Cold-formed steel design Fifth Edition

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Cold-Formed Steel Design
Cold-Formed Steel Design
Fifth Edition

Wei-Wen Yu
Missouri University of Science and Technology
Rolla, Missouri

Roger A. LaBoube
Missouri University of Science and Technology
Rolla, Missouri

Helen Chen
American Iron and Steel Institute
Washington, DC
This edition first published 2020

©2020 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Yu, Wei-Wen, author. | LaBoube, Roger A., author. | Chen,

Helen, author.
Title: Cold-formed steel design / Wei-Wen Yu and Roger A. LaBoube, Missour University of Science
and Tech; Helen Chen, American Iron and Steel Institute.
Description: Fifth edition. | Hoboken : Wiley, 2020. | Includes
bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2019023220 (print) | LCCN 2019023221 (ebook) | ISBN
9781119487395 (cloth) | ISBN 9781119487388 (adobe pdf) | ISBN
9781119487418 (epub)
Subjects: LCSH: Building, Iron and steel. | Sheet-steel. | Thin-walled
structures. | Steel—Cold working.
Classification: LCC TA684 .Y787 2020 (print) | LCC TA684 (ebook) | DDC
624.1/821—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2019023220
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2019023221

Cover Design: Wiley

Cover Image: Courtesy of Steel Framing Alliance

Set in 10/12pt TimesLTStd by SPi Global, Chennai, India

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
CONTENTS

Preface ix

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 General Remarks 1

1.2 Types of Cold-Formed Steel Sections and Their Applications 2
1.3 Metal Buildings and Industrialized Housing 7
1.4 Methods of Forming 13
1.5 Research and Design Specifications 15
1.6 General Design Considerations of Cold-Formed Steel Construction 21
1.7 Economic Design and Optimum Properties 26
1.8 Design Basis 27
1.9 Serviceability 35

CHAPTER 2 MATERIALS USED IN COLD-FORMED STEEL CONSTRUCTION 37

2.1 General Remarks 37

2.2 Yield Stress, Tensile Strength, and Stress–Strain Curve 44
2.3 Modulus of Elasticity, Tangent Modulus, and Shear Modulus 45
2.4 Ductility 45
2.5 Weldability 47
2.6 Fatigue Strength and Toughness 48
2.7 Influence of Cold Work on Mechanical Properties of Steel 48
2.8 Utilization of Cold Work of Forming 51
2.9 Effect of Temperature on Mechanical Properties of Steel 53
2.10 Testing of Full Sections and Flat Elements 54
2.11 Residual Stresses Due to Cold Forming 55
2.12 Effect of Strain Rate on Mechanical Properties 57

v
vi CONTENTS

CHAPTER 3 STRENGTH OF THIN ELEMENTS AND DESIGN CRITERIA 59

3.1 General Remarks 59

3.2 Definitions of Terms 59
3.3 Structural Behavior of Compression Elements and Effective Width Design
Criteria 61
3.4 Perforated Elements and Members 97
3.5 Direct Strength Method and Consideration of Local and Distortional
Buckling 100
3.6 Plate Buckling of Structural Shapes 117
3.7 Additional Information 117

CHAPTER 4 FLEXURAL MEMBERS 119

4.1 General Remarks 119

4.2 Bending Strength and Deflection 119
4.3 Design of Beam Webs 183
4.4 Bracing Requirements of Beams 209
4.5 Torsional Analysis of Beams and Combined Bending and Torsional Loading 216
4.6 Additional Information on Beams 216

CHAPTER 5 COMPRESSION MEMBERS 217

5.1 General Remarks 217

5.2 Column Buckling 218
5.3 Local Buckling Interacting with Yielding and Global Buckling 226
5.4 Distortional Buckling Strength of Compression Members 228
5.5 Effect of Cold Work on Column Buckling 228
5.6 North American Design Formulas for Concentrically Loaded Compression
Members 230
5.7 Effective Length Factor K 234
5.8 Built-Up Compression Members 236
5.9 Bracing of Axially Loaded Compression Members 237
5.10 Design Examples 238
5.11 Compression Members in Metal Roof and Wall Systems 247
5.12 Additional Information on Compression Members 250

CHAPTER 6 COMBINED AXIAL LOAD AND BENDING 251

6.1 General Remarks 251

6.2 Combined Tensile Axial Load and Bending 251
6.3 Combined Compressive Axial Load and Bending (Beam–Columns) 253
6.4 Member Forces Considering Structural Stability 261
6.5 North American Design Criteria for Beam–Column Check 265
6.6 Design Examples 266
6.7 Additional Information on Beam–Columns 283

CHAPTER 7 CLOSED CYLINDRICAL TUBULAR MEMBERS 285

7.1 General Remarks 285

7.2 Types of Closed Cylindrical Tubes 285
7.3 Flexural Column Buckling 285
 CONTENTS vii
7.4 Local Buckling 286
7.5 North American Design Criteria 289
7.6 Design Examples 293

CHAPTER 8 CONNECTIONS 297

8.1 General Remarks 297

8.2 Types of Connectors 297
8.3 Welded Connections 297
8.4 Bolted Connections 316
8.5 Screw Connections 327
8.6 Power-Actuated Fasteners 331
8.7 Other Fasteners 334
8.8 Rupture Failure of Connections 336
8.9 I- or Box-Shaped Compression Members Made by Connecting Two
C-Sections 337
8.10 I-Beams Made by Connecting Two C-Sections 340
8.11 Spacing of Connections in Compression Elements 342

CHAPTER 9 SHEAR DIAPHRAGMS AND ROOF STRUCTURES 345

9.1 General Remarks 345

9.2 Steel Shear Diaphragms 345
9.3 Structural Members Braced by Diaphragms 358
9.4 Shell Roof Structures 367
9.5 Metal Roof Systems 378
9.6 Shear Walls 380

CHAPTER 10 CORRUGATED SHEETS 381

10.1 General Remarks 381

10.2 Applications 381
10.3 Sectional Properties and Design of Arc- and Tangent-Type
Corrugated Sheets 381
10.4 Sectional Properties and Design of Trapezoidal-Type Corrugated
Sheets 386

CHAPTER 11 COMPOSITE DESIGN 389

11.1 General Remarks 389

11.2 Steel-Deck-Reinforced Composite Slabs 389
11.3 Composite Beams or Girders With Cold-Formed Steel Deck 390

CHAPTER 12 LIGHT-FRAME CONSTRUCTION 393

12.1 General Remarks 393

12.2 Framing Standards 393
12.3 Design Guides 406
viii CONTENTS

APPENDIX A THICKNESS OF BASE METAL 407

APPENDIX B TORSION 409

APPENDIX C FORMULAS FOR COMPUTING CROSS-SECTIONAL PROPERTY 𝛽 y 421

APPENDIX D DEFINITIONS OF TERMS 423

NOMENCLATURE 429

ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS 443

CONVERSION TABLE 445

REFERENCES 447

INDEX 513
PREFACE
This fifth edition of the book has been prepared to provide
readers with a better understanding of the analysis and design
of the thin-walled, cold-formed steel structures that have
been so widely used in building construction and other areas
in recent years. It is a revised version of the first author’s
book, Cold-Formed Steel Design, fourth edition, published
by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. in 2010. All the revisions are
based on the 2016 edition of the North American Spec-
ification, which incorporated the Direct Strength Method
into the main body of the Specification, and reorganized
the chapters to be consistent with hot-rolled steel design
specification,1.411 published by American Institute of Steel
Construction.
The material was originally developed for graduate
courses and short courses in the analysis and design of
cold-formed steel structures and is based on experience in
design, research, and development of the American Iron and
Steel Institute (AISI) and North American design criteria.
Throughout the book, descriptions of the structural
behavior of cold-formed steel members and connections
are given from both theoretical and experimental points of
view. The reasons and justification for the various design
provisions of the North American specification are discussed
at length. Consequently the text not only will be instructive
for students but also can serve as a major source of reference
for structural engineers and researchers.
To reflect the change in format and the inclusion of the
Direct Strength Method into the main body of the Specifica-
tion, all chapters have been completely revised according to
the reorganized layout of the North American Specification
and framing standards.
Chapter 1 includes a general discussion of the application
of cold-formed steel structures and a review of previous and
recent research. It also discusses the development of design
specifications and the major differences between the design
of cold-formed and hot-rolled steel structural members.
Because of the many research projects in the field that
have been conducted worldwide during the past 43 years,
numerous papers have been presented at various conferences
and published in a number of conference proceedings and
engineering journals. At the same time, new design criteria
have been developed in various countries. These new devel-
opments are reviewed in this chapter. New Sections 1.8 and
1.9 discuss the AISI Specification’s design basis for strength
and serviceability.
Since material properties play an important role in the
performance of structural members, the types of steel and
their most important mechanical properties are described in
Chapter 2. The mechanical properties of ASTM A1063 steel
sheets are added in Table 2.1.
In Chapter 3, the strength of thin elements and design
criteria are discussed to acquaint the reader with the funda-
mentals of buckling modes to be considered in cold-formed
steel design, such as local and distortional buckling and post-
buckling strength of thin plates, and with the basic concepts
used in design. The analytical and numerical approaches
for determining local and distortional buckling strengths are
discussed in this chapter. This chapter also introduces the
definitions of commonly used terms in cold-formed steel
design. The concepts of the Effective Width Method and the
Direct Strength Method are discussed with the limits of appli-
cability of these methods.
Chapter 4 deals with the design of flexural members.
The contents have been reorganized to be consistent with
the 2016 edition of the North American Specification. This
chapter discusses the flexural member strengths due to global
buckling, local buckling interacting with global buckling,
and distortional buckling. It also includes new and revised
design provisions on inelastic reserve capacity of beams,
members with holes, shear strength of webs, web crippling
ix
x PREFACE
strength and combination with bending, bearing stiffeners
in C-section beams, bracing requirements, combination of
bending and torsion, and beams having one flange attached
to a metal roof system.
The design procedures for compression members are
discussed in Chapter 5. The contents have been reorganized
to be consistent with the 2016 edition of the North Amer-
ican Specification. This chapter discusses the compressive
member strengths due to global buckling, local buckling
interacting with global buckling, and distortional buckling.
It also includes provisions about the design of built-up
members, bracing requirements, and compression members
having one flange attached to a metal roof system.
In the 2016 edition of the North American specification,
the Direct Analysis Method was introduced to consider the
second-order effect in structural analysis. This Direct Anal-
ysis Method is discussed in Chapter 6. In addition, revisions
have been made on the design of beam–columns using ASD,
LRFD, and LSD methods.
Chapter 7 covers the design of closed cylindrical tubes.
This revised chapter reflects the rearrangement of design
provisions in the North American specification.
Like the member design, the design of connections has
been updated in Chapter 8 using the ASD, LRFD, and
LSD methods with additional and revised design provi-
sions for bearing strength between bolts and connected
parts, combined shear and tension in fasteners, block shear
strength, revised design information on screw connections,
and power-actuated fasteners.
Because various types of structural systems, such as
shear diaphragms and shell roof structures, have become
increasingly popular in building construction, Chapter 9
contains design information on these types of structural
systems. Revisions are made reflecting the new North Amer-
ican standard of AISI S310 for profiled steel diaphragm
panels.
The sectional properties of standard corrugated sheets are
discussed in Chapter 10 because they have long been used in
buildings for roofing, siding, and other applications. Minor
revisions have been made in the chapter.
Steel decks are widely used in building construction.
Consequently the updated information in Chapter 11 on
their use in steel-deck-reinforced composite slabs and
composite beams is timely.
In 2015, the AISI design standards for cold-formed steel
framing were consolidated. These standards are specifically
applicable for residential and commercial construction. As
a result, Chapter 12 has been completely rewritten based on
new and consolidated AISI standards.
It is obvious that a book of this nature would not have
been possible without the cooperation and assistance of
many individuals, organizations, and institutions. It is based
primarily on the results of continuing research programs on
cold-formed steel structures that have been sponsored by
the American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI), the ASCE,
the Canadian Sheet Steel Building Institute (CSSBI), the
Cold-Formed Steel Engineers Institute (CFSEI) of the Steel
Framing Alliance (SFA), the Metal Building Manufacturers
Association (MBMA), the Metal Construction Association
(MCA), the National Science Foundation (NSF), the Rack
Manufacturers Institute (RMI), the Steel Deck Institute
(SDI), the Steel Framing Industry Association (SFIA), the
Steel Stud Manufacturers Association (SSMA), and other
organizations located in the United States and abroad. The
publications related to cold-formed steel structures issued
by AISI and other institutions have been very helpful for the
preparation of this book.
The first author is especially indebted to his teacher, the
late Dr. George Winter of Cornell University, who made
contributions of pronounced significance to the building
profession in his outstanding research on cold-formed steel
structures and in the development of AISI design criteria. A
considerable amount of material used in this book is based
on Dr. Winter’s publications.
Our sincere thanks go to Mr. Robert J. Wills, Vice Pres-
ident, Construction Market Development, Steel Market
Development Institute (a business unit of the American Iron
and Steel Institute), for permission to quote freely from
the North American Specification, Commentary, Design
Manual, Framing Standards, Design Guides, and other AISI
publications. An expression of appreciation is also due to
the many organizations and individuals that granted permis-
sion for the reproduction of quotations, graphs, tables, and
photographs. Credits for the use of such materials are given
in the text.
We are very grateful to Mrs. Christina Stratman for her
kind assistance in the preparation of this book. The financial
assistance provided by the Missouri University of Science
and Technology through the first author’s Curators’ Profes-
sorship and the sponsors for the Wei-Wen Yu Center for
Cold-Formed Steel Structures is appreciated.
This book could not have been completed without the help
and encouragement of the authors’ wives, Yueh-Hsin Yu and
Karen LaBoube, and husband, Chunwei Huang, as well as
for their patience, understanding, and assistance.
Wei-Wen Yu
Roger A. LaBoube
Hong (Helen) Chen
Rolla, Missouri
March 2019
 Since 1946 the use and the development of thin-walled
cold-formed steel construction in the United States have
been accelerated by the issuance of various editions of
the “Specification for the Design of Cold-Formed Steel
Structural Members” of the American Iron and Steel Institute
CHAPTER 1 (AISI).1.267,1.345 The earlier editions of the specification were
based largely on the research sponsored by AISI at Cornell
University under the direction of George Winter. It has been
revised subsequently to reflect the technical developments
and the results of continuing research.1.267,1.336,1.346,1.416,1.417
Introduction In general, cold-formed steel structural members provide
the following advantages in building construction:

1. As compared with thicker hot-rolled shapes,

cold-formed light members can be manufactured
for relatively light loads and/or short spans.
2. Unusual sectional configurations can be produced
economically by cold-forming operations (Fig. 1.1),
1.1 GENERAL REMARKS and consequently favorable strength-to-weight ratios
can be obtained.
In steel construction, there are two main families of struc-
3. Nestable sections can be produced, allowing for
tural members. One is the familiar group of hot-rolled
compact packaging and shipping, as well as for
shapes and members built up of plates. The other, less
developing efficient structural applications.
familiar but of growing importance, is composed of sections
cold formed from steel sheet, strip, plate, or flat bar in
roll-forming machines or by press brake or bending brake
operations.1.1,1.2,1.3∗ These are cold-formed steel structural
members. The thickness of steel sheet or strip generally
used in cold-formed steel structural members ranges from
0.0149 in. (0.378 mm) to about 14 in. (6.35 mm). Steel plates
and bars as thick as 1 in. (25.4 mm) can be cold formed
successfully into structural shapes.1.1,1.4,1.314,1.336,1.345
Although cold-formed steel sections are used in car
bodies, railway coaches, various types of equipment, storage
racks, grain bins, highway products, transmission towers,
transmission poles, drainage facilities, and bridge construc-
tion, the discussions included herein are primarily limited
to applications in building construction. For structures other
than buildings, allowances for dynamic effects, fatigue, and
corrosion may be necessary.1.314,1.336,1.345,1.417
The use of cold-formed steel members in building
construction began in about the 1850s in both the United
States and Great Britain. However, such steel members
were not widely used in buildings until around 1940. The
early development of steel buildings has been reviewed by
Winter.1.5–1.7

∗ The references are listed at the back of the book. Figure 1.1 Various shapes of cold-formed sections.1.1

1
2 1 INTRODUCTION

4. Load-carrying panels and decks can provide useful

surfaces for floor, roof, and wall construction, and in
other cases they can also provide enclosed cells for
electrical and other conduits.
5. Load-carrying panels and decks not only withstand
loads normal to their surfaces, but they can also act as
shear diaphragms to resist force in their own planes if
they are adequately interconnected to each other and to
supporting members.

