Engineering mechanics lab

Experiment # 03
Experiment title: To determine forces developed in various elements of a Redundant Truss
Apparatus used: Redundant truss apparatus
Objectives:

To measure the forces in a truss before & after redundant member is present.

Introduction
In this experiment, we will learn the construction and working of Redundant truss which cannot be solved
using equilibrium conditions. We will also find the resultant force in each member of truss due to various
combinations of weight
Theory
A truss is a structure compromising one or more triangular units which are constructed with straight
slender members whose ends are connected at joints. A plane truss is one where all the members and
joints lies within a 2-dimensional plane, while a space truss has member sand joints extending into 3
dimensions. In structural engineering, a structural member usually fabricated from straight pieces of metal
or timber from a series of triangles lying in a single plane. A truss gives a stable form capable of
supporting considerable external load overa large span with the component parts stressed primarily in
axial tension or compression. The individual pieces intersect at truss joints, or panel points. The connect
pieces forming the top and bottom of the truss are referred to respectively as the top and bottom chords.
A truss that is assumed to compromise members that are connected by means of pins joints, and which is
supported at both ends by means of hinged joints or rollers, is described as being statically determinate.
Trusses that are supported at more than two positions are said to be statically indeterminate, and the
application of Newton's Laws alone is not sufficient to determine the member forces. In order for a truss
with pin-connected members to be stable, it must be entirely composed of triangles. In mathematical
terms, we have the following required condition for stability:
M+R ≥ 2j
M= total number of truss members
R= number of reactions
j = total number of joints
M=(2j-R) for perfect truss
M>(2j-R) truss is redundant
M< (2j-R) truss is deficient
When M=2j-3, and given certain number of joints this is the minimum number of members, if any
member is taken out (or fails), then the entire truss would be considered as fail. Some structures are built
with more than this minimum number of truss members. Those structures may survive even when some
of the members fail. They are called statically indeterminate structures, because their member forces
depend on the relative stiffness of the members, in addition to the equilibrium condition described. In a
statically indeterminate truss, static equilibrium alone cannot be used to calculated member force. If we
were to try, we would find that there would be too many “unknowns” and we would not be able to
complete the calculations. Instead we will use a method known as the flexibility method, which uses an
idea know as strain energy. The values for both are combined to calculate the force in the redundant
member and remaining members. The redundant member load in given by:
fnl
P=∑
n2l
The remaining member forces are then given by:
Member force = Pn + f
P = Redundant member load (N)
L = Length of members (as ratio of the shortest)
n = Load in each member due to unit load in place of redundant member (N)
F = Force in each member when the frame is “release” (N)
Experimental setup
The 45° two bay truss consists of seven members with pinned joints, cantilevered from the vertical
member of the Universal Frame and Stand using an upper springing and supported by a roller bearing on
a vertical track at the lower springing. An extra diagonal member with its length adjustable by a simple
mechanism is provided to make the first bay of the truss redundant.
Each truss member incorporates a strain gauge bridge arrangement for direct measurement of strain. Load
is applied to the truss by a screw jack mechanism with integral load cell. The strain and force signals are
fed directly into the Interface. A dial gauge measures the deflection of the joints and can be located
around the truss from the Universal Frame and Stand.

Procedure
1. The thumbwheel on the ‘redundant’ member up to the boss was wind and hand–tighten it. Any tools to
tighten the thumbwheel are not used.
2. The pre-load of 100N downward was applied, re-zero the load cell and carefully zero the digital
indicator.
3. A load of 250N was carefully applied and checked whether the frame was stable and secure.
4. The load to zero (leaving the 100N preload) was returning. Rechecked and re-zero the digital indicator
been done. Loads greater than those specified on the equipment never apply.
5.5 A load in the increment shown in table 1 was applied, the strain readings and the digital indicator
readings was recorded.
5.6 Subtracted the initial (zero) strain reading (be careful with your signs) and completed table 2

5.7 Calculated the equipment member force at 250 N and entered them into
table 3.
5.8 A graph of Load vs Deflection was plotted from Table 1 on the same axis
as Load vs deflection when the redundant ‘removed’.
5.9 The calculation for redundant truss is made much simpler and easier if the
tabular method is used to sum up all of the “Fnl” and “n2l” terms.
5.10 Referred to table 4 and entered in the values and carefully calculated the
other terms as required.
5.11 Entered result into Table 3.
Results and data analysis

