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LANDSCAPING
Principles & Practices
EI GHTH EDITI O N
Lab Manual
LANDSCAPING
Principles & Practices
EI GHTH EDITI O N
Lab Manual
Alissa F. Smith
Australia ● Brazil ● Mexico ● Singapore ● United Kingdom ● United States

Landscaping: Principles and Practices, © 2019, 2009 Cengage Learning, Inc.
8th Edition, Lab Manual
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. No part of this work covered by the copyright herein
Alissa F. Smith
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Printed in the United States of America

Print Number: 01 Print Year: 2018
Contents
Preface vii
About the Author viii
S e c t io n o n e L AndScAPe deSi gn
ex e r c iS e 1 Identifying Materials and Equipment 3
ex e r c iS e 2 Using Equipment and Working with Scale 13
ex e r c iS e 3 Developing Lettering Skills 19
ex e r c iS e 4 Using Symbols in Drawing the Residence 27
ex e r c iS e 5 Using Symbols in Drawing Trees 33
ex e r c iS e 6 Using Symbols in Drawing Shrubs 39
ex e r c iS e 7 Using Symbols in Drawing Ground Covers,

Vines, and Flower Beds 45
ex e r c iS e 8 Drawing Symbols for Nonplant Features 51
ex e r c iS e 9 Understanding Foundation Plantings 57
ex e r c iS e 10 Recognizing Faulty Foundation Design 63
ex e r c iS e 11 Designing a Foundation Planting 69
ex e r c iS e 12 Organizing Space in the Landscape 79
ex e r c iS e 13 Making Thumbnail Sketches 85
ex e r c iS e 14 Designing Walks and Drives 91
ex e r c iS e 15 Drafting Guest Parking and Turnarounds 95
ex e r c iS e 16 Designing Patios 103
ex e r c iS e 17 Designing Decks 109
v
vi ◆ Contents
ex er ci Se 18 Understanding Balance 115
ex er ci Se 19 Designing Curvilinear Gardens 119
ex er ci Se 20 Designing Berms 125
ex er ci Se 21 Understanding Focalization 133
ex er ci Se 22 Organizing/Beginning the Planting Plan 143
ex er ci Se 23 Placing Artificial Features on the Plan 151
ex er ci Se 24 Developing the Design 155
ex er ci Se 25 Selecting Plants 161
ex er ci Se 26 Labeling Plants on a Plan 167
ex er ci Se 27 Preparing a Finished Plant List 171
ex er ci Se 28 Preparing a Title Block 175
ex er ci Se 29 Drafting Details on Landscape Plans 179
S e c t i o n t wo L A n d S c A P e cALcuLAti onS
ex er ci Se 30 Creating a Cost Estimate of

the Landscape Design Plan 187
ex er ci Se 31 Pricing Landscape Maintenance 193
S e c t i o n t h r e e c u S t o me r Servi ce
ex er ci Se 32 Communication and Marketing

of Landscape Business 201
ex er ci Se 33 Measuring Customer Satisfaction 205
ex er ci Se 34 Handling Customer Complaints 209
Section Four L A n d S c A P e m Ai ntenAnce
ex er ci Se 35 Operating a Lawn Mower 215
ex er ci Se 36 Operating a Commercial Dethatcher 221
ex er ci Se 37 Operating a Lawn Aerator 227
ex er ci Se 38 Operating a Walk-Behind Blower 233
ex er ci Se 39 Lawn Renovation (Reseeding) 239
ex er ci Se 40 Lawn Renovation (Overseeding) 243

p r e fa C e
Landscaping: Principles and Practices, 8th Edition, Lab Manual includes exercises that encourage students
to apply what they have learned through their landscaping course readings or lessons. Various activi-
ties require students to further explore design principles, landscape plan development, and soft skills,
to ensure that they are well-versed in these different aspects of the landscaping industry.
Most residential landscapes are planned, installed, and maintained by skilled workers with high
school, technical school, or college training in landscape horticulture. As such, high school programs
should include skills development in landscape design as well as installation and maintenance. This type
of instruction will allow students to leave high school with highly sought-after employability skills.
The purpose of this lab manual is to provide a step-by-step guide to basic skills development in
landscape design, installation, maintenance, and customer service. The materials can be adapted to
large-group instruction or to the individualized format presented. In either case, the student should
master one exercise before moving to another.
Precision Exam Alignment