Compared with other materials such as timber and

concrete, the following qualities can be realized for
cold-formed steel structural members1.8,1.9 :

1. Lightness Figure 1.2 Cold-formed sections used in structural framing.1.6

2. High strength and stiffness
3. Ease of prefabrication and mass production
(C-sections), Z-sections, angles, hat sections, I-sections,
4. Fast and easy erection and installation
T-sections, and tubular members. Previous studies have
5. Substantial elimination of delays due to weather
indicated that the sigma section (Fig. 1.2d) possesses several
6. More accurate detailing
advantages, such as high load-carrying capacity, smaller
7. Nonshrinking and noncreeping at ambient tempera-
blank size, less weight, and larger torsional rigidity as
tures
compared with standard channels.1.76
8. Formwork unneeded
In general, the depth of cold-formed individual framing
9. Termite proof and rot proof
structural members ranges from 2 to 16 in. (50.8 to 406 mm),
10. Uniform quality
and the thickness of material ranges from 0.0329 to 0.1180
11. Economy in transportation and handling
in. (0.836 to 2.997 mm). In some cases, the depth of indi-
12. Noncombustibility
vidual members may be up to 18 in. (457 mm), and the thick-
13. Recyclable material
ness of the member may be 12 in. (12.7 mm) or thicker in
transportation and building construction. Cold-formed steel
The combination of the above-mentioned advantages can
plate sections in thicknesses of up to about 34 or 1 in. (19.1 or
result in cost savings in construction (www.buildsteel.org).
25.4 mm) have been used in steel plate structures, transmis-
sion poles, and highway sign support structures.
1.2 TYPES OF COLD-FORMED STEEL SECTIONS In view of the fact that the major function of this type
AND THEIR APPLICATIONS of individual framing member is to carry load, struc-
tural strength and stiffness are the main considerations
Cold-formed steel structural members can be classified into
in design. Such sections have commonly been used as
two major types:
primary framing members in buildings having multiple
stories in height.1.278 In 2000, the 165-unit Holiday Inn in
1. Individual structural framing members
Federal Way, Washington, utilized eight stories of axial load
2. Panels and decks
bearing cold-formed steel studs as the primary load-bearing
system.1.357 Figure 1.3 shows a mid-rise construction
The design and the usage of each type of structural
building. Cold-formed steel for mid-rise construction has
member have been reviewed and discussed in a number of
become popular for these buildings that typically may
publications.1.5–1.75,1.267–1.285,1.349,1.358,1.418
range from 4 to 12 stories high. Chapter 12 provides addi-
tional discussion of cold-formed steel applications for low-
1.2.1 Individual Structural Framing Members and mid-rise construction. Additional information may
Figure 1.2 shows some of the cold-formed sections generally also be obtained at www.buildsteel.org. In tall multistory
used in structural framing. The usual shapes are channels buildings the main framing is typically of heavy hot-rolled
 TYPES OF COLD-FORMED STEEL SECTIONS AND THEIR APPLICATIONS 3

Figure 1.3 Building composed entirely of cold-formed steel sections. Courtesy of Don Allen.

shapes and the secondary elements may be of cold-formed
steel members such as steel joists, studs, decks, or panels
(Figs. 1.4 and 1.5). In this case the heavy hot-rolled steel
shapes and the cold-formed steel sections supplement each
other.1.264
As shown in Figs. 1.2 and 1.6–1.10, cold-formed sections
are also used as chord and web members of open web steel
joists, space frames, arches, and storage racks.
1.2.2 Panels and Decks
Another category of cold-formed sections is shown in
Fig. 1.11. Historically, these sections are generally used for
roof decks, floor decks, wall panels, siding material, and
bridge forms. Recently, profiled deck has been used for
shear wall. Some deeper panels and decks are cold formed
with web stiffeners.
4 1 INTRODUCTION

Figure 1.4 Composite truss–panel system prefabricated by Laclede Steel Company.

Figure 1.5 Cold-formed steel joists used together with hot-rolled shapes. Courtesy of Stran-Steel
Corporation.

The depth of panels generally ranges from 9/16 to 7 12 in.
(14.2 to 191 mm), and the thickness of materials ranges
from 0.018 to 0.075 in. (0.457 to 1.91 mm). This is not to
suggest that in some cases the use of 0.012-in. (0.305-mm)
steel-ribbed sections as load-carrying elements in roof and
wall construction would be inappropriate.
Steel panels and decks not only provide structural
strength to carry loads, but they also provide a surface on
which flooring, roofing, or concrete fill can be applied,
as shown in Fig. 1.12. They can also provide space for
electrical conduits, or they can be perforated and combined
with sound absorption material to form an acoustically
conditioned ceiling. The cells of cellular panels are also
used as ducts for heating and air conditioning.
In the past, steel roof decks were successfully used
in folded-plate and hyperbolic paraboloid roof cons-
truction,1.13,1.22,1.26,1.30,1.34,1.35,1.72,1.77–1.84 as shown in
Figs. 1.13 and 1.14. One of the world’s largest cold-formed
steel primary structures using steel decking for hyperbolic
paraboloids, designed by Lev Zetlin Associates, is shown in
 TYPES OF COLD-FORMED STEEL SECTIONS AND THEIR APPLICATIONS 5

Figure 1.6 Cold-formed steel sections used in space frames. Courtesy of Unistrut Corporation.

Figure 1.7 Cold-formed steel members used in space grid system. Courtesy of Butler Manufac-
turing Company.
6 1 INTRODUCTION
Figure 1.8 Cold-formed steel members used in a 100 × 220 × 30-ft (30.5 × 67.1 × 9.2-m)triodetic
arch. Courtesy of Butler Manufacturing Company.
(a)
Figure 1.9 Hangar-type arch structures using cold-formed steel sections. Courtesy of Armco Steel
Corporation.1.6
Fig. 1.15.1.82 Roof decks may be curved to fit the shape of an
arched roof without difficulty. Some roof decks are shipped
to the field in straight sections and curved to the radius of an
arched roof at the job site (Fig. 1.16). In other buildings, roof
decks have been designed as the top chord of prefabricated
open web steel joists or roof trusses (Fig. 1.17).1.85,1.86 In
Europe, TRP 200 decking (206 mm deep by 750 mm pitch)
has been used widely. In the United States, the standing seam
metal roof has an established track record in new construc-
tion and replacement for built-up and single-ply systems in
many low-rise buildings.
Figure 1.11 also shows corrugated sheets, which are often
used as roof or wall panels and in drainage structures. The use
of corrugated sheets as exterior curtain wall panels is illus-
trated in Fig. 1.18a. It has been demonstrated that corrugated
(b)
sheets can be used effectively in the arched roofs of under-
ground shelters and drainage structures.1.87–1.89
The pitch of corrugations usually ranges from 1 14 to 3 in.
(31.8 to 76.2 mm), and the corrugation depth varies from
1
4
to 1 in. (6.35 to 25.4 mm). The thickness of corrugated
steel sheets usually ranges from 0.0135 to 0.164 in. (0.343 to
4.17 mm). However, corrugations with a pitch of up to 6 in.
(152 mm) and a depth of up to 2 in. (50.8 mm) are also avail-
able. See Chapter 10 for the design of corrugated steel sheets
based on the AISI publications.1.87,1.88 Unusually deep
corrugated panels have been used in frameless stressed-skin
construction, as shown in Fig. 1.18b. The self-framing
corrugated steel panel building proved to be an effective
blast-resistant structure in the Nevada tests conducted in
1955.1.90
 METAL BUILDINGS AND INDUSTRIALIZED HOUSING 7

Figure 1.10 Rack structures. Courtesy of Unarco Materials Storage.

Figure 1.11 Decks, panels, and corrugated sheets.

Figure 1.19 shows the application of standing seam roof
systems. The design of beams having one flange fastened to a
standing seam roof system and the strength of standing seam
roof panel systems are discussed in Chapter 4.
In the past four decades, cold-formed steel deck
has been successfully used not only as formwork but
also as reinforcement of composite concrete floor and
roof slabs.1.55,1.91,1.103 The floor systems of this type of
composite steel deck-reinforced concrete slab are discussed
in Chapter 11.
1.3 METAL BUILDINGS AND INDUSTRIALIZED
HOUSING
Single-story metal buildings have been widely used in
industrial, commercial, and agricultural applications. Metal
8 1 INTRODUCTION

Figure 1.12 Cellular floor panels. Courtesy of H. H. Robertson Company.

Figure 1.13 Cold-formed steel panels used in folded-plate roof. Courtesy of H. H. Robertson
Company.

Figure 1.14 Hyperbolic paraboloid roof of welded laminated steel deck. Reprinted from Architec-
tural Record, March 1962. Copyright by McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc.1.79
 METAL BUILDINGS AND INDUSTRIALIZED HOUSING 9

Figure 1.15 Super bayhangar for American Airlines Boeing 747s in Los Angeles.1.82 Courtesy of
Lev Zetlin Associates, Inc.

Figure 1.16 Arched roof curved at job site. Courtesy of Donn Products Company.

Figure 1.17 Steel deck is designed as the top chord of prefabricated open web steel joists. Courtesy
of Inland-Ryerson Construction Products Company.
10 1 INTRODUCTION

Figure 1.18 (a) Exterior curtain wall panels employing corrugated steel sheets.1.87 (b) Frameless
stressed-skin construction. Courtesy of Behlen Manufacturing Company.

building systems have also been used for community In general, smaller buildings can be made entirely
facilities such as recreation buildings, schools, and of cold-formed sections (Fig. 1.20), and relatively large
churches.1.104,1.105 Metal buildings provide the following buildings are often made of welded steel plate rigid frames
major advantages: with cold-formed sections used for girts, purlins, roofs, and
walls (Fig. 1.21).
1. Attractive appearance The design of pre-engineered metal buildings is often
2. Fast construction based on the Metal Building Systems Manual issued by the
3. Low maintenance Metal Building Manufacturers Association (MBMA).1.360
4. Easy extension The 2012 edition of the MBMA manual is a revised version
5. Lower long-term cost of the previous manual. The new manual includes (a) load

Figure 1.19 Application of standing seam roof systems. Courtesy
of Butler Manufacturing Company.
application data [International Building Code (IBC) 2006
loads], (b) crane loads, (c) serviceability, (d) common
industry practices, (e) guide specifications, (f) AISC-MB
certification, (g) wind load commentary, (h) fire protection,
(i) wind, snow, and rain data by U.S. county, (j) a glos-
sary, (k) an appendix, and (l) a bibliography. In addition,
MBMA also has published the Metal Roof Systems Design
Manual.1.361 It includes systems components, substrates,
specifications and standards, retrofit, common industry
practices, design, installation, energy, and fire protec-
tion.Additional information may be located at www.mbma
.com.
The design of single-story rigid frames is treated exten-
sively by Lee et al.1.107 In Canada the design, fabrication, and
Figure 1.20 Small building made entirely of cold-formed sections. Courtesy of Stran-Steel
Corporation.1.6
METAL BUILDINGS AND INDUSTRIALIZED HOUSING 11
erection of steel building systems are based on a standard of
the Canadian Sheet Steel Building Institute (CSSBI).1.108
Industrialized housing can be subdivided conveniently
into (1) panelized systems and (2) modular systems.1.109,1.278
In panelized systems, flat wall, floor, and roof sections
are prefabricated in a production system, transported to
the site, and assembled in place. In modular systems,
three-dimensional housing unit segments are factory built,
transported to the site, lifted into place, and fastened together.
In the 1960s, under the School Construction Systems
Development Project of California, four modular systems of
school construction were developed by Inland Steel Prod-
ucts Company (modular system as shown in Fig. 1.17),
Macomber Incorporated (V-Lok modular component system
as shown in Fig. 1.22), and Rheem/Dudley Buildings (flex-
ible space system).1.110
In 1970 Republic Steel Corporation was selected by the
Department of Housing and Urban Development under the
Operation Breakthrough Program to develop a modular
system for housing.1.111 Panels consisting of steel facings
with an insulated core were used in this system.
Building innovation also includes the construction of
unitized boxes. These boxes are planned to be prefabricated
of room size, fully furnished, and stacked in some manner
to be a hotel, hospital, apartment, or office building.1.25,1.112
For multistory buildings these boxes can be supported by a
main framing made of heavy steel shapes.
In the past, cold-formed steel structural components
have been used increasingly in low-rise buildings and
residential steel framing. Considerable research and
12 1 INTRODUCTION

Figure 1.21 Standardized building made of fabricated rigid frame with cold-formed sections for
girts, purlins, roofs, and walls. Courtesy of Armco Steel Corporation.

Figure 1.22 V-Lok modular component system. Courtesy of Macomber Incorporated.

 METHODS OF FORMING 13
development activities have been conducted continu- cut lengths are usually between 20 and 40 ft (6 and 12 m).The
ously by numerous organizations and steel compani- flat sheet may be cut to length prior to the rolling process.
es.1.21,1.25,1.27,1.28,1.113–1.116,1.280–1.301 In addition to the study As far as the limitations for thickness of material are
of the load-carrying capacity of various structural compo- concerned, carbon steel plate as thick as 34 in. (19 mm) can be
nents, recent research work has concentrated on (1) joining roll formed successfully, and stainless steels have been roll
methods, (2) thermal and acoustical performance of wall formed in thicknesses of 0.006–0.30 in. (0.2–7.6 mm). The
panels and floor and roof systems, (3) vibrational response size ranges of structural shapes that can be roll formed on
of steel decks and floor joists, (4) foundation wall panels, (5) standard mill-type cold-roll-forming machines are shown in
trusses, and (6) energy considerations. Chapter 12 provides Fig. 1.24.
some information on recent developments, design stan- The tolerances in roll forming are usually affected by the
dards, and design guide for cold-formed steel light-frame section size, the product type, and the material thickness.
construction. The following limits were given by Kirkland1.1 as representa-
In Europe and other countries many design concepts tive of commercial practice, but do not necessarily represent
and building systems have been developed. For details, see current industry tolerances:
Refs. 1.25, 1.140–1.143, 1.117, 1.118, 1.268, 1.270, 1.271,
1.273, 1.275, 1.290, 1.293, and 1.297. Piece length, using
1 1
automatic cutoff ± 64 − 8
in. (0.4–3.2 mm)
1.4 METHODS OF FORMING Straightness and twist 1
± 64 − 1
in. (0.4–6.4 mm) in
4
Three methods are generally used in the manufacture of 10 ft (3 m)
cold-formed sections such as illustrated in Fig. 1.1: Cross-sectional dimensions
1 1
Fractional ± 64 − 16
in. (0.4–1.6 mm)
1. Cold roll forming
Decimal ±0.005–0.015 in.
2. Press brake operation
(0.1–0.4 mm)
3. Bending brake operation
Angles ±1∘ –2∘

1.4.1 Cold Roll Forming1.1,1.119
The method of cold roll forming has been widely used for
the production of building components such as individual
structural members, as shown in Fig. 1.2, and some roof,
floor, and wall panels and corrugated sheets, as shown in
Fig. 1.11. It is also employed in the fabrication of partitions,
frames of windows and doors, gutters, downspouts, pipes,
agricultural equipment, trucks, trailers, containers, railway
passenger and freight cars, household appliances, and other
products. Sections made from strips up to 36 in. (915 mm)
wide and from coils more than 3000 ft (915 m) long can be
produced most economically by cold roll forming.
The machine used in cold roll forming consists of pairs
of rolls (Fig. 1.23) which progressively form strips into the
final required shape. A simple section may be produced by
as few as six pairs of rolls. However, a complex section may
require as many as 15 sets of rolls. Roll setup time may be
several days.
The speed of the rolling process typically ranges from
20 to 300 ft/min (6 to 92 m/min). The usual speed is in the
range of 75–150 ft/min (23–46 m/min). At the finish end, the
completed section may be cut to required lengths by an auto-
matic cutoff tool without stopping the machine. Maximum
Table 1.1 gives the fabrication tolerances as specified by
the MBMA for cold-formed steel channels and Z-sections
to be used in metal building systems.1.360 All symbols
used in the table are defined in Fig. 1.25. The same toler-
ances are specified in the standard of the CSSBI.1.108 For
light steel framing members, the AISI framing standard
S240-151.400,1.432 includes manufacturing tolerances for
structural members. These tolerances for studs and tracks
are based on the American Society for Testing and Materials
(ASTM) standard C955-11. See Table 1.2 and Fig. 1.26. For
additional information on roll forming, see Ref. 1.119.
1.4.2 Press Brake
The press brake operation may be used under the following
conditions:
1. The section is of simple configuration.
2. There is a small required quantity.
The equipment used in the press brake operation consists
essentially of a moving top beam and a stationary bottom
bed on which the dies applicable to the particular required
product are mounted, as shown in Fig. 1.27.
14 1 INTRODUCTION

Figure 1.23 Cold-roll-forming machine.