Load Strain readings Digital

(N) indicator
readings(mm)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
0
50
100
150
200
250
Table 1: Strain readings and frame deflections

Load Strain readings

(N) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
0
50
100
150
200
250
Table 2 : true stain readings

Member Experimental force (N) Theoretical force (N)

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Table 3: Measured and Theoretical in the Redundant Cantilever Truss

Member Length F n Fnl n2 l Pn Pn+f

1
2
 3
4
5
6
7
8
Total =
Table 4: table for calculating the force in redundant truss

fnl
P=∑
n2l
Data:
Rod diameter = 6 mm

E (steel) = 2.10 ×105 N/mm

Experimental force:
Using the Young’s Modulus relationship, we can calculate the equivalent
member force, complete the experimental force in Table 3.
σ
E=
ε
Where ,

E = Young’s Modulus (N/m2)

σ = Stress in the member (N/m2)

ε = Displayed strain

F
and, σ=
A
where,

F = Force in member (N)

A = Cross section area of the member (m2 )
To calculate the experimental force, we use the formula
F EAε

π d2
A=
4
Calculation for experimental force
Member 1: Put εvalues from table 2 in the following equation.
F EAε

Experiment # 06
Experiment title: To determine deflection of simply supported and cantilever beams with different spans
and loading profiles by using Deflection of Frames apparatus
Apparatus used:
Objectives:

1. To determine the maximum deflection at mid span for a beam subjected to an increasing
point load and a uniform distributed load
2. To examine the relationship between deflection and cube of beam span
3. To study the relationship between deflection and load applied to simply supported beam.

Introduction
The axis of the beam deflects from its initial position under action of applied forces. Accurate values for
these beams deflections are sought in many practical case: elements of machines must be sufficiently
rigid to prevent misalignment and to maintain dimensional accuracy under load; in buildings ,floor beams
cannot deflect excessively to avoid the undesirable mental effect of flexible floors on occupants
and to minimize or prevent distress in brittle-finish materials; likewise, information on deformation
characteristics of members is essential in the study of vibrations of machines as well as of stationary and
flight structures. In this experiment the students will be studying and understanding the different types of
beams and effect of different factors in deflection of beam.
Theory
Beams are the most common structural element which carries load and transmit them to adjacent columns
of support. Beams work by developing shear forces and bending moment along their length. A simply
supported beam is a beam with roller and pin support. Bridge girders and gangways are good examples of
simply supported beams. When loads is applied to beam, the deflection of beam will occur. Excessive
deflection would cause cracking of brittle materials within or attached to the beam.
A structural element which is used to support heavy loads in different structures is called beam. Beam in
any structure bears huge load which tries to bend the beam and beam support the structure by resisting the
bending produce by the load. Ability of the beam to resist the load depends on the type of beam, material
of beam and shape of beam. There are many different type of beam and each one of these beams can be of
any material and can of many different shapes. Some different types of beam are describe below
Simple supported beam
Simple supported beam is one which has support at its both ends but does not face any moving resistance
Fixed beam
Like simple supported beam fixed also has support at its both ends but fixed beam has moving resistance
Over hanging beam
Over hanging beam also have support at both of its ends like simple supported beam but one of its ends is
free and extended further from the end support
Double over hanging beam
Double over hanging beam is just like overhanging beam, the only difference is that its both ends are
extended beyond the end support
Continuous beam
Continuous beam is one which has large length and it is supported by more than two supports.
Cantilever beam
Cantilever beam is one which has its one end fixed and other end is free to vibrate.
Trussed beam
Trussed beam is a special type of beam which has increased strength due to additional rods and cables in
beam.

The maximum deflection of a simply supported beam subjected to point load at mid span is given by:

W L3
Maximum deflection, ∆ =
48 E I
Where
W = Load (N)
L = Span or length of beam
E = Young’s modulus of beam ( Nm-2 )
I =Second moment of area of the beam ( m2 )
For rectangular section I = bd3 , where b and d are the width and depth respectively

Methodology
Apparatus

1. Structural Test Frame

2. Aluminium, brass, steel test beam
3. Digital dial or LVDT
4. Vernier gauge
5. Load hanger
6. A set of weight

Procedure
 1. The width (b) and depth (d) of the aluminium, brass and steel test beams had been measured by
used Vernier gauge.
2. The value next to the result table had been recorded for each material to calculate the second
moment of area, I.
3. Clamps and knife edges from the backboard had been removed. One of the cantilevers had been
set up.
4. The digital dial test indicator was slide to the position on the beam and was locked by used
thumbnut at the rear. Knife-edge hanger had been slide to the position required.
5. The digital dial test had been set up to zero by used the ‘origin’ button.
6. Masses had been applied to the knife-edge hanger. The frame was tapped lightly each time
masses were added. The digital dial test indicator reading had been recorded for each increment of
mass.
7. The procedure was repeated by used different type of material.

