes,
post welding distortion reducing steps can help to an extent in specific cases. But most
of the time that option is not available, due to the material properties, or size of the
weldment itself or the very design would not let the distortion causing stress to be
released without further damaging the weldment. All these situations must be part of
the design consideration.
As stated above distortion occurs due to the heat and cooling cycle that causes shrink-
age. As metal shrinks, it pulls the adjoining base-metal inwards. The same shrinkage also
occurs in the surrounding metal at different rate, and in different directions, this is based
on the level of heat applied, and rate of heat transfer (cooling) from that general area, and
also how restraint is the fabricated member or the part is. A complex thermodynamic,
and heat transfer model may be able to predict some level of impending distortions.
The shrinkage or the straining, occurs in multi directions, in fact, it is infinitely depen-
dent on how the heat is being transferred from minutest of the heat concentration. In gen-
eral, and in terms of fabricated members general direction in relation to the weld direction,
we can say that this stressing is in longitudinal or transverse direction and in thicker sec-
tions of material it can be in the third direction that is, the through-thickness direction.
In general, flexible the member, the more movement occurs. This explains greater dis-
tortions, after welding thin section materials as compared with thicker sections. But thicker
metals have another possible problem with shrinkage, since they cannot distort much due
to their thickness, they tend to crack, that is the through-thickness tearing. Metals have
much lower through thickness strength than they have in the direction of rolling or even in
the traverse direction strength.
The total amount of distortion can be completely elastic, or have an elastic component
and an inelastic (or plastic) component.
4.19.1 Angular Distortion

Angular distortion is caused by non-uniform transverse shrinkage of the solidified weld.
A common type of angular distortion occurs with double-sided fillet welds in T-joints and
single-sided groove welds in butt joints. As the solidified weld metal cools and shrinks, the
greatest contraction occurs where more weld material is located.
As welded
Final condition
Figure 4.27 Angular distortion, double-sided fillet welds in a T-joint.
Section
Neutral Axis (NA)
Weld Group Center

of Gravity (CG)
Figure 4.28 Weld CG and neutral axis.

4.19.2 Longitudinal Distortions

Longitudinal distortions occur along the length of the welded member. A common example
of longitudinal distortion is experienced while fabricating plate girders, this is often seen
in crane manufacturing shops, where the plates are relatively thinner, and welds are longer.
This kind of distortion is common when welding the web to the flange, the girder length
contracts as the weld cools. Depending on the placement of the welds the center of gravity
(CG) with regard to cross-section neutral axis, camber or sweep, or a combination of both,
can occur. The camber changes because the section compresses on the weld group CG side
of the NA, about the strong axis.
Sweep is like camber, except that the distortion occurs about the weak axis of the steel
section.
Circumferential Distortion
Circumferential shrinkage is a form of longitudinal shrinkage in which the weld contracts
around the perimeter of a member like a tube and contracts its circumference.
As welded
Greatest contraction occurs

at top where most weld
metal is located
Final condition
Figure 4.29 Angular distortion, single-sided groove weld in a butt joint.
Rotational Distortion
Rotational distortion occurs in butt joints where welding plate edges are joined together,
and these abutting plates either open-up, or close together, and cross over each other in
approximately the same plane. Whether the plates open-up, or close primarily depends on
the weld travel speed. Slower moving speeds tend to cause opening, while faster speeds tend
to cause closing.
Panel Distortion
Panel distortion occurs when a stiffener is welded to a relatively thin panel, causing the
panel to distort in the out-of-plane direction.
Buckling and Wrapping

Buckling or warpage can occur when a longitudinal weld is made along a relatively thin
plate. The thin plate can buckle or warp in the out-of-plane direction.
Twisting
Twisting distortion occurs when the cross-section twists about its centroid. This type of
distortion is most common in open sections such as C-shape and cruciform sections that
have limited resistance to torsion.
How to Minimize Shrinkage

There are several approaches to reduce shrinkages in weld, and there by distortion. These
approaches are not universal and each of them should be used after careful evaluation of the
specific situation of the weldment.
Preset to Offset Distortion

Before welding, members can be preset in a way that is opposite of the expected distortion.
Then, when distortion occurs, the member distorts into the desired configuration.
The practice of off-setting to compensate for the shrinkage and distortion requires some
experience with similar work for satisfactory result.
Over Welding, and Over Heating

Over welding can result in many ways, as listed below;
• Depositing larger than required volume of weld metal,

• Continuous welding of a relatively longer weld also results in over welding in
terms of heat concentration and resulting distortion.
Distortion control starts with the designer. Designer should design the weld using the
smallest possible weld size. Design the weld that would prevent over welding, minimize the
volume of weld metal, but do not reduce the weld size below design requirements. The fab-
ricator should make the weld no larger than that detailed by the design engineer. Reducing
weld metal is a good idea to control distortion and reduce cost.
Use of intermittent welds, step welding, and skip welding are few of the techniques that
can be used to reduce stresses in ling welds, be it fillet or butt weld.
The selection of proper weld groove is also an essential part of the distortion control.
Various types of groves are discussed in the book selection of optimal volume of weld in
relation to the volume of the welded members can be one guide, in the selection of suitable
groove or bevel type.
With the qualification of WPS, and also with pre-qualified welding procedures, it is often
assumed that weld will be fine and would control distortions, that is not the case in all
situations. Using the “As Detailed in the WPs” or “As Fit-Up” dimensions can significantly
increase weld volume, care should be taken to evaluate these dimensions to meet the spe-
cific weld joint, using good design, fabrication, and erection practices can reduce possibility
of over welding and distortions. Design engineer should actively communicate with weld-
ing engineer and welding foreman to understand the welding related issues to alleviate the
need for using excessive “As Fit-Up” dimensions during construction.
Back-gouging is another way to open excessive welding situation. During fabrication, close
control should be exercised on the width and depth dimensions of the back-gouged groove.
Weld and base metal is removed from a joint using air arc gouging at a rate of about 10 to 20
times faster that weld is deposited. At this speed, it very possible to excessively back-gouge
a joint, this big groove will now be required to be filled with weld metal, resulting in over
welding. Back-gouging should be done with as much attention as possible, using a grinder if
needed for more precision, especially in the final stages of preparing the back-gouged joint.
Lower Heat Input

Design engineer should consult with the welding engineer to develop a welding procedure
that would have minimum possible heat input for the given weld.
Heat input is a mathematical estimation of how much electrical energy from the arc is
converted into thermal energy in the weldment. This equation is an estimation because
some of the electrical energy from the arc is not converted to heat, but rather into other
things like sound, light, and smoke generation. There are number of complex variables in
determining very precise heat input in a given weld. However, in general and in simple
material fabrication scenario, a much simpler formula is used, this results in a heat input
it is the closest estimation, resulting in a heat input that is generally in proportion with
the cross-sectional area of a weld. In that respect, larger welds typically require more heat
input. For the same weld size, those welds made with a lower heat input would undergo less
distortion because less thermal energy is delivered to the weld and surrounding base metal.
Reduce Number of Weld Pass to Reduce Excessive Heating

Reduction of heating and cooling cycles is one way to reduce distortion. The initial larger
passes “lock in” the plates being welded, and distortion from subsequent passes is better
resisted by these locked-in plates. Using more passes with smaller welds leads to a similar
cumulative heat input compared to fewer passes with larger pass sizes; however, the smaller
passes do not provide such resistance, leading to more angular distortion.
Preheat
Preheat is a good approach to reduce localized expansion, in fact this is a better way to
prime the metal for possible expansion and contraction associated with welding. It may
sound counterintuitive to control distortion by adding thermal energy in the form of pre-
heat, but preheat can reduce the localized shrinkage. A preheated part can expand and
contract more uniformly, causing less distortion.
Conduct Heat Away From the Weld Area

Copper or other external conductors are used as chill bars, to draw heat away from the weld
area. In the use of copper as chill bar, care must be taken to position them in such a way that
they are able to draw the heat but not able to fuse with the weld or the parent metal. This
method can reduce possibility of distortion.
Place the Welds where the Shrinkage does Affect the Overall Dimensions
and Appearance of the Weldment
This option is in fact obvious, and in fact it has very limited use in reducing the distortion.
However, it should be considered wherever it is possible to apply.
5
Introduction to Welding Processes
Sypnosis
This chapter gives a brief introduction to various welding and cutting processes that are
commonly used in fabrication, and construction industry. Process fundamentals are
described, and welding equipment, and power sources, are introduced along with welding
consumables, and metal cutting process are introduced with options of fuel gases that can
be considered for specific applications.
Keywords
Arc welding, oxy fuel cutting, gases, electrodes, SAW, SMAW, GTAW, GMAW
5.1 Introduction
In the previous chapter we introduced the importance a weld plays in the transfer of loads
to make a structure safe, and also how a well-placed weld can rectify the short comings of a
design. One of the key factor with design of any weld is the use of welding process. There are
various welding processes, and they all have their unique properties, advantages and disad-
vantages. A welding engineer responsible for design a weldment must take in to account the
available welding process at their disposal.
Most of the welding design discussed in engineering books come from civil engi-
neering books that base their design on manual arc welding process (SMAW) which
uses metal electrodes to generate electric arc for heat, and it melts to fill in the gap
between two abutting sections, as the welder moves the arc electrode along the weld
line. For calculations purpose too, most welding (electrode) strength is based on 60,000
psi tensile strength, however there are various strength of electrode and welding mate-
rials are available and used in the industry. For an effective use and calculations, it is
essential that engineers have good knowledge of the welding process and understand
their limits and advantages.
In this chapter an introduction to various welding processes is given. For detailed
knowledge of various welding process, it is strongly recommended that the latest edition
of Applied Welding Engineering – Processes, Codes, and Standards (ISBN 978-0-12-
804176-5) is studied and referenced.
131
The common and most conventional and commercially practiced weld process are listed
in the Table 5.1. Welding and Joining processes, type of energy used, and their abbreviations
as defined by the American Welding Society. It may be noted that the processes have their
limitations in relation to the material thickness, and cost analysis may not allow for a pro-
cess to be used on a specific application.
The selection of suitable welding consumable (electrode or wire) is also an important
factor in producing suitable weldments.
American Welding Society (AWS) standard terms for various welding and joining pro-
cesses is given below, these terms and acronyms are used in this book. It may be noted that
some of these generic process have several variants and they are used in industries with
their new names and acronyms. These variants are often prefixed or suffixed by a letter, to
identify their specific distinguishing attributes.
1. SAW Submerged Ac Welding

2. SMAW Shielded Metal Arc Welding
3. GMAW Gas Metal Arc Welding
4. FCAW Flux Cored Arc Welding
5. GTAW Gas Tungsten Arc Welding
6. PAW Plasma Arc Welding
7. ESW Elecrtoslag Welding
8. EGW Electrogas Welding
9. RW Resistance Welding (EW is also used in some documents)
10. OFW Oxy Fuel gas Welding
11. DFW Diffusion Welding
12. FRW Friction Welding
13. EBW Electron Beam Welding
14. LBW Laser Beam Welding
15. B Brazing
16. S Soldering
Table 5.1 Master chart of welding and joining processes.

Group Welding process AWS letter designation
Arc welding
Electric arc welding Carbon Arc CAW
Flux Cored Arc FCAW
Gas Metal Arc GMAW
Gas Tungsten Arc GTAW
Plasma Arc PAW
Shielded Metal Arc SMAW
(Continued)
Introduction to Welding Processes 133
Table 5.1 Master chart of welding and joining processes. (Continued)

Stud Arc SW
Submerged Arc SAW
Electrical resistance welding Flash Welding FW
High Frequency Resistance HFRW
Percussion Welding PEW
Projection Welding RPW
Resistance-Seam Welding RSEW
Resistance-Spot Welding RSW
Upset Welding UW
Oxy-fuel Gas Welding (OFW)
Oxyacetylene Welding OAW
Oxyhydrogen Welding OHW
Pressure Gas Welding PGW
Solid state welding
Cold Welding CW
Diffusion Welding DFW
Explosion Welding EXW
Forge Welding FOW
Friction Welding FRW
Hot Pressure Welding HPW
Roll Welding ROW
Ultrasonic Welding USW
Capillary action transfer and distribution of metal
Brazing Diffusion Brazing DFB
Dip Brazing DB
Furnace Brazing FB
Induction Brazing IB
Infrared Brazing IRB
(Continued)
Table 5.1 Master chart of welding and joining processes. (Continued)

Resistance Brazing RB
Torch Brazing TB
Soldering Dip Soldering DS
Furnace Soldering FS
Induction Soldering IS
Infrared Soldering IRS
Iron Soldering INS
Resistance Soldering RS
Torch Soldering TS
Wave Soldering WS
Other welding processes
Electron Beam EBW
Electroslag ESW
Induction IW
Laser Beam LBW
Thermit TW
The term arc-welding is used to classify a group of processes that use electric arc as
source of heat to melt and join metals.
As noted from above discussion and the table a large number of welding processes use
electric arc as source of heat for fusion. An electric arc consists of a relatively high current
discharge sustained through a thermally ionized gaseous column called plasma.
Arc welding power supply units reduce the high line-voltage to a suitable output voltage
range, from 20 to 80 volts. Transformers, solid-state inverters or motor-generators are used
as power source. The same device then supplies the high welding current (30 to 1 500 amps)
in either AC or DC or both.
In the following paragraphs we introduce the basics of some of the commonly used weld-
ing processes and their silent features.
5.2 Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)

Introduction
This is an introduction to the welding process the Shielded metal arc welding process
with the aim of giving basic understanding of the process and how it works, the goal is
to introduce the basics of the process and field knowledge that is enough to understand
the advantages and limits of the process to make initial selections for the designing pur-
poses. For more in depth knowledge of the process and it usability for the specific work
it is recommended that the book Arc Welding Process is referred and expert opinion is
sought.
The description includes the safety required to work safely and necessary personal pro-
tective clothing associated with welding.
Process Fundamentals
Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW) process is one of the earliest arc welding processes
and a versatile one, for welding ferrous and several nonferrous metals. The process is also
called Manual Metal Arc (MMA) welding process in UK and some European countries. The
process uses covered electrodes. An electrode consists of core metallic wire covered with
silicate binders and other material that may include fluorides, carbonates, oxides, metal
alloys and cellulose. The cover is extruded over the wire. The covering is then dried in an
oven. The covering has several roles to play.
1. It works as an arc stabilizer,

2. It provides shielding from atmospheric contamination during molten state
by evolving gases and during solidification by covering the weld metal with
slag.
3. It provides scavengers, deoxidizers, and fluxing agents to cleanse the weld
and prevent excessive grain growth in the weld metal.
4. It provides a slag blanket to protect the hot weld metal from the air and
enhance the mechanical properties, bead shape, and surface cleanliness of
the weld metal.
5. It is also a source of alloying elements to produce compatible weld metal.
How the Process Works

The bare metal end of the electrode is clamped in the electrode-holder which is connected
to the power source; the other lead of the power source is connected to the work terminal.
The arc is struck by bringing the electrode in contact with the work surface and then imme-
diately pulling them apart about two to three mm (about 0.08 to 0.12 inch), thus ionizing
the gas between the two electrical ends. The resulting arc generates heat to melt the work
metal and the metal electrode. The coalescence of metals is produced by heat from an elec-
tric arc that is maintained between the tip of the covered electrode and the surface of the
base metal in the joint being welded.
Power Sources
The welding machine for SMAW process are various and can be classified at the basic level
on the basis of the current used as alternating current (AC) or direct current (DC) power
sources.
The description of a power source must give at least the following three group of
information.
• Type of power source,

• Whether it has a constant current or constant voltage,
• Whether it is Ac or Dc or both ac and DC.
These power sources are designed to produce either constant current or constant voltage.
Current is measured in Amperes, and potential that is the voltage, is measured in Volts.
Alternating current power sources are further divided in to the following by type of
equipment,
I. Transformers
II. Motor or engine driven alternators,
III. Invertors
The Direct Current power sources are the following types of equipment.
I. DC rectifier transformers,
II. Invertors,
III. Power driven alternators with DC rectifiers,
IV. Motor or engine driven generators.
A third group of power source have emerged, these are combined power sources capable
of changing from alternative current (AC) to direct current (DC). These welding equipment
are,
I. Invertors,
II. Transformers with DC rectifier,
III. Power driven alternators with DC rectifiers.
A transformer is used to change high voltage low current electricity into the low voltage
but higher current output suitable for welding.
Addition of invertor to a transformer is an improvement to transformer method of get-
ting welding current. The function of an invertor in a transformer power source is to change
the input AC to DC output, and then raise the current frequency through a very small
but very efficient transformer built within, and produce (output) very high frequency AC
current.
Such machines are distinguished from Transformer type power source, as an indepen-
dent power sources and are called just Invertors.
Another unique attribute of an invertor is that these are across the constant current or
constant potential (voltage) classification of welding machines. They can be both.
Welding machines are manufactured to cover as wide attributes as possible to address the
variety of job demands of a fabricator. For example, a machine may be capable of producing
both ac and dc output. Another important way the machines are classified are the way the
output current (welding heat) and voltage (length of welding arc) is manipulated, called
the output slope, the way the open circuit volt and ammeter react as the arc is struck and
welding progresses.
Another important factor in welding process is the selection of suitable electrode for the
specific material and weld design. For that it is essential to know how to identify electrodes,
and read electrodes designations.
Identification of Welding Electrode
Welding electrodes are identified by an alfa-numeric numbering code system. Both

American (AWS) practice and European practices use similar basis, however their units
and sometimes even the sequencing differ. Hence it is important to learn what system is
being used to designate the electrode, but in most cases the American practice is prevalent,
and offers very less chances of confusion. The description of AWS classification (identifica-
tion) system is given in the following sketches.
Unalloyed basic carbon steel electrodes are covered under AWS A5.1, also see the AWS
classification figure given below. Example of how to read welding electrode classification is
given below.
Example: E7018-1H4R
E: Type of welding consumables. Here, E = Electrode
• 70: These first two digits (70) is the weld metal’s nominal tensile strength
(70 x1000) in psi, or 70 ksi which are equal to 480 MPa.
• 1: This digit indicates welding position the electrode is suited for. This digit
is a kind of code to indicate the welding position, where number 1= All
positions and number 2= flat and horizontal only.
• 8: This last of the four digits indicates, the Type of coating and current and
polarity. In this example the number 8 indicates that the electrode has iron
powder in the coating and it low hydrogen and its electrical properties are,
usable in AC and DC (EP) with electrode positive polarity.
• -1: Next number indicates that the electrode meets low temperature impact
requirements. (Note: look for the test temperature, and impact energy
absorbed values when selecting proper electrode)
• H4: Code for diffusible hydrogen. And the electrode will produce weld-metal
with hydrogen content of < 4mg/100g weld metal
• R: The letter R indicates that the electrode has property of reduced moisture
absorption.
The American Welding Society (AWS) classifies electrodes on the basis of chemical com-
position of their undiluted weld metal or mechanical properties or both. Welding current
and position are also indicated.
Carbon steel electrodes are included in AWS Specification A5.1. Under AWS 5.1 there
are two strength levels: 60 and 70 ksi. Example of electrode designation system is E6010,
which is explained below. Some of the other common use electrodes are E7011, E7015,
E7018, E7024, for an example, in an electrode designated as E 6010, the letters and numbers
have following explanations.
• Letter E designates an electrode.