 RESEARCH AND DESIGN SPECIFICATIONS 15

Figure 1.24 Size ranges of typical roll-formed structural shapes.1.1

Table 1.1 MBMA Table on Fabrication Tolerances1.360 Simple sections such as angles, channels, and Z-sections
are formed by press brake operation from sheet, strip, plate,
Tolerances, in. or bar in not more than two operations. More complicated
Dimension + − sections may take several operations.
Geometry It should be noted that the cost of products is often depen-
3 3 dent upon the type of the manufacturing process used in
D 16 16 production. Reference 1.120 indicates that in addition to the
3 3
B 16 16
strength and dimensional requirements a designer should
d 3 1 also consider other influencing factors, such as formability,
8 8 cost and availability of material, capacity and cost of manu-
𝜃1 3∘ 3∘ facturing equipment, flexibility in tooling, material handling,
𝜃2 5∘ 5∘ transportation, assembly, and erection.
Hole location
1 1
E1 1.5 RESEARCH AND DESIGN SPECIFICATIONS
8 8
1 1
E2 8 8 1.5.1 United States
1 1
E3 8 8 1.5.1.1 Research During the 1930s, the acceptance and
1 1 development of cold-formed steel members for the construc-
S1 16 16
1 1 tion industry in the United States faced difficulties due to the
S2 16 16 lack of an appropriate design specification. Various building
1 1
F 8 8 codes made no provision for cold-formed steel construction
1 1 at that time.
P 8 8
1 1 Since cold-formed steel structural members are usually
L 8 ( ) 8 made of relatively thin steel sheet and come in many
1 L.ft
Chamber, C 4 10
, in. different geometric shapes in comparison with typical
Minimum thickness t 0.95 × design t hot-rolled sections, the structural behavior and performance
of such thin-walled, cold-formed structural members under
Note: 1 in. = 25.4 mm. loads differ in several significant respects from that of
16 1 INTRODUCTION

Figure 1.25 Symbols used in MBMA table.1.360

G
A

B
H

K
C
OVERBEND Stiffening Lip Length
MEASUREMENT
I
J–Flange Width

FLARE
MEASUREMENT
C

Figure 1.26 Manufacturing tolerances.1.400,1.432

 RESEARCH AND DESIGN SPECIFICATIONS 17

Table 1.2 ASTM C 955-11 Manufacturing Tolerances for Structural Members1.400,1.432

Dimension𝑎 Item Checked Studs, in. (mm) Tracks, in. (mm)
A Length +3/32 (2.38) +1/2 (12.7)
–3/32 (2.38) –1/4 (6.35)
B𝑏 Web Depth +1/32 (0.79) +1/32 (0.79)
–1/32 (0.79) +1/8 (3.18)
C Flare +1/16 (1.59) +0 (0)
Overbend –1/16 (1.59) –3/32 (2.38)
D Hole Center Width +1/16 (1.59) NA
–1/16 (1.59) NA
E Hole Center Length +1/4 (6.35) NA
–1/4 (6.35) NA
F Crown +1/16 (1.59) +1/16 (1.59)
–1/16 (1.59) –1/16 (1.59)
G𝑐 Camber 1/8 per 10 ft (3.13 per 3 m) 1/32 per ft (2.60 per m) 1/2 max (12.7)
H𝑐 Bow 1/8 per 10 ft (3.13 per 3 m) 1/32 per ft (2.60 per m)
1/2 max (12.7)
I Twist 1/32 per ft (2.60 per m) 1/32 per ft (2.60 per m)
1/2 max (12.7) 1/2 max (12.7)
J Flange Width +1/8 (3.18) +1/4 (6.35)
–1/16 (1.59) –1/16 (1.59)
K Stiffening Lip Length +1/8 (3.18) NA
–1/32 (0.79)
𝑎
All measurements are taken not less than 1 ft (305 mm) from the end. See Fig. 1.26 for symbol definitions.
𝑏
Outside dimension for stud; inside for track.
𝑐
1/8 inch per 10 feet represents L/960 maximum for overall camber and bow. Thus, a 20-foot-long member has 1/4-inch permissible
maximum; a 5-foot-long member has 1/16-inch permissible maximum.

heavy hot-rolled steel sections. In addition, the connections

and fabrication practices which have been developed for
cold-formed steel construction differ in many ways from
those of heavy steel structures. As a result, design specifica-
tions for heavy hot-rolled steel construction cannot possibly
cover the design features of cold-formed steel construction
completely. It soon became evident that the development of
a new design specification for cold-formed steel construction
was highly desirable.
Realizing the need for a special design specification and
the absence of factual background and research information,
the AISI Committee on Building Research and Technology
(then named the Committee on Building Codes) sponsored a
research project at Cornell University in 1939 for the purpose
of studying the performance of light-gage cold-formed steel
structural members and of obtaining factual information for
Figure 1.27 Press braking.1.2,1.16
18 1 INTRODUCTION
the formulation of a design specification. Research projects
have been carried out continuously at Cornell University and
other universities since 1939.
The investigations on structural behavior of cold-formed
steel structures conducted at Cornell University by Professor
George Winter and his collaborators resulted in the devel-
opment of methods of design concerning the effective width
for stiffened compression elements, the reduced working
stresses for unstiffened compression elements, web crip-
pling of thin-walled cold-formed sections, lateral buckling of
beams, structural behavior of wall studs, buckling of trusses
and frames, unsymmetrical bending of beams, welded
and bolted connections, flexural buckling of thin-walled
steel columns, torsional–flexural buckling of concentrically
and eccentrically loaded columns in the elastic and inelastic
ranges, effects of cold forming on material properties, perfor-
mance of stainless steel structural members, shear strength
of light-gage steel diaphragms, performance of beams and
columns continuously braced with diaphragms, hyperbolic
paraboloid and folded-plate roof structures, influence of
ductility, bracing requirements for channels and Z-sections
loaded in the plane of the web, mechanical fasteners for
cold-formed steel, interaction of local and overall buck-
ling, ultimate strength of diaphragm-braced channels and
Z-sections, inelastic reserve capacity of beams, strength of
perforated compression elements, edge and intermediate
stiffeners, rack structures, probability analysis, and C- and
Z-purlins under wind uplift.1.5–1.7,1.31,1.121,1.122,1.133–1.136
The Cornell research under the direction of Professor
Teoman Pekoz included the effect of residual stress on
column strength, maximum strength of columns, unified
design approach, screw connections, distortional buck-
ling of beams and columns, perforated wall studs, storage
racks, load eccentricity effects on lipped-channel columns,
bending strength of standing seam roof panels, behavior of
longitudinally stiffened compression elements, probabilistic
examination of element strength, direct-strength prediction
of members using numerical elastic buckling solutions,
laterally braced beams with edge-stiffened flanges, steel
members with multiple longitudinal intermediate stiffeners,
design approach for complex stiffeners, unlipped channel
in bending and compression, beam–columns, cold-formed
steel frame design, and second-order analysis of structural
systems and others.1.220,1.273,1.302–1.308,1.346,1.362,1.363
In addition to the Cornell work, numerous research
projects on cold-formed steel members, connections, and
structural systems have been conducted at many individual
companies and universities in the United States.1.121.1.143,
1.267,1.302–1.305,1.309,1.311,1.346,1.362–1.366,1.419–1.423 Forty-three
universities were listed in the first edition of this book
published in 1985.1.352 Research findings obtained from
these projects have been presented at various national and
international conferences and are published in the confer-
ence proceedings and the journals of different engineering
societies.1.43,1.117,1.118,1.124–1.132,1.144–1.147,1.272–1.276,1.302–1.308,
1.367–1.377
Previously, the ASCE Committee on Cold-Formed
Members conducted surveys of current research on cold-
formed structures and literature surveys.1.133–1.134,1.135,1.136,
1.139–1.141 Thirty-eight research projects were reported in
Ref. 1.136. In Ref. 1.141, about 1300 publications were
classified into 18 categories. These reports provide a useful
reference for researchers and engineers in the field of
cold-formed steel structures.
In 1990, the Center for Cold-Formed Steel Structures was
established at the University of Missouri–Rolla to provide
an integrated approach for handling research, teaching, tech-
nical services, and professional activity.1.312 In 1996, the
Center for Cold-Formed Steel Structures conducted a survey
of recent research. Reference 1.309 lists 48 projects carried
out in seven countries. In October 2000, the center was
renamed the Wei-Wen Yu Center for Cold-Formed Steel
Structures (CCFSS) at the Fifteenth International Specialty
Conference on Cold-Formed Steel Structures.1.378
1.5.1.2 AISI Design Specifications As far as the design
criteria are concerned, the first edition of “Specification
for the Design of Light Gage Steel Structural Members”
prepared by the AISI Technical Subcommittee under the
chairmanship of Milton Male was issued by the AISI in
1946.1.5 This allowable stress design (ASD) specification
was based on the findings of the research conducted at
Cornell University up to that time and the accumulated prac-
tical experience obtained in this field. It was revised by the
AISI committee under the chairmanships of W. D. Moore-
head, Tappan Collins, D. S. Wolford, J. B. Scalzi, K. H.
Klippstein, S. J. Errera, and R. L. Brockenbrough in 1956,
1960, 1962, 1968, 1980, 1986, 1996, 2001, 2007, 2012, and
2016 to reflect the technical developments and results of
continuing research.
In 1991, the first edition of the load and resistance factor
design (LRFD) specification1.313 was issued by AISI under
the chairmanship of R. L. Brockenbrough and the vice chair-
manship of J. M. Fisher. This specification was based on the
research work discussed in Ref. 1.248. In 1996, the AISI
ASD Specification1.4 and the LRFD Specification1.313 were
combined into a single specification1.314 under the chair-
manship of R. L. Brockenbrough and the vice chairmanship
of J. W. Larson. The revisions of various editions of the
AISI Specification are discussed in Ref. 1.267. In Ref. 1.315,
Brockenbrough summarized the major changes made in the
1996 AISI Specification. See also Ref. 1.316 for an outline of