This eighth edition of Landscaping: Principles and Practices, including text and accompanying lab exer-
cises, is aligned to Precision Exams’ Landscape Management exam, part of the Agriculture, Food and
Natural Resources Career Cluster. The Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources pathway connects in-
dustry with skills taught in the classroom to help students successfully transition from high school to
college and/or career. Working together, Precision Exams and National Geographic Learning/Cengage
focus on preparing students for the workforce, with exams and content that is kept up to date and
relevant to today’s jobs. To access a corresponding correlation guide, visit the accompanying Instruc-
tor Companion Website for Landscaping: Principles and Practices, 8th Edition. For more information on
how to administer the Landscape Management exam or any of the 170+ exams available to your stu-
dents, contact your local NGL/Cengage Sales Consultant.
vii
aBoUt tHe aUtHor
Alissa F. Smith is the Associate Executive Director of the National Association of Agricultural Educa-
tors (NAAE), which is the national professional organization for school-based agricultural educators
across the nation. She is primarily responsible for national professional development for agricultural
educators. Prior to working at NAAE, Alissa was a classroom agriculture teacher in Central Kentucky
who specialized in teaching horticulture and agriscience. She developed curriculum and instructional
material for high school agriculture classes that included Landscaping/Landscape Design, Greenhouse
Technology, and Floriculture/Floral Design. Alissa also focused her time developing agriscience cur-
riculum and serving on state committees to develop a state agriscience pathway in Kentucky.
Alissa completed her undergraduate degree in Agriculture at the University of Kentucky and holds
a teaching certification in agriculture for grades 5 through 12. She also earned her master’s degree in
Agriculture from the University of Kentucky.
viii
S e c ti o n one
Landscape Design
ex er ci Se 1 Identifying Materials and Equipment 3
ex er ci Se 2 Using Equipment and Working with Scale 13
ex er ci Se 3 Developing Lettering Skills 19
ex er ci Se 4 Using Symbols in Drawing the Residence 27
ex er ci Se 5 Using Symbols in Drawing Trees 33
ex er ci Se 6 Using Symbols in Drawing Shrubs 39
ex er ci Se 7 Using Symbols in Drawing Ground Covers, Vines,

and Flower Beds 45
ex er ci Se 8 Drawing Symbols for Nonplant Features 51
ex er ci Se 9 Understanding Foundation Plantings 57
ex er ci Se 10 Recognizing Faulty Foundation Design 63
ex er ci Se 11 Designing a Foundation Planting 69
ex er ci Se 12 Organizing Space in the Landscape 79
ex er ci Se 13 Making Thumbnail Sketches 85
ex er ci Se 14 Designing Walks and Drives 91
ex er ci Se 15 Drafting Guest Parking and Turnarounds 95
ex er ci Se 16 Designing Patios 103
ex er ci Se 17 Designing Decks 109
ex er ci Se 18 Understanding Balance 115
ex er ci Se 19 Designing Curvilinear Gardens 119
ex er ci Se 20 Designing Berms 125
1
2 ◆ SECTION ONE Landscape Design
e xe rc iS e 21 Understanding Focalization 133
e xe rc iS e 22 Organizing/Beginning the Planting Plan 143
e xe rc iS e 23 Placing Artificial Features on the Plan 151
e xe rc iS e 24 Developing the Design 155
e xe rc iS e 25 Selecting Plants 161
e xe rc iS e 26 Labeling Plants on a Plan 167
e xe rc iS e 27 Preparing a Finished Plant List 171
e xe rc iS e 28 Preparing a Title Block 175
e xe rc iS e 29 Drafting Details on Landscape Plans 179

