Names:

SUSHANT WADAVKAR : ME16B172

HRIDAY SABOO: ME16B174

HARSH PAREKH : ME16B173

AM2540
Spring Stiness Test
AM 2540: Strength of Materials Laboratory

Dr. Sayan Gupta

Instructor

Objective

The objective of this experiment is to find the spring constants for some sample
springs and to compare the estimated spring constant with those obtained from
theoretical calculations.

General application to elastic materials

Objects that quickly regain their original shape after being deformed by a force, with
the molecules or atoms of their material returning to the initial state of stable
equilibrium, often obey Hooke's law.
Hooke's law only holds for some materials under certain loading conditions. Steel
exhibits linear-elastic behavior in most engineering applications; Hooke's law is
valid for it throughout its elastic range (i.e., for stresses below the yield strength).
For some other materials, such as aluminium, Hooke's law is only valid for a portion
of the elastic range. For these materials a proportional limit stress is defined, below
which the errors associated with the linear approximation are negligible.
Rubber is generally regarded as a "non-Hookean" material because its elasticity is
stress dependent and sensitive to temperature and loading rate.
Generalizations of Hooke's law for the case of large deformations is provided by
models of neo-Hookean solids and Mooney-Rivlin solids.
The use of springs are quite common in our everyday life; their use is varied and
ranges from being used in ball-point pens, mechanical toys to heavy trucks,
automobiles and railway carriages. The general notion of a spring is of a coil, usually
made of a metal, rolled as a helix; see Figure 1. However, this is just one of many
forms of springs.
 Figure 1: A helical spring.

In general, springs can be used to model any elastic member which deforms under
the application of forces, and recovers the original configuration on its removal. For
example, a tall chimney when exposed to wind loadings, undergoes deformations.
For a simplified analysis of the stresses developed in the chimney (a necessary step
for design), one can model the structural system as a single-degree-of-freedom
(sdof) system. The ability of the chimney to deform under lateral wind loads and to
regain its original configuration in their absence can be modeled through a spring in
the analysis; see Figure 2. The underlying principle in this model is that the stiness
of the chimney against lateral loads should be identical to the spring used in the
model.
Figure 2: (a) A tall chimney under wind loading; (b) Idealized simplified single d
egree of freedom model.

Usually, only those elastic members are modeled as springs that deform
considerably under the action of forces without exceeding the yield stress. The stress
developed in the springs could be tensile or compressive depending on the type of
deformation. The deformation could be axial, torsional, bending or a combination of
all. In general, the springs are used to

store mechanical energy and to release it according to the desired function;

such as winding up a mechanical toy.

absorb shocks and limit the deformation in other parts of the structural
system; such as in vehicles.

deflect under external forces to provide the desired motion to a machine

compo-nent.

Apparatus

The apparatus setup consists of a suspension system for the spring to be

loaded in compression; see Figure 3. A platform is attached to the spring on which
the loads are placed. The springs used in the experiment are helical linear springs. A
rod is attached to the top of the spring to the platform to ensure that the weights
impart axial load to the top of spring. A vernier caliper is attached to the spring
system so that the deflections can be measured accurately.

2
 Figure 3: Schematic diagram of the setup.

Theory
Consider a simple helical spring that has one end attached to some fixed
object, while the free end is being pulled by a force whose magnitude is F. Suppose
that the spring has reached a state of equilibrium, where its length is not changing
anymore. Let X be the amount by which the free end of the spring was displaced
from its "relaxed" position (when it is not being stretched). Hooke's law states that

F = kL X ; (1)
where,
F is the force,
is the deformation, and
kL is the constant or proportionality and is termed as the linear spring stiness.
k is a positive real number, characteristic of the spring. Moreover, the same formula
holds when the spring is compressed, with F and X both negative in that case.
According to this formula, the graph of the applied force F as a function of the
displacement X will be a straight line passing through the origin, whose slope is k.
Hooke's law for a spring is often stated under the convention that F is the restoring
(reaction) force exerted by the spring on whatever is pulling its free end.
The units of stiness is defined in terms of the units of F and X . For axial
springs, where F is applied in the axial direction resulting in axial deformations, the
units of kL is usually expressed in N=m. An estimate of the spring stiness kL can be
calculated from Eq. (1) if a set of data of the measurement of the deflection under
the application of measured loads F is available.
In the absence of any experimental measurements, a theoretical estimate of
the spring stiness can be calculated analytically from the knowledge of the
geometrical dimensions and the material elastic constants. For linear helical springs
as shown in Figure 4, the spring as a whole undergoes elongation or compression
depending on the direction of the application of the loads. However, it is to be noted
that this overall deformation comes about due to torsional/bending deformation of
the spring wire. When the diameter of the wire is small in comparison to the radius
of the coil (see Figure 4) and when the load
3
Figure 4: Schematic diagram of the geometry and the loading details of a sample
spring.