the revised and new provisions. In 1999, a supplement to the
1996 edition of the AISI Specification was issued.1.333,1.335
The AISI Specification has gained both national and
international recognition since its publication. It has been
accepted as the design standard for cold-formed steel
structural members in major national building codes. This
design standard has also been used wholly or partly by most
of the cities and other jurisdictions in the United States
having building codes. The design of cold-formed steel
structural members based on the AISI Specification has been
included in a large number of textbooks and engineering
handbooks.1.13,1.149–1.158,1.269,1.277,1.318–1.320,1.350–1.358,1.412
1.5.1.3 North American Specifications The above
discussions dealt with the AISI Specification used in the
United States. In Canada, the Canadian Standards Asso-
ciation (CSA) published its first edition of the Canadian
Standard for Cold-Formed Steel Structural Members in
1963 on the basis of the 1962 edition of the AISI Spec-
ification with minor changes. Subsequent editions of the
Canadian Standard were published in 1974, 1984, 1989, and
1994.1.177,1.327 The 1994 Canadian Standard was based on
the limit states design (LSD) method, similar to the LRFD
method used in the AISI specification except for some
differences discussed in Section 1.8.3.1
In Mexico, cold-formed steel structural members have
always been designed according to the AISI specification.
The 1962 edition of the AISI design manual was translated
into Spanish in 1965.1.201
In 1994, Canada, Mexico, and the United States imple-
mented the North American Free Trade Agreement
(NAFTA). Consequently, the first edition of North American
Specification for the Design of Cold-Formed Steel Structural
Members (NAS) was developed in 2001 by a joint effort
of the AISI Committee on Specifications, CSA Technical
Committee on Cold-Formed Steel Structural Members, and
Camara Nacional de la Industria del Hierro y del Acero
(CANACERO) in Mexico.1.336 It was coordinated through
the AISI North American Specification Committee chaired
by R. M. Schuster. This 2001 edition of the North Amer-
ican Specification was accredited by the American National
Standard Institute (ANSI) as an American National Standard
(ANS) to supersede the AISI 1996 Specification and the
CSA 1994 Standard with the approval by CSA in Canada
and CANACERO in Mexico.
The North American Specification provides an integrated
treatment of ASD, LRFD, and LSD. The ASD and LRFD
methods are for use in the United States and Mexico, while
the LSD method is used in Canada. This first edition of the
North American Specification contained a main document in
Chapters A through G applicable for all three countries and
RESEARCH AND DESIGN SPECIFICATIONS 19
three separate country-specific Appendices A, B, and C for
use in the United States, Canada, and Mexico, respectively.
The major differences between the 1996 AISI Specifica-
tion and the 2001 edition of the North American Specifi-
cation were discussed by Brockenbrough and Chen in Refs
1.339 and 1.341 and were summarized in the CCFSS Tech-
nical Bulletin.1.338
In 2004, AISI issued a Supplement to the 2001 Edition of
the North American Specification that provides the revisions
and additions for the Specification.1.343,1.344 This supplement
included a new Appendix for the design of cold-formed steel
structural members using the direct-strength method (DSM).
This new method provides alternative design provisions for
determining the nominal axial strengths of columns and flex-
ural strengths of beams without using the effective widths of
individual elements. The background information on DSM
can be found in the Commentary of Ref. 1.343 and Chapters
3 through 6.
The first edition of the North American Specification
was revised in 2007.1.345 It was prepared on the basis of
the 2001 Specification,1.336 the 2004 supplement,1.343
and the continued developments of new and revised
provisions. The major changes in the 2007 edition of
the North American specification were summarized in Refs.
1.346–1.348. In this revised Specification, some design
provisions were rearranged with editorial revisions for
consistency. The common terms used in the Specification
were based on the Standard Definitions developed by a
joint AISC–AISI Committee on Terminology.1.380 In addi-
tion to Appendix 1 on the DSM, Appendix 2 was added
for the second-order analysis of structural systems. For
the country-specific design requirements, Appendix A is
now applicable to the United States and Mexico, while
Appendix B is for Canada. Subsequent editions of the North
American specification have been issued in 20121.416 and
2016.1.417 The major changes to these specification editions
are summarized by Refs. 1.424–1.426.
The North American specification has been approved by
the ANSI and is referred to in the United States as AISI S100.
It has also been approved by the CSA and is referred to in
Canada as S136.
1.5.1.4 AISI Design Manuals In addition to the issuance
of the design specification, AISI published the first edition of
the Light Gauge Steel Design Manual1.5 in 1949, prepared by
the Manual Subcommittee under the chairmanship of Tappan
Collins. It was subsequently revised in 1956, 1961, 1962,
1968–1972, 1977, 1983, 1986, 1996, 2002, 2008, 2013, and
2018.1.349,1.427,1.428
The 2002 AISI Design Manual was based on the 2001
edition of the North American Specification.1.336,1.340
20 1 INTRODUCTION
It included the following six parts: I, Dimensions and
Properties; II, Beam Design; III, Column Design; IV,
Connections; V, Supplementary Information; and VI, Test
Procedures. Design aids (tables and charts) and illustra-
tive examples were given in Parts I, II, III, and IV for
calculating sectional properties and designing members
and connections. Part I also included information on the
availability and properties of steels that are referenced in the
Specification. It contains tables of sectional properties of
channels (C-sections), Z-sections, angles, and hat sections
with useful equations for computing sectional properties.
The development of this 2002 AISI Design Manual was
discussed by Kaehler and Chen in Ref. 1.342.
Following the issuance of the 2007 edition of the Spec-
ification, AISI revised its Design Manual in 20081.349 on
the basis of the second edition of the North American
Specification.1.345 As for previous editions of the Design
Manual, the data contained in the AISI design manual
are applicable to carbon and low-alloy steels only. They
do not apply to stainless steels or to nonferrous metals
whose stress–strain curves and some other characteristics of
structural behavior are substantially different from those of
carbon and low-alloy steels. For the design of stainless steel
structural members, see Ref. 1.429.
It should also be noted that at the present time there
are standardized sizes for studs, joists, channels, and tracks
produced by the light-steel framing manufacturing compa-
nies as defined by the AISI North American Standard for
Cold-Formed Steel Framing—Product Data.1.379 The design
aids for those frequently used members are included in
the AISI Design Manual. Except for the AISI designated
sections, the sections listed in the tables of Part I of the
AISI design manual are not necessarily stock sections with
optimum dimensions. They are included primarily as a guide
for design.
In some other countries, the cold-formed steel shapes may
be standardized. The standardization of shapes would be
convenient for the designer, but it may be limiting for partic-
ular applications and new developments.
1.5.1.5 AISI Commentaries Commentaries on several
earlier editions of the AISI design specification were
prepared by Professor Winter of Cornell University and
published by AISI in 1958, 1961, 1962, and 1970.1.161 In the
1983 and 1986 editions of the Design Manual, the format
used for the simplified commentary was changed in that
the same section numbers were used in the Commentary
as in the Specification. For the 1996 edition of the Speci-
fication, the AISI Commentary, prepared by Wei-Wen Yu,
contained a brief presentation of the characteristics and the
performance of cold-formed steel members, connections,
and systems.1.310 In addition, it provided a record of the
reasoning behind and the justification for various provisions
of the AISI Specification. A cross reference was provided
between various provisions and the published research data.
The Commentary on the 2001 edition of the North Amer-
ican Specification1.337 was prepared on the basis of the
AISI Commentary on the 1996 Specification with additional
discussions on the revised and new design provisions. In the
Commentary on the 2007 and subsequent editions of the
North American Specification, comprehensive discussions
with extensive references are included for the new provi-
sions, particularly for Appendices 1 and 2. For details, see
Refs. 1.346, 1.430, and 1.431.
In Refs. 1.62, 1.73, and 1.174, Johnson has reviewed some
previous research work together with the development of
design techniques for cold-formed steel structural members.
1.5.1.6 Other Design Standards and Design Guides In
addition to the AISI Design Specifications discussed in
Sections 1.5.1.2 and 1.5.1.3, AISI also published “Overview
of the Standard for Seismic Design of Cold-Formed Steel
Structures—Special Bolted Moment Frames”1.381,12.47
and the ANSI-accredited North American standards for
cold-formed steel framing, including (a) general provi-
sions, (b) product data, (c) floor and roof system design,
(d) wall stud design, (e) header design, (f) lateral design,
(g) truss design, and (h) a prescriptive method.1.387 These
standards have been developed by the AISI Committee
on Framing Standards since 1998. In 2015, the AISI
Committee on Framing Standards merged the framing
standards into a single document, North American Stan-
dard for Cold-Formed Steel Structural Framing, AISI
S240.1.432 A companion specification, the North American
Standard for Cold-Formed Steel Framing—Nonstructural
Members, AISI S2201.433 was introduced. The uses of
these standards for residential and commercial construc-
tion are discussed in Chapter 12. Furthermore, AISI also
published numerous design guides: Direct Strength Method
(DSM) Design Guide,1.383 Cold-Formed Steel Framing
Design Guide,1.384,1.434 Steel Stud Brick Veneer Design
Guide,1.385,1.435 A Design Guide for Standing Seam Roof
Panels,1.386 and others. In addition, the Cold-Formed Steel
Engineers Institute (CFSEI) has developed and published
numerous technical notes and design guides on a broad
range of design issues (www.cfsei.org).
In the past, many trade associations and professional orga-
nizations had special design requirements for using cold-
formed steel members as floor decks, roof decks, and wall
panels,1.103,1.162,1.330–1.332 open web steel joists,1.163 trans-
mission poles,1.45,1.48,1.164,1.321,1.322,1.323 storage racks,1.165,
1.166,1.407–1.410 shear diaphragms,1.167–1.169,1.388,1.389
 GENERAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS OF COLD-FORMED STEEL CONSTRUCTION 21

composite slabs,1.103,1.170,1.324,1.325,1.390 metal buildings,1.106, The following is a brief discussion of some considerations
1.360,1.361 light framing systems,1.171 guardrails, struc- usually encountered in design.
tural supports for highway signs, luminaries, and traffic
signals,1.88 and automotive structural components.1.172,1.173 1.6.1 Local Buckling, Distortional Buckling,
The locations of various organizations are listed at the end and Postbuckling Strength of Thin Compression
of the book under Acronyms and Abbreviations. Elements
Since the individual components of cold-formed steel
1.5.2 Other Countries members are usually thin with respect to their widths, these
In other countries, research and development for cold-formed thin elements may buckle at stress levels less than the yield
steel members, connections, and structural systems have stress if they are subject to compression, shear, bending, or
been actively conducted at many institutions and indi- bearing. Local buckling of such elements is therefore one of
vidual companies in the past. Design specifications and the major design considerations.
recommendations are now available in Australia and New It is well known that such elements will not necessarily fail
Zealand,1.69,1.175,1.326,1.391 Austria,1.176 Brazil,1.392 Canada, when their buckling stress is reached and that they often will
1.177–1.180,1.327,1.393 the Czech Republic,1.181 Finland,1.182 continue to carry increasing loads in excess of that at which
France,1.183,1.184 Germany,1.196–1.198,1.396 India,1.185 Italy, local buckling first appears.
1.394 Japan,1.186 Mexico,1.397 the Netherlands,1.187,1.395 the Figure 1.28 shows the buckling behavior and postbuckling
People’s Republic of China,1.188 the Republic of South strength of the compression flange of a hat-section beam with
Africa,1.189 Sweden,1.191.1.193 Romania,1.190 the United
Kingdom,1.49,1.72,1.194,1.195 Russia,1.199 and elsewhere (see
http://coldformedsteel.pbworks.com/w/page/16065164/Front
Page). Some of the recommendations are based on LSD.
The AISI Design Manual has previously been translated into
several other languages.1.200–1.204
In the past, the European Convention for Constructional
Steelwork (ECCS), through its Committee TC7 (formerly
17), prepared several documents for the design and testing of
cold-formed sheet steel used in buildings.1.205–1.214 In 1993,
the European Committee for Standardization published Part
1.3 of Eurocode 3 for cold-formed, thin-gage members and
sheeting.1.328 This work was initiated by the Commission of
the European Communities and was carried out in collab-
oration with a working group of the ECCS. The design of
cold-formed steel sections is also covered in Refs. 1.66, 1.69,
1.215, 1.216, 1.217, and 1.268.
With regard to research work, many other institutions
have conducted numerous extensive investigations in the
past. References 1.40–1.43, 1.71, 1.117, 1.118, 1.124–1.147,
1.158, 1.218, 1.237, 1.268–1.276, 1.302–1.309, and 1.362–
1.377 contain a number of papers on various subjects related
to thin-walled structures from different countries. Compar-
isons between various design rules are presented in Refs.
1.239 and 1.240.

1.6 GENERAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

OF COLD-FORMED STEEL CONSTRUCTION
The use of thin material and cold-forming processes results
in several design features for cold-formed steel construction
different from those of heavy hot-rolled steel construction. Figure 1.28 Consecutive load stages on hat-shaped beam.1.7
22 1 INTRODUCTION
Figure 1.29 Consecutive load stages on I-beam.1.7
a compression flange having a width-to-thickness ratio of
184 tested by Winter. For this beam the theoretical buckling
load is 500 lb (2.2 kN), while failure occurred at 3460 lb
(15.4 kN).1.7
Figure 1.29 shows the buckling behavior of an I-beam
having an unstiffened flange with a width-to-thickness ratio
of 46.1.7 The beam failed at a load about 3.5 times that at
which the top flange stress was equal to the theoretical critical
buckling value. These pictures illustrate why the postbuck-
ling strength of compression elements is utilized in design.
Prior to 1986, different procedures were used in the
AISI Specification for the design of beams and columns
Figure 1.30 Twist of unbraced channel loaded in plane of its web1.6 : (a) before loading; (b)
near-maximum load.
with different types of compression elements. The current
design methods for beams, columns, and beam–columns are
discussed in Chapters 4, 5, and 6, respectively.
During recent years, distortional buckling has been
considered as one of the important limit states for the
design of cold-formed steel beams and columns having
edge-stiffened compression flanges. Design provisions have
been added in the current North American specification. For
details, see Chapters 4 and 5.
1.6.2 Torsional Rigidity
Because the torsional rigidity of open sections is proportional
to t3 , cold-formed steel sections consisting of thin elements
are relatively weak against torsion. Figure 1.30 shows the
twist of a channel-shaped unbraced beam when it is loaded
in the plane of its web. In this case, the shear center is outside
the web and the applied load initiates rotation.
Since cold-formed steel sections are relatively thin and
in some sections the centroid and shear center do not coin-
cide, torsional–flexural buckling may be a critical factor
for compression members. In addition, distortional buckling
may govern the design for certain members used as beams or
columns.
1.6.3 Stiffeners in Compression Elements
The load-carrying capacity and the buckling behavior of
compression components of beams and columns can be
 GENERAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS OF COLD-FORMED STEEL CONSTRUCTION
improved considerably by the use of edge stiffeners or inter-
mediate stiffeners. Provisions for the design of such stiff-
eners have been developed from previous research. However,
this type of stiffener generally is not practical in hot-rolled
shapes and built-up members.
1.6.4 Variable Properties of Sections Having Stiffened
or Unstiffened Compression Elements
For a section having a stiffened, partially stiffened, or
unstiffened compression element, the entire width of the
element is fully effective when the width-to-thickness ratio
of the element is small or when it is subjected to low
compressive stress. However, as stress increases in the
element having a relatively large width-to-thickness ratio,
the portions adjacent to the supported edges are more struc-
turally effective after the element buckles. As a result, the
stress distribution is nonuniform in the compression element.
When using the Effective Width Method for design of such
members the sectional properties are based on a reduced
effective area.
The effective width of a compression element not only
varies with the unit stress applied but also depends on its
width-to-thickness ratio. For a given beam having a compres-
sion flange with a relatively large width-to-thickness ratio,
the effective section modulus Se decreases with an increase
in the yield stress of steel used because the effective width of
the compression flange becomes smaller when it is subjected
to a higher unit stress. The strength of such a beam is there-
fore not directly proportional to the yield stress of the steel.
The same is true for the compression members.
When using the Direct Strength Method for design, full,
unreduced section properties are used.
23
In addition to bolted and welded connections, screws and
power-actuated fasteners are often used for cold-formed steel
construction. Design provisions for determining the shear
and tensile strengths of screw and power-actuated fastener
connections are included in the current North American
specification.
1.6.6 Web Crippling Strength of Beams
Web crippling is often a critical problem for cold-formed
steel structural members for two reasons. First, the use of
stamped or rolled-in bearing stiffeners (or stiffeners under
concentrated loads) is frequently not practical in cold-formed
steel construction. Second, the depth-to-thickness ratio of
the webs of cold-formed steel members is usually large and
generally exceeds that of hot-rolled shapes. Figure 1.31 illus-
trates the pattern of web crippling of an I-section.
Special design criteria for web crippling of cold-formed
steel sections included in the North American Specification
have been developed on the basis of extensive research.
1.6.7 Thickness Limitations and Corrosion Protection
The ranges of thickness generally used in various types
of cold-formed steel structural members are described in
Section 1.2. However, they should not be considered as thick-
ness limitations.
For the design of cold-formed steel structural members
the important factors are the width-to-thickness ratio of
compression elements and the unit stress used; the thickness