exerciSe 1
Identifying Materials
and equipment
o B Je c t i v e
To familiarize students with the tools of landscape drafting and the use(s) of each.
SKiLLS
After studying this unit, you should be able to:
● Identify landscape drafting tools, by name, from line drawings or the actual tools.
● Select the tool needed for a particular task or function.
m At e r i A L S n e ede d *
Drafting board (minimum size 17" 3 22") Engineer’s scale (triangular)
T-square Architect’s scale (triangular)
Triangles (45º–45º–90º and 30º–60º–90º) French curves
Adjustable triangle Compass
2H drawing pencil Protractor
Lead holder Circle template (1y16" to 1" circles, minimum)
Vinyl eraser Drafting paper (plain or gridded)
Eraser shield
*Pictures may be substituted for items not available.
IntroDUCtIon
The landscape designer, like the architect or engineer, must be familiar with the use of basic drafting
tools. Literally thousands of products are on the market today. However, the following is a description
of basic tools with which the beginning student of landscape design should be familiar.
Drafting Boards
The drafting boards give a smooth surface for drafting on paper. It can be used on a table, desk,
or other steady surface. Drafting boards come in various sizes and are made of smooth-sanded
3
laminated wood or plastics. Wooden boards or ta-

bles should be covered with a vinyl drafting board
cover. Such covers are more durable than wood and
less subject to damage (Figure 1–1).
T-square
A T-square is used for drawing straight lines that are
parallel to the edge of the drafting board. It may be
used for either vertical or horizontal lines. A T-square
is not required where boards or tables are equipped
with a parallel bar or drafting machine (Figures 1–1 FIGURE 1–1 Drafting board and
parallel bar.
and 1–2).
Drafting Machines
Drafting machines replace T-squares, parallel bars,
and triangles, and allow for more rapid drafting.
A drafting machine is not essential for beginning
students, but students in advanced classes, draftspeople,
or professionals will find it the single most time-saving
mechanical device available (Figure 1–3).
FIGURE 1–2 T-square.
Drafting Paper
Drafting paper is available as opaque or transparent
in a wide variety of sizes. Opaque papers are fine for
rough drafts or final copies where the drawings are
not to be blueprinted. When blueprints are desirable,
it is essential to draw on high-quality vellum made
of 100% cotton and labeled as 100% rag. For ease
in drafting, paper with nonreproductive blue grids is
available as opaque or transparent. When blueprinted
or photocopied, the blue lines do not reproduce.
Gridded paper is usually available in 4 3 4 (1y4" 5 1'),
8 3 8 (1y8" 2 1') or 10 3 10 (1y10" 5 1') (Figure 1–4).
FIGURE 1–3 Drafting machine.
FIGURE 1–4 Gridded papers—4 3 4, 8 × 8, 10 × 10.

EXERCISE 1 Identifying Materials and Equipment ◆ 5
Triangles
Triangles are used to draw angled lines off any
straight line. The most commonly used angles are
45 degrees and 90 degrees. Angles other than 30, 45,
60, or 90 degrees can be drawn with the aid of a
protractor or an adjustable triangle (Figure 1–5).
Adjustable Triangles
These triangles cost considerably more than standard
fixed triangles but can be used to measure or plot any
angle between 0 and 90 degrees in 1-degree increments FIGURE 1–5 Triangles.
(Figure 1–6).
Protractor
A protractor is used to measure the angle of any two joining lines,
from 0 to 180 degrees, in 1-degree increments for the standard
protractor or 0 to 360 degrees for the round version. It is used to
determine existing angles or to mark nonstandard angles not available
on triangles (Figure 1–7).
Drawing Pencils
Drawing pencils come in varying degrees of hardness, usually 2B, B, HB,
F, H, and 2H through 9H. Drafting is done with lead having an HB rating
or higher. An H-rated pencil contains harder lead and produces lighter
lines that are less likely to smear. Avoid leads with a B rating because
B leads are much softer and are most often used for artwork or
sketching. A good choice for the beginning landscape designers is in FIGURE 1–6 Adjustable
the range of HB to 2H (Figure 1–8). triangle.
Lead Holders
Lead holders, or mechanical pencils, are
more expensive initially but are much less
expensive over the long run. The standard
lead holder uses lead 2 millimeters (mm)
thick and requires a lead pointer. Some
prefer lead holders with smaller lead,
which are available in 0.3-, 0.5-, 0.7-, or
0.9-millimeter thicknesses. These hold-
ers do not usually require sharpening of
the lead, but because of the smaller lead,
breakage of the point is more frequent FIGURE 1–7 Protractor.
(Figure 1–8).
2H F&B Turquoise
Easy Line
FIGURE 1–8 2H pencil and lead holder.