• Number 60 signifies that the tensile strength of the deposited weld metal is
minimum 60 000 psi.
• The second last digit (1) represents the welding position the electrode is suit-
able for use (1 = all positions).
• The last digit, (0) refers to the covering type and current type, in this case 0
indicates the covering is of cellulose, and electrode is good for all positions
of welding.
Low alloy steel electrodes are included in AWS Specification A5.5. Their numbering sys-
tem is similar to that used for carbon steel electrodes. A letter or letter number combination
suffix is added to indicate the alloy content (E7010-A1, E8016-C2). Weld metal strengths of
alloy steel electrode range from 70 to 120 ksi minimum tensile strength. American Welding
Society (AWS) specifications use suffixes at the end of the electrode designation to classify
the alloying elements, and time to time reviews the new developments and adds or with-
draws as required.
For alloy steel electrodes there are further additions of code letter and number identifi-
cations. These are used as suffixes to the primary identification system. The following are,
some of the most common suffixes and their intended meanings,
Suffix Meaning of the suffix in Carbon and alloy steel SMAW electrodes
A1 Contains 0.5% Molybdenum (Mo)
B1 Contains 0.5% Chromium (Cr) and 0.5% Mo
B2 Contains 1.25% Cr and 0.5% Mo.
B3 Contains 2.25% Cr and 1% Mo.
B4 Contains 2% Cr and 0.5% Mo.
B5 Contains 0.5% Cr and 1% Mo.
C1 Contains 2.5% Nickel (Ni).
C2 Contains 3.5% Mo.
C3 Contains 1% Ni, 0.15% Cr and 0.35% Mo.
D1 Contains 1.75% Manganese (Mn) and 0.25% Mo.
D2 Contains 1.75% Manganese (Mn) and 0.45% Mo.
G 0.5%Ni, 0.3%Cr, 0.2%Mo, 0.1%V, 1%Mn (only one of these elements
has to meet the requirement to qualify as “G” electrode).
L Controlled elements (example low carbon)
M Meets military requirements.
HZ Meets weld metal diffusible hydrogen requirements.
H1 up to 15 ml/100 gram of weld metal
H2 up to 10ml/100 gram of weld metal
H3 up to 5ml/100 gram of weld metal
H4 ≤ 5ml/100 gram of weld metal
R Meets absorbed moisture test requirements.

Numerical Numerical suffixes following the above listed; indicate toughness
properties of the weld metal.
These designations are often updated and modified hence it is important that most recent
update should be consulted. The updated version is available or referenced in the welding/
construction code that the design is governed by.
5.3 Gas Tungsten Arc Welding

Introduction
The GTAW welding process is usually not a heavy fabrication process, it has its limita-
tions. But the process is heavily used to weld thinner sections, and it supports quality and
aesthetic welds, and in specific cases, in the fabrication of heavy sections often as the root-
passweld to achieve full penetration.
The welding equipment for the GTAW process are various, they have better accuracy in
delivering required power for welding, and control methods.
Since the process uses no consumable electrode to generate heat for welding, the import-
ant aspects of tungsten electrode and its maintenance and handling is of importance, the
precise grinding of the non-consumable electrode for effective use of the arc initiation and
control cannot be over emphasized.
Process Description
Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW) process uses a non- consumable tungsten electrode
which must be shielded with an inert gas. The arc is established between the tip of the elec-
trode and work to melt the metal being welded and the consumable filler metal is added
either manually or by some mechanized process. The inert gas shielding protects the molten
metal, which is cooling, and it also provides the required arc characteristics.
The process may use direct current with positive or negative polarity attached, to
the tungsten electrode, though in most application electrode is attached to the nega-
tive polarity. Alternative current (AC) is also used to produce different effects on the
welding.
Argon and Helium are the two inert gases used for this process. Choice of gas and type
of current and polarity depends on the type of material and quality of weld desired, for
example use of helium gas will result in deeper penetration, and if Helium gas is used with
DC current then the process would provide deepest penetration of the weld.
As stated in the introductory paragraphs we have learned that the GTAW process can
use either AC or DC current. Also, a single welding machine may be able to deliver both
AC and DC current.
While some newer machines offer technology and flexibility, achieving high-quality
welds with a less advanced, less expensive power source is always possible. Technology has
its place for efficiency of time, cost, and general consistency of quality, but it can’t always
beat what a skilled welder can bring to the table. Many simple machines are affordable and
can provide years of service, and skilled welder can use them effectively.
A plug and go option is not possible for buying a power source. However, a comprehen-
sive understanding of the process and the materials to be welded is imperative and can lead
to a satisfying purchase of optimum machine suitable for the task.
Transformer transformers, rectifier, and generator driven machines are also used for
GTAW process. While the transformer machines are capable of producing ac current only,
the generator type machines can produce both ac and dc currents, and often the dc power
source is fitted with rectifiers to produce rectified ac current.
GTAW Power Sources
A GTAW power source is a constant-current machine. Unlike constant-voltage power

sources, it will do its best to maintain a constant current, current translates in to the heat
required to weld, despite changes in the voltage, which translates in to the arc length.
A constant-voltage power source does just the opposite, which is required for gas metal
arc welding (GMAW).
The primary requirement is that the machine should be able to supply constant current.
In a Constant current machine, the volt-ampere curve has a steep slope, wherein a change
in voltage would only result slight change in output voltage.
The constant current machines allow the welder to adjust the current output by changing
the arc length. More modern machines are capable of producing near constant current.
This is stability of current output, and maintenance during the welding is possible with
the use of electronic circuits that use silicon-controlled rectifiers (SCR) to rectify the cur-
rent output. The transformer rectifier type of welding machines delivers such constant cur-
rent with the help of several SCRs in the circuit.
AC Power Sources
Alternating current welding machines are either the transformer or the alternator type
machines.
The transformers reduce the high voltage and low amperage supply electricity to high
current to low voltage welding power. Transformers are constructed on a soft iron core,
which is laminated. The iron core is used to build magnetic field, wound with a copper wire
that carries the current. There are two such coils, they are called primary and secondary
coils. Primary coils receive the primary (supply) current and the secondary coil outputs the
changed (transformed) current for the welding. Primary coils have more copper wire wind-
ing turns, and the wire is thinner compared to the secondary coil, this is because the primary
carries lower amperage - less current. The significance of more turns than secondary coil, it
means that the transformer is reducing the voltage and conversely increasing the amperage –
the current. These transformers are aptly called the stepdown transformers. Number of coil
turns indicate the force of the magnetic field created. In an alternating current this magnetic
field collapse as the alternating cycles reverses its cycle, at this point the magnetic field col-
lapses. Magnetic field is directly proportioned to the number of the turns the coil has.
The secondary coil has fewer turns of relatively thicker diameter copper wire. These two
coils are not connected by any means, they are set apparat from each other in one container,
such that the magnetic field of the primary coil transfers to the secondary coil, as the cur-
rent cycle reverses, and magnetic field collapses. The precise spacing of two coils plays very
important role, if they are distanced too far not enough field from the primary coil will
cross to the secondary core, reducing the current output.
The action of reversal and rebuilding of magnetic field induces the current in the sec-
ondary coil. This successive action at 120 times per second, causes the current to flow from
primary to the secondary coil.
The Alternator Type AC Welding Machines
These machines are different from transformer type welding machines, in that these
machines generate their won electricity through a rotor, which may be driven by any hydro-
carbon fuel diesel or gasoline for example, or even by an electric motor driven by supply
power source. The rotor is wrapped with multiple coils of copper wire and housed in a cas-
ing that has magnetic field. Thus, the rotating coils on the rotor create alternating current
for welding.
The electrical parameters are very important variables for welding, hence the neces-
sity to have better control on the current output cannot be over emphasized. The control
in this context means the accuracy of current available for welding in various positions
and continuity of the available current for welding. The control for transformer type AC
power sources is done either through the moving some parts of the system or through an
electronic device fitted in the circuit. We can discuss them here for good understanding
of the function of AC power system. The first three methods of control discussed below
use the manual or mechanical means to vary and control output. The output ac is not
limited by the frequency, it can be at any frequency.
Alternating current can also be obtained by a method called Dual Source with inverter
switching. This machine uses inverter to deliver ac as the main welding current, a second
power supply unit is included that by switching, supplies the direct current for welding. The
inverters are discussed in more details further in this chapter.
Process Advantages and Limitations
GTAW process produces superior quality welds that are free from most defects. The welds
are free from slag inclusions, and if properly maintained free from any inclusions, including
tungsten inclusion, it is also free of spatter process. The process can be used with or with-
out filler metal (autogenous), as required. It allows excellent control of the root pass weld
penetration. It can use relatively inexpensive power supplies. It allows precise control of the
welding variables. It can be used to weld almost all metals. It allows independent control of
the heat source and filler metal additions.
Deposition rates for this process are low. Compared to other processes the welder requires
more skill to be able to produce a quality weld. The weld area must be protected from
wind and drafts to maintain the inert gas envelop over the weld zone. Tungsten inclusions
can occur if the electrode is allowed to contact the weld pool. Contamination can occur if
proper shielding is not maintained or if the filler metal or base metal is contaminated.
5.4 Gas Metal Arc Welding

Introduction
The GMAW process along with SMAW process is the most used welding process for heavy
fabrications. It has number of variants and some of them very proprietary, developed for
achieving specific needs of the construction industry.
The description of the process includes various equipment types, their accuracy in
delivering required power for welding, and control methods. The chapter has a section on
the important aspects of metal transfer types and their attributes. In the practical appli-
cation of various metals being welded with GMAW process the detailed description of
Aluminum, Stainless steels and Nickel alloys is included with welding guide in the form
of WPSs.
In the simplest version of description, the GMAW process is defined as the following, and its
traditional variants are short-circuit transfer, Globular transfer and Spray Transfer modes.
Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW) uses a continuous (solid wire) consumable electrode.
The process is also referred as gas metal arc (GMA) process. The filler wire is fed by mechan-
ical means and shielding gas is supplied through the hand held nozzle or if the process is
fully automated then through the nozzles mounted on the mechanized system. After initial
settings by the operator, the process of wire feed is self-regulating.
The welding gun guides the feed of the consumable electrode and conducts the electrical
current and shielding gas to the work. Energy is provided to establish and maintain the arc
and melt the electrode as well as the base metal. Metal transfer across the arc can occur in
any of the three modes described above.
GMAW process is so diversified, that full understanding of all its variants and all types
of controls and current dispensation is not easy to describe in detail, unless it is read in an
Ac Welding process book, and along with that it is observed and practiced in practical envi-
ronment. The following is just an introduction to familiarize the designers with the essential
terminologies, and make them aware of the possible avenues to explore options.
Equipment for GMAW Process
GMAW process has number of variants hence the selection of equipment varies to the need
of the specific job, but there are machines that offer simple switch selection to change from
one mode of GMAW welding to another.
The new power sources and electrical and electronic control systems relating to arc weld-
ing processes are often same as for the SMAW process. These welding machines available
for multi-use, across number of arc welding processes. For example; welding machines are
available that can be used for SMAW, GTAW, GMAW and FCAW.
The GMAW process consists of basic four equipment, as the process gets further
evolved, more improved versions of these four are introduced and they get more efficient.
The basic components of an industrial, GMAW system includes the following principal
components:
1. Power source.
2. Wire drive and accessories (drive rolls, guide tubes, reel stand, etc.).
3. GMAW gun and associated cable assembly, suitable for delivering the shield-
ing gas and the electrode to the arc. Cooling system may be added.
4. Shielding gas apparatus and accessories.
There is a very wide range of GMAW components available in the market. They are
designed to provide optimum arc performance for the mode of metal transfer they are
made for or they may be universal systems where modes could be changed to suit the job
requirements. They may be packaged as one unit or may have different modules. The fol-
lowing are some of the descriptions.
• Combination power sources and wire drives, which range in current capacity
from 135 – 350 amp. The lower output range power source/wire feeder com-
binations are intended for limited sheet metal applications.
• Constant voltage fixed power sources with a selection of wire drives and
accessories for three-phase input power. They range from 250 – 655 amps of
welding output.
• Multi-process power sources capable of the full range of gas metal arc modes
of transfer with additional process capabilities. These range from single-phase
300 amps to three-phase 655-amp systems.
• Advanced process power sources are specifically manufactured such as the
dedicated sources for the Surface Tension Transfer (STTTM) and GMAW-P.
They range in output from 225 - 655 amps, and all of these systems require
three-phase input power.
• Then there are the engine driven power sources that range from 200 - 600
amps of output.
Further in this section we will discuss some of the welding equipment for the GMAW
process.
GMAW Power Sources
Welding power source for GMAW process need to provide constant voltage, the Transformer –
Rectifier type of sources are the most common type. They give DC output, where polar-
ity can be changed for the type of weld being done. Though most of the GMAW welding
is done with machines whose output is DC current, primarily the DCEP - direct current
where electrode is connected to the positive terminal.
Inverters are also very popular welding source for GMAW process, they are lighter, and
compact, the welder has the option to select from constant current to constant voltage
mode, and for the GMAW process the selection of constant voltage is required.
The Transformer Rectifiers
The transformer-rectifiers and the generator types are the direct current power source
machines. In the transformer rectifier type machine, there are two distinct sections, one
is the transformer and the second is the rectifier, together these two make the DC power
source.
The transformer section receives the supplied line voltage and current in either 220 volts,
440 volts, and at 60 Hz cycles. The transformer converts the AC line voltage and current to
the welding current and voltage of 60 volts to 80 volts, also called open circuit voltage, and the
welding current varies to the design of the equipment, and it could be several hundred amperes.
As this low-voltage and high-amperes current exits the transformer it enters in the rec-
tifier section of the machine.
In the rectifier changes the AC to DC. A direct current constant-current output trans-
former rectifier may be single phase or a three-phase power source.
The rectifiers use devices that are called diodes to convert alternative current to direct
current. In diodes the current can flow in one direction only, it does not allow the current
to flow in the opposite direction.
Since the flow of current is controlled in one direction, through the diode in the circuit.
The alternative current entering into the rectifier is changing direction 120 times per sec-
ond, the current exiting the rectifier through the diode is in one direction only, and it has
changed to direct current.
The direct current is produced through a generator. Another option is to use an AC alter-
nator with a rectifier. The construction of a generator is relatively simple as compared to an
AC alternator with a rectifier.
The transformer-rectifier machines are designed to control voltage, which is one of the
two important variables for welding. The other variable is the welding current that is spo-
ken in terms of the wire feed speed. Both these controls are in the front panels of welding
machine, however if the wire feed unit is not in-built in the machine, and an external wire
feed unit is used, then the wire-feed control will be located on the wire feeder unit. Welder
should familiarize himself with the machine they are going to use.
The wire feed speed is linked to the welding current that is being drawn, a higher feed rate
requires higher current to melt the wire, conversely the lower wire feed rate will demand
lower current.
Inverters
The modern inverter-based machines offer additional flexibility. This is especially apparent
in the use of AC for welding nonferrous materials. Some manufacturers offer power sources
with a maximum control over the arc waveform. Some of these newer machines also are
considered to be multi-process power sources, these can be used for welding various other
electric arc processes. The inverters significantly differ from conventional power sources
limited either by constant –current or constant-voltage mode. The inverters however are
not limited to either a constant-current or constant-voltage mode.
Other advantage of an inverter type machine is its efficiency in terms of power input versus
output. Inverters are energy efficient, and are able to do more work with less energy, thus reduc-
ing cost and space. These machines are powerful for their size, but they are also expensive.
5.5 Flux Cored Arc Welding (FCAW)

In the flux core arc welding (FCAW) process, the arc is maintained between a continuous
fed filler metal electrode and the weld pool. Shielding is obtained from a flux contained
within the tubular electrode in which case it is called self-shielding FCAW. Alternative
is to supply an external shielding gas in which case the process is called shielded FCAW
(FCAW-S).
The flux-cored electrode is a composite tubular filler metal electrode with a metal sheath
and a core of various powdered materials. An extensive slag cover is produced during weld-
ing. Self-shielded FCAW protects the molten metal through the decomposition and vapor-
ization of the flux core by the heat of the arc. Gas shielded FCAW uses a protective gas flow
in addition to the flux core action.
FCAW process combines the productivity of continuous feed wire welding, and the met-
allurgical benefits that are derived from the use of flux and the support of slag in shaping and
protecting the weld bead from contamination and providing controlled cooling of weld metal.
5.6 Submerged Arc Welding (SAW)

Process Description
The submerged arc welding (SAW) process uses an electric arc to heat and melt the metal
being welded. Since the arc is buried under the mound of flux, the arc is invisible to naked
eye. This characteristic gives the process the name submerged arc welding.
The arc is struck between the work and the electrode wire coming out from the nozzle,
this arc provides the required heat for welding. The arc and molten metal are buried under
the blanket of granular fusible flux continuously dropping through a chute on the work.
The filler metal is obtained from the consumable electrode, and sometimes the additional
alloying elements are also supplemented through the welding fluxes.
The flux’s main role is to stabilize the arc, determine the mechanical and chemical prop-
erties in the weld deposit, and maintain quality of the weld.
SAW is a versatile welding process. This commercial production welding process is capa-
ble of making welds with currents up to 2 000 amps using single or multiple wires or strips
of filler metal.
The business end of a continuous bare wire electrode is inserted into a mound of flux
that covers the area or joint grove to be welded. After the arc is initiated, a wire feeding
mechanism begins to feed the electrode wire towards the joint at a controlled rate. The
feeder is moved manually or more commonly, programmed to move along the weld seam.
Sometimes the welding head is kept stationary and the work is moved under the welding
head, most of the pipe mills use this practice.
Heat evolved by the electric arc progressively melts some of the flux, the end of the wire,
and the adjacent edges of the base metal. A pool of molten metal is created beneath the
layers of the liquid slag. This pool is in a very agitated state and gas bubbles are swept up
to the surface. The flux floats on the molten metal and completely shields the welding zone
from the atmosphere.
5.7 Electroslag Welding (ESW)