1.6.5 Connections
For bolted connections the thickness of connected parts is
usually much thinner in cold-formed steel construction than
in heavy construction. The steel sheet or strip may have
a small spread between yield stress and tensile strength.
These are major influences that make the behavior of the
cold-formed steel bolted connection differ from that of
heavy construction, particularly for bearing and tension
stress. Modified design provisions have been developed in
the Specification for cold-formed steel bolted connections.
In welded connections, arc welds (groove welds, arc spot
welds, arc seam welds, fillet welds, and flare groove welds)
are often used for connecting cold-formed steel members to
each other as well as for connecting cold-formed sections to
hot-rolled shapes. Arc spot welds without prepunched holes
and arc seam welds are often used for connecting panels or
decks to supporting beams or to each other. Figure 1.31 Test for web crippling strength of thin webs.1.6
24 1 INTRODUCTION

of the steel itself is not a critical factor. Members formed material of the section is considered to be concentrated
of relatively thin steel sheet will function satisfactorily if along the centerline or midline of the steel sheet and the area
designed in accordance with the North American Specifica- elements are replaced by straight or curved “line elements.”
tion. The thickness dimension t is introduced after the linear
The durability of lightweight steel construction has been computations have been completed. Thus the total area
studied by Cissel and Quinsey.1.241,1.242 It was found that A = L × t and the moment of inertia of the section I = I′ × t,
the durability of cold-formed steel sections is primarily where L is the total length of all line elements and I′ is the
dependent upon the protective treatment applied to the sheet moment of inertia of the centerline of the steel sheet. The
and not necessarily upon the thickness of the sheet itself.1.243 properties of typical line elements are shown in Fig. 1.32.
For galvanized cold-formed steel there is high corrosion Example 1.1 illustrates the application of the linear method.
resistance. Available data indicate that the corrosion rate of
galvanized sheets in the atmosphere is practically linear; that Example 1.1 Determine the full section modulus Sx of the
is, for the same base-metal thickness a sheet having double channel section shown in Fig. 1.33a. Use the linear method.
the weight of coating of another sheet can be expected
to last twice as long before rusting of the base metal sets SOLUTION
in.1.244–1.246 References 1.398, 1.399, and 1.436 present a The midline of the cross section is shown in Fig. 1.33b.
better understanding of how galvanizing provides long-term
corrosion protection to steel members. It is therefore unnec- 1. Flat width of flanges (element 1):
essary to limit the minimum thickness for cold-formed
steel sections merely for the purpose of protecting the steel 𝐿f = 1.5 − 0.292 = 1.208 in.
from corrosion. The accepted methods of protection were 2. Distance from x–x axis to centerline of flange:
discussed in Section 5 of Part III of the 1977 AISI design
0.105
manual1.159 and the minimum metallic coating requirements 3.0 − = 2.948 in.
2
for framing members are specified in the AISI general provi-
sions for cold-formed steel framing.1.400,1.432 In addition, the 3. Computation of properties of 90∘ corner (element 2)
CFSEI technical note outlines available corrosion-resistant (Fig. 1.33c):
materials for cold-formed steel framing members and makes 0.105
𝑅′ = 0.1875 + = 0.240 in.
recommendations for buildings at various distances from 2
the ocean and for different exposure conditions within an 𝐿c = 1.57(0.240) = 0.377 in. (Fig. 1.32)
individual building.1.401,1.436 Tests of coil-coated steel panels
𝑐 = 0.637(0.240) = 0.153 in. (Fig. 1.32)
are reported in Ref. 1.329.
4. Flat width of web (element 3):
1.6.8 Plastic Design 𝐿w = 6.0 − 2(0.292) = 5.416 in.
A complete plastic design method is not included in the 5. Distance from x–x axis to center of gravity (c.g.) of
North American specification because most cold-formed corner:
steel shapes have width-to-thickness ratios considerably in 5.416
excess of the limits required by plastic design.1.148 Such 𝑦= + 0.153 = 2.861 in.
2
members with large width-to-thickness ratios are usually
6. Linear 𝐼𝑥′ , moment of inertia of midlines of steel sheets:
incapable of developing plastic hinges without local buck-
ling or distortional buckling. However, since 1980 the AISI Flanges: 2(1.208)(2.948)2 = 21.00
specification has included design provisions to utilize the Corners: 2(0.377)(2.861)2 = 6.17
inelastic reserve capacity of flexural members. The require-
Web: 12 (5.416)3 = 13.24
ments are retained in the North American specification. For
details, see Sections 4.2.2.6 and 4.2.3.1.2. Total: 40.41 in.3
7. Actual Ix:
1.6.9 Linear Method for Computing Properties
of Formed Sections 𝐼𝑥 = 𝐼𝑥′ 𝑡 = 40.41(0.105) = 4.24 in.4

Because the thickness of the formed section is uniform, the 8. Section modulus:
computation of properties of such sections can be simplified 𝐼 4.24
𝑆𝑥 = /𝑥 = = 1.41 in.3
by using a linear or “midline” method. In this method the 𝑑 2 3.0
 GENERAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS OF COLD-FORMED STEEL CONSTRUCTION 25

Figure 1.32 Properties of line elements.1.159

in cold-formed steel construction, the error in the moment

Figure 1.33 Example 1.1.
The accuracy of the linear method for computing the
properties of a given section depends on the thickness
of the steel sheet to be used and the configuration of the
section. For the thicknesses of steel sheets generally used
of inertia determined by the linear method is usually
negligible, particularly for relatively deep sections made
of thin material. For example, as indicated in Table 1.3,
the expected errors in the computed moment of inertia
of the two arbitrarily chosen channel sections as shown
in Fig. 1.34 are less than 1% if the material is 14 in. or
thinner.
For cylindrical tubes, the error in the computed moment
of inertia about the axis passing through the center of the
tube determined by the linear method varies with the ratio of
mean diameter to wall thickness, D/t; the smaller the ratio,
the larger the error. The expected errors in the moment of
inertia are approximately 2.7 and 0.2% for D/t ratios of 6 and
20, respectively, if the wall thickness is 14 in. Errors smaller
26 1 INTRODUCTION

Figure 1.34 Sections used for studying the accuracy of the linear method.

Table 1.3 Expected Error in Ix conducted by an independent testing laboratory or by a

manufacturer’s laboratory. It is not the intent of the North
Channel Thickness of Expected American provision, however, to substitute load tests for
Section Material (in.) in Ix (%) design calculations.
A 0.50 3.3 A detailed discussion on the method of testing is beyond
0.25 0.7 the scope of this book. However, when tests are found
0.10 0.1 necessary to determine structural strength or stiffness of
B 0.50 0.6 cold-formed sections and assemblies, Chapter K of the North
0.25 0.15 American specification1.417 and Part VI of the AISI Design
0.10 0.02 Manual1.428 should be used for the evaluation of test results
and the determination of allowable load-carrying capacities.
Note: 1 in. = 25.4 mm.
1.6.11 Cold Work of Forming
than the above values are expected for materials thinner than It is well known that the mechanical properties of steel are
1
4
in. affected by cold work of forming. The North American spec-
The Direct Strength Method Design Guide1.383 indicates ification permits utilizing the increase in yield stress from
that the use of midline dimensions ignoring the corner is a cold-forming operation subjected to certain limitations.
adequate for analysis unless the corner radius is larger than Sections 2.7 and 2.8 discuss the influence of cold work on
10 times the thickness. the mechanical properties of steel and the utilization of the
cold work of forming, respectively.
1.6.10 Tests for Special Cases
In Section 1.1 it was indicated that in cold-formed steel
1.7 ECONOMIC DESIGN AND OPTIMUM
construction unusual sectional configurations can be
PROPERTIES
economically produced by cold-forming operations.
However, from the point of view of structural design, The basic objective of economic design is to achieve the
the analysis and design of such unusual members may least expensive construction that satisfies the design require-
be very complex and difficult. In many cases it may be ments. One of the conditions required for the low cost of the
found that their safe load-carrying capacity or deflection erected structure is that the weight of the material be kept to a
cannot be calculated on the basis of the design criteria minimum, which is associated with the maximum structural
presently included in the North American specification.1.417 efficiency.
For this case the North American Specification permits It has been shown by numerous investigators that for
their structural performance to be determined by load tests a given loading system the maximum efficiency can be

obtained when the member strengths for all the possible
modes of failure are the same.
In practice, such ideal conditions may not be obtained
easily because of unavoidable limitations, such as prese-
lected shapes and specific dimensional limitations. However,
it can be shown that in some cases there may be a possible
mode of failure or limit state that will result in a maximum
efficiency within the practical limitations.
The efficiency of the use of high-strength steel depends on
the type of mode of failure. Under certain conditions, such
as long columns having large slenderness ratios, the failure
is usually limited by overall elastic buckling. For this case
the use of high-strength steel may not result in an economic
design because the performance of structural members under
the above-mentioned conditions will be the same for different
grades of steel. For this reason the use of high-strength steel
for these cases may not be justified as far as the overall cost
is concerned.
In any event the general aim should always be to utilize
the full potential strength of the steel that can be used in
fabrication by designing the detail outline of the section
for maximum structural efficiency. Flexibility of the
cold-forming process to produce an endless variety of
shapes is ideal for this purpose.1.225,1.247,1.402–1.406
1.8 DESIGN BASIS
Prior to 1996, the AISI issued two separate specifications for
the design of cold-formed steel structural members, connec-
tions, and structural assemblies. One was for the Allowable
Strength Design (ASD) method1.4 and the other was for the
Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD) method.1.313
These two design specifications were combined into a single
specification in 1996.1.314 Both methods have been used
for the design of cold-formed steel structures, even though
they may or may not produce identical designs. When the
North American specification was developed in 2001, 2007,
2012, and 2016, the Limit States Design (LSD) method
was included in the Specification for use in Canada. The
ASD and LRFD methods are only used in the United States
and Mexico. Because the design provisions are based on
strengths (moment, force, etc.) instead of stresses, the ASD
method has been redefined as allowable strength design.
In 2016 the Effective Width Method and Direct Strength
Method are presented within the main body of the Spec-
ification. Both methods may be used for the design of
cold-formed steel structures, even though they may or may
not produce identical designs.
The North American Specification has been approved by
the ANSI and is referred to in the United States as AISI S100.
It has also been approved by the CSA and is referred to in
Canada as S136.
DESIGN BASIS 27
According to Section A1.2 of the North American Spec-
ification, the nominal strength and stiffness of cold-formed
steel elements, members, assemblies, connections, and
details shall be determined in accordance with the provi-
sions provided in Chapters A through M, Appendices 1
and 2, and Appendices A and B of the North American
Specification. When the composition or configuration of
such components is such that calculation of the strength
and/or stiffness cannot be made in accordance with those
provisions (excluding Chapter K), structural performance
should be established from one of the following methods:
1. Determine the available strength (allowable strength
for ASD or design strength for LRFD and LSD) or stiff-
ness by tests undertaken and evaluated in accordance
with Section K2.1.1(a) of the Specification.
2. Determine the available strength or stiffness by rational
analysis with confirmatory tests. Specifically, the avail-
able strength is determined from the calculated nominal
strength by applying the safety factor or the resis-
tance factor in accordance with Section K2.1.1(b) of
the Specification.
3. Determine the available strength or stiffness based
on appropriate theory and engineering judgment. The
available strength is determined from the calculated
nominal strength by applying the safety and resistance
factors given in Section A1.2(c) of the Specification.
It should be noted that for a limit state already provided
in the main Specification the safety factor should not be less
than the applicable Ω and the resistance factor should not
exceed the applicable 𝜙 for the prescribed limit state.
1.8.1 Allowable Strength Design
Since the issuance of the first AISI Specification in 1946,
the design of cold-formed steel structural members and
connections in the United States and some other countries
has been based on the ASD method. In this method, the
required strengths (axial forces, bending moments, shear
forces, etc.) for structural members and connections are
computed from structural analysis by using the nominal
loads or specified working loads for all applicable load
combinations, as discussed in Section 1.8.1.2. The allow-
able strength permitted by the specification is determined
by the nominal strength and the specified safety factor.
1.8.1.1 Design Format for the ASD Method For the ASD
method, the required strength R should not exceed the allow-
able strength Ra as follows:
𝑅 ≤ 𝑅a (1.1)
28 1 INTRODUCTION
Based on Section A4.1.1 of the North American Specifica-
tion, the allowable strength is determined by Eq. (1.2):
𝑅 settlement, and combinations thereof.
𝑅a = n (1.2)
Ω
where Rn = nominal strength
Ω = safety factor corresponding to Rn (see
Table 1.4)
In Eq. (1.2), the nominal strength is the strength or
capacity of the element or member for a given limit state
or failure mode. It is computed by the design equations
provided in Chapters B through M, Appendices 1 and 2, and
Appendices A and B of the North American Specification.
The safety factors provided in Chapters C through M and
Appendices of the North American Specification are summa-
rized in Table 1.4. These safety factors are used to compen-
sate for uncertainties inherent in the design, fabrication, and
erection of structural components and connections as well
as uncertainties in the estimation of applied loads. It should
also be noted that for the ASD method only a single safety
factor is used to compensate for the uncertainties of the
combined load.
1.8.1.2 Load Combinations for the ASD Method The
design provisions for nominal loads and combinations are in
accordance with Appendix A of the North American Spec-
ification. The following discussion is applicable only to the
ASD method.
a. Nominal Loads. The North American Specification does
not provide any specific dead load, live load, snow, wind,
earthquake, or other loading requirements for the design
of cold-formed steel structures. Section B2 of the AISI
Specification merely states that the nominal loads shall be
as stipulated by the applicable building code under which
the structure is designed or as dictated by the conditions
involved. In the absence of an applicable building code,
the nominal loads shall be those stipulated in ASCE/SEI
7-10, Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other
Structures.1.416
For the impact loads on a structure, reference may be
made to the AISC publication1.411 for building design
and the MBMA publication for the design of metal
buildings.1.360
In addition to the above-mentioned loads, due consid-
eration should also be given to the loads due to (1)
fluids with well-defined pressures and maximum heights,
(2) weight and lateral pressure of soil and water in
soil, (3) ponding, and (4) self-straining forces and
effects arising from construction or expansion resulting
from temperature, shrinkage, moisture changes, creep
in component materials, movement due to different
b. Load Combinations for ASD. In Section B3.2 of the North
American specification, it is specified that the structure
and its components shall be designed so that the allowable
strengths equal or exceed the effects of the nominal loads
and load combinations as stipulated by the applicable
building code under which the structure is designed or, in
the absence of an applicable building code, as stipulated
in the ASCE Standard ASCE/SEI 7.1.416
When the ASCE Standard is used for allowable strength
design, the following load combinations should be consid-
ered:
1. 𝐷 (1.3a)
2. 𝐷 + 𝐿 (1.3b)
3. 𝐷 + (𝐿r or 𝑆 or 𝑅) (1.3c)
4. 𝐷 + 0.75𝐿 + 0.75(𝐿r or 𝑆 or 𝑅) (1.3d)
5. 𝐷 + (0.6𝑊 or 0.7𝐸) (1.3e)
6. 𝐷 + 0.75(0.6𝑊 ) + 0.75(𝐿r or 𝑆 or 𝑅) (1.3f)
7. 0.6𝐷 + 0.6𝑊 (1.3g)
8. 0.6𝐷 + 0.7𝐸 (1.3h)
where D = dead load
E = earthquake load
L = live load
Lr = roof live dead
R = rain load
S = snow load
W = wind load
1.8.2 Load and Resistance Factor Design
During recent years, the LRFD method has been used in
the United States and other countries for the design of steel
structures.1.313,1.345,1.411,1.417 The advantages of the LRFD
method are (1) the uncertainties and the variabilities of
different types of loads and resistances are accounted for by
use of multiple factors, and (2) by using probability theory,
all designs can ideally achieve a consistent reliability. Thus,
the LRFD approach provides the basis for a more rational
and refined design method than is possible with the allowable
strength design method.
In order to develop the load and resistance factor design
criteria for cold-formed, carbon, and low-alloy steel struc-
tural members, a research project was conducted at the
University of Missouri–Rolla under the direction of
Wei-Wen Yu with consultation of T. V. Galambos and
M. K. Ravindra. This project, which was initiated in 1976,