F is applied in the direction shown, an element of the spring between two closely
adjoining sections through the wire can be considered as a straight circular bar,
subjected to torsion. It can be shown that the spring stiness is given by

Gr4k (2
)
L= :
4nR3
Here,
G is the shear modulus of the spring material,
n is the number of active coils in the helical linear
spring, r is the spring wire radius, and
R is the mean radius of the helical spring. Details of the derivation of Eq.
(2) are available in any standard text book on strength of materials.
Error Analysis:
Experimental observations are always prone to errors due to various factors,
such as, parallax, variable environmental factors, experimentalists errors etc. Thus,
some degree of measurement errors are inevitable. Also, it is almost impossible to
manufacture components which have the exact identical dimensions throughout the
spatial geometry. Even if the components are machined with high precision,
repeated use leads to changes in the geometry as well as in the material properties.
Thus, it is expected that estimates obtained from analysis and experiments to be at
variance with each other. Through careful and honest measurements and
interpretation, a good scientist/engineer, is able to identify the reasons for the
dierences.

To minimize the eect of these errors, it is always advisable to take down multiple
readings. The mean and standard deviation are calculated using the following
equations.

1 N
Mean = x = xi; (3)
N =1
Xi
1 N

Standard deviation = X = N (xi x)2: (4)

=1

Xi
Questions:
Sample 1:

1.

S.no Load(in Load(in Loading Loading Unloading Unloading Mean

. kg) N) vernier Deflectio vernier Deflection deflection
reading n(in cm) reading (in cm) (in cm)
(in cm) (in cm)
1. 0.0 0.0 42.2 0.0 42.2 0.0 0.0
2. 0.5 4.9 42.5 0.3 42.5 0.3 0.3
3. 1.0 9.8 42.5 0.3 42.6 0.4 0.35
4. 1.5 14.7 42.6 0.4 42.6 0.4 0.4
5. 2.0 19.6 42.7 0.5 42.7 0.5 0.5
6. 2.5 24.5 42.8 0.6 42.8 0.6 0.6

2.
Calculate the deformation x in the spring at a load F
F = kL * x ; kL =F/x; F (in N), x(in cm) and
kL (in N/cm)
Sample 2:
1.

S.no Load(in Load(in Loading Loading Unloading Unloading Mean

. kg) N) vernier Deflectio vernier Deflection deflection
reading n(in cm) reading (in cm) (in cm)
(in cm) (in cm)
1. 0.0 0.0 13.1 0.0 13.1 0.0 0.0
2. 0.5 4.9 12.7 0.4 12.7 0.3 0.3
3. 1.0 9.8 12.4 0.7 12.3 0.4 0.35
4. 1.5 14.7 12.1 1.0 12.0 0.4 0.4
5. 2.0 19.6 11.7 1.4 11.7 0.5 0.5
6. 2.5 24.5 11.4 1.7 11.4 0.6 0.6

2.
Calculate the deformation x in the spring at a load F
F = kL * x ; kL =F/x; F (in N), x(in cm) and
kL (in N/cm)
Sample 3:
1.

S.no Load(in Load(in Loading Loading Unloading Unloading Mean

. kg) N) vernier Deflectio vernier Deflection deflection
reading n(in cm) reading (in cm) (in cm)
(in cm) (in cm)
1. 0.0 0.0 11.0 0.0 11.5 0.0 0.0
2. 0.5 4.9 11.5 0.5 11.8 0.3 0.4
3. 1.0 9.8 11.7 0.7 12.0 0.5 0.6
4. 1.5 14.7 12.0 1.0 12.2 0.7 0.85
5. 2.0 19.6 12.3 1.3 12.4 0.9 1.1
6. 2.5 24.5 12.5 1.5 12.5 1.0 1.25

2.
Calculate the deformation x in the spring at a load F
F = kL * x ; kL =F/x; F (in N), x(in cm) and
kL (in N/cm)
Spring R(mm) r(mm) kL(theoretical)
(N/cm)
Sample 1 15.95 1.55 7.2
n = 40
Sample 2 19.32 1.4 9.8
n = 11
Sample 3 13.485 1.6 16.4
n = 33
 Measurement of Bending Stress
using a Strain Gauge
AM 2540: Strength of Materials Laboratory

Dr. Sayan Gupta

Instructor

Objective

The objective of this experiment is to measure the tensile bending stress at the root
of a cantilever beam subjected to tip transverse loading using a strain gauge.

Apparatus

The apparatus consists of a strain gauge, a strain gauge indicator (model P 3500),
an alluminium specimen bar, a bar holder with a provision for loading and a
multimeter.

Experimental Setup
 Figure 1: General setup of the apparatus.

The general setup is shown in Figure 1. An aluminum beam specimen is attached to the
bar holder by clamping it tightly at one end. A strain gauge is attached to the beam
specimen on the top surface, near the clamped end of the beam. The wires from the
strain gauge are connected to the strain gage indicator P-3500, which displays the
bending strain measured by the strain gauge. A micrometer is attached towards the
free end of the cantilever beam. By rotating the micrometer, a deflection is induced
on the free end of the cantilever beam.