The electroslag welding (ESW) processes involves a molten slag that melts the filler metal
and the surfaces of the work pieces to be joined. The volume of slag moves along the full
cross section of the joint as welding progresses, the slag shields the weld pool. The process
starts as the arc is initiated. The arc heats the granulated flux and melts it to form the slag.
As sufficient volume of slag is created, the conductive slag extinguishes the arc. The existing
slag is kept molten by the resistance of the slag as the electric current passes between the
electrode and the work pieces.
The ESW process has extremely high rate of deposition and it welds very thick section of
material in a single pass. The process requires minimum joint preparation thus reducing the cost
of material handling, which could add significantly to the overall cost of welding and fabrication.
Due to very high deposition rate and single pass welding the material distortion is minimal.
The ESW process can only be used on carbon steel and low alloy steels and must be per-
formed in the vertical position, in upward progression. Welding must be completed in one
cycle and cannot be interrupted. Material to be welded must be at least 19 mm (¾ inch)
thick and welding must be performed in the vertical position.
5.8 Plasma Arc Welding

In Plasma arc welding (PAW) process the heat is produced between an electrode and the
work piece by heating them with a constricted arc. Shielding is obtained from hot ionized
gas delivered through the torch. A supplementary shielding gas is usually provided. From
the process point of view, it is the constricted gas flow that differentiates PAW process from
the GTAW process.
5.9 Stud Welding

Stud welding is a general term used to describe joining a metal stud or similar part to a
metal work piece. Welding can be done with many processes such as arc, resistance, fric-
tion, and percussion.
Arc stud welding joins the base (end) of the stud to the work piece by heating the stud
and the work with an arc drawn between the two. When the surfaces to be joined are prop-
erly heated, they are brought together under low pressure, resulting in the joining of two at
the interface.
Capacitor discharge stud welding is performed with heat derived from the rapid dis-
charge of electrical energy stored in a bank of capacitors. Rest of the process is similar to
the arc stud welding. As is described above, the different type of stud welding processes are
similar in all respect except in the application of heat to the metal surfaces to be welded
together.
The following two welding process are not very common welding process used in major
construction projects, and one of them is not even an Electric Arc Welding process. But
these may be encountered in some specific situations.
5.10 Oxyfuel Gas Welding

Cutting and shaping of members to shape and join to make a constriction component an
essential part of the construction and fabrication process. Metal parts are cut in shops, and
in field before welding and joining them. Except for some components that require very
precise dimensions, and are small enough to fit on machine, most of the cutting and shap-
ing is done by oxyfuel cutting process.
The Oxyfuel cutting is a process that is a very low heat process. The principles of oxyfuel
cutting is same as that of welding, burning or cutting is often associated with metal fabri-
cation projects.
In the oxy-fuel cutting and shaping process uses gas flame to heat and burn the metal, the
heat is produced at the tip of a cutting torch, the tip is called nozzle. In this process a fuel gas
and oxygen are combined in a mixing chamber and ignited at the nozzle tip.
The process derives heat for welding by burning two gases; sometime the process uses
part of the required oxygen gas from the supply and supplements the rest from the atmo-
sphere, as is the case with oxy-acetylene process.
The oxyfuel cutting process gives an advantage to the fitter/welder over the heat and
the freedom to cut and shape as the work demands, rather than struggle to fit two parts as
they are supplied. This gives the process a clear advantage for use in critical fit ups, often
encountered in field conditions. The equipment for most of the oxy fuel process is low cost,
portable, and versatile.
Oxy Fuel Cutting and Shaping for Fabrication and Welding
For preparation of weld members to correct size, and shape the most versatile method is
Oxy-fuel cutting. With some basic changes from the welding setup, it can be used as a
cutting tool. Cutting attachments, multi-flame heating nozzles, and other accessories are
available. Mechanized cutting operations are easily set up and widely used in verity of ways.
For cutting the flame is used to heat a spot on the metal to be cut when the temperature
is reached extra flow of oxygen is introduced to burn off the metal, a continued heating and
flow of oxygen effect cutting.
The cutting process is illustrated in Figure 5.10.1 below. A mixture of oxygen and the fuel
gas is used to preheat the metal to its ‘ignition’ temperature which, for steel, is 1292 to
1650oF (700°C - 900°C) visually it appears as bright red heat, well below steel’s melting
point. At this point a jet of pure oxygen is directed into the preheated area instigating a vig-
orous exothermic chemical reaction between the oxygen and the metal to form iron oxide
or slag. The oxygen jet blows away the slag enabling the jet to pierce through the material
and continue to cut through the material.
There are four basic requirements for oxy-fuel cutting:
• Achieving the ignition temperature of the material, which is below the melt-
ing point. Heating to the melting temperature would melt the steel, and flow
away before cutting could take place.
• Formation of the oxide melting point, for the specific material, should be
lower than that of the surrounding material, this would facilitate the blow
away of slag when extra oxygen is directed at the slag.
Oxygen
Fuel gas and

oxygen
Heating flame
Slag jet
Figure 5.10.1 Oxy-fuel cutting process.

• The oxidation reaction between the oxygen jet and the metal must be suffi-
cient to maintain the ignition temperature.
• A minimum of gaseous reaction products should be produced so as not to
dilute the cutting oxygen
Oxy fuel cutting process is not suited to cut metals that form refractory oxides, these
metals include, stainless steel, cast iron and non-ferrous metals, refractory oxides of these
metals have very high melting temperature. Often Plasma arc cutting process is used to
shape these metals for welding and fabrication, smaller cutting and shaping is achieved by
grinding.
Purity of Oxygen
The quality and speed of cutting are primarily dependent on the purity of the oxygen
stream. The purity of oxygen should be at least 99.5%. A decrease in purity of 1% is esti-
mated to typically reduce the cutting speed by 25% and increase the gas consumption by
25%.
This emphasizes the importance of keeping the cleanliness of the cutting nozzle, it’s
design which is designed to protect the oxygen stream from air entrainment.
Choice of Fuel Gas

The term used is Oxy Fuel, this indicates that more than one fuel gas is used for cutting,
acetylene and propane are the most common fuel gases used in the industry. The five most
commonly used fuel gases are acetylene, propane, MAPP (methylacetylene-propadiene),
propylene and natural gas. The properties of the gases are given in the Table 5.10.1 below.
The relative performance of the fuel gases in terms of pierce time, cutting speed and cut
edge quality, is determined by the flame temperature and heat distribution within the inner
and out flame cones.
Table 5.10.1 Fuel gas characteristics.

Maximum Flame Oxygen to fuel gas
Fuel Gas Temperature °C Ratio (vol) Heat distribution kJ/m3
Primary Secondary
Acetylene 3,160 1.2:1 18,890 35,882
Propane 2,828 4.3:1 10,433 85,325
MAPP 2,976 3.3:1 15,445 56,431
Propylene 2,896 3.7:1 16,000 72,000
Hydrogen 2,856 0.42:1 - -
Natural Gas 2,770 1.8:1 1,490 35,770
Fuel gas combustion occurs in two distinct zones. In the inner cone or primary flame,
the fuel gas combines with oxygen to form carbon monoxide and hydrogen which for acet-
ylene, the reaction is given by the following reaction;
2C2H2 + 2O2 → 4CO + 2H2
Combustion also continues in the secondary or outer zone of the flame with oxygen
being supplied from the air, this reaction is shown below.
4CO+2H2 +3O2 → 4CO2 +2H2O
Thus, fuel gases are characterized by the following points.
• Flame temperature - the hottest part of the flame is at the tip of the primary
flame (inner cone)
• Fuel gas to oxygen ratio - the amount of fuel gas required for combustion but
this will vary according to whether the flame is neutral, oxidizing or reducing
• Heat of combustion - heat of combustion is greater in the outer part of the
flame
Acetylene
Acetylene produces the highest flame temperature of all the fuel gases, see Table 5.10.1
above. The maximum flame temperature for acetylene (in oxygen) is approximately 5729oF
(about 3,160°C) compared with a maximum temperature of 5120oF (about 2,828°C) with
propane. The hotter flame produces more rapid piercing of the materials with the pierce
time being typically one third that produced with propane.
The higher flame speed of acetylene is about 24 ft per second, compared to 11ft per
second for propane (about 7.4m/s and 3.3m/s for propane) and the higher calorific value
of the primary flame (inner cone) (18,890kJ/m3 compared with 10,433 kJ/m3 for propane)
produce a more intense flame at the surface of the metal reducing the width of the Heat
Affected Zone (HAZ) and the degree of distortion.
Propane
Propane produces a lower flame temperature than acetylene, the maximum flame tempera-
ture in oxygen is 5120oF as compared with 5729°F for acetylene. It has a greater total heat
of combustion than acetylene but the heat is generated mostly in the outer cone refer Table
5.10.1 above.
The characteristic appearance of the flames for acetylene and propane are shown in
Figure 5.10.2 and 5.10.3 above, on comparison it appears that the propane flame appears to
be less focused. Consequently, piercing is much slower but as the burning and slag forma-
tion are effected by the oxygen jet, cutting speeds are about the same as for acetylene.
Propane has a greater stoichiometric oxygen requirement than acetylene; for the maxi-
mum flame temperature in oxygen, the ratio of the volume of oxygen to fuel gas are 1.2 to 1
for acetylene and 4.3 to 1 for propane.
Figure 5.10.2 Oxyacetylene gas jet and nozzle design.
Figure 5.10.3 Propane gas jet and nozzle design.
Methylacetylene and Propandiene (MAPP)
MAPP gas is a mixture of various hydrocarbons, principally, methylacetylene and propa-

diene. It produces a relatively hot flame 5389oF (about 2,976°C) with a high heat release
in the primary flame (inner cone) (15,445kJ/m3), less than for acetylene (18,890kJm3) but
much higher than for propane (10,433kJm3). The secondary flame (outer cone) also gives
off a high heat release, similar to propane and natural gas. The combination of a lower flame
temperature, more distributed heat source and larger gas flows compared with acetylene
results in a substantially slower pierce time.
As MAPP gas can be used at a higher pressure than acetylene, it can be used for under-
water cutting in deep water as it is less likely to dissociate into its components of carbon and
hydrogen which are explosive.
Propylene
Propylene is a liquid petroleum gas (LPG) product and has a similar flame temperature to
MAPP; it is hotter than propane, but not as hot as acetylene. It gives off a high heat release
in the outer cone (72,000kJ/m3) but, like propane, it has the disadvantage of having a high
stoichiometric fuel gas requirement (oxygen to fuel gas ratio of approximately 3.7 to 1 by
volume).
Natural Gas
Natural gas has the lowest flame temperature similar to propane and the lowest total heat
value of the commonly used fuel gases, refer Table 5.10.1 above. The heat release of the
inner flame of natural gas and oxygen is 1,490kJ/m3 compare this with 18,890kJ/m3 heat
produced by the for oxyacetylene gas combination. Consequently, natural gas has the slow-
est for piercing ability.
Other cutting and shaping methods may include, arc gouging, machine cutting, etc.
Plasma arc cutting is often used to cut metals that are not suited for cutting by oxyfuel
process, and it is a variation of the PAW process introduced above in the welding processes.
5.11 Hyperbaric Welding

Hyperbaric welding is a process that may be seen in offshore construction projects, the pro-
cess id different not because of its electric arc method as most of the arc welding processes
discussed above. It is classified differently mainly because of the application conditions, that
is under water welding.
Hyperbaric welding is the process of welding at elevated pressures, normally underwater,
but it could be dry and outside water in a pressure chamber. To distinguish the two con-
ditions the term hyperbaric welding is often associated with welding outside water in dry
conditions and, term underwater welding is specifically used to indicate exactly what the
term says that is welding under water.
The applications of hyperbaric welding process are diverse; in its wet form (Under
water) it is often used to repair ships, offshore oil platforms, and offshore pipelines. Steel
is the most common material welded. In the dry form it is used to weld some very exotic
Weldment involving environment sensitive material often associated with aeronautical and
aerospace components. The pressure chamber for dry hyperbaric welding is filled with inert
(or non-reactive) gas mixture in a sealed to control the environment. The controlled envi-
ronment leads to improved process performance and weld quality. Dry hyperbaric welding
conditions are also coupled with under water welding to improve the quality of welds. This
type of weld has been attempted up to the depth of up to 1 000 meters (3 300 ft). The weld
quality of underwater welds is difficult to maintain, the use of NDE methods are post weld
examinations and they produce limited results.
5.12 Application of Welding Processes

While all welding process discussed above are of generic nature and can be used on most
welding fabrication needs, their special attributes make them more desired for certain spe-
cific demands. These demand may vary from material type its thickness or metallurgical
needs etc., most times it is also dependent on what the welding contractor has at their dis-
posal and work with it.
Some generic process have number of variants, especially the GMAW process has
number of variants based on the electrical parameters that allow different modes of metal
deposition. Similarly, they also vary based on type of shielding provided to the hot and
solidifying weld metal.
FCAW process also has variation son the shielding-gas or without shielding-gas options.
For further reading for more details on the welding engineering, and arc welding process
the following books are recommended,
• Applied Welding Engineering – 3rd Edition ELSEVIER Publication ISBN

978-0-12-821348-3
• Arc Welding Processes – Scrivener Publishing (Wiley) ISBN 978 1-11-
9819059
The Table 5.12 below can be used as an easy reckoner to find out which process is likely
to serve better on the given material type. The table includes brazing and soldering process
as a joining methods, at the right hand column.
154
Table 5.12 Application of various welding and joining processes for different types of metal and materials.
Other
joining
Material Welding processes processes
SMAW SAW GMAW FCAW GTAW PAW ESW EGW RW OFW DFW FRW EBW LBW B S
Carbon Steel x x x x x x x x x x x x x x
Low alloy x x x x x x x x x x x x x
Designing Weldments
steel
Stainless x x x x x x x x x x x x x x
steel
Cast Iron x x x x x x x
Nickel and x x x x x x x x x x
alloys
Aluminum x x x x x x x x x x x x x x
and alloys
Titanium x x x x x x x x x
and alloys
Copper and x x x x x x x
alloys
Magnesium x x x x x x x
and alloys
Refractory x x x x x x
alloys
6
Welding Symbols
Synopsis
This chapter is dedicated to the explanation of welding symbols, that are extensively used to
indicate designer’s intent on the fabrication and construction drawings. The construction
of symbol is graphically shown, and components of the symbol is discussed and explained.
Keywords
Symbol, horizontal line, arrow side, other side, groove weld, fillet weld, flair weld, slot weld
6.1 Introduction
Welding is very complex in its application. It is even more complex about how to show
them and details of them on construction and fabrication drawings. The importance of
universally intelligible welding symbol is the necessity of the fabrication and construction
industry. Uniformity of the message is of utmost importance. What is being shown should
be understood by all without any confusion and conflict to avoid costly and sometimes
catastrophic design interpretation mistakes.
For that objective in mind, a universal set of symbols and practices have been devel-
oped, in USA that is mostly available through American Welding Society (AWS), these
symbols are nationally standardized and available through the published document ANSI/
AWS A 2.4. Similar symbols are adopted by Canadian and European welding organizations.
Suitable documents must be refenced for the work at hand.
It can be safely said that for the sake of uniformity of the interpretation, all welding asso-
ciations use same symbols except that tye may use either SI units or US customary units to
show the dimensions.
In the subsequent paragraphs of this chapter a detailed description of each symbol and
what they mean. And how are they to be interpreted are explained. This is the universal lan-
guage of welding personnel and welding designers for proper communication. Proficiency
in its application reading and interpretation is essential.
On the same platform as the welding symbol a nondestructive testing symbol is also
developed, and it is encouraged that that system is also learned and used on the engineering
design drawings for inspection and testing of welds.
155
6.2 Common Weld Symbols and Their Meanings

Welds are specified on engineering and fabrication drawings, using a cryptic set of symbols,
they are a sort of shorthand for describing the type of weld, its size and other processing
and finishing information.
field weld symbol

well-all-around
weld info for other side
tail symbol
weld info for arrow side
arrow to joint
Figure 6.1 The structure of welding symbol.
6.2.1 The Basic Structure of Welding Symbol

The horizontal line, is called the reference line. It is the anchor of the symbol, to which all
the other welding symbols are tied. The instructions for making the weld are strung along
this reference line. An arrow connects the reference line to the joint that is to be welded. In
the above example, the arrow is shown growing out of the right end of the reference line and
heading down and to the right, but many other combinations are used, and they all carry a
specific meaning.
Figure 6.2 Use of pointing reference line arrows in welding symbols.
Quite often, there are two sides to the joint to which the arrow points, and therefore two
potential places for a weld. For example, when two steel plates are joined together into a T
shape, welding may be done on either side of the stem of the T.
arrow other
side side
Figure 6.3 Meaning of arrow pointing.