was sponsored by the AISI and supervised by the AISI
Subcommittee on Load and Resistance Factor Design.1.248
Based on the studies made by Rang, Supornsilaphachai,
Snyder, Pan, and Hsiao, the AISI Load and Resistance
Factor Design Specification for Cold-Formed Steel Struc-
tural Members with Commentary was published in August
1991 on the basis of the 1986 edition of the AISI ASD Spec-
ification with the 1989 Addendum.1.313,3.152 The background
information and research findings for developing the AISI
LRFD criteria were documented in 14 progress reports of the
University of Missouri–Rolla and are summarized in Refs.
1.248 and 3.153–3.159. As previously discussed, the 1996
edition of the AISI Specification included both the ASD and
LRFD methods in a single standard for the first time.
1.8.2.1 Design Format for the LRFD Method As
discussed in Section 1.8.1.1, the allowable strength design
method employs only one safety factor for the combined
load under a given limit state. A limit state is the condition
in which a structure or component becomes unfit for service
and is judged either to be no longer useful for its intended
function (serviceability limit state) or to have reached its
ultimate load-carrying capacity (strength limit state). For
cold-formed steel members, typical limit states are yielding,
buckling, postbuckling strength, shear lag, web crippling,
excessive deflection, and others. These limits have been
established through experience in practice or in the labora-
tory, and they have been thoroughly investigated through
analytical and experimental research.
Unlike allowable strength design, the LRFD approach uses
multiple load factors and a corresponding resistance factor
for a given limit state to provide a refinement in the design
that can account for the different degrees of the uncertainties
and variabilities of analysis, design, loading, material prop-
erties, and fabrication. The design format for satisfying the
structural safety requirement is expressed in Eq.(1.4)1.417 :
𝑅u ≤ 𝜙𝑅n (1.4)
where Ru = required strength or required resistance for
factored loads
∑ 4.
= γi QI
γi = load factor corresponding to Qi
QI = load effect
Rn = nominal strength
ϕ = resistance factor corresponding to Rn
ϕRn = design strength
The nominal strength Rn is the total strength of the element
or member for a given limit state, computed according to the
applicable design criteria. The resistance factor ϕ accounts
DESIGN BASIS 29
for the uncertainties and variabilities inherent in Rn , and it
is usually less than unity, as listed in Table 1.4. The load
effects Qi are the forces (axial force, bending moment, shear
force, etc.) on the cross section determined from the struc-
tural analysis and γi are the corresponding load factors that
account for the uncertainties and variabilities of the applied
loads. The load factors are usually greater than unity, as given
in Section 1.8.2.2.
For the design of cold-formed members using carbon and
low-alloy steels, the values of 𝜙 and Rn are given in the North
American Specification.1.417
1.8.2.2 Nominal Loads, Load Factors, and Load Combi-
nations for the LRFD Method The design provisions for
nominal loads and load combinations are provided in Section
B3 of the North American Specification for use in the United
States and Mexico. The following discussion is applicable
only to the LRFD method:
a. Nominal Loads. The design requirements for nominal
loads to be used for the LRFD method are the same as
that used for the ASD method.
b. Load Factors and Load Combinations for LRFD. Section
B3.2 of the North American Specification specifies that
the structure and its components shall be designed so that
design strengths equal or exceed the effects of the factored
loads and load combinations stipulated by the applicable
building code under which the structure is designed or,
in the absence of an applicable building code, as stipu-
lated in the ASCE Standard, Minimum Design Loads for
Buildings and Other Structures, ASCE/SEI 7.
When the ASCE Standard is used for the LRFD method,
the following load factors and load combinations should be
considered for the strength limit state1.416 :
1. 1.4𝐷 (1.5a)
2. 1.2𝐷 + 1.6𝐿 + 0.5(𝐿r or 𝑆 or 𝑅) (1.5b)
3. 1.2𝐷 + 1.6(𝐿r or 𝑆 or 𝑅) + (𝐿 or 0.5𝑊 ) (1.5c)
1.2𝐷 + 1.0𝑊 + 𝐿 + 0.5(𝐿r or 𝑆 or 𝑅) (1.5d)
5. 1.2𝐷 + 1.0𝐸 + 𝐿 + 0.2𝑆 (1.5e)
6. 0.9𝐷 + 1.0𝑊 (1.5f)
7. 0.9𝐷 + 1.0𝐸 (1.5g)
All the symbols are defined in item (b) of Section 1.8.1.2. For
the above load combinations, exceptions are as follows:
1. The load factor on L in combinations (3), (4), and (5) is
permitted to equal 0.5 for all occupancies in which the
minimum uniformly distributed live load L in Table 4-1
30 1 INTRODUCTION
of ASCE/SEI1.415 is less than or equal to 100 psf, with
the exception of garages or areas occupied as places of
public assembly.
2. In combinations (2), (4), and (5), the load S shall be
taken as either the flat-roof snow load or the sloped-roof
snow load.
Each relevant strength limit state shall be investigated.
Effects of one or more loads not acting shall be investigated.
The most unfavorable effects from both wind and earthquake
loads shall be investigated, where appropriate, but they need
not be considered to act simultaneously.
The ASCE Standard does not provide load factors and
load combinations for roof and floor composite construction
using cold-formed steel deck. For this construction,the Steel
Deck Institute NSI/SDI C-2017 Standard for Composite Steel
Floor Deck—Slabs1.437 load combinations should be used.
1.8.2.3 Design Strength 𝝓Rn The design strength is the
available strength of a structural component or connection to
be used for design purposes. As shown in Eq. (1.4), design
strength is obtained by multiplying the nominal strength or
resistance Rn by a reduction factor 𝛟 to account for the
uncertainties and variabilities of the nominal strength.
1.8.2.3.1 Nominal Strength or Resistance Rn The
nominal strength or resistance Rn is the capacity of a struc-
tural component or connection to resist load effects (axial
force, bending moment, shear force, etc.). It is usually deter-
mined by computations using specified material properties
and dimensions in the design criteria derived from accepted
principles of structural mechanics and/or by tests, taking
account of the effects of manufacturing and fabrication
processes. For the design of cold-formed members using
carbon and low-alloy steels, Chapters C through M of the
North American Specification1.417 provide the equations
needed for determining the nominal strengths of tension
members, flexural members, compression members, closed
cylindrical tubular members, wall studs, connections, and
joints. It should be noted that for the purpose of consistency
the same nominal strength equations are used in the North
American specification for the ASD and LRFD methods.1.417
In 2004, the Direct Strength Method was added in the
North American Specification. This method may be used
to determine the axial strengths of columns and beams
subjected to bending and to shear.1.417
1.8.2.3.2 Resistance Factor 𝝓 The resistance factor 𝜙 is
a reduction factor to account for unavoidable deviations of
the actual strength from the nominal value prescribed in
the design specification. These deviations may result from
the uncertainties and variabilities in (1) the material proper-
ties (i.e., yield stress, tensile strength, modulus of elasticity,
etc.), (2) the geometry of the cross section (i.e., depth, width,
thickness, etc., to be used for computing area, moment of
inertia, section modulus, radius of gyration, etc.), and (3) the
design methods (i.e., assumptions, approximations of theo-
retical formulas, etc.).
In the development of the AISI LRFD criteria,3.159 the
resistance factors were derived from a combination of
(1) probabilistic modeling,3.160,3.161 (2) calibration of the
new criteria to the ASD approach,3.162 and (3) evaluations
of the new LRFD criteria by judgment and past experience.
The development was aided by a comparative study of the
ASD and LRFD methods.3.157,3.163 The procedures used
for developing the resistance factors for cold-formed steel
design consisted of the following five steps:
1. Analyze the available information and test data to
obtain the statistical value (mean values and coeffi-
cients of variation) of resistance and load effects.
2. Assume the mean values and coefficients of variation
of the variable for which no statistical information is
available.
3. Compute the reliability index implied in the applicable
ASD specification.
4. Select the target reliability index.
5. Develop the resistance factors according to the selected
target reliability index for different types of members
with the limit state being considered.
Details of steps 1, 2, and 3 are presented in several progress
reports of the University of Missouri–Rolla and are summa-
rized in Ref. 3.162. Based on the probability distribution
shown in Fig. 1.35 and the first-order probabilistic theory, the
reliability index 𝛽 can be computed by Eq. (1.6)1.248,3.152 :
ln(𝑅 ∕𝑄 )
𝛽= √ m m (1.6)
𝑉R2 + 𝑉Q2
where Rm = mean value of resistance
= Rn (Pm Mm Fm )
Qm = mean value of load effect
VR = coefficient of variation of resistance, = 𝜎 R /Rm
√
𝑉P2 + 𝑉M2 + 𝑉F2
VQ = coefficient of variation of load effect, = 𝜎 Q /Qm
𝜎R = standard deviation of resistance
𝜎Q = standard deviation of load effect
Pm = mean ratio of experimentally determined
ultimate load to predicted ultimate load of test
specimens

Figure 1.35 Definition of reliability index.
Mm = mean ratio of tested material properties to
specified minimum values
Fm = mean ratio of actual sectional properties to
nominal values
VP coefficient of variation of ratio P
=
VM = coefficient of variation of ratio M
VF coefficient of variation of ratio F
=
The reliability index 𝛽 is a measure of the safety of the
design. As shown in Fig. 1.35, a limit state is reached when
ln(R/Q) = 0. The shaded area represents the probability of
exceeding the limit states. The smaller the shaded area is, the
more reliable the structure is. Because the distance between
the mean value of [ln(R/Q)]m and the failure region is defined
as 𝛽[𝜎 ln(R/Q) ], when two designs are compared, the one with
the larger 𝛽 is more reliable.
As far as the target reliability index 𝛽 0 is concerned,
research findings indicated that for cold-formed steel
members the target reliability index may be taken as 2.5 for
gravity loads. In order to ensure that failure of a structure
is not initiated in connections, a higher value of 3.5 was
selected for connections using cold-formed carbon steels.
Even though these two target values are somewhat lower
than those recommended by the ASCE code (i.e., 3.0 and
4.5 for members and connections, respectively),3.149 they
are essentially the same targets used for the AISC LRFD
Specification.3.150 For wind loads, the same ASCE target
value of β0 = 2.5 is used for connections in the LRFD
method. For flexural members such as individual purlins,
girts, panels, and roof decks subjected to the combination of
dead and wind loads, the target β0 value used in the United
States is reduced to 1.5. With this reduced target reliability
index, the design based on the LRFD method is comparable
to the allowable strength design method.
DESIGN BASIS 31
On the basis of the load combination of 1.2D + 1.6L with
an assumed D/L ratio of 15 and the available statistical data, it
can be shown that the resistance factor 𝜙 can be determined
as follows1.310 :
1.521𝑀m 𝐹m 𝑃m
𝜙= ( √ ) (1.7)
exp 𝛽0 𝑉R2 + 𝑉Q2
where β0 is the target reliability index. For practical reasons,
it is desirable to have relatively few different resistance
factors. Table 1.4 lists the resistance factors for the design
of various types of members and connections using carbon
and low-alloy steels.
If the 𝜙 factor is known, the corresponding safety factor Ω
for allowable strength design can be computed for the load
combination 1.2D + 1.6L as follows1.310 :
/
1.2𝐷 𝐿 + 1.6
Ω= /
𝜙(𝐷 𝐿 + 1)
where D/L is the dead-to-live load ratio for the given condi-
tion.
1.8.3 Limit States Design
The LSD method is currently used in Canada for the design
of cold-formed steel members, connections, and structural
assemblies. The methodology for the LSD and LRFD
methods is the same, except that load factors, load combina-
tions, target reliability indexes, and the assumed dead-to-live
ratio used for the development of the design criteria are
different. As a result, the resistance factors used for the
LSD method are usually slightly smaller than that for the
LRFD method in the main document of the North American
Specification.
The design provisions for the LSD method are provided in
Section B3 of the North American Specification. For the LSD
32 1 INTRODUCTION