Observation and calculations:

Material Aluminum Steel Brass

Length (m) 0.576 0.630 0.630

Width (m) 0.1905 0.1913 0.1333

Height (m) 0.0359 0.0322 0.0308

DEFLECTION OF BEAM TESTS

Experimental deflection Average Theoretical

Applied load (N)
Reading 1 Reading 2 deflection deflection
mm mm (mm) (mm)
STEEL

1 0.32 0.33 0.325

2 0.70 0.71 0.705
3 1.06 1.08 1.070
4 1.41 1.46 1.435
5 1.79 1.80 1.795
Applied load (N) Experimental deflection Average Theoretical
B
 Reading 1 Reading 2 deflection deflection
mm mm (mm) (mm)
1 0.84 0.86 0.850
RASS

2 1.70 1.77 1.735

3 2.64 2.72 2.68
4 3.52 3.63 3.575
5 4.50 4.62 4.560
Experimental deflection Average Theoretical
Applied load (N)
Reading 1 Reading 2 deflection deflection
ALUMINIUM

mm mm (mm) (mm)`
1 0.68 0.68 0.680
2 1.56 1.53 1.545
3 2.51 2.38 2.445
4 3.23 3.15 3.190
5 3.70 3.77 3.735

Second moment of area

b d3 0.1913× 0.03223
I steel = 12
= 12
= 5.3223 ×10−7

b d3 0.1333× 0.03083
I brass = 12
= 12
=3.2456 ×10−7

b d3 0.1905× 0.03593
I aluminium = 12
= 12
=7.3451×10−7

STEEL
E steel = 200GPa
1 N × 0.63 m
∆ = (48) × ( 200× 109 ) ×(5.3223 ×10−7 ) = 1.2330 ×10−4 m
2 N × 0.63 m
∆ = (48) × ( 200× 109 ) ×(5.3223 ×10−7 ) = 2.4660×10−4 m
3 N × 0.63 m
∆ = (48) × ( 200× 109 ) ×(5.3223 ×10−7 ) = 3.6991 ×10− 4 m
 4 N ×0.63 m
∆ = (48) × ( 200× 109 ) ×(5.3223 ×10−7 ) = 4.9321 ×10−4 m
5 N × 0.63 m
∆ = (48) × ( 200× 109 ) ×(5.3223 ×10−7 ) =6.1651 ×10−4 m

BRASS
E brass = 105GPa
1 N × 0.63 m
∆ = (48) × ( 105 × 109 ) ×(3.2456 × 10−7 ) = 3.8514 ×10−4 m
2 N × 0.63 m
∆ = (48) × ( 105 × 109 ) ×(3.2456 × 10−7 ) =7.7027 ×10−4 m
3 N × 0.63 m
∆ = (48) × ( 105 × 109 ) ×(3.2456 × 10−7 ) =1.1554 ×10−3 m
4 N ×0.63 m
∆ = (48) × ( 105 × 109 ) ×(3.2456 × 10−7 ) =1.5405 ×10−3 m
5 N × 0.63 m
∆ = (48) × ( 105 × 109 ) ×(3.2456 × 10−7 ) = 1.9257 ×10−3 m

ALUMINIUM .
E aluminium = 65GPa
1 N × 0.576 m
∆= ( 48 ) × ( 65 × 109 ) × ( 7.3451× 10−7 )
=2.5134 ×10−4 m
 2 N × 0.576 m
∆ = (48) × ( 65× 109 ) ×(7.3451 ×10−7) =5.0269 ×10−4 m
3 N × 0.576 m
∆ = (48) × ( 65× 109 ) ×(7.3451 ×10−7) =7.5403 ×10−4 m
4 N × 0.576 m
∆ = (48) × ( 65× 109 ) ×(7.3451 ×10−7) =1.0054 ×10−3 m
5 N × 0.576 m
∆ = (48) × ( 65× 109 ) ×(7.3451 ×10−7) =1.2567 ×10−3 m

Results