Pencil Sharpeners and Lead Pointers

Drafting pencils may be sharpened with any quality standard sharpener, either mechanical or
electric. Lead pointers are essential for lead holders using 2-millimeter leads. Most pointers come
with replaceable carbide blades, and some allow for adjustment of point taper (Figure 1–9).
FIGURE 1–9 Two popular styles of lead pointers.
Erasers Easy−Rub Eraser

Erasers should completely erase errors or changes without rubbing holes
in the drafting paper. The best drafting erasers are made of vinyl and are Vinyl
nonabrasive (Figure 1–10). Electric erasers are faster but are not essential
for the beginning student of design.
FIGURE 1–10 Vinyl eraser.
Eraser Shields
Eraser shields are used to erase unwanted lines or parts of lines
without smudging or erasing desired lines. Shields have various
sizes and shapes of openings to allow you to match the line to
be erased. Eraser shields are inexpensive, and every draftsperson
should have at least one (Figure 1–11).
Circle Templates
Circle templates allow rapid drawing of circles to represent trees,
shrubs, and other landscape features. Templates chosen should FIGURE 1–11 Eraser shield.
have a variety of circle sizes (Figure 1–12). Templates appropri-
KM
Circle
Template
FIGURE 1–12 Circle template.

ate for landscape should have circles from 1y16 to 1 inch minimum. A template
with 1y16- to 21y4-inch circles is more useful. Extra-large circles can be drawn with
a compass.
Compass
A compass or bow compass is an adjustable instrument used to draw circles or arcs.
It has two legs—one containing a metal point and the other containing a pencil
or lead. The distance between the two legs is one-half the diameter of the circle.
For example, a 1-inch setting will yield a 2-inch circle. Select a compass with
a threaded adjustment bar to prevent slippage and maintain adjustment while
drawing (Figure 1–13).
Scales
Scales are used for measuring or drawing lines that represent smaller dimensions on
paper than they are actually in “real life.” For example, a 1:10 scale means that 1 inch
on paper represents 10 feet of real space. Triangular scales are popular because each has
six or more scales on one instrument. Engineer’s scales contain scales of 1y10, 1y20, 1y30,
1
y40, 1y50, and 1y60.
Architect’s scales usually contain scales of 1y2 , 1y4 , 1y8 , 1y16 , 3y8 , 3y4 , and 3y16 . FIGURE 1–13
Landscape designers commonly use scales of 1y10 or 1y8 (Figure 1–14). Bow compass.
FIGURE 1–14 Engineer’s scale (top) and architect’s scale (bottom).
Lettering Guides 5
3
10
)
m
Lettering guides are used to draw guidelines essential 2 1

9.
M
75
9 8
c(
2
to attractive lettering. The Ames® Lettering Guide is 8 5
ri
3
et
7
M
6.1 32
an inexpensive, adjustable guide with many different 5 1
4
spacings, both standard and metric (Figure 1–15). 3.08
2
16
1
10 2
4 3
9 8 76 5
Ames® Lettering Guide

68°
FIGURE 1–15 Ames® Lettering Guide.