Table 1.4 Safety Factors 𝛀 and Resistance Factors 𝝓 Used in North American Specification 1.417
ASD LRFD LSD
Safety Resistance Resistance
Type of Strength Factor, Ω Factor, 𝜙 Factor, 𝜙
(a) Stiffeners
Bearing stiffeners 2.00 0.85 0.80
Bearing stiffeners in C-section beams 1.70 0.90 0.80
(b) Tension members
For yielding of gross section 1.67 0.90 0.90
For rupture of net section away from connection 2.00 0.75 0.75
For rupture of net section at connection (see connections)
(c) Flexural members
Yielding and global buckling 1.67 0.90 0.90
Local buckling interacting with yielding and global buckling 1.67 0.90 0.90
Distortional buckling 1.67 0.90 0.90
Beams having one flange through fastened to deck or
sheathing
i. For general cross-sections and system connectivity 1.67 0.90 0.85
ii. For C- or Z-sections with specifically defined systems 1.67 0.90 0.90
Beams having one flange fastened to a standing seam roof 1.67 0.90 —a
system
Web design
Shear strength 1.60 0.95 0.80
Web crippling
Built-up sections 1.75–2.00 0.75–0.85 0.60–0.75
Single web channel and C-sections 1.65–2.00 0.75–0.90 0.65–0.80
Single web Z-sections 1.65–2.00 0.75–0.90 0.65–0.80
Single hat sections 1.75–2.00 0.75–0.85 0.65–0.75
Multi-web deck sections 1.65–2.45 0.60–0.90 0.50–0.80
Combined bending and web crippling 1.70 0.90 0.75–0.80
(d) Concentrically loaded compression members
Yielding and global buckling 1.80 0.85 0.80
Local buckling interacting with global buckling 1.80 0.85 0.80
Distortional buckling 1.80 0.85 0.80
(e) Closed cylindrical tubular members
Bending strength 1.67 0.95 0.90
Axial compression 1.80 0.85 0.80
(f) Compression members having one flange through fastened to
deck or sheathing
i. For general cross-sections and system connectivity 1.80 0.85 0.80
ii. For C- or Z-sections with specifically defined systems 1.80 0.85 0.80
(g) All-steel design of wall stud assemblies
Wall studs in compression 1.80 0.85 0.80
Wall studs in bending 1.67 0.90–0.95 0.90
(h) Diaphragm construction 2.15–3.00 0.55–0.80 0.40–0.75
(i) Rational engineering analysis for members 2.00 0.80 0.75
 DESIGN BASIS 33
Table 1.4 (Continued)
ASD LRFD LSD
Safety Resistance Resistance
Type of Strength Factor, Ω Factor, 𝜙 Factor, 𝜙
(j) Welded connections
Groove welds
Tension or compression 1.70 0.90 0.80
Shear (welds) 1.90 0.80 0.70
Shear (base metal) 1.70 0.90 0.80
Arc spot welds
Welds in shear 2.55 0.60 0.50
Connected part in shear 2.20–3.05 0.50–0.70 0.40–0.60
Welds in Tension 2.50–3.00 0.50–0.60 0.40–0.50
Arc seam welds
Welds in shear 2.55 0.60 0.50
Connected part in shear 2.20 0.70 0.60
Top arc seam welds in shear 2.60 0.60 0.55
Fillet welds
Longitudinal loading (connected part) 2.55–3.05 0.50–0.60 0.40–0.50
Transverse loading (connected part) 2.35 0.65 0.60
Welds 2.55 0.60 0.50
Flare groove welds
Transverse loading (connected part) 2.55 0.60 0.50
Longitudinal loading (connected part) 2.80 0.55 0.45
Welds 2.55 0.60 0.50
Resistance welds 2.35 0.65 0.55
Rupture 2.50 0.60 0.75
(k) Bolted connections
Bearing strength 2.22–2.50 0.60–0.65 0.50–0.55
Shear strength of bolts 2.00 0.75 0.55
Tensile strength of bolts 2.00 0.75 0.65
Rupture 2.22 0.65 0.75
(l) Screw connections 3.00 0.50 0.40
Combined shear and pul-over 2.35 0.65 0.55
Combined shear and pul-out 2.55 0.60 0.50
Rupture 3.00 0.50 0.75
(m) Power-actuated fastener (PAF) connections
PAF in tension 2.65 0.60 0.50
pull-out in tension 4.00 0.40 0.30
pull over 3.00 0.50 0.40
PAF in shear 2.65 0.60 0.55
Bearing and tilting 2.05 0.80 0.65
Pull-out in shear 2.55 0.60 0.50
Rupture 3.00 0.50 0.75
(n) Rational engineering analysis for connections 3.00 0.55 0.50
Note: This table is based on Chapters D through J and Appendices A and B of the 2016 edition of the North American Specification for the
Design of Cold-Formed Steel Structural Members.1.345
𝑎
See Appendix of the North American specification for the provisions applicable to Canada.
Another random document with
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include a great deal of incident and show, to be supported by
occasional instrumental music, and to have a comic personage or
buffoon amongst its characters. The tenth chapter of M. Magnin’s
fifth and final section shows us a strange variety in the subjects
selected for these plays—in which, it is to be noted, each puppet had
its own separate speaker behind the scenes. Weltheim, the manager
of a company of marionettes in the last twenty years of the 17th
century, and the beginning of the 18th, usually recruited interpreters
for his puppets amongst the students of Leipzig and Jena. He was the
first who performed a translation of Molière’s comedies in Germany.
In 1688, we find him giving at Hamburg, a piece founded on the fall
of Adam and Eve, followed by a buffoonery called Jack-pudding in
Punch’s Shop. Then we come to such pieces as The Lapidation of
Naboth; Asphalides, King of Arabia; The Fall of Jerusalem, and The
Death of Wallenstein—a strange medley of ancient, modern, sacred
and profane history. The following performance, at which M.
Schütze, the historian of the Hamburg theatre, declares that he was
present in his youth, must have been as curious as any we have
named. “A little musical drama on the fall of Adam and Eve
(performed at Hamburg rather more than a century ago), the
characters in which, including that of the serpent, were filled by
puppets. The reptile was seen coiled round the tree, darting out his
pernicious tongue. After the fall of our first parents, Hanswurst
addressed them in a strain of coarse pleasantry that greatly diverted
the audience. Two bears danced a ballet, and at the end, an angel
appeared, as in Genesis, drew a sword of gilt paper, and cut at a
single blow the knot of the piece.” Later than this a tailor named
Reibehand, who kept a puppet theatre, contrived to burlesque the
touching parable of the Prodigal Son. His playbill ran thus: “The
arch-prodigal, chastised by the four elements, with Harlequin, the
joyous companion of a great criminal.” The merit of this most
irreverent Haupt-Action consisted in the transformations it
contained. Thus the fruit the young prodigal was about to eat
changed itself into death’s heads, the water he was about to drink,
into flames; rocks split open and revealed a gallows with a man
hanging from it. The limbs of this corpse swinging in the wind, fell
off one by one, then assembled upon the ground and reconnected
themselves, and then the dead man arose and pursued the prodigal.
A very German and not very pleasing device. When Charles XII. of
Sweden fell dead in the trenches at Friedrichshall, slain, according to
popular superstition, by an enchanted bullet, his death was
immediately taken advantage of by the indefatigable marionettes. A
great historical piece was brought out at Hamburg, in which
Friedrichshall was twice bombarded. In it a soldier excited great
admiration as a prodigy of mechanism, by lighting his pipe and
puffing smoke from his mouth. This feat was soon imported into
France, and may be seen at the present day executed in great
perfection at Seraphin’s theatre in the Palais Royal.
The triviality, absurdity, and profanity that tarnished the German
stage during the first half of the eighteenth century, were followed by
a reaction in favour of better taste and common sense. Gottsched and
Lessing gave the signal of the revival of art and poetry. The theatre
resumed its importance; actors their proper place, from which they
had been ousted by the intolerance of the consistories; puppets
returned to the modest sphere which circumstances had permitted
and encouraged them temporarily to quit, and resumed their old
stock pieces, consisting of Biblical dramas and popular legends.
Faust was exceedingly popular, and novelties were occasionally
introduced. Lewis’s Bravo of Venice was taken for the subject of a
grand drama, performed by the Augsburg marionettes, which also
played, with great success, a drama founded on the well-known story
of Don Juan and his marble guest. And this brings us to the time
when a boy, Wolfgang Goethe by name—kept at home by his parents
during certain gloomy episodes of the Seven Years’ War, when
Frankfort was occupied by the French—delighted his leisure with a
marionette theatre, a Christmas gift from his grandfather, and so
fostered his inborn dramatic taste and genius. In his memoirs, and in
Wilhelm Meister, he tells us, in some charming passages, what
pleasure he took in the management of his mimic comedians.
“We are indebted,” says M. Magnin, “for what follows, to a
confidential communication made by the illustrious composer
Haydn, at Vienna, in 1805, to M. Charles Bertuch, one of his fervent
admirers.” And he relates that when Hadyn was mâitre de chapelle
to Prince Nicholas-Joseph Esterhazy, that enlightened and generous
patron of art, and especially of music, he composed four little operas
for a marionette theatre, which existed in the Esterhazys’
magnificent Castle of Eisenstadt in Hungary. They were written
between 1773 and 1780. “In the list of all his musical works, which
the illustrious old man signed and gave to M. Charles Bertuch,
during the residence of the latter at Vienna, occur the following lines,
which I exactly transcribe:—Operette composed for the marionettes:
Philémon and Baucis, 1773; Geniêvre, 1777; Didon, parody, 1778; La
Vengeance accomplie ou la Maison Brulie (no date). In the same list
the Diable Boiteux is set down, probably because it was played by
Prince Esterhazy’s marionettes, but it was composed at Vienna, in
the author’s early youth, for Bernardone, the manager of a popular
theatre at the Corinthian Gate, and twenty-four sequins were paid for
it. It was thought that these curious operas, all unpublished, had
been destroyed in a fire which consumed a part of the Castle of
Eisenstadt, including Haydn’s apartment; but that was not the case,
for they were seen in 1827 in the musical library of the Esterhazys,
with a score of other pieces whose titles one would like to know.”
Goethe has told us, in an interesting passage of his memoirs, that
the idea of his great work of Faust was suggested to him by the
puppet-show. M. Magnin, who takes an affectionate interest in the
triumphs of the marionettes with whom he has so long associated,
and whose career he has traced from their cradle, exults in the claim
they have thus acquired to the world’s gratitude—not always, it must
be owned, shown to those who best deserve it. He concludes his
history with a double recapitulation—first, of the celebrated persons
who have taken pleasure in this class of dramatic performances; and,
secondly, of the most distinguished of those who have wielded pen in
its service. And he calls upon his readers to applaud, and upon the
ladies especially to wave kerchief and throw bouquet at the graceful
Fantasia, the pretty fairy, the sprightly muse of the marionettes. We
doubt not but that the appeal will be responded to; although her
fairyship may fairly be considered to be already sufficiently rewarded
by meeting with a biographer in every way so competent.
THE QUIET HEART.
 PART V.—CHAPTER XXV.
But this Menie Laurie, rising up from her bed of unrest, when the
morning light breaks, cold and real, upon a changed world, has wept
out all her child’s tears, and is a woman once again. No one knows
yet a whisper of what has befallen her, not even poor Jenny, who
sobbed over her last night, and implored her not to weep.
Now, how to tell this—how to signify, in the fewest and calmest
words, the change that has come upon her. Sitting, with her cheek
leant on her hand, by the window where she heard it, before any
other eyes are awake, Menie ponders this in her heart. Always before
in little difficulties counsel and help have been within her reach; few
troublous things have been to do in Menie’s experience; and no one
ever dreamt that she should do them, when they chanced to come to
her mother’s door.
But now her mother’s honour is involved—she must not be
consulted—she must not know. With a proud flush Menie draws up
herself—herself who must work in this alone. Ah, sweet dependence,
dear humility of the old times! we must lay them by out of our heart,
to wait for a happier dawn. This day it is independence—self-support
—a strength that stands alone; and no one who has not felt such an
abrupt transition can know how hard it is to take these unused
weapons up.
“Will you let me speak to you, aunt?” Menie’s heart falters within
her, as she remembers poor Miss Annie’s unaccepted sympathy. Has
she indeed been driven to seek refuge here at last?
“My love! how can you ask such a question, darling, when I am
always ready to speak to you?” exclaimed Miss Annie, with
enthusiasm.
“But not here—out of doors, if you will permit me,” said Menie in a
half whisper. “I—I want to be out of my mother’s sight—she must not
know.”
“You delightful creature,” said Miss Annie, “are you going to give
me your confidence at last?”
 Poor Menie, sadly dismayed, was very ill able to support this strain
of sympathy. She hastened out, not quite observing how it tasked her
companion to follow her—out to the same green overgrown corner,
where once before she had spoken of this same subject to Randall
himself. With a slight shudder she paused there before the little
rustic seat, from which she had risen at his approach; but Menie
knew that she must harden herself against the power of associations;
enough of real ill was before her.
“I want to tell you, aunt, if you will please to listen to me, that the
engagement of which you were told when we came here is dissolved
—broken. I do not know if there is any stronger word,” said Menie, a
bewildered look growing on her face. “I mean to say, that it is all
over, as if it had never been.”
And Menie folded her hands upon her breast, and stood patiently
to listen, expecting a burst of lamentation and condolence; but Menie
was not prepared for the laugh which rung shrilly on her ears—the
words that followed it.
“My sweet simple child, I have no doubt you quite believe it—
forgive me for laughing, darling; but I know what lovers’ quarrels
are. There, now, don’t look so grave and angry; my love, you will
make it all up to-morrow.”
And Miss Annie Laurie patted Menie’s shrinking shoulder
encouragingly. It was a harder task this than Menie had anticipated;
but she went on without flinching.
“This is no lovers’ quarrel, aunt; do not think so. My mother is in
some degree involved in this. I cannot consult her, or ask her to help
me; it is the first time I have ever been in such a strait;” and Menie’s
lip quivered as she spoke. “You are my only friend. I am serious—as
serious as mind can be, which feels that here it decides its life. Aunt,
I apply to you.”
Miss Annie Laurie looked up very much confused and shaken; very
seldom had any one spoken to her with such a sober seriousness of
tone; she could not think it unreal, for neither extravagance nor
despair were in these grave sad words of Menie. The poor frivolous
heart felt this voice ring into its depths, past all superficial
affectations and sentiments. No exuberance of sympathy, no shower
of condoling words or endearments, could answer this appeal; and
poor Miss Annie faltered before this claim of real service—faltered
and shrank into a very weak old woman, her self-delusions standing
her in no stead in such a strait; and the only answer she could make
was to cry, in a trembling and strangely altered voice, “Oh, child, do
not speak so. What can I do for you?”
Most true, what can you do, indeed, poor soul! whose greatest
object for all these years has been to shut out and darken the daylight
truth, which mocked your vain pretences? You could give charity and
gentle words—be thankful; your heart is alive in you because of
these: but what can you do in such a difficulty as this? where is your
wisdom to counsel, your strength to uphold? This grave girl stands
before you, sadly bearing her burden, without an effort to conceal
from you that she feels it hard to bear; but you, whose age is not
grave, whose heart has rejected experience, whose mind has refused
to learn the kindly insight of advancing years—shrink into yourself,
poor aged butterfly; feel that it is presumption to call yourself her
counsellor, and say again—again, with a tremble in your weakened
voice, “What can I do for you?”
“Aunt, I apply to you,” said Menie Laurie; “I ask your help, when I
resolve to decide my future life according to my own will and
conviction of what is best. I have no one else to assist me. I apply to
you.”
Miss Annie melted into a fit of feeble crying; her hands shook, her
ringlets drooped down lank about her cheeks. “I will do anything—
anything you like; tell me what to do, Menie—Menie, my dear child.”
It was pitiful to see her distress. Menie, whom no one comforted,
felt her heart moved to comfort her.
“I will not grieve you much,” said Menie gently; “only I beg you to
give me your countenance when I see Randall—Mr Home. I want you
to be as my mother might have been in other circumstances; but I
will not trouble you much, aunt—I will not trouble you.”
Miss Annie could not stop her tears; she was very timid and afraid,
sobbing helplessly. “What will I do? what can I do? Oh, Menie, love,
you will make it up to-morrow;” for poor Miss Annie knew no way of
conquering grief except by flying out of its sight.
Menie led her back to the house tenderly. Menie had never known
before this necessity of becoming comforter, when she had so much
need to be comforted. It was best for her—it gave her all the greater
command over her own heart.
And to hear poor innocent July, in her own young unclouded joy—
to hear her unsuspicious mother at their breakfast-table—to have
Randall’s name cross her now and then, like a sudden blow—
Randall, Randall;—Menie knew nothing of all these depths, nor how
such sorrows come in battalions; so, one by one, her inexperienced
heart gained acquaintance with them now,—gained acquaintance
with that sorest of human truths, that it is possible to love and to
condemn—possible to part, and know that parting is the best—yet
withal to cling and cling, and hold, with the saddest gripe of
tenderness, the heart from which you part. Poor Menie! they said she
looked very dark and heavy; that last night’s exertions had wearied
her—it was very true.
Miss Annie sent a message that she was not well, and would
breakfast in her own room. In the forenoon, when she came down
stairs again, even Menie was startled at the change. Miss Annie’s
ringlets were smoothed out and braided on her poor thin cheek—
braided elaborately with a care and study worthy of something more
important; her step tottered a little; when any one spoke to her, a
little gush of tears came to her eyes; but, notwithstanding, there was
a solemnity and importance in the hush of Miss Annie’s manner,
which no one had ever seen in her before. Half-a-dozen times that
day she asked, in a startling whisper, “Menie, when is he to come?”
Poor Menie, sick at heart, could scarcely bear this slow prolonging of
her pain.
 CHAPTER XXVI.
“Aunt, he has come.”
No one knows; July is out on a ramble in this pleasant heath,
where she cannot lose herself; Mrs Laurie has gone out for some
private errands of her own. In her first day, Menie has managed well.
True, they all know that Menie has been wearied last night; that her
eye looks dull and heavy; that her cheek has lost its slight bloom of
colour; that she says something of a headache; but nobody knows
that headache has come to be with Menie Laurie as with many
another, only a softer word for heartache—no one suspects that the
quiet heart, which feared no evil when this spring began, is now a
battle-ground, and field of contest, and that sometimes, when she
sits quiet in outward seeming, she could leap up with a start and
scream, and feels as if madness would come to her underneath their
unsuspicious eyes.
“Aunt, he has come.”
Miss Annie Laurie is very nervous; she has to be supported on
Menie’s arm as they go down stairs. “You will make it all up, Menie;
yes, my darling;” but Miss Annie’s head nods spasmodically, and
there is a terrified troubled expression about her face, which looks so
meagre in its outline under that braided hair.
Slightly disturbed, something haughty, rather wondering what
Menie has got to say for herself, Randall sits waiting in the drawing-
room. It is no small surprise to him to see Miss Annie—especially to