Welding Symbols 157
The weld symbol distinguishes between the two sides of a joint by using the arrow and
the spaces above and below the reference line. The side of the joint to which the arrow
points is known as the arrow side, and its weld is made according to the instructions given
below the reference line. The other side of the joint is known as the other side, and its weld
is made according to the instructions given above the reference line.
There is a rule here;
a. The weld details shown below the reference line = arrow side
b. The weld details shown above the reference line = other side
This is regardless of the direction of the arrow’s direction.
The flag growing out of the junction of the reference line and the arrow is present if the
weld is to be made in the field during erection of the structure. A weld symbol without a flag
indicates that the weld is to be made in the shop. This is a change from older practices where
a black solid round at the junction between the arrow and the reference line, to denote field
weld. Some older drawings, may still carry that symbol.
The open circle at the arrow/reference line junction is shown as in Figure 6.4 below then
it means that the weld is to go all around the joint.
Figure 6.4 Significance of circle at the inflexion point of the arrow line.
The tail of the weld symbol is the place for supplementary information on the weld. It may
contain a reference to the welding process, the electrode, a detail drawing or any information
that aids in the making of the weld that does not have its own special place on the symbol.
6.2.2 Types of Welds and Their Symbols

Each welding type has its own basic symbol, which is typically placed near the center of
the reference line, and above or below it, depending on which side of the joint it’s on. The
symbol is a small drawing that can usually be interpreted as a simplified cross-section of
the weld. In the descriptions below in the Figure 6.5, a group of symbols are shown for
fillet, Groove and Plug and slot welds, these symbols are shown in both its arrow-side and
other-side positions.
Fillet Weld Groove Welds Plug Welds and

Slot Welds
Figure 6.5 Symbols to denote various types of welds.
6.3 Fillet Welds
Figure 6.6 Symbol of fillet weld.
The fillet weld is used to make corner joints, lap joints, and T-joints. As its symbol suggests,
the fillet weld is roughly triangular in cross-section, although its shape is not always a right
triangle or an isosceles triangle. Weld metal is deposited in a corner formed by the fit-up of the
two members and penetrates and fuses with the base metal to form the joint. Note, that for the
sake of graphical clarity, the Figure 6.7 below do not show the penetration of the weld metal.
Recognize, however, that the degree of penetration is important in determining the quality of
the weld. There is way to show the penetration for fillet welds as well and it will be shown further.
Figure 6.7 How the fillet welds are shown for the given weld on top.
The perpendicular leg of the triangle is always drawn on the left side of the symbol,
regardless of the orientation of the weld itself. The leg size is written to the left of the weld
symbol. If the two legs of the weld are to be the same size, only one dimension is given; if
the weld is to have unequal legs, which is relatively uncommon then, both dimensions are
Welding Symbols 159
given and there is an indication on the drawing as to which leg is longer, as is shown in the
bottom set of drawing in the Figure 6.8 below.
5/16
5/16
5/16
Symbol As built
3/8
1/4 × 3/8
1/4
Symbol As built
Figure 6.8 Typical fillet welds symbols and their as built appearance with size of the weld.
6.3.1 The Length of the Fillet Weld

The length of the weld is given to the right of the fillet weld symbol. This is shown in the
Figure 6.9 below, which shows that a ¼ inch of equal leg fillet weld, that is 6 inch long.
Compare the symbol with the actual welded picture on the right.
1/4
1/4
1/4 6 6
Symbol As built
Figure 6.9 Symbol and the as built: full dimensioning of a fillet weld, note the length of the weld.
If no length is given, then the weld is to be placed between specified dimension lines, if
given, or between those points where an abrupt change in the weld direction would occur,
for example at the end of the plates as in the example picture above.
For intermittent welds, the length of each portion of the weld and the spacing of the
welds are separated by a dash. The fist number is the length followed by the number that
indicates the distance of spacing. This set of information is shown to the right of the fillet
weld symbol as is shown in the Figure 6.10 below. The spacing is also called the pitch of the
weld. The spacing is not the clear space between the welds, but the either center-to-center,
or end-to-end distance.
1/4 1/4
1/4 2–4
4
2
Symbol As built
Figure 6.10 Symbol and As-built: Showing an intermittent fillet weld and its size. Shown is the size ¼ inch
fillet weld that is 2-inch long and end to end spaced by 4-inches.
6.4 Groove Welds
Figure 6.11 Symbols used to denote groove welds.
The groove weld is commonly used to make edge-to-edge joints, although it is also often
used in corner joints, T joints, and joints between curved and flat pieces. As suggested
by the variety of groove weld symbols, there are many ways to make a groove weld,
the differences are primarily based on the geometry of the parts to be joined and the
Welding Symbols 161
preparation of weld-edges. Weld metal is deposited within the groove and it fuses to
make a coalescence of the two faces of the groove and penetrates the base metal to form
the joint. For the sake of graphical clarity, the drawings below generally do not show the
penetration of the weld metal. However, where it is necessary the symbols make it very
clear if a full penetration is desired, or in case of partial joint penetration welds, symbols
show up what depth the weld penetration is required to meet design requirements. This
is further discussed in the paragraph 6.3.2 and Figure 6.13 with the help of V-groove
welds.
The various types of groove weld and their symbols are shown below.
6.4.1 Square Groove Welds
1
8
1/8
Figure 6.12 Sq. groove weld symbol and As-built.
The groove is created by either a tight fit or a slight separation of the edges. The amount of
separation, if any, is given on the weld symbol.
6.4.2 V-Groove Welds

The edges of both joining members are chamfered, either from one side or from both side,
to create the groove. The angle of the V is given on the weld symbol, as is the separation at
the root, if required.
1
8
60° 60°
60° 60°
1/8
Figure 6.13 V-groove welds and their as built, note the positioning of arrows.
If the depth of the V is not to the full thickness, or half the thickness in the case of a dou-
ble V, then the depth is given to the left of the weld symbol.
60°
3/8
1/4 3/8
60°
60° 60°
1/4 3/8
3/8
60°
Figure 6.14 Groove welds, full penetration and partial penetration welds note the sizing of PJP and
positioning of arrow.
If the penetration of the weld is to be greater than the depth of the groove, the depth of
the effective throat is given in parentheses after the depth of the V.
3/8(1/2)
60°
60°
1/2 3/8
Figure 6.15 Symbol and as built of a PJP weld that shows the depth of penetration and also the effective
throat.
6.5 Bevel Groove Welds

The edge of one of the pieces is chamfered and the other is left square. The bevel symbol’s
perpendicular line is always drawn on the left side, regardless of the orientation of the weld
itself. The arrow points toward the piece that is to be chamfered. This extra significance is
emphasized by a break in the arrow line. The break is not necessary, if the designer has no
preference as to which piece gets the edge chamfered or if the piece to receive the chamfer
is clearly obvious to a qualified welder. Angle and depth of edge chamfer, effective throat
Welding Symbols 163
and separation at the root are described using the methods discussed above in the V-groove
section.
40°
40°
Figure 6.16 Symbol and as built of a bevel weld.
6.5.1 U-Groove Welds

The edges of both pieces are given a concave treatment. Depth of edge treatment, effective
throat and separation at the root are described using the methods discussed in the V-groove
section.
60°
3/4
3/4
60°
Figure 6.17 Symbol and as built of a U-groove weld.
6.5.2 J-Groove Welds

The edge of one of the pieces is given a concave treatment and the other is left square. It
is to the U-groove weld what the bevel groove weld is to the V-groove weld. As with the
bevel, the perpendicular line is always drawn on the left side and the arrow (with a break,
if necessary) points to the piece that receives the edge treatment. Depth of edge treatment,
effective throat and separation at the root are described using the methods discussed in the
V-groove section.
3/4
40°
40°
3/4
Figure 6.18 Symbol and as built J-groove weld; note the positioning of arrow and method to show PJP weld.
6.5.3 Flare-V Groove Welds

Commonly used to join two rounded or curved parts. The intended depth of the weld itself
is given to the left of the symbol, with the weld depth shown in parentheses.
1 (5/8)
5/8
1
Figure 6.19 Symbol and as built flare-weld note the practice of showing the depth of the weld.
6.5.4 Flare Bevel Groove Weld

Commonly used to join a round or curved piece to a flat piece. As with the flare-V, the
depth of the groove formed by the two curved surfaces and the intended depth of the weld
itself are given to the left of the symbol, with the weld depth shown in parentheses. The
symbol’s perpendicular line is always drawn on the left side, regardless of the orientation of
the weld itself.
Welding Symbols 165
3/4 (3/8)
3/8
3/4
3/4
3/8
Figure 6.20 Symbol and as built with desired dimensions of the weld, and supplementary symbol to show
backing bar.
Common supplementary symbols used with groove welds are the melt-thru and back-
ing bar symbols. Both symbols indicate that complete joint penetration is to be made with
a single-sided groove weld. In the case of melt-thru, the root is to be reinforced with weld
metal on the back side of the joint. The height of the reinforcement, if critical, is indicated
to the left of the melt-thru symbol, which is placed across the reference line from the basic
weld symbol.
1/8
60°
60°
1/8
Figure 6.21 Symbol and as built and shown depth of desired and achieved weld penetration.
When a backing bar is used to achieve complete joint penetration, its symbol is placed
across the reference line from the basic weld symbol. If the bar is to be removed after the
weld is complete, an “R” is placed within the backing bar symbol. The backing bar symbol
has the same shape as the plug or slot weld symbol, but context should always make the
symbol’s intention clear.
60°
60°
backing bar
Figure 6.22 A weld symbol and as built with the backing bar.
6.6 Plug and Slot Welds
Figure 6.23 A symbol of a Plug-weld.
Plug welds and slot welds are used to join overlapping members, one of which has holes
(round for plug welds, elongated for slot welds) in it. Weld metal is deposited in the holes
and penetrates and fuses with the base metal of the two members to form the joint. (Note:
for the sake of graphical clarity, the drawings below do not show the penetration of the
weld metal. Recognize, however, that the degree of penetration is important in determining
the quality of the weld.) For plug welds, the diameter of each plug is given to the left of the
symbol and the plug-to-plug spacing (pitch) is given to the right. For slot welds, the width
of each slot is given to the left of the symbol, the length and pitch (separated by a dash) are
given to the right of the symbol, and a detail drawing is referenced in the tail. The number
of plugs or slots is given in parentheses above or below the weld symbol. The arrow-side
and other-side designations indicate which piece contains the hole(s). If the hole is not to
be completely filled with weld metal, the depth to which it is to be filled is given within the
weld symbol.
Welding Symbols 167
Det. B
7/8 3 1 5/8 3½–5
(3) (2)
Det. B
3½
7/8 1
3 3½
3 5
5/8
Section thru plug Section thru slot
Figure 6.24 Shows the symbols and as built welds for both plug and slot welds.
7
Structural Design and Welding Specifications,
and Other Useful Information
7.1 Introduction
The information given about the engineering specifications is for information, some of
these specifications are national codes. These type of specifications are alive and dynamic,
meaning they are updated and changed with time and gained knowledge that is acquired
from the real world working conditions. The latest version of the specifications must be
sued and referenced for new designs; however, some older construction may have been
meeting the earlier versions and that also must be consulted when working on older
constructions.
At the end are also given some tables, these tables and charts are useful information
for engineers. These tables and charts provide some easy reference factors, and conversion
from one set of unit to another.
In the section there are also table that give standard dimensions of structural steel, prop-
erties of various structural materials, including a table of dimensions of HSS steel materials.
7.2 Structural Welding Codes

Number of regulatory and industry associations have issued specifications to maintain
basic minimum uniformity, and quality in the design and construction of various types of
structures. Some of these specifications have been adopted and national codes thereby they
are mandatory requirements. These associations, and regulatory bodies often update and
modify their findings and issue and newer version. It is recommended that most up to date
version be used and referenced. The following is a brief description of most commonly used
standards and codes.
Structural Welding Code (Steel) AWS D1.1 8669 NW 36 St, # 130, Miami, FL 33166
This code covers the welding requirements for any type of welded structure made from the
commonly used carbon and low-alloy constructional steels. Clauses 1 through 11 constitute
a body of rules for the regulation of welding in steel construction. There are eight normative
and eleven informative annexes in this code. A Commentary of the code is included with
the document.
169
Structural Welding Code (Aluminum) D1.2 8669 NW 36 St, # 130, Miami, FL 33166
This code covers the welding requirements for any type structure made from aluminum
structural alloys, except for aluminum pressure vessels and pressure piping. Clauses 1
through 8 constitute a body of rules for the regulation of welding in aluminum construction.
A commentary on the code is also included with the document. ISBN: 978-0-87171-840-2
Canadian Standards Association Welded steel construction CSA W59

This Standard covers welding requirements for carbon and low-alloy welded steel construc-
tion, with the exception of those types listed in Clause 1.2.
Requirements that are essentially common to all such structures are covered in Clauses 3
to 10, while provisions applying specifically to statically-loaded structures and to cyclically-
loaded structures are included in Clauses 11 and 12, respectively.
This Standard is not intended to apply to pressure vessels or to structures governed by
special codes such as those of the American Petroleum Institute, the American Society of
Mechanical Engineers, or the American Water Works Association.
This Standard includes provisions for the following:
a) shielded metal arc welding (SMAW);

b) submerged arc welding (SAW);
c) gas metal arc welding (GMAW);
d) gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW);
e) flux-cored arc welding (FCAW);
f) metal-cored arc welding (MCAW);
g) electroslag welding (ESW);
h) electrogas welding (EGW); and
i) stud welding (SW) processes.
The provisions of this Standard are not intended for use with steels having a specified
minimum yield strength over 700 MPa (100 000 psi).
This Standard applies to the welding of base metals 3 mm (1/8 in) and thicker. In cases
where base metals less than 3 mm (1/8 in) thick are to be welded to base metals 3 mm (1/8
in) and thicker, the requirements of AWS D1.3/AWS D1.3M and this Standard apply. In the
case of any conflict between AWS D1.3/AWS D1.3M and this Standard, the requirements
of this Standard govern.
Note: In cases where base metals less than 3 mm (1/8 in) thick are to be welded to base metals
less than 3 mm (1/8 in), the requirements of AWS D1.3/AWS D1.3M may be appropriate.
This Standard does not address safety problems associated with welding and welding
practices.
Note: CSA W117.2 addresses safety in welding, cutting, and allied processes, and should
be followed in addition to any applicable workplace health and safety legislation in effect.
It is the responsibility of the user of this Standard to establish appropriate safety and health
practices and to determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.
This Standard does not address the welding of stainless steels. For welding of stainless
steel, the provisions of AWS D1.6/AWS D1.6M may be used for the design of welded con-
nections, prequalification, fabrication, and inspection.
Design and Welding Specifications and Other Useful Data 171
Note: See CSA W47.1 for guidance related to the qualification of welding personnel and
welding procedures for stainless steel.
This Standard does not address underwater welding activities.
In this Standard, “shall” is used to express a requirement, i.e., a provision that the user is
obliged to satisfy in order to comply with the standard; “should” is used to express a recom-
mendation or that which is advised but not required; and “may” is used to express an option
or that which is permissible within the limits of the standard.
Notes accompanying clauses do not include requirements or alternative requirements;
the purpose of a note accompanying a clause is to separate from the text explanatory or
informative material.
Notes to tables and figures are considered part of the table or figure and may be written
as requirements.
Annexes are designated normative (mandatory) or informative (non-mandatory) to
define their application.
The values given in SI units are the units of record for the purposes of this Standard. The
values given in parentheses are for information and comparison only.
European Standards (EN and ISO)

European standards have gone through a lot of changes, apart from their initial efforts to inte-
grate and harmonize all specification under one international umbrella that is International
Standards Association (ISO) was further complicated by their efforts to develop Europe
specific standards, this efforts started working on integration and harmonizing the member
states’ existing specifications in one document as best as could without losing much of the
initial good information those specifications had. That process has in effect is still on going
with some or other specification within the EU groups.
There is no single document similar to AWS D1.1 above, that covers the structural weld-
ing. However, there are number of standards, that together come to be harmonized welding
codes, and they in most cases cover multitudes of welding designs and constructions. Some
of these application Standards are listed below.
EN 13445: Pressure Vessels ( BS 5500)

EN 12952: Water Tube Boilers ( BS 1113)
EN 12953: Shell Boilers ( BS 2790)
EN 13480: Piping ( BS 806, Not BS 2640, BS 2971)
Specifications & Approval of Welding Procedures

Introduction to The Specification & Approval of Welding Procedures
EN 288 Part 1 is now changed to EN ISO 15607
Material Grouping for both Procedures and Welder Approval is CR ISO 15608 it is not
known if this standard currently has an EN equivalent.
Contents of a WPS
EN 288 Part 2, is now EN ISO 15609 (Part 1 Arc, Part 2 for Gas welding process.
Welding Procedure Test

EN 288 Part 3 is now EN ISO 15614 Part 1 (Steel and Nickel Alloys)
EN 288 Part 4 is now EN ISO 15614 Part 2 (Aluminum and its Alloys)
US standards that are applied to pressure containment, and transportation of fluids

In the US, the welding and construction specifications can be roughly grouped in the
Structural Construction and those that tend to support welding design and construction of
equipment and facilities that either contain pressure and used in plants refineries, chemi-
cal and petrochemical facilities, these pressure equipment may be working in either lower
ambient or process temperatures, or higher process temperatures. All these variations
demand extra factors to consider while designing these equipment generally clubbed as
pressure vessels and pressure piping related facilities.
The other group of design and construction, is the pipeline and related facilities. These
are generally termed as transportation construction. The welding design for pipeline and
facilities and their welding is covered under different set of specifications. The following
describes some of these specifications.
These type of construction and therefore, their welding activities are covered under
either an ASME or an API standards, most of these are also American National Standards
and prefixed as ANSI.
Pressure containing process vessels ( Pressure vessels) are designed and constructed
under various ASME codes. They cover a verity of subject related to the design, materials,
fabrication welding, and inspection testing etc.
The pressure vessels (APVBC) code bundle consists of following codes.
ASME
Section I Design of Power Boilers
Section II Materials (for designed constructions)
Part A, Ferrous materials
Part B, Nonferrous materials,
Part C, Welding consumables (Materials)
Part D, Materials’ properties
Section III Nuclear construction Codes
Section IV Heating Boilers (design of)
Section V Nondestructive Examinations (NDE)
This section is divided in 30 Articles, out of them Article 3, and
14 to Article 21 are blank, rest are populated with various infor-
mation and requirements relating to various NDE process, quali-
fications of process and personnel, and safety requirements.
Section VIII Design of Pressure Vessels
This section is in three Divisions each of them are standalone
codes, regulating specific group of pressure containing vessels.
Division 1 This is related to the limits on the pressure the vessels is constructed,
the design safety factor is also different.
Division 2 No upper limit on pressure containment, different design safety factor,
different level of design stress rules are applied.
Division 3 Normally up to 10,000 psi pressure limit, Yield strength based design
with given safety of factor. Maximum shear elastic/plastic analysis is
required. Importance is assigned to residual stress.
Section IX Welding qualifications
Process Pipping is covered under ASME

The code committees under designation B have developed codes for pressure piping as
ASME B 31.1
Transportation of pressurized gases, another subcommittee of ASME B group has devel-
oped a set of specification that are codes in USA and in many other jurisdictions, to guide
design construction and testing for transportation of pressurized gases, crude and other
fluids, and hazardous materials are also prefixed with letter B.
Another sub group under same ASME B committee has also developed specifications for
maintenance and repair of such systems.
ASME B 31.4 Pipeline Transportation Systems For Liquids And Slurries