Theory

Cantilever Beam Bending:

When subjected to a point load at its tip, a cantilever beam has a linear
variance in stress and strain through the cross-section in the direction parallel to
the load. The stress and strain at the center of the beam is zero. Therefore, the strain
on the top and bottom of the beam are equal, opposite, and maximum. So for the
setup, strain gage G1 should read an equal and opposite strain to that of G2.
A strain gauge is a device used to measure the strain in any component. The most
common example of a strain gauge consists of an insulating flexible backing which
supports a metallic foil pattern. The gauge is attached to the component by a
suitable adhesive.
Figure 2: Visualization of the working concept behind the strain gauge on a beam under
exaggerated bending; courtesy Wikipedia.

A strain gauge takes advantage of the physical property of electrical conductance

and its dependence on not only on the electrical conductivity which is a property of
the material, but also on the conductors geometry. When an electrical conductor is
stretched within the limits of its elasticity such that it does not break or
permanently deform, it will become narrower and longer. This causes a change in its
electrical resistance end-to-end. Conversely, on compression, the conductor
becomes broader and shorter, and once again brings about a change in its electrical
resistance properties. This can be explained
by the fact that the electrical resistance in a piece of wire is directly proportional to
the length and inversely proportional to the area of the cross section. A schematic
diagram of this phenomenon is shown in Figure 2.

Experimental Estimate
As the object undergoes deformation, the foil is deformed, causing its electrical
resistance to change. This resistance change is related to the strain by a quantity
known as the gauge factor. By measuring the changes in resistance, and from a
knowledge of the gauge factor, one can estimate the strain in a deformed body. This
is mathematically expressed as
SG = R=R ; (1)
Xx
where,
R is the resistance of the gauge in the non-deformed state,
R is the change in the resistance in the gauge due to deformation,
SG is the strain gauge factor, and
xx is the strain.

Once the strain is measured experimentally, the stress can be calculated using the
well known stress-strain relations. For linear systems (i.e., when the deformations
are small compared to the geometrical dimensions of the specimen), this can be
given by the relation

xx = E xx; (2)

where,
xx is the stress, and
E is Youngs modulus of elasticity.

Analytical Estimate
An analytical estimate of the bending stress developed can be determined from the
well known flexure relations, given by

Mb xx E
Izz
= y = : (3)
Here,
Mb is the bending moment developed at the location of the strain gauge due to the
induced deformation,
Izz is the moment of inertia of the beam cross-section due to flexure,
xxis the normal bending stress acting on the plane x and in the direction x,
y is the distance of the fibre from the centroidal axis, and is the radius of curvature
of the beam under flexure.
By measuring the deflection at the free end of the cantilever beam, an estimate of
the tip load can be obtained from the well known load-deflection relation of a
cantilever beam given by
PL3
= 0 ; (4)
3EIzz
and the bending moment at the gauge location is given by

Mb = PL1: (5)
Here, the dimensions L0 and L1 are shown in the schematic diagram Figure 3.

Figure 3: Schematic diagram of the experimental setup.

Conclusions
The generation of stress and strain values through several different modes of
measurement allowed for an understanding of different measuring tools, and the
errors associated with each. The calculation of base strain for a cantilever beam with
a tip load was done with five different methods. Each agreed well with theoretical
data, with the most accurate measurements occurring through the use of a
Wheatstone bridge circuit. An aluminum specimen in tension was also analyzed.
Strains based on constant load cell cross-head speed, strain gage data, and
extensometer data were compared with theoretical strain on a stress-strain plot. The
strain gage and extensometer derived strains were somewhat agreeable with theory,
but the strains were much larger when assuming a constant elongation rate from the
cross-head speed. The load cell apparatus flexed as the load increased, and the
sections of the specimen outside of the gage section also elongated. For a given
stress based on the load output of the load cell, the gage section did not elongate the
full elongation of the load cell. Therefore, when assuming the elongation based on
the cross-head speed, the strains were much higher.
Sl. Deflection Display Strain Strain Stress Stress %diff
No. (mm) Value (expt) (Beam (expt) (beam (%)
(10 )
-6 (10-6) theory) (107) theory)
(10-6) (107)
1 0.0 0 0 0 0.00 0 0
2 0.5 65 65 79.16 1.36 1.6623 18
3 1.0 127 127 158.32 2.67 3.3245 19.6
4 1.5 175 175 237.48 3.68 4.9868 26.2
5 2.0 229 229 316.64 4.81 6.6490 27.6
6 2.5 285 285 395.80 5.99 8.3113 27.9
7 3.0 342 342 474.96 7.18 9.9735 28.0
8 3.5 403 403 554.14 8.46 11.6358 27.3
9 4.0 464 464 633.28 9.74 13.2980 26.7
10 4.5 522 522 712.44 10.96 14.9603 26.7
11 5.0 584 584 791.60 12.26 16.6225 26.2