see her so moved and nervous; and Randall restrains, with visible
displeasure, the words which rose to his lips on Menie’s entrance,
and coldly makes his bow to the lady of the house.
“My dear Mr Home, I am very much grieved; I hope you are ready
to make it all up,” murmurs Miss Annie; but she trembles so much
that it is not easy to hear what she says, except the last words, which
flush Randall’s cheek with a sudden disdainful anger. A lovers’
quarrel!—that he should be fancied capable of this.
 “My aunt has come with me,” said Menie steadily, “to give the
weight of her presence to what I say. Randall, I do not pretend that
my own feelings are changed, or that I have ceased to care for you. I
do not need to seem to quarrel, or to call you by a less familiar name.
We know the reason both of us; there is no use for discussing it—and
I have come to have it mutually understood that our engagement is
broken. We will go away very soon. I came to say good-by.”
Before she concluded, Menie had bent her head, and cast down her
wavering eyes upon Miss Annie’s hand, which she held firmly in her
own. Her voice was very low, her words quick and hurried; she stood
beside Miss Annie’s chair, holding fast, and twining in her own Miss
Annie’s nervous fingers; but she did not venture to look up to meet
Randall’s eyes.
“What does this mean? it is mere trifling, Menie,” said Randall
impatiently. “You hear a gossip’s story of something I said; true or
false, it did not affect you—it had no bearing on you; you know very
well that nothing has happened to make you less precious to me—
that nothing can happen which will ever change my heart. Menie,
this is the second time; is this the conduct I have a right to expect
from you? Deal with me frankly; I have a title to it. What do you
mean?”
“My darling, he will make it up,” said Miss Annie, with a little
overflow of tears.
But Menie was very steady—so strange, so strange—she grew into a
startling acquaintance with herself in these few hours. Who could
have thought there were so many passionate impulses in Menie
Laurie’s quiet heart?
“We will not discuss it, Randall,” she said again; “let us simply
conclude that it is best for both of us to withdraw. Perhaps you will
be better content if I speak more strongly,” she continued, with a
little trembling vehemence, born of her weakness, “if I say it is
impossible—impossible—you understand the word—to restore the
state of mind, the hope, the trust, and confidence that are past. No—
let us have no explanation—I cannot bear it, Randall. Do we not
understand each other already? Nothing but parting is possible for
us—for me. I think I am saying what I mean to say—good-by.”
“Look at me, Menie.”
 It is hard to do it—hard to lift up those eyes, so full of tears—hard
to see his lips quiver—hard to see the love in his face; but Menie’s
eyes fall when they have endured this momentary ordeal; and again
she holds out her hand and says, “Good-by.”
“Good-by—I answer you,” said Randall, wringing her hand, and
throwing it out of his grasp. “Good-by—you are disloyal, Menie,
disloyal to Nature and to me; some time you will remember this; now
I bid you farewell.”
Something crossed her like an angry breath—something rang in
her ears, confused and echoing like the first drops of a thunder-
shower; and Menie can see nothing in all the world but Miss Annie
weeping upon her hand, and, like a culprit, steals away—steals away,
not knowing where she goes—desolate, guilty, forsaken, feeling as if
she had done some grievous wrong, and was for ever shut out from
peace or comfort in this weary world.
Yes—there is no one to see you. Lie down upon the ground, Menie
Laurie—down, down, where you can be no lower, and cover your eyes
from the cheerful light. How they pour upon you, these dreadful
doubts and suspicions of yourself!—wisely—wisely—what should
make it wise, this thing you have done? You yourself have little
wisdom, and you took no counsel. If it was not wise, what then?—it is
done, and there is nothing for it now but to be content.
 CHAPTER XXVII.
“It must not be—I cannot permit it,” said Mrs Laurie. “Menie, is
this all that your mother deserves at your hands? to take such a step
as this without even telling me—without giving me an opportunity of
remonstrance? Menie! Menie!”
And with hasty steps Mrs Laurie paces backward and forward the
narrow room. Beside the window, very pale, Menie stands with a
half-averted face, saying nothing—very pale—and there is a sullen
suffering in Menie Laurie’s darkened face.
“I cannot have it—I will not permit it”—Mrs Laurie is much
excited. “My own honour is compromised; it will be said it is I who
have separated you. Menie! it is strange that you should show so
little regard either to Randall or to me. I must do something—I must
make an effort—I cannot have this.”
“Mother, hear me,” exclaimed Menie. “No one shall do anything; I
will not bear it either. In everything else you shall make of me what
you will—here I am not to be swayed; I must decide this for myself—
and I have decided it, mother.”
With astonished eyes Mrs Laurie looked upon her daughter’s face.
Flushed with passion, full of a fierce unrespecting will—was this
Menie Laurie? but her mother turned aside from her. “I am sorry,
Menie—I am very sorry—to see you show such a spirit; another time
I will speak of it again.”
Another time!—Menie Laurie laughed a low laugh when her
mother left the room. Something like a scowl had come to Menie’s
brow; a dark abiding cloud was on her face; and in her heart such
bitterness and universal disappointment as killed every gentle feeling
in her soul: disloyal to the one love, disrespectful and disobedient to
the other—bitterly Menie’s heart turned upon itself—she had pleased
no one; her life was nothing but a great blot before her. She was
conscious of a host of evil feelings—evil spirits waging war with one
another in her vexed and troubled mind. Sullenly she sat down once
more upon the ground, not to seek if there was any comfort in the
heavens above or the earth beneath, but to brood upon her grief, and
make it darker, till the clouds closed over her, and swallowed her up,
and not a star remained.
There is a certain obstinate gloomy satisfaction in despair. To
decide that everything is hopeless—that nothing can be done for you
—that you have reached to the pre-eminence of woe—no wonder
Menie’s face was dark and sullen—she had come to this point now.
Like a thunder-storm this intelligence came upon little July Home
—she could not comprehend it, and no one took the trouble to
explain to her. Lithgow, knowing but the fact, was surprised and
grieved, and prophesied their reunion; but no hope was in Menie’s
sullen gravity—none in the haughty resentment of Randall Home.
And Mrs Laurie once more with a troubled brow considers of her
future—will Menie be best in the Dumfriesshire cottage, where no
one will see their poverty, or pursuing some feminine occupation
among the other seamstresses, teachers, poor craftswomen of a less
solitary place? For now that all is done that can be done, there is no
hope of recovering anything of the lost income,—and Mrs Laurie will
not live on Miss Annie’s bounty. She is anxious with all her heart to
be away.
Miss Annie herself has not recovered her trial: autumn winds grow
cold at night—autumn rains come down sadly upon the little world
which has had its cheerfulness quenched out of it—and when Randall
takes away his little sister to carry her home, Miss Annie looks a
mournful old woman, sitting there wrapped up by the early lighted
fire. These two or three mornings she has even been seen at the
breakfast-table with a cap protecting the head which is so sadly apt
to take cold—and Miss Annie cries a little to herself, and tells bits of
her own love-story to Menie, absorbed and silent, who sits
unanswering beside her—and moans to herself sadly sometimes,
over this other vessel of youthful life, cast away.
But Miss Annie Laurie never wears ringlets more. Strangely upon
her conscience, like a reproach for her unnatural attenuated youth,
came Menie’s appeal to her for help and comfort. Feeling herself so
frivolous and feeble, so unable to sustain or strengthen, Miss Annie
made a holocaust of her curls, and was satisfied. So much vanity was
relinquished not without a struggle; but great comfort came from the
sacrifice to the heroic penitent.
 And Jenny, discontented and angry with them all, furiously now
takes the part of Randall Home, and wonders, in a fuff and outburst,
what Miss Menie can expect that she “lightlies” a bonny lad like yon.
A great change has taken place on Menie; no one can say it is for the
better—and sullenly and sadly this bright year darkens over the
house of Heathbank.
 CHAPTER XXVIII.
“You’re to bide away—you’re no to come near this place. Na, you
may just fecht; but you’ve nae pith compared to Jenny, for a’ sae auld
and thrawn as Jenny has been a’ her days. It’s no me just—it’s your
mamma and the doctor. Bairn! will you daur struggle wi’ me?”
But Menie would dare struggle with any one—neither command
nor resistance satisfies her.
“Let me in—I want to see my mother.”
“You can want your mother for a day—there’s mair than you
wanting her. That puir auld haverel there—guid forgi’e me—she’s a
dying woman—has sairer lack o’ her than you. Keep to your ain place,
Menie Laurie—muckle made o’—muckle thocht o’—but you’re only a
bairn for a’ that—you’re no a woman of judgment like your mamma
or me. I tell you to gang away—I will not let you in.”
And Jenny stood firm—a jealous incorruptible sentinel in the
passage which led to Miss Annie Laurie’s room. “Miss Menie, ye’ll no
take it ill what I say,” said Jenny; “there’s death in the house, or fast
coming. I ken what the doctor means. Gang you ben the house, like a
good bairn; look in your ain glass, and see if there should be a face
like that in a house where He comes.”
Menie looked silently into the countenance before her—the keen,
impatient, irascible face; but it was easy to see a hasty tear dashed
away from Jenny’s cheek.
And without another word, Menie Laurie turned away. Some
withered leaves are lying on the window-sill—the trees are yielding
up their treasures, dropping them down mournfully to the
disconsolate soil—but the meagre yew-tree rustles before her, darkly
green in its perennial gloom. Rather shed the leaves, the hopes—
rather yield to winter meekly for the sake of spring—rather be cut
down, and rooted up altogether, than grow to such a sullen
misanthrope as this.
And Menie Laurie looks into her own face; this gloomy brow—
these heavy eyes—are these the daylight features of Menie Laurie?—
the interpretation of her heart? Earnestly and long she reads—no
lesson of vanity, but a stern sermon from that truthful mirror. Hush!
—listen!—what was that?—a cry!
The doctor is leaving Miss Annie Laurie’s room—the cry is over—
there is only now a feeble sound of weeping; but a shadow strangely
still and sombre has fallen upon the house, and the descending step
rings like a knell upon the stairs. What is it?—what is coming?—and
what did it mean, that melancholy cry?
Alas! a voice out of a startled soul—a cry of wild and terrified
recognition—acknowledgment. Years ago, age came gently to this
dwelling—gently, with light upon his face, and honour on his grey
hairs. There was no entrance for him through the jealous door; but
now has come another who will not be gainsaid.
Gather the children, Reaper—gather the lilies—take the corn full in
the ear—go to the true souls where thought of you dwells among
thoughts of other wonders, glories, solemn things to come—leave this
chamber here with all its poor devices. No such presence has ever
stood within its poverty-stricken walls before. Go where great love,
great hope, great faith, great sorrow, sublimer angels, have made you
no phantom—leave this soul to its toys and delusions—it is a poor
triumph—come not here.
Hush, be still. They who have sent him have charged him with a
message; hear it how it rings slow and solemn into the ear of this
hushed house. “There is a way, and it shall be called the way of
holiness; the wayfaring man, though a fool, shall not err therein.”
Stay your weeping, poor fool—poor soul; prayers have gone up for
you from the succoured hearts of some of God’s poor. Unawares, in
your simplicity, you have lent to the Lord. Your gracious debtor gives
you back with the grand usury of heaven—gives you back opportunity
—hope—a day to be saved—lays aside those poor little vanities of
yours under the cover of this, His great magnanimous divine grace—
and holds open to your feeble steps the way, where wayfaring men,
though fools, shall not err any more for ever.
“I’ll let you pass, Miss Menie, if you’ll bide a moment,” said Jenny,
wiping her eyes; “he says it’s no the fever he thought it was, but just a
natural decay. Did you hear yon? she wasna looking for Him that’s at
the door, and He’ll no wait lang where ance He’s gi’en His summons
—pity me! I would like to see him coming the road mysel, afore I just
found him at my door-stane.”
The room is very still; through the quiet you can only hear the
panting of a frightened breath, and now and then a timid feeble sob.
She has to go away—knows and feels to the depth of her heart that
she must go upon this solemn road alone; but, with a sad panic of
terror and curiosity, she watches her own feelings, wondering if this
and this be death.
And now they sit and read to her while the daylight flushes in noon
—while it fades and wanes into the night—the night and dark of
which she has a childish terror—read to her this gracious blessed
Gospel, which does not address itself alone to the wise and noble, but
is for the simple and for fools. Safe ground, poor soul, safe ground—
for this is no scheme of eclecticism, no portal to the pagan heavens—
and you cannot know yourself so low, so mean, as to escape the
range of this great wide embracing arm.
“I have not done all that I ought to have done,” murmurs poor
Miss Annie. “Don’t leave me:” for she cannot rest except some one
holds her hand, and has a faint superstitious trust in it, as if it held
her sure.
A little pause—again the fingers close tightly upon the hand they
hold. “I never did any harm.” The words are so sad—so sad—falling
out slow and feeble upon the hushed air of this darkening room.
“But I never did any good—never, never.” The voice grows
stronger. “Does anybody think I did? I—I—I never was very wise. I
used to try to be kind sometimes;” and in a strain of inarticulate
muttering, the sound died away once more.
And then again the voice of the reader broke the silence. They
scarcely thought the sufferer listened; for ever and anon she broke
forth in such wavering self-justifications, self-condemnings, as these.
But now there is a long silence; strange emotions come and go upon
this old, old, withered face. The tears have been dried from her eyes
for hours; now they come again, bedewing all her poor thin cheeks;
but a strange excitement struggles with her weakness. Looking about
to her right hand and to her left, the dying woman struggles with an
eager defiance—struggles till, at a sudden climax, her broken voice
breaks forth again.
 “Who said it was me—me—it’s not me! I never could win anything
in this world—nothing in this world—not a heart to care for me. Do
you think I could win Heaven? I say it is not me; it’s for His sake.
“For His sake—for His sake.” If it is a prayer that ends thus—if it is
a sudden assurance of which she will not loose her hold for ever—no
one can know; for by-and-by her panic returns upon Miss Annie.
Close in her own cold fingers she grasps the hand of Menie Laurie,
and whispers, “Is it dark—is it so dark to you?” with again a thrill of
terror and trembling, and awful curiosity, wondering if this,
perchance, is the gloom of death.
“It is very dark—it is almost night.” The lamp is lighted on the
table; let some one go to her side, and hold this other poor
wandering hand. “Oh! not in the night—not in the night—I am afraid
to go out in the night,” sobs poor Miss Annie; and with a dreadful
suspicion in her eyes, as if of some one drawing near to murder her,
she watches the falling of this fated night.
A solemn vigil—with ever that tight and rigid pressure upon their
clasped hands. Mother and daughter, silent, pale, keep the watch
together; and below, the servants sit awe-stricken, afraid to go to
sleep. Jenny, who is not afraid, goes about the stairs, up and down,
from room to room, sometimes serving the watchers, sometimes only
straying near them, muttering, after her fashion, words which may
be prayers, and dashing off now and then an intrusive tear.
Still, with many a frightened pause—many a waking up, and little
pang of terror, this forlorn heart wanders back into the life which is
ending now—wanders back to think herself once more engaged in the
busier scenes of her youth, in the little occupations, the frivolities
and gaiety of her later years; but howsoever her mind wanders, she
never ceases to fix her eyes upon the span of sky glittering with a
single star, which shines pale on her through the window from
which, to please her, they have drawn the curtain. “I am afraid to go
out in the dark;” again and again she says it with a shudder, and a
tightened hold upon their hands—and steadfastly watches the night.
At last her eyes grow heavy—she has fallen asleep. Little reverence
has Miss Annie won at any time of all her life—but the eyes that look
on her are awed and reverent now. Slowly the hours pass by—slowly
the gradual dawn brightens upon her face—the star has faded out of
the heavens—on her brow, which is the brow of death, the daylight
glows in one reviving flush. The night is over for evermore.
And now her heavy eyes are opened full—her feeble form is raised;
and, with a cry of joy, she throws out her arms to meet the light. Lay
her down tenderly; her chains are broken in her sleep; now she no
more needs the pressure of your kindly hands. Lay her down, she is
afraid no longer; for not in the night, or through the darkness, but
with the morning and the sun, the traveller fares upon her way—
where fools do not err. By this time they have taken her in yonder at
the gate. Lay down all that remains of her to its rest.
 CHAPTER XXIX.
The curtains are drawn again in Miss Annie Laurie’s house of
Heathbank—drawn back from the opened windows to let the fresh
air and the sunshine in once more to all the rooms. With a long
breath and sigh of relief, the household throws off its compelled
gloom. With all observances of honour, they have laid her in her
grave, and a few natural tears have been wept—a few kindly words
spoken—a reverent memento raised to name the place where she
lies. Now she is passed away and forgotten, her seat empty—her
house knowing her no more.
In Miss Annie’s desk, a half-written paper—intimating vaguely
that, in case of “anything happening” to her at any future time, she
wished all that she had to be given to Menie Laurie—was found
immediately after the funeral. But some superstitious terror had
prevented her from finishing it, far more from making a will. Menie
was her next of kin; it pleased them to have this sanction of her
willingness to the inheritance of the natural heir.
Miss Annie had been rather given to speak of her savings; but no
vestige of these savings was to be found. She had practised this on
herself like many another delusion; and saving the furniture of
Heathbank, and a profusion of ornaments not valuable, there
remained little for Menie to inherit. Miss Annie’s maid was her well-
known favourite, and had been really attentive, and a good servant to
her indulgent mistress. Her name was mentioned in the half-written
paper, and Maria’s own report of many conversations, modestly
hinted at a legacy. Miss Annie’s furniture, pretty and suitable for her
house as it was, was not valuable in a sale; and Mrs Laurie, acting for
her daughter, bestowed almost the whole amount received for it
upon Maria, as carrying out the will of her mistress. Having done
this, they had done all, Mrs Laurie thought, and would now go home
to live as they could upon what remained to them. Burnside, with all
its plenishing, brought in no greater revenue than fifty pounds a-
year, and Mrs Laurie had two or three hundred pounds “in the
bank.” This was all. She began to calculate painfully what the home-