ASME B31.4 prescribes requirements for the design, materials, construction, assembly,
inspection, testing, operation, and maintenance of liquid pipeline systems between pro-
duction fields or facilities, tank farms, above- or belowground storage facilities, natu-
ral gas processing plants, refineries, pump stations, ammonia plants, terminals (marine,
rail, and truck), and other delivery and receiving points, as well as pipelines transporting
liquids within pump stations, tank farms, and terminals associated with liquid pipeline
systems. This Code also prescribes requirements for the design, materials, construction,
assembly, inspection, testing, operation, and maintenance of piping transporting aqueous
slurries of nonhazardous materials such as coal, mineral ores, concentrates, and other
solid materials, between a slurry processing plant or terminal and a receiving plant or ter-
minal. Piping here consists of pipe, flanges, bolting, gaskets, valves, relief devices, fittings,
and the pressure containing parts of other piping components. It also includes hangers
and supports, and other equipment items necessary to prevent overstressing the pressure
containing parts. It does not include support structures such as frames of buildings, stan-
chions, or foundations, or any equipment Also included within the scope of this Code
are: (a) primary and associated auxiliary liquid petroleum and liquid anhydrous ammo-
nia piping at pipeline terminals (marine, rail, and truck), tank farms, pump stations,
pressure-reducing stations, and metering stations, including scraper traps, strainers, and
prover loops (b) storage and working tanks, including pipe-type storage fabricated from
pipe and fittings, and piping interconnecting these facilities (c) liquid petroleum and
liquid anhydrous ammonia piping located on property that has been set aside for such
piping within petroleum refinery, natural gasoline, gas processing, ammonia, and bulk
plants (d) those aspects of operation and maintenance of liquid pipeline systems relating
to the safety and protection of the general public, operating company personnel, environ-
ment, property, and the piping systems.
ASME B 31.8 Gas Transmission and Distribution Piping Systems

ASME B31.8 covers the design and construction of gas transmission and distribution pip-
ing systems, including gas pipelines, gas compressor stations, gas metering and regulation
stations, gas mains, and service lines up to the outlet of the customer’s meter set assem-
bly. It includes gas transmission and gathering pipelines, including appurtenances that are
installed offshore for the purpose of transporting gas from production facilities to onshore
locations; gas storage equipment of the closed pipe type that is fabricated or forged from
pipe or fabricated from pipe and fittings; and gas storage lines.
This Code prescribes comprehensive solutions for materials, design, fabrication, assem-
bly, erection, testing and inspection. It also serves as a companion to ASME’s other B31
codes on piping systems. Together, they remain essential references for anyone engaged
with piping.
American Pipeline Association (API)

American Petroleum Association has some specifications and guidelines that affect design
and construction of pipeline facilities. The most used API specification related to welding
activities is the API 1104 for welding of Pipeline related facilities, among other prominent
specifications are the design and construction specifications for storage tanks. (API 650 and
API 620).
There are number of API specifications, and recommended practices that are widely
used and referenced as important design documents. Some of them are introduced here.
API 1104 is about Welding of Pipeline and Related Facilities
API 653 is about Tank inspection and repairs.
API 510 is about inspection and maintenance of pressure vessels.
API 570 is about, inspection, repair alterations, and retreating of in-service piping
systems.
API 579 is a recommended practice (Prefixed, RP) about Fitness for Service guidelines
for assessing specific types of flaw damage in refinery and chemical process equipment.
7.3 Useful Engineering Information

The tables and information given in this chapter are useful for design and can be sued as
easy reference.
Engineering Constants
Water
SI units US units
Freezing Point 0o C 32o F
Boiling Point, at atm pressure 100oC 212oF
Available Water power from - 0.1134h.p.
1 Cu Ft -Sec. falling 1 ft.
1.134 ft at 62oF - 1 in. Hg at 62oF
2.309 ft. at 62oF - 1 lb. per Sq. Inch
Steam
Total heat Sat at atm pressure 1.150.4 B.T.U
0.47 B.T.U per lb. deg. F Approximate specific heat of superheated steam at atm. pressure
Surfaces
1.273,239 circular mils 1 Sq inch
1.4142 √2
144 Sq inch 1 sq. ft.
1728 Cu in. 1 cu ft.
1.7321 3√3
2.54 cm 1 inch
57.296 degree (angle) 1 Radian
0.0624281 lb./cu ft. 1 kg/cu meter
Area of a circle 0.7854 x Diameter squired or π/4 x diameter of the circle
The following table lists SI derived units for various measures, and their symbols.
SI derived units
Quantity Name Symbol
Area Square meter m2
Volume Cubic meter m3
Speed. velocity Meter per second m/s
Acceleration Meter per second2 m/s2
Density Kilogram per cubic meter kg/m3
Concentration (of amount of substance) Mole per cubic meter mol/m3
Specific volume Cubic meter per kilogram m3/kg
Luminance Candela per square meters cd/m3
The following table lists SI derived units that have different and specific names, the table
gives those names the symbols used to denote them, and how they are expressed in SI and
other units.
SI derived units with unique names

Expression in terms Expression in terms
Quantity Name Symbol of other units of SI units
Frequency hertz Hz - s-1
Force newton N - m.kg.s-2
Pressure Pascal Pa N.m2 m-1.kg.s-2
Energy, work, quantity joule J N.m m2.kg.s-3
of heat
Power, Radiant flux watt W J/s m2.kg.s-3
Electric potential, volt V W/A m2.kg.s-3.A-1
potential difference,
electromotive force
(EMF),
Electrical Resistance ohm Ω V/A m2.kg.s-3.A-2
Conductance siemens S AV m-2.kg.s-1.A2
The following table of SI units gives the prefixes that are used to express various units.
SI prefixes
Factor Prefix Symbol
1018 exa E
1015 peta P
1012 tera T
109 giga G
106 mega M
103 kilo k
102 hecto h
101 deka da
10-1 deci d
10-2 centi c
10-3 milli m
10-6 micro μ
10-9 nano η
10-12 pico ρ
10-15 femto f
10-18 atto a
Table 7.1 below shows the mechanical properties of various metals.
Table 7.1 Mechanical properties of various metals.

Hardness
Tensile strength Yield strength rockwell Density
Types of metals (PSI) (PSI) B-scale (kg/m3)
Stainless Steel 304 90,000 40,000 88 8000
Aluminum 6061-T6 45,000 40,000 60 2720
Aluminum 5052-H32 33,000 28,000 2680
Aluminum 3003 22,000 21,000 20 to 25 2730
Steel A36 58-80,000 36,000 7800
Steel grade 50 65,000 50,000 7800
Yellow Brass 40,000 55 8470
Red Brass 49,000 65 8746
Copper 28,000 10 8940
Phosphor Bronze 55,000 78 8900
Aluminum Bronze 27,000 77 7700-8700
Titanium 63,000 37,000 80 4500
Table below shows the mechanical properties of titanium grades and alloys.
Tensile strength (min) 0.2% yield strength (min)

Designation MPa ksi MPa ksi
Unalloyed grades
ASTM grade 1 240 35 170 25
ASTM grade 2 340 50 280 40
ASTM grade 3 450 65 380 55
ASTM grade 4 550 80 480 70
ASTM grade 7 340 50 280 40
(Continued)

ASTM grade 11 240 35 170 25
α and near-α alloys
Ti-0.3Mo-0.8Ni 480 70 380 55
Ti-5Al-2.5Sn 790 115 760 110
Ti-5 Al-2.5Sn-ELI 690 100 620 90
Ti-8Al-l-1Mo-IV 900 130 830 120
Ti-6Al-2Sn-4Zr-2Mo 900 130 830 120
Ti-6Al-2Nb-1Ta-0.8Mo 790 115 690 100
Ti-2.25Al-11Sn-5Zr-1Mo 1000 145 900 130
Ti-5.8Al-4Sn-3.5Zr-0.7Nb-0.5Mo- 1030 149 910 132

0.35Si
α-β alloys
Ti-6Al-4-V(a) 900 130 830 120
Ti-6Al-4V-ELI(a) 830 120 760 110
Ti-6Al-6V-2Sn(a) 1030 150 970 140
Ti-8Mn(a) 860 125 760 110
Ti-7Al-4Mo(a) 1030 150 970 140
Ti-6Al-2Sn-4Zr-6Mo(b) 1170 170 1100 160

Ti-5Al-2Sn-4Zr-6Mo(b) 1125 163 1055 153
Ti-6Al-2Sn-2Zr-2Mo-2Cr(c) 1030 150 970 140
Ti-3Al-2.5V(d) 620 90 520 75
Ti-4Al-4Mo-2Sn-0.5Si 1100 160 960 139
β alloys
Ti-10V-2Fe-3Al(a)(c) 1170 170 1100 160
Ti-13V-11Cr-3Al(b) 1170 170 1100 160
Ti-8Mo-8V-2Fe-3Al(b)(c) 1170 170 1100 160

Ti-3A1-8V-6Cr-4Mo-4Zr(a)(c) 900 130 830 120
Ti-11.5Mo-6Cr-4Mo-4Zr(a)(c) 690 100 620 90

(Continued)

Ti-15V-3Cr-3Al-3Sn 1000(b) 145(b) 965(b) 140(b)
124l(f) 180(f) 1172(f) 170(f)

Ti-15Mo-3Al-2.7Nb-0.2Si 862 125 793 115
Table 7.2 Mechanical properties of copper grades and alloys.

Plastic properties
Copper and copper
alloy Uniaxial
Test Tensile Yield Reduction
Name and temperature, strength, strength, Elongation, of area,
No. treatment K psi psi % in 4D %
102 Oxygen Free 295 48,400 46,800 17 77
(Cold
drawn 60%) 195 52,900 49,800 20 74
76 66,400 54,400 29 78
20 74,500 58,500 42 76
4 74,600 58,600 41 75
122 Phosphorus 295 31,300 6,700 45 76
Deoxidized
High Residual 195 38,300 6,600 56 87
Phosphorus 76 50,600 7,400 62 84
(Annealed)
20 63,800 8,400 68 83
4 60,400 7,900 65 81
(Cold Drawn 295 51,800 49,400 17 76
26%)
195 56,800 53,600 21 79
76 68,400 59,900 28 76
20 81,400 64,100 46 78
4 81,000 63,600 44 72
(Continued)
Table 7.2 Mechanical properties of copper grades and alloys. (Continued)

Plastic properties
Copper and copper
alloy Uniaxial
150 Zirconium 295 64,450 59,600 16 62
Copper
(Cold 195 67,200 61,300 20 66
drawn, 76 77,400 65,700 26 71
aged)
20 85,200 66,400 37 72
4 85,700 64,700 36 69
220 Commercial 295 38,500 9,600 56 84
Bronze, 90%
(Annealed) 195 41,800 10,200 57 80
76 55,200 13,200 86 78
20 73,200 15,600 95 73
4 68,200 15,000 91 73
230 Red Brass, 295 40,400 13,000 48 74
85% (Cold
drawn 14%) 195 46,500 14,000 63 79
76 62,000 16,400 83 77
20 79,200 20,900 80 75
4 71,000 18,300 82 71
443 Admirality 295 44,800 10,600 86 81
Arsenical
(Annealed) 195 49,600 12,600 91 79
76 64,600 18,700 98 73
20 76,800 20,800 99 68
4 78,600 21,100 92 72
(Continued)

Plastic properties
Copper and copper
alloy Uniaxial
464 Naval Brass 295 63,300 31,000 37 52
(Annealed)
195 67,400 33,800 37 54
76 80,400 38,000 44 48
20 105,200 47,600 41 42
4 99,600 43,700 40 48
510 Phosphor 295 77,400 72,000 18 78
Bronze, 5%
A (Cold 195 85,600 78,700 20 78
drawn 85%, 76 105,200 89,200 31 67
spring)
20 131,000 104,800 39 62
4 116,400 100,400 34 58
614 Aluminum 295 83,200 59,400 40 66
Bronze D
(Annealed) 195 89,500 64,800 45 71
76 105,800 69,500 52 64
20 126,400 80,600 48 58
4 134,500 82,400 52 59
647 Copper-Nickel 295 112,400 105,000 15 60
Silicon
(Aged) 195 119,400 110,800 18 66
76 123,600 114,100 24 70
20 133,700 118,400 33 68
4 135,800 119,800 31 65
655 High Silicon 295 61,400 24,200 66 79
Bronze A
(Annealed, 195 69,900 26,800 68 79
soft) 76 89,000 31,900 71 69
20 108,900 37,600 72 69
4 101,200 36,900 71 70
(Continued)

Plastic properties
Copper and copper
alloy Uniaxial
706 Copper 295 49,600 21,400 37 79
Nickel 10%
(Annealed) 195 54,700 24,700 42 77
76 72,000 24,800 50 77
20 82,500 30,200 50 73
4 80,600 24,900 53 73
715 Copper 295 57,800 18,700 47 68
Nickel 30%
(Annealed) 195 68,000 22,200 48 70
76 89,800 31,600 52 70
20 103,100 38,100 51 66
4 104,600 40,100 48 65
Nickel- 295 101,200 44,000 11 9
Aluminum
Bronze 195 104,600 47,800 9 9
(Sand cast) 76 117,100 54,900 6 7
20 126,600 61,600 6 2
4 130,500 60,100 6 5
Table 7.3 below shows the mechanical properties of aluminum and its alloys, with temper.
Table 7.3 Mechanical properties of aluminum and its alloys, with temper.
Elastic Shear
modulus modulus Yield strength Tensile strength
-E- -G- - σy - - σu -
Aluminum (106 psi) (106 psi) (103 psi) (103 psi)
alloy Temper (GPa) (GPa) (MPa) (MPa)
1100 10.0 3.75 3.5 11
1100 H12 10.0 3.75 11 14
2014 10.8 4.00 8 22
2014 T6 10.6 4.00 58 66
2014 T62 10.8 4.00 59 67
2017 T4 10.5 3.95 32 55
2024 T3 10.6 4.00 42 64
2024 T4 10.6 4.00 40 62
2025 T6 10.4 3.90 33 52
2124 T851 10.4 4.00 57 66
2219 T62 10.5 4.00 36 54
2618 T61 10.7 4.10 42 55
3003 10.0 3.75 5 14
3003 H18 10.0 3.75 25 27
3003 H112 10.0 3.75 10 17
354 T61 10.6 4.00 36 47
355 T51 10.2 3.80 22 27
355 T6 10.3 3.80 23 37
356 T7 10.3 3.85 21 29
356 T6 10.3 3.85 20 30
5052 10.2 3.80 9.5 25
5052 H32 10.2 3.80 23 31
5056 H38 10.3 3.75 50 60
5056 ANL 10.3 4.00 22 42
(Continued)
Table 7.3 Mechanical properties of aluminum and its alloys, with temper. (Continued)
Elastic Shear
modulus modulus Yield strength Tensile strength
-E- -G- - σy - - σu -
Aluminum (106 psi) (106 psi) (103 psi) (103 psi)
alloy Temper (GPa) (GPa) (MPa) (MPa)
6061 T4 10.0 3.80 16 30
6061 T6 10.0 3.80 35 42
6062 10.0 3.75 5 14
6062 T4 10.0 3.75 16 26
6062 T6 10.0 3.75 35 38
6063 T42 10.0 3.75 10 17
6063 T5 10.0 3.75 16 22
6063 T6 10.0 3.75 25 30
6151 T6 10.1 3.85 37 44
7050 T7452 10.1 - 11.6 58 68
7050 T74 60 70
7075 T6 10.4 3.90 70 78
7075 T6 63 73
A356 T61 10.4 3.90 28 38
D712 T5 10.3 3.80 20 32
The Table 7.4 below shows the mechanical properties of various grades of Austenitic
Stainless steels.
Table 7.4 Mechanical properties of various grades of Austenitic stainless steels.

Yield
strength
Tensile (0.2% Elongation
strength offset) % in Hardness
Common MPa MPa 50mm (max)
Grade UNS no. form Treatment (min.) (min.) (min.) (Note 2)
Austenitic stainless steels
253MA S30815 Plate Annealed 600 310 40 95 HRB
301 S30100 Sheet or Annealed 515 205 40 95 HRB
coil ¼ to full 860 - 1275 515 - 965 25 - 9
hard
302HQ S30430 Wire Annealed 605 max. – – –
2.5mm Lightly 660 max.
dia. and drawn
over
303 S30300 Bar Cold 262 HB
finished
Condition A
304 S30400 Plate Annealed 515 205 40 92 HRB
304L S30403 Plate Annealed 485 170 40 88 HRB
304H S30409 Plate Annealed 515 205 40 92 HRB
309S S30908 Bar Annealed 515 205 40 95 HRB
321 S32100 Sheet Annealed 515 205 40 95 HRB
904L N08904 Plate Annealed 490 220 35 70 - 90
NRB
typical
The Table 7.5 below shows the comparison of mechanical properties of grades of steel.
Table 7.5 Comparison of mechanical properties of grades of steel.

Properties Carbon steels Alloy steels Stainless steels Tool steels
Density (1000 kg/m3) 7.85 7.85 7.75–8.1 7.72–8.0
Elastic Modulus (GPa) 190–210 190–210 190–210 190–210
Poisson’s Ratio 0.27–0.3 0.27–0.3 0.27–0.3 0.27–0.3
Thermal Expansion 11–16.6 9.0–15 9.0–20.7 9.4–15.1
(10–6/K)
Melting Point (°C) 1371–1454
Thermal Conductivity 24.3–65.2 26–48.6 11.2–36.7 19.9–48.3
(W/m–K)
Specific Heat (J/kg–K) 450–2081 452–1499 420–500
Electrical Resistivity 130–1250 210–1251 75.7–1020
(10–9W–m)
Tensile Strength (MPa) 276–1882 758–1882 515–827 640–2000
Yield Strength (MPa) 186–758 366–1793 207–552 380–440
Percent Elongation (%) 10–32 4–31 12–40 5–25
Hardness (Brinell 3000kg) 86–388 149–627 137–595 210–620
Table 7.6 below gives the properties and dimensions of standard HSS sections.
Table 7.6 HSS rect property table.

Weight per Thickness Thickness
Shape foot Depth Width nominal actual Area Sx Sy
HSS20X12X5/8 127 20 12 0.625 0.581 35 188 142
HSS20X12X1/2 103 20 12 0.5 0.465 28.3 155 117
HSS20X12X3/8 78.4 20 12 0.375 0.349 21.5 120 91.1
HSS20X12X5/16 65.8 20 12 0.3125 0.291 18.1 101 77.3
HSS20X8X5/8 110 20 8 0.625 0.581 30.3 144 84.6
HSS20X8X1/2 89.6 20 8 0.5 0.465 24.6 119 70.8
HSS20X8X3/8 68.2 20 8 0.375 0.349 18.7 92.6 55.6
(Continued)
Table 7.6 HSS rect property table. (Continued)

HSS20X8X5/16 57.3 20 8 0.3125 0.291 15.7 78.6 47.4
HSS20X4X1/2 75.9 20 4 0.5 0.465 20.9 83.8 29.3
HSS20X4X3/8 58 20 4 0.375 0.349 16 65.7 23.8
HSS20X4X5/16 48.8 20 4 0.3125 0.291 13.4 56 20.6
HSS18X12X5/8 119 18 12 0.625 0.581 32.6 161 129
HSS18X12X1/2 96.4 18 12 0.5 0.465 26.5 133 107
HSS18X12X3/8 73.3 18 12 0.375 0.349 20.1 103 83.2
HSS18X6X5/8 93.1 18 6 0.625 0.581 25.7 103 52.7
HSS18X6X1/2 75.9 18 6 0.5 0.465 20.9 85.6 44.6
HSS18X6X3/8 58 18 6 0.375 0.349 16 66.9 35.5
HSS18X6X5/16 48.8 18 6 0.3125 0.291 13.4 57 30.4
HSS18X6X1/4 39.4 18 6 0.25 0.233 10.8 46.5 25
HSS16X16X5/8 127 16 16 0.625 0.581 35 171 171
HSS16X16X1/2 103 16 16 0.5 0.465 28.3 141 141
HSS16X16X3/8 78.4 16 16 0.375 0.349 21.5 109 109
HSS16X16X5/16 65.8 16 16 0.3125 0.291 18.1 92.3 92.3
HSS16X12X5/8 110 16 12 0.625 0.581 30.3 136 117
HSS16X12X1/2 89.6 16 12 0.5 0.465 24.6 113 96.8
HSS16X12X3/8 68.2 16 12 0.375 0.349 18.7 87.7 75.3
HSS16X12X5/16 57.3 16 12 0.3125 0.291 15.7 74.4 64
HSS16X8X5/8 93.1 16 8 0.625 0.581 25.7 102 68.6
HSS16X8X1/2 75.9 16 8 0.5 0.465 20.9 84.9 57.6
HSS16X8X3/8 58 16 8 0.375 0.349 16 66.3 45.3
HSS16X8X5/16 48.8 16 8 0.3125 0.291 13.4 56.4 38.7
HSS16X4X1/2 62.3 16 4 0.5 0.465 17.2 56.9 23.5
HSS16X4X3/8 47.8 16 4 0.375 0.349 13.2 45 19.1
HSS16X4X5/16 40.3 16 4 0.3125 0.291 11.1 38.5 16.6
(Continued)

HSS14X14X5/8 110 14 14 0.625 0.581 30.3 128 128
HSS14X14X1/2 89.6 14 14 0.5 0.465 24.6 106 106
HSS14X14X3/8 68.2 14 14 0.375 0.349 18.7 82.5 82.5
HSS14X14X5/16 57.3 14 14 0.3125 0.291 15.7 69.9 69.9
HSS14X12X1/2 82.7 14 12 0.5 0.465 22.8 94 86.5
HSS14X12X3/8 63.1 14 12 0.375 0.349 17.3 73.2 67.4
HSS14X10X5/8 93.1 14 10 0.625 0.581 25.7 98.2 81.5
HSS14X10X1/2 75.9 14 10 0.5 0.465 20.9 81.8 68.1
HSS14X10X3/8 58 14 10 0.375 0.349 16 63.9 53.4
HSS14X10X5/16 48.8 14 10 0.3125 0.291 13.4 54.3 45.5
HSS14X10X1/4 39.4 14 10 0.25 0.233 10.8 44.3 37.2
HSS14X6X5/8 76.1 14 6 0.625 0.581 21 68.3 41.2
HSS14X6X1/2 62.3 14 6 0.5 0.465 17.2 57.4 35.1
HSS14X6X3/8 47.8 14 6 0.375 0.349 13.2 45.3 28
HSS14X6X5/16 40.3 14 6 0.3125 0.291 11.1 38.7 24.1
HSS14X6X1/4 32.6 14 6 0.25 0.233 8.96 31.7 19.9
HSS14X6X3/16 24.7 14 6 0.1875 0.174 6.76 24.3 15.3
HSS14X4X5/8 67.6 14 4 0.625 0.581 18.7 53.3 23.6
HSS14X4X1/2 55.5 14 4 0.5 0.465 15.3 45.3 20.6
HSS14X4X3/8 42.7 14 4 0.375 0.349 11.8 36 16.8
HSS14X4X5/16 36 14 4 0.3125 0.291 9.92 30.9 14.6
HSS14X4X1/4 29.2 14 4 0.25 0.233 8.03 25.4 12.2
HSS14X4X3/16 22.2 14 4 0.1875 0.174 6.06 19.5 9.48
HSS12X12X5/8 93.1 12 12 0.625 0.581 25.7 91.4 91.4
HSS12X12X1/2 75.9 12 12 0.5 0.465 20.9 76.2 76.2
HSS12X12X3/8 58 12 12 0.375 0.349 16 59.5 59.5
(Continued)

HSS12X12X5/16 48.8 12 12 0.3125 0.291 13.4 50.7 50.7
HSS12X12X1/4 39.4 12 12 0.25 0.233 10.8 41.4 41.4
HSS12X10X1/2 69.1 12 10 0.5 0.465 19 65.9 59.7
HSS12X10X3/8 52.9 12 10 0.375 0.349 14.6 51.6 46.9
HSS12X10X5/16 44.6 12 10 0.3125 0.291 12.2 44 40
HSS12X10X1/4 36 12 10 0.25 0.233 9.9 36 32.7
HSS12X8X5/8 76.1 12 8 0.625 0.581 21 66.1 52.5
HSS12X8X1/2 62.3 12 8 0.5 0.465 17.2 55.6 44.4
HSS9X5X5/8 50.6 9 5 0.625 0.581 14 29.6 20.8
HSS9X5X1/2 41.9 9 5 0.5 0.465 11.6 25.5 18.1
HSS9X5X3/8 32.5 9 5 0.375 0.349 8.97 20.5 14.7
HSS9X5X5/16 27.5 9 5 0.3125 0.291 7.59 17.7 12.8
HSS9X5X1/4 22.4 9 5 0.25 0.233 6.17 14.7 10.6
HSS9X5X3/16 17.1 9 5 0.1875 0.174 4.67 11.4 8.28
HSS9X3X1/2 35.1 9 3 0.5 0.465 9.74 18 8.81
HSS9X3X3/8 27.4 9 3 0.375 0.349 7.58 14.7 7.45
HSS9X3X5/16 23.3 9 3 0.3125 0.291 6.43 12.8 6.59
HSS9X3X1/4 19 9 3 0.25 0.233 5.24 10.7 5.59
HSS9X3X3/16 14.5 9 3 0.1875 0.174 3.98 8.35 4.42
HSS8X8X5/8 59.1 8 8 0.625 0.581 16.4 36.5 36.5
HSS8X8X1/2 48.7 8 8 0.5 0.465 13.5 31.2 31.2
HSS8X8X3/8 37.6 8 8 0.375 0.349 10.4 24.9 24.9
HSS8X8X5/16 31.8 8 8 0.3125 0.291 8.76 21.4 21.4
HSS8X8X1/4 25.8 8 8 0.25 0.233 7.1 17.7 17.7
HSS8X8X3/16 19.6 8 8 0.1875 0.174 5.37 13.6 13.6
HSS8X6X5/8 50.6 8 6 0.625 0.581 14 28.5 24.1
HSS8X6X1/2 41.9 8 6 0.5 0.465 11.6 24.6 20.8
(Continued)

HSS8X6X3/8 32.5 8 6 0.375 0.349 8.97 19.8 16.9
HSS8X6X5/16 27.5 8 6 0.3125 0.291 7.59 17.1 14.6
HSS8X6X1/4 22.4 8 6 0.25 0.233 6.17 14.2 12.1
HSS8X6X3/16 17.1 8 6 0.1875 0.174 4.67 10.9 9.39
HSS8X4X5/8 42.1 8 4 0.625 0.581 11.7 20.5 13.3
HSS8X4X1/2 35.1 8 4 0.5 0.465 9.74 17.9 11.8
HSS8X4X3/8 27.4 8 4 0.375 0.349 7.58 14.7 9.8
HSS8X4X5/16 23.3 8 4 0.3125 0.291 6.43 12.8 8.58
HSS8X4X1/4 19 8 4 0.25 0.233 5.24 10.6 7.21
HSS8X4X3/16 14.5 8 4 0.1875 0.174 3.98 8.27 5.65
HSS8X4X1/8 9.85 8 4 0.125 0.116 2.7 5.73 3.95
HSS8X3X1/2 31.7 8 3 0.5 0.465 8.81 14.6 7.81
HSS8X3X3/8 24.9 8 3 0.375 0.349 6.88 12.1 6.63
HSS8X3X5/16 21.2 8 3 0.3125 0.291 5.85 10.6 5.87
HSS8X3X1/4 17.3 8 3 0.25 0.233 4.77 8.88 4.99
HSS8X3X3/16 13.2 8 3 0.1875 0.174 3.63 6.94 3.96
HSS8X3X1/8 9 8 3 0.125 0.116 2.46 4.83 2.8
HSS8X2X3/8 22.3 8 2 0.375 0.349 6.18 9.56 3.73
HSS8X2X5/16 19 8 2 0.3125 0.291 5.26 8.43 3.38
HSS8X2X1/4 15.6 8 2 0.25 0.233 4.3 7.12 2.94
HSS8X2X3/16 12 8 2 0.1875 0.174 3.28 5.61 2.39
HSS8X2X1/8 8.15 8 2 0.125 0.116 2.23 3.93 1.72
HSS7X7X5/8 50.6 7 7 0.625 0.581 14 26.7 26.7
HSS7X7X1/2 41.9 7 7 0.5 0.465 11.6 23 23
HSS7X7X3/8 32.5 7 7 0.375 0.349 8.97 18.6 18.6
HSS7X7X5/16 27.5 7 7 0.3125 0.291 7.59 16 16
HSS7X7X1/4 22.4 7 7 0.25 0.233 6.17 13.3 13.3
(Continued)

HSS7X7X3/16 17.1 7 7 0.1875 0.174 4.67 10.3 10.3
HSS7X5X5/8 42.1 7 5 0.625 0.581 11.7 19.8 16.2
HSS7X5X1/2 35.1 7 5 0.5 0.465 9.74 17.3 14.2
HSS7X5X3/8 27.4 7 5 0.375 0.349 7.58 14.1 11.7
HSS7X5X5/16 23.3 7 5 0.3125 0.291 6.43 12.3 10.2
HSS7X5X1/4 19 7 5 0.25 0.233 5.24 10.2 8.53
HSS7X5X3/16 14.5 7 5 0.1875 0.174 3.98 7.96 6.65
HSS7X5X1/8 9.85 7 5 0.125 0.116 2.7 5.52 4.63
HSS7X4X1/2 31.7 7 4 0.5 0.465 8.81 14.5 10.4
HSS7X4X3/8 24.9 7 4 0.375 0.349 6.88 11.9 8.63
HSS7X4X5/16 21.2 7 4 0.3125 0.291 5.85 10.4 7.58
HSS7X4X1/4 17.3 7 4 0.25 0.233 4.77 8.72 6.38
HSS7X4X3/16 13.2 7 4 0.1875 0.174 3.63 6.81 5.02
HSS7X4X1/8 9 7 4 0.125 0.116 2.46 4.73 3.51
HSS7X3X1/2 28.3 7 3 0.5 0.465 7.88 11.6 6.8
HSS7X3X3/8 22.3 7 3 0.375 0.349 6.18 9.73 5.81
HSS7X3X5/16 19 7 3 0.3125 0.291 5.26 8.54 5.16
HSS7X3X1/4 15.6 7 3 0.25 0.233 4.3 7.19 4.4
HSS7X3X3/16 12 7 3 0.1875 0.174 3.28 5.65 3.5
HSS7X3X1/8 8.15 7 3 0.125 0.116 2.23 3.95 2.48
HSS6X6X5/8 42.1 6 6 0.625 0.581 11.7 18.4 18.4
HSS6X6X1/2 35.1 6 6 0.5 0.465 9.74 16.1 16.1
HSS6X6X1/2 35.1 6 6 0.5 0.465 9.74 16.1 16.1
HSS6X6X3/8 27.4 6 6 0.375 0.349 7.58 13.2 13.2
HSS6X6X5/16 23.3 6 6 0.3125 0.291 6.43 11.4 11.4
HSS6X6X1/4 19 6 6 0.25 0.233 5.24 9.54 9.54
HSS6X6X3/16 14.5 6 6 0.1875 0.174 3.98 7.42 7.42
(Continued)

HSS6X6X1/8 9.85 6 6 0.125 0.116 2.7 5.15 5.15
HSS6X5X3/8 24.9 6 5 0.375 0.349 6.88 11.3 10.2
HSS6X5X5/16 21.2 6 5 0.3125 0.291 5.85 9.85 8.91
HSS6X5X1/4 17.3 6 5 0.25 0.233 4.77 8.25 7.47
HSS6X5X3/16 13.2 6 5 0.1875 0.174 3.63 6.44 5.84
HSS6X4X1/2 28.3 6 4 0.5 0.465 7.88 11.3 8.89
HSS6X4X3/8 22.3 6 4 0.375 0.349 6.18 9.43 7.47
HSS6X4X5/16 19 6 4 0.3125 0.291 5.26 8.27 6.58
HSS6X4X1/4 15.6 6 4 0.25 0.233 4.3 6.96 5.56
HSS6X4X3/16 12 6 4 0.1875 0.174 3.28 5.46 4.38
HSS6X4X1/8 8.15 6 4 0.125 0.116 2.23 3.81 3.08
HSS6X3X1/2 24.9 6 3 0.5 0.465 6.95 8.95 5.79
HSS6X3X3/8 19.7 6 3 0.375 0.349 5.48 7.57 4.99
HSS6X3X5/16 16.9 6 3 0.3125 0.291 4.68 6.69 4.45
HSS6X3X1/4 13.9 6 3 0.25 0.233 3.84 5.66 3.8
HSS6X3X3/16 10.7 6 3 0.1875 0.174 2.93 4.47 3.03
HSS6X3X1/8 7.3 6 3 0.125 0.116 2 3.14 2.15
HSS6X2X3/8 17.2 6 2 0.375 0.349 4.78 5.71 2.77
HSS6X2X5/16 14.8 6 2 0.3125 0.291 4.1 5.11 2.52
HSS6X2X1/4 12.2 6 2 0.25 0.233 3.37 4.37 2.21
HSS6X2X3/16 9.4 6 2 0.1875 0.174 2.58 3.49 1.8
HSS6X2X1/8 6.45 6 2 0.125 0.116 1.77 2.47 1.31
HSS5-1/2X5- 24.9 5.5 5.5 0.375 0.349 6.88 10.8 10.8
1/2X3/8
HSS5-1/2X5- 21.2 5.5 5.5 0.3125 0.291 5.85 9.43 9.43
1/2X5/16
HSS5-1/2X5- 17.3 5.5 5.5 0.25 0.233 4.77 7.9 7.9
1/2X1/4
(Continued)

HSS5-1/2X5- 13.2 5.5 5.5 0.1875 0.174 3.63 6.17 6.17
1/2X3/16
HSS5-1/2X5- 9 5.5 5.5 0.125 0.116 2.46 4.3 4.3
1/2X1/8
HSS5X5X1/2 28.3 5 5 0.5 0.465 7.88 10.4 10.4
HSS5X5X3/8 22.3 5 5 0.375 0.349 6.18 8.68 8.68
HSS5X5X5/16 19 5 5 0.3125 0.291 5.26 7.62 7.62
HSS5X5X1/4 15.6 5 5 0.25 0.233 4.3 6.41 6.41
HSS5X5X3/16 12 5 5 0.1875 0.174 3.28 5.03 5.03
HSS5X5X1/8 8.15 5 5 0.125 0.116 2.23 3.52 3.52
HSS5X4X1/2 24.9 5 4 0.5 0.465 6.95 8.49 7.43
HSS5X4X3/8 19.7 5 4 0.375 0.349 5.48 7.17 6.3
HSS5X4X5/16 16.9 5 4 0.3125 0.291 4.68 6.32 5.57
HSS5X4X1/4 13.9 5 4 0.25 0.233 3.84 5.35 4.73
HSS5X4X3/16 10.7 5 4 0.1875 0.174 2.93 4.22 3.74
HSS5X3X1/2 21.5 5 3 0.5 0.465 6.02 6.57 4.78
HSS5X3X3/8 17.2 5 3 0.375 0.349 4.78 5.65 4.16
HSS5X3X5/16 14.8 5 3 0.3125 0.291 4.1 5.03 3.73
HSS5X3X1/4 12.2 5 3 0.25 0.233 3.37 4.29 3.21
HSS5X3X3/16 9.4 5 3 0.1875 0.174 2.58 3.41 2.57
HSS5X3X1/8 6.45 5 3 0.125 0.116 1.77 2.41 1.83
HSS5X2-1/2X1/4 11.3 5 2.5 0.25 0.233 3.14 3.76 2.5
HSS5X2- 8.77 5 2.5 0.1875 0.174 2.41 3.01 2.03
1/2X3/16
HSS5X2-1/2X1/8 6.02 5 2.5 0.125 0.116 1.65 2.14 1.46
HSS5X2X3/8 14.6 5 2 0.375 0.349 4.09 4.14 2.28
HSS5X2X5/16 12.7 5 2 0.3125 0.291 3.52 3.74 2.1
HSS5X2X1/4 10.5 5 2 0.25 0.233 2.91 3.23 1.84
(Continued)

HSS5X2X3/16 8.13 5 2 0.1875 0.174 2.24 2.6 1.51
HSS5X2X1/8 5.6 5 2 0.125 0.116 1.54 1.86 1.1
HSS4-1/2X4- 24.9 4.5 4.5 0.5 0.465 6.95 8.03 8.03
1/2X1/2
HSS4-1/2X4- 19.7 4.5 4.5 0.375 0.349 5.48 6.79 6.79
1/2X3/8
HSS4-1/2X4- 16.9 4.5 4.5 0.3125 0.291 4.68 6 6
1/2X5/16
HSS4-1/2X4- 13.9 4.5 4.5 0.25 0.233 3.84 5.08 5.08
1/2X1/4
HSS4-1/2X4- 10.7 4.5 4.5 0.1875 0.174 2.93 4.01 4.01
1/2X3/16
HSS4-1/2X4- 7.3 4.5 4.5 0.125 0.116 2 2.82 2.82
1/2X1/8
HSS4X4X1/2 21.5 4 4 0.5 0.465 6.02 5.97 5.97
HSS4X4X3/8 17.2 4 4 0.375 0.349 4.78 5.13 5.13
HSS4X4X5/16 14.8 4 4 0.3125 0.291 4.1 4.57 4.57
HSS4X4X1/4 12.2 4 4 0.25 0.233 3.37 3.9 3.9
HSS4X4X3/16 9.4 4 4 0.1875 0.174 2.58 3.1 3.1
HSS4X4X1/8 6.45 4 4 0.125 0.116 1.77 2.2 2.2
HSS4X3X3/8 14.6 4 3 0.375 0.349 4.09 3.97 3.34
HSS4X3X5/16 12.7 4 3 0.3125 0.291 3.52 3.57 3.02
HSS4X3X1/4 10.5 4 3 0.25 0.233 2.91 3.07 2.61
HSS4X3X3/16 8.13 4 3 0.1875 0.174 2.24 2.47 2.1
HSS4X3X1/8 5.6 4 3 0.125 0.116 1.54 1.76 1.51
HSS4X2- 11.6 4 2.5 0.3125 0.291 3.23 3.07 2.32
1/2X5/16
HSS4X2-1/2X1/4 9.63 4 2.5 0.25 0.233 2.67 2.66 2.02
HSS4X2- 7.49 4 2.5 0.1875 0.174 2.06 2.15 1.65
1/2X3/16
(Continued)

HSS4X2X3/8 12.1 4 2 0.375 0.349 3.39 2.8 1.8
HSS4X2X5/16 10.5 4 2 0.3125 0.291 2.94 2.56 1.67
HSS4X2X1/4 8.78 4 2 0.25 0.233 2.44 2.25 1.48
HSS4X2X3/16 6.85 4 2 0.1875 0.174 1.89 1.83 1.22
HSS4X2X1/8 4.75 4 2 0.125 0.116 1.3 1.32 0.898
HSS3-1/2X3- 14.6 3.5 3.5 0.375 0.349 4.09 3.71 3.71
1/2X3/8
HSS3-1/2X3- 12.7 3.5 3.5 0.3125 0.291 3.52 3.34 3.34
1/2X5/16
HSS3-1/2X3- 10.5 3.5 3.5 0.25 0.233 2.91 2.88 2.88
1/2X1/4
HSS3-1/2X3- 8.13 3.5 3.5 0.1875 0.174 2.24 2.31 2.31
1/2X3/16
HSS3-1/2X3- 5.6 3.5 3.5 0.125 0.116 1.54 1.66 1.66
1/2X1/8
HSS3-1/2X2- 12.1 3.5 2.5 0.375 0.349 3.39 2.72 2.21
1/2X3/8
HSS3-1/2X2- 10.5 3.5 2.5 0.3125 0.291 2.94 2.48 2.03
1/2X5/16
HSS3-1/2X2- 8.78 3.5 2.5 0.25 0.233 2.44 2.17 1.78
1/2X1/4
HSS3-1/2X2- 6.85 3.5 2.5 0.1875 0.174 1.89 1.76 1.46
1/2X3/16
HSS3-1/2X2- 4.75 3.5 2.5 0.125 0.116 1.3 1.28 1.06
1/2X1/8
HSS3X3X3/8 12.1 3 3 0.375 0.349 3.39 2.52 2.52
HSS3X3X5/16 10.5 3 3 0.3125 0.291 2.94 2.3 2.3
HSS3X3X1/4 8.78 3 3 0.25 0.233 2.44 2.01 2.01
HSS3X3X3/16 6.85 3 3 0.1875 0.174 1.89 1.64 1.64
HSS3X3X1/8 4.75 3 3 0.125 0.116 1.3 1.19 1.19
(Continued)

HSS3X2- 9.46 3 2.5 0.3125 0.291 2.64 1.94 1.74
1/2X5/16
HSS3X2-1/2X1/4 7.93 3 2.5 0.25 0.233 2.21 1.72 1.54
HSS3X2- 6.21 3 2.5 0.1875 0.174 1.71 1.41 1.27
1/2X3/16
HSS3X2-1/2X1/8 4.32 3 2.5 0.125 0.116 1.19 1.03 0.931
HSS3X2X5/16 8.4 3 2 0.3125 0.291 2.35 1.59 1.24
HSS3X2X1/4 7.08 3 2 0.25 0.233 1.97 1.42 1.11
HSS3X2X3/16 5.57 3 2 0.1875 0.174 1.54 1.18 0.932
HSS3X2X1/8 3.9 3 2 0.125 0.116 1.07 0.867 0.692
HSS3X1-1/2X1/4 6.23 3 1.5 0.25 0.233 1.74 1.12 0.725
HSS3X1- 4.94 3 1.5 0.1875 0.174 1.37 0.945 0.622
1/2X3/16
HSS3X1-1/2X1/8 3.47 3 1.5 0.125 0.116 0.956 0.706 0.474
HSS3X1X1/8 3.04 3 1 0.125 0.116 0.84 0.545 0.276
HSS2-1/2X2- 8.4 2.5 2.5 0.3125 0.291 2.35 1.46 1.46
1/2X5/16
HSS2-1/2X2- 7.08 2.5 2.5 0.25 0.233 1.97 1.3 1.3
1/2X1/4
HSS2-1/2X2- 5.57 2.5 2.5 0.1875 0.174 1.54 1.08 1.08
1/2X3/16
HSS2-1/2X2- 3.9 2.5 2.5 0.125 0.116 1.07 0.799 0.799
1/2X1/8
HSS2-1/2X1- 5.38 2.5 1.5 0.25 0.233 1.51 0.822 0.599
1/2X1/4
HSS2-1/2X1- 4.3 2.5 1.5 0.1875 0.174 1.19 0.705 0.52
1/2X3/16
HSS2-1/2X1- 3.04 2.5 1.5 0.125 0.116 0.84 0.535 0.399
1/2X1/8
HSS2-1/4X2- 6.23 2.25 2.25 0.25 0.233 1.74 1.01 1.01
1/4X1/4
(Continued)

HSS2-1/4X2- 4.94 2.25 2.25 0.1875 0.174 1.37 0.847 0.847
1/4X3/16
HSS2-1/4X2- 3.47 2.25 2.25 0.125 0.116 0.956 0.633 0.633
1/4X1/8
HSS2X2X1/4 5.38 2 2 0.25 0.233 1.51 0.747 0.747
HSS2X2X3/16 4.3 2 2 0.1875 0.174 1.19 0.641 0.641
HSS2X2X1/8 3.04 2 2 0.125 0.116 0.84 0.486 0.486
HSS2X1- 3.66 2 1.5 0.1875 0.174 1.02 0.495 0.417
1/2X3/16
HSS2X1X3/16 3.02 2 1 0.1875 0.174 0.845 0.35 0.225
HSS2X1X1/8 2.19 2 1 0.125 0.116 0.608 0.28 0.184
HSS1-3/4X1- 3.66 1.75 1.75 0.1875 0.174 1.02 0.463 0.463
3/4X3/16
HSS1-5/8X1- 3.34 1.625 1.625 0.1875 0.174 0.932 0.385 0.385
5/8X3/16
HSS1-5/8X1- 2.41 1.625 1.625 0.125 0.116 0.666 0.303 0.303
5/8X1/8
HSS1-1/2X1- 3.02 1.5 1.5 0.1875 0.174 0.845 0.315 0.315
1/2X3/16
HSS1-1/2X1- 2.19 1.5 1.5 0.125 0.116 0.608 0.251 0.251
1/2X1/8
HSS1-1/4X1- 2.38 1.25 1.25 0.1875 0.174 0.671 0.195 0.195
1/4X3/16
HSS1-1/4X1- 1.77 1.25 1.25 0.125 0.116 0.492 0.162 0.162
1/4X1/8
Conversion of metric units to imperial and US standard units is often easy, through
standard conversion programs available on computers, and Apps. However, in case of need
knowing the relationships can come very handy when those electronic devices are not eas-
ily available for use. The tables below give some basic units that often need conversion, to
continue working.
Table 7.7 Metric to US standard unit conversion.

Measurement of length
Metric units US standard units
1 meter 39.37 inches, or 3.28083 feet, or 1.09361 yards
0.3048 meter 1 foot
1 centimeter (CM) 0.3937 inch
2.54 centimeter (CM) 1 inch
1 millimeter (mm) 0.3937 inch,
25.4 millimeter (mm) 1 inch
1 kilometer (km) 1093.61 yards, or 0.62137 mile
Measure of weights
1 gram 15.432 grains
0.648 gram 1 grain
28.35 grams 1 ounce (avoirdupois) (Oz)
1 kilogram (kg) 2.2046 pounds (lb)
1 metric ton = 1000 kg 0.9842 ton or 2240 lbs (pounds) or 19.68 cwt.
1.016 metric ton = 1000 kg 1 ton or 2240 lbs.
Volumetric measurements
1 liter (or 1 cubic decimeter) 61.023 cubic inches (inch3), or 0.3531 ft3, or 0.2642 US gallons,
or 2.202 lbs. of water at 62oF
28.317 liters 1 cu ft (ft3)
3.785 liters 1 US gallon
4.543 liters 1 gallons (Imperial)
Pressure
Metric US standard units
1 kPa (kilo Pascal) 0.14504 psi. ( per Sq Inch)
1mPa (millipascal) 145.03773800722 psi
Index
Absolute zero (1oK), 14–15 American Institute of Steel Construction

Access holes, weld, 75–76 (AISC), 25, 93
Acetylene, 149, 150, 151, 152 American National Standards (ANSI), 172
Aerospace and aircraft applications American Petroleum Association (API)
aluminum alloy series 2xxx, 109 specifications, 174
aluminum alloy series 7xxx, 110 American Railroad Engineers Association
Aging process, 113–114 (AREA), 93
Alternating current power sources American Welding Society (AWS), 25, 106, 132,
GTAW, 140–141 137–138, 155
SMAW, 136 AWS D1.3/AWS D1.3M, 170–171
Alternator type AC welding machines, GTAW, AWS D1.1 8669 NW 36 St, # 130, Miami, FL
141 33166, 169
Aluminum, 107–124 Angular distortion, 125
alloys and, mechanical properties, 184t–185t; Applied load, 7, 21, 23, 25, 33
see also Aluminum alloys Arc welding process, 109, 110, 112, 134
strength of, 117–119 ESW, 42–43, 146
structural welding code, 170 FCAW, 43, 49, 83, 145, 153
temper designation system, 112–114 GMAW. see Gas metal arc welding (GMAW)
welding. see Welding aluminum process
Aluminum alloys GTAW. see Gas tungsten arc welding
cast alloy designation system, 111 (GTAW) process
categories, 111 PAW, 146
characteristics, 108–110 SAW, 43, 80–81, 145–146
heat treatable and non-heat treatable, SMAW. see Shielded metal arc welding
112–113 (SMAW) process
series 1xxx, 108, 111, 112 stud welding, 146–147
series 2xxx, 108t, 109, 112 Argon gas, 139
series 3xxx, 108t, 109, 112 Arrow pointing, 156
series 4xxx, 108t, 109, 112 Arrow side, 157
series 5xxx, 109–110, 112 Artificial aging process, 112–113
series 6xxx, 108t, 110, 112 ASME codes
series 7xxx, 108t, 110, 112 ASME B 31.4, 173
temper and designation system, 110–111 ASME B 31.8, 174
wrought alloy designation system, 111 process pipping under, 173
Aluminum Association Inc., 110 ASTM E 616, 12
Aluminum Association publications, 116–117 Austenitic stainless steels, mechanical
American Association of State Highway and properties, 186t
Transportation Officials (AASHTO), AWS (American Welding Society), 106, 132,
93 137–138, 155
201
202 Index
AWS D1.3/AWS D1.3M, 170–171 Conductors, as chill bars, 128–129

AWS D1.1 8669 NW 36 St, # 130, Miami, FL Construction drawings, 55–57
33166, 169 Cooking utensils, manufacture of, 109
Copper
Back-gouging, 128 alloys of aluminum and, 109, 107t
Backing bar symbol, 165, 166f as chill bars, 128–129
Base plates grades and alloys, mechanical properties,
issue of through-thickness loading on, 75 180t–183t
weld connections to, 75 GTAW power source, 140, 141
Bending, 25–27 silicon plus, 112, 112t
Bevel groove welds, 43, 162–163 Corner and T-joint surface contouring, 75
Bolts, welds with, 76 Corrosion
Buckling, 127 effects of, 36
Bus bar applications, 108 properties, 18
Butt joint(s) Crack, 12
for aluminum welding, 120 CSA G-40.21 requirements, 80
rotational distortion in, 126 Cutting process, oxyfuel, 147–149
single-sided groove weld in, 126f Cyclic loading, 19–20
Butt welds, 36t, 57, 105 allowable stress by, 104–105
design for, 93–107
Canadian Standards Association Welded steel evaluation of S-N curves for design, 105–107
construction CSA W59, 170–171 fatigue categories, 94f–103f
Carbon fatigue performance of welds, 105–107
steel electrodes, 137–138, 146, 154 of plate girders, 29
welding requirements for, 170–171 on strength of steel and weld metal, 92, 93f
Carbon monoxide, 150 typical weld flushing plan, 107
Cast alloy designation system, 111
Center of gravity (CG), 125f, 126 Direct current (DC)
Chamfer, 162–163 with electrode positive current (DCEP), 115
Charpy impact method, 10 power sources, SMAW process, 136
Circumferential distortion, 126 Distortion, 17, 18, 29
CJP. see Complete joint penetration (CJP) welds Distortion control, 124–129
Cleavage fracture, 12 angular distortion, 125
Coefficient of thermal expansion, 17 buckling and wrapping, 127
Collapse, design of tubular connections, 91 conduct heat away from weld area, 128–129
Combinations of welds, capacity of, 75 longitudinal distortions, 126–129
Competitive sporting equipment, 110 lower heat input, 128
Complete joint penetration (CJP) welds, 38, 43, over heating, 127–128
44, 55 over welding, 127–128
allowable stress and strength level, 41t practice of off-setting, 127
effective size of CJP groove welds, 40 preheat, 128
groove and fillet welds, 57 reduction of heating and cooling cycles,
groove weld, effective size of, 57 128
joint design for, 83 shrinkage, minimization, 127
joints, for T-K-Y tubular structures, 86t–87t twisting distortion, 127
partial length CJP groove weld prohibition, 76 DNV, 106
welding processes achieving, 43 Double bevel groove weld, 43
Compression, 23–25 Double fillet welds, 52
member connections and splices, 75 Double-sided fillet welds in T-joint, 125
Index 203
Double-V-groove welds, 44 mechanical properties of various metals, 178t

Drop-weight tear test (DWTT), 11 metric to US standard unit conversion, 199t
Dual source, 141 SI derived units, 176
Ductile fracture, 12 SI prefixes, 177
Ductility, 8–9 steel, mechanical properties, 187t
titanium grades and alloys, mechanical
E 6010, welding electrode, 138 properties, 178t–180t
Effective areas ERW (electric resistance welding) process, 80
of fillet welds, 46, 48, 49 ESW (electroslag welding), 42–43, 146
of fillet welds in holes and slots, 64 E70T-1 welding-wire, 49, 51
groove and fillet welds, 57–58 European Standards (EN and ISO), 171
of groove welds, 40, 41t–42t, 57–58
of plug and slot welds, 65 Fabrication drawing, 55–57
of skewed T-joints, 64 Fatigue
Effective length categories, 94f–103f
curved fillet weld, 45, 59 design of tubular connections, 92–93
of fillet welds in holes and slots, 64 performance of welds, 105–107
groove and fillet welds, 57 strength in aluminum welds, 123–124
groove weld, 40, 57 Fatigue strength, 7–8
of skewed T-joints, 64 FCAW (flux cored arc welding), 43, 49, 83, 145,
straight fillet weld, 45 153
of straight fillet welds, 59 Filler plates, 78–79
Effective size Fillet welds, 44–54
of CJP groove welds, 40, 57 in acute angle, 60–61
for flare groove welds, 40 allowable stress and strength level, 42t
groove and fillet welds, 57 aluminum, shear strength of, 123
Effective throat classification, 46–47
calculation of, 45–46, 59–61 defined and explained, 47–54
of fillet welds, 59–61 double, 52
of skewed T-joints, 64 double-sided, in T-joint, 125
E7018-1H4R, welding electrode, 137 effective area of, 46, 48, 49
Elastic limit, 9 effective length, 45, 48
Electrical conductivity, 18 effective throat, calculation of, 45–46
Electric arc, as source of heat, 134 effective throat, determination of, 59–61
Electric resistance welding (ERW) process, 80 groove and, 52–54
Electrodes, welding in holes and slots, 64–65, 78–80
aluminum, 115 intermittent fillet weld, 45, 78, 79
SMAW process, 137–139 joining perpendicular members, 59
Electroslag welding (ESW), 42–43, 146 longitudinal, 77
Energy absorption in impact testing, 10 maximum effective length, 45
Engineering information, 174–199 maximum weld size in lap joints, 46
aluminum and alloys, mechanical properties, minimum length, 45
184t–185t minimum size, 61–62
austenitic stainless steels, mechanical over-welding, 47
properties, 186t reinforcing, 46, 61
constants, 175 in shear load, 50–51
copper grades and alloys, mechanical single, 52
properties, 180t–183t sizing, 47, 52–54, 59–64
204 Index
skewed. see Skewed fillet weld effective area, 40, 41t–42t, 57–58
stress in, 73–74 effective size, 40
symbol, length of, 159–160 effective weld length, 40
symbol of, 158–160 effective weld size, 40
under tensile load, 49f, 50 fatigue strength of, 123
terminations, 77 fillet welds and, 52–54
theoretical throat, 48–49 flare bevel groove weld, 164–166
transverse, 47–48, 51, 77 flare-V groove welds, 164
with weld nomenclatures, 47f flare welds, flare groove and intermittent PJP
Finite element analysis (FEA), 33 groove welds, 76
FJP (full joint penetration) welds, 38 joint design for PJP groove weld, 83, 88f
Flare groove welds, 76 partial length CJP groove weld prohibition,
effective weld size for, 40, 58 76
flare bevel groove weld, 164–166 single or double-J-groove welds, 44, 163–164
flare-V groove welds, 164 single or double-U-groove weld, 44, 163
Flat sections, 31–32 single or double-V-groove weld, 43–44,
Flush ground welds, 105–107 161–162
Flux cored arc welding (FCAW), 43, 49, 83, single-sided, in butt joint, 126f
145, 153 square, 42–43, 161
Fracture toughness, 11–14 symbol of, 158, 160–166
Fracture transition elastic (FTE), 16 transitions in thicknesses and widths, 76
Fuel gas, choice of, 149–150 types, 42
Full joint penetration (FJP) welds, 38 GTAW. see Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW)
Full penetration welds, 38, 39 process
Gas metal arc welding (GMAW) process, 83, HAZ (heat affected zone), 8, 17, 117–118, 150
115, 140, 142–145 Heat and distortion control, 124–129
equipment for, 142–143 angular distortion, 125
fundamentals, 142 longitudinal distortions, 126–129
inverters, 144–145 Heat input, 128
overview, 142 Helium gas, 139
power sources, 143–145 High strength low alloy (HSLA) structural
transformer rectifiers, 144 steels, 80
Gas shielded FCAW, 145 Holes, fillet welds in, 64–65, 78–80
Gas transmission and distribution piping diameter and width limitations, 64–65
systems, ASME B 31.8, 174 effective area, 64
Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) process, 115, effective length, 64
139–142 Hollow structural sections (HSS)
advantages and limitations, 141–142 CSA G-40.21 requirements for, 80
alternator type AC welding machines, 141 formation, 80
description, 139–140 rect property table, 187t–198t
overview, 139 Hollow structural steel (HSS), 80
power sources, 140–141 Hot cracking problem, 109, 110
Globular transfer mode, 142 HSS (hollow structural sections)
GMAW. see Gas metal arc welding (GMAW) CSA G-40.21 requirements for, 80
process formation, 80
Groove welds rect property table, 187t–198t
bevel groove weld, 43, 162–163 Hydrocarbon fuel diesel, 141
CJP, effective size of, 57 Hyperbaric welding, 152–153
Index 205
Impact strength, 10–14 Loading, weld design and, 54–58

Impact testing, energy absorption in, 10 common conditions, 55
Intergranular fracture, 12 effective areas, 57–58
Intermittent fillet welds, 45, 78, 79 fabrication and construction drawings,
Intermittent PJP groove welds, 76 55–57
International Standards Association (ISO), 171 Z loss table, 55, 56t
Invertors Longitudinal distortions, 126–129
for GMAW process, 144–145 buckling and wrapping, 127
for SMAW process, 136 circumferential distortion, 126
IZOD method, 10 conduct heat away from weld area, 128–129
lower heat input, 128
J-groove welds, 44, 163–164 over heating, 127–128
over welding, 127–128
Lamellar tearing, 91–92 panel distortion, 126
Lamination, in steel, 91–92 practice of off-setting, 127
Lap joint(s) preheat, 128
for aluminum welding, 121 reduction of heating and cooling cycles, 128
maximum weld size in, 46, 62–63 rotational distortion, 126
Line, weld as, 66–80 shrinkage, minimization, 127
base plate, issue of through-thickness loading twisting distortion, 127
on, 75 Longitudinal fillet welds, 77
calculated stresses, 73 Low temperature properties, 14–16
calculation approach, 67
capacity of combinations of welds, 75 Magnesium-based aluminum alloys, 110
compression member connections and Magnesium-silicide, compound of, 110
splices, 75 Manganese alloys, 109
corner and T-joint surface contouring, 75 Manual Metal Arc (MMA) welding process.
fillet welds in holes and slots, 78–80 see Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW)
finding size, 67–73 process
flare welds, flare groove and intermittent PJP MAPP (methylacetylene-propadiene), 149,
groove welds, 76 151–152
groove welds, transitions in thicknesses and Maximum weld size in lap joints, 46, 62–63
widths, 76 Melting point, 17–18
joint configuration and details, 74, 76–80 Melt-thru symbol, 165
mathematical relationships of various Metal strength at low temperature, 16
elements, 68f–71f Methylacetylene-propadiene (MAPP), 149,
partial length CJP groove weld prohibition, 76 151–152
stress in fillet welds, 73–74 Minimum size of fillet weld, 45, 59, 61–62
stress on welds for different loading, 66–67 Modulus of elasticity, 5–6
termination of fillet welds, 77
weld access holes, 75–76 Natural gas, 149, 152
welds with rivets/bolts, 76 Nil ductility temperature (NDT) methods, 106
Liquid petroleum gas (LPG) product, 152 Nondestructive examinations (NDE), 2, 97f,
Load, uneven distribution of, 88–91 98f, 153
Load conditions, 19–33 Nozzle tip, 147
design by calculations, 20–21, 23–33
design of welds, 19–20 Offset distortion, preset to, 127
load components of design formulas and Output slope, 136–137
symbols used, 22t Over heating, distortions and, 127–128
206 Index
Over welding, 127–128 low temperature properties, 14–17

Oxyacetylene gas, 150, 151, 152 mechanical properties, 5–14
Oxyfuel cutting process, 147–148 physical properties, 17–18
Oxyfuel gas welding, 147–152 structure insensitive properties, 4
acetylene, 149, 150, 151, 152 structure sensitive properties, 4–5
cutting and shaping for fabrication and Propylene, 149, 152
welding, 147–148 Purity of oxygen, 149
fuel gas, choice of, 149–150
fundamentals, 147, 148–149 Quench and Temper steel, 78
MAPP, 149, 151–152
natural gas, 149, 152 Radius of gyration, 23
propane, 149, 150–151, 152 Rectifiers, GMAW process, 144
propylene, 149, 152 Reference line, 156, 157
purity of oxygen, 149 Reinforcing fillet welds, 46
Oxygen, purity of, 149 Residual stress, in aluminum, 124
Rivets/bolts, welds with, 76
Panel distortion, 126 Rotational distortion, 126
Partial joint penetration (PJP) weld, 39, 44, Round cross sectionals, 32–33
55 Rupture, 12
allowable stress and strength level, 41t
flare welds, flare groove and intermittent PJP Safety factors, 19, 50, 51
groove welds, 76 SAW (submerged arc welding) process, 43,
groove and fillet welds, 57 80–81, 145–146
groove weld, sizing of, 57–58 Self-shielding FCAW, 145
joint design for, 83, 88f Service temperature, effect of, 119–120
limitations, 43 Shear, 28
Partial length CJP groove weld prohibition, 76 Shear fracture, 12
PAW (plasma arc welding) process, 146 Shear strength of aluminum fillet welds, 123
Peening, 124 Shielded FCAW (FCAW-S), 145
Pink Book, 111 Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW) process,
Pipeline transportation systems for liquids and 43, 83, 115, 134–139
slurries, ASME B 31.4, 173 fundamentals, 135
PJP. see Partial joint penetration (PJP) weld identification of welding electrode, 137–139
Plasma arc welding (PAW) process, 146 overview, 134–135
Plug welds power sources, 135–137
allowable stress and strength level, 42t Shielding gas, 145, 146
effective area of, 65 Shrinkage
spacing of, 78 circumferential, 126
symbol of, 158, 166–167 metal, 124
Power sources minimization, 127
GMAW, 143–145 of solidified weld, 125
GTAW, 140–141 Silicon alloys, 109, 110, 112, 115
SMAW, 135–137 Silicon-controlled rectifiers (SCR), 140
Preheat, 128 Single bevel groove welds, 43
Propane, 149, 150–151, 152 Single fillet weld(s), 52
Properties and strength of material, 1–2 T-joints with, 122
Properties of metals, 3–18 Single-sided groove weld in butt joint, 126f
corrosion properties, 18 Single-V-groove weld, 43–44
electrical conductivity, 18 Size, weld, 67–73
Index 207
Sizing fillet welds, 47, 52–54, 59–64 Square groove welds, 42–43, 161
effective length of straight fillet welds, 59 Stain hardening, effect, 117
effective throat, determination of, 59–61 Steel catenary risers (SCRs), 19
maximum weld size in lap joints, 62–63 Steels, 16
minimum size, 61–62 allowable stress in, 39, 41t–42t, 53, 104, 104t
reinforcing, 61 allowable unit load on, 53t
for skewed fillet -tee welds, 60 API 5L X60 grade of, 106
skewed T-joints, 63–64 Canadian Standards Association Welded steel
Skewed fillet welds construction CSA W59, 170–171
designing calculations for, 65–66 carbon steel electrodes, 137–138
Skewed T-joints, 55, 57, 60, 63–64 construction, AWS D 1.1 for, 39
Slag, 148 cyclic loading on the strength of, 93f
Slenderness of a beam or a column, 23 design for welding aluminum, 115, 116, 123
Slenderness ratio, 28 electrodes, 138
Slot welds, 64–65 ESW process, 146
allowable stress and strength level, 42t flush-ground girth welds in, 105
diameter and width limitations, 64–65 grades of, mechanical properties, 187t
effective area, 64, 65 HSS, 80, 187t–198t
effective length, 64 hyperbaric welding process, 152–153
ends of, 64 lamination in, 91
fillet welds in, 78–80 melting point, 148
length and shape, 65 Quench and Temper, 78, 92
spacing of, 78 strip, 80–81
symbol of, 158, 166–167 structural construction, 107
SMAW. see Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW) structural welding code, 169
process weathering steel standards, 80
S-N curves, for flush ground welds, 105–107 welding and joining processes, 154t
Snipping, 122 Stepdown transformers, 140
Softening HAZ of aluminum weld, 117–118 Straight fillet welds, effective length of, 59
Solution heat treatment process, 112 Strain hardening method, 113–114
Specifications, welding Stress
American Petroleum Association, 174 in aluminum weld design, distribution of,
ASME, process pipping under, 173 122–124
ASME B 31.4, 173 corrosion cracking, 109, 107
ASME B 31.8, 174 in fillet welds, 73–74
AWS D1.1 8669 NW 36 St, # 130, Miami, FL location, 97
33166, 169 rage, 104
Canadian Standards Association Welded steel Stresses – like risers (SCRs), 14
construction CSA W59, 170–171 Structural welding codes, 169–174
D1.2 8669 NW 36 St, # 130, Miami, FL American Petroleum Association, 174
33166, 170 ASME, process pipping under, 173
European Standards (EN and ISO), 171 ASME B 31.4, 173
overview, 169 ASME B 31.8, 174
structural codes, 169–174 AWS D1.1 8669 NW 36 St, # 130, Miami, FL
US standards, 172–173 33166, 169
welding procedures, 171–172 Canadian Standards Association Welded steel
WPS, contents of, 171 construction CSA W59, 170–171
Splices, connections and, 75 D1.2 8669 NW 36 St, # 130, Miami, FL
Spray transfer mode, 142 33166, 170
208 Index
European Standards (EN and ISO), 171 U-groove welds, 44, 163
specification & approval of welding Ultimate tensile strength (UTS), 9
procedures, 171
US standards, 172–173 Warping, 29
welding procedure test, 172 Weathering steel, special requirements of, 80
WPS, contents of, 171 Weld access holes, 75–76
Stud welding, 146–147 Weld flush grinding, 107
Submerged arc welding (SAW) process, 43, Welding
80–81, 145–146 codes, structural, 169–174
Surface contouring fillet welds, 75 procedure test, 172
Surface tension transfer (STTTM), 143 Welding aluminum, 114–124
design for, 116–122
Teal Book, 111 distribution of stress in, 122–124
Temper designation system, 112–114 distribution of tensile strength, 117f, 118
Temper steel, 78 electrical parameters, 115–116
Tensile strength, 6 electrodes, 115
Tension, 23 fatigue strength in, 123–124
Theoretical throat of fillet weld, 48–49 lap joint for, 121
Thermal conductivity, 17 processes, 114
Through-thickness loading, on base plate, service temperature, effect of, 119–120
75 shear strength of aluminum fillet welds, 123
Titanium grades and alloys, mechanical strength of aluminum and its alloys, 117–119
properties, 178t–180t T-joints in, 121–122
T-joint(s) weld joints, type of, 120–122
in aluminum welding, 121–122 Welding electrodes
double-sided fillet welds in, 125 aluminum, 115
skewed, 55, 57, 60, 63–64 SMAW process, 137–139
surface contouring, corner and, 75 Welding processes
“TKY” tubular structures, 82f, 83, 86t–87t, 88f application of, 153, 154t
Torsion, 29–30 ESW, 42–43, 146
Toughness, 12 FCAW, 43, 49, 83, 145, 153
Transfer of forces, 33 GMAW. see Gas metal arc welding (GMAW)
Transformer type power source process
GMAW process, 144 GTAW. see Gas tungsten arc welding
GTAW, 140 (GTAW) process
SMAW, 136 hyperbaric welding, 152–153
Transition temperature overview, 131–134
for energy absorption, 11 oxyfuel gas welding, 147–152
for lateral expansion, 11 PAW, 146
Transverse fillet weld, 47–48, 51, 77 SAW, 43, 80–81, 145–146
Tubular connections, design of, 80–93 SMAW. see Shielded metal arc welding
collapse, 91 (SMAW) process
fatigue, 92–93 stud welding, 146–147
lamellar tear and lamination, 91–92 Welding specifications
uneven distribution of load, 88–91 overview, 169
weld joint design, 82–88 structural codes, 169–174
TWI, 106 Welding symbols
Twisting distortion, 127 basic structure, 156–157
Index 209
bevel groove welds, 162–163 cyclic loading. see Cyclic loading

common weld symbols and their meanings, fillet welds. see Fillet welds
156–158 full penetration welds, 38
fillet welds, 158–160 groove welds. see Groove welds
flare bevel groove weld, 164–166 heat and distortion control. see Heat and
flare-V groove welds, 164 distortion control
groove welds, 158, 160–166 as line. see Line, weld as
J-groove welds, 163–164 loading and. see Loading, weld design and
overview, 155 overview, 35–38
plug and slot welds, 166–167 PJP weld. see Partial joint penetration (PJP)
square groove welds, 161 weld
types of welds, 157–158 structural types, 38
U-groove weld, 161 tubular connections. see Tubular
use, 55, 57 connections, design of
V-groove welds, 161–162 Wrapping, 127
Weld joint(s) Wrought alloy designation system, 111
design, 82–88
type, 35–38, 53, 94f–103f, 120–122 Yield strength, 7
Welds and weldments, design of
aluminum. see Aluminum Zinc, alloys of aluminum with, 110
CJP. see Complete joint penetration (CJP) welds Z loss table, 55, 56t
Also of Interest
By the same Author
ARC WELDING PROCESSES HANDBOOK

2021, 416 pages, ISBN 978-1-119-81905-9
Written by a welding/metallurgical engineer with over 40 years of experience, Arc Welding
Processes Handbook delivers the welding and materials expertise required to master com-
plex welding processes and techniques to ensure that the task is done correctly and safely,
while reinforcing an understanding of international welding standards and rules.
The perfect handbook for those professionals who need an up-to-date reference to
advance processes as well as those welders new to the field and need to hone their skills.
Arc Welding Processes Handbook five-part treatment starts with a clear and rigorous expo-
sition of the applications and equipment of Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW) and Gas
Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW), followed by self-contained parts concerning processes
applications and equipment for Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW), Flux Core Arc Welding
(FCAW), and Submerged Arc Welding (SAW).
An applied reference, each Part of Arc Welding Processes Handbook offers valuable infor-
mation regarding the industry or industries where the process is commonly used as well as
a description of the equipment. In addition, this Handbook discusses the challenges pre-
sented by a number of corrosion-resistant alloys (CRAs). Case studies are included through-
out the reference to reinforce an understanding of how these processes were applied in the
field and how they intersect with issues that may arise with equipment use and materials.
The reader will also find in the Handbook:
• Highlights the key advantages and limitations of each process and suggests
an alternate approach to overcome those limitations.
• One-of-a-kind case studies to reinforce an understanding of international
welding standards and rules.
• Quality of welds, type of equipment, materials, and inspection and testing for
each process.
• Metal joining processes like soldering and brazing.
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Designing Weldments

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Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Cover images: supplied by the author

Printed in the USA

3 Design: Load Conditions 19

4.7.1.2 Double Fillet Welds 52

4.12.11 Welds with Rivets or Bolts 76

4.19.1 Angular Distortion 125

Figure 4.12 Weld as a line (no area). 66

Table 2.1 Properties of materials. 4

Table 5.10.1 Fuel gas characteristics. 149

(i) to provide the intended purpose of the structure and

Ramesh Singh. Designing Weldments, (1–2) © 2022 Scrivener Publishing LLC

0.5% Extension Under Load

0.20.5 estrain (%)

2.1 Material Properties

Ramesh Singh. Designing Weldments, (3–18) © 2022 Scrivener Publishing LLC

Table 2.1 Properties of materials.

Corrosion • Electrochemical potential, Corrosion of metals does affect

The following is the discussion on these material properties.

2.1.1 Structure Insensitive Properties

2.1.2 Structure Sensitive Properties

2.1.3 Mechanical Properties

2.1.3.1 Modulus of Elasticity

σ = the unit stress, psi

Table 2.2 Modulus of elasticity of common engineering metals.

2.1.3.2 Tensile Strength

80 Tensile Strength (UTS)

40 0.5% Method (Total extension)

2.1.3.3 Yield Strength

2.1.3.4 Fatigue Strength

(1) Welding in sequence,

2.1.3.6 Elastic Limit

2.1.3.7 Impact Strength

2.1.3.7.1 Types of Impact Tests

2.1.3.7.2 IZOD Method

2.1.3.7.3 Charpy Impact Method

2.1.3.8 Energy Absorption in Impact Testing

2.1.3.9 Transition Temperature for Energy Absorption

2.1.3.10 Transition Temperature for Lateral Expansion

2.1.3.11 Drop-Weight Tear Test (DWTT)

2.1.3.12 Fracture Toughness

1. Crack initiation and

• Effects of axiality of stress,

1. The rate of straining,

2.1.4 Low Temperature Properties

Figure 2.2 Low temperature behavior of metals.

2.1.4.1 Metal Strength at Low Temperature

2.1.5 Elevated Temperature Properties

1. Welding operation involves heat, and higher temperature, it is essential that

2.1.6 Physical Properties

2.1.6.1 Thermal Conductivity

2.1.6.2 Coefficient of Thermal Expansion

2.1.6.3 Melting Point

2.1.7 Electrical Conductivity

2.1.8 Corrosion Properties

3.1 Design of Welds

1. Design should satisfy the strength and stiffness requirements,

Ramesh Singh. Designing Weldments, (19–34) © 2022 Scrivener Publishing LLC

7. Where possible consider use of the tubular members as bracings, to reduce

1. The ease of welding and fabrication,

3.2 Design by Calculations

Cover images: supplied by the author

Figure 4.12 Weld as a line (no area). 66

Table 2.1 Properties of materials. 4

Table 5.10.1 Fuel gas characteristics. 149

1. Crack initiation and