Nonadjustable guides usually have only four line widths, but they allow for rapid drafting of
guidelines (Figure 1–16).
1
4
3
16
5
32
1
8
JM−C
Lettering Guide
FIGURE 1–16 Nonadjustable lettering guide.
French Curves
French curves serve as a guide in making professional-
looking curved lines for bed areas, walks, drives, and
so on. The degree of curve can be changed by moving
the french curve to an edge or section of the sketch
having the same degree curve. There are many curves
available in many price ranges. A package of three
or four is usually adequate for landscape design
(Figure 1–17).
FIGURE 1–17 French curves.
pUt It Into praCtICe

1. Review the pictures included in this exercise, or examine the actual instruments (if provided
by your instructor).
2. Complete the questions without the assistance of the reading in this exercise.
Exercise 1 Activity
Student Name Date Score
Fill in the Blanks

Fill in the blanks with the best answers.
1. A 45-degree line can be drawn quickly with the aid of a .
2. , , and
are useful in drawing lines parallel to the edge of the drafting board.
3. A(n) or a(n) is useful in
drawing nonstandard angles such as 37 degrees.
4. A allows rapid drawing of circles to indicate trees
and shrubs.
5. An H rating indicates that a pencil has lead.
6. Do not use leads with a rating when drafting.
7. give a smooth, professional look to curving lines.
8. The best drafting erasers are made of .
9. Very large circles may be drawn with a .
10. allow you to erase a line without erasing adjacent
or adjoining lines.
11. An scale contains scales that are multiples of 10.
12. A 1:20 scale means that 1 inch equals .
9
Identification
Please identify the following items in their corresponding blank spaces:
1. Item A 5. Item E
2. Item B 6. Item F
3. Item C 7. Item G
4. Item D 8. Item H
D
E
F
3
5
10
)
m
2 1
9.
(m
M
75
9 2 8
ric
8 5 3
et
7
M
6.1 32
5
4
1
3.08 16
2
1
10 2
H
4 3
9 8 76 5
G Ames® Lettering Guide

68°
notes
e xe r c i S e 2
Using equipment
and Working
with scale
o B Je c t i v e S
To provide hands-on practice in the use of equipment and materials for landscape drafting.
SKiLLS
● Demonstrate a knowledge of scale by completing a basic scale drawing.
● Convert a drawing on a 1:20 scale to 1:10, or convert a drawing on a 1:16 scale to 1:8.
● Use various drafting instruments to complete the activity.
m At e r i A L S n e ede d
Drawing board French curves
T-square Compass
Triangles Protractor
Drawing pencil (HB, F, H, or 2H) Drafting paper (with or without grids) 81y2 3 11–inch
Vinyl eraser standard vellum
Eraser shield Drafting tape (not masking tape!)
Engineer’s scale or architect’s scale
Note: This exercise can be completed without a T-square and drawing board if paper with a fade-out grid
is used.
IntroDUCtIon
A landscape plan must be accurate—just like the design of a building or any other design that uses
space. In order to be accurate, it must be drawn to a chosen scale. Simply stated, scale is a miniature
representation of the real thing. A landscape plan should indicate the exact number of plants needed
while giving a visual reference of the space needed in comparison to lawn areas or artificial features.
13
Before you can draw a landscape plan that will be accurate and usable, it is essential to have expe-
rience with the correct use of appropriate tools. As you complete this exercise, it is essential that you
be perfectly honest. If you feel you do not understand the proper use of a tool, ask your instructor for
additional help or practice.
As you work with drafting tools, you will come to realize that scale is the basis of all such tools.
You must understand scale first and foremost. All other tools exist to help you draft plans to scale
with ease and accuracy.
The word scale is also used to describe the measuring instrument used in drawing. On the design
level, you should refrain from using the word ruler in favor of the more descriptive word scale. Two
such scales are used in landscape design: the engineer’s scale (Figure 2–1) and the architect’s scale
(Figure 2–2). Such scales are usually triangular, allowing for 6 different scales on the engineer’s instru-
ment and 11 on the architect’s.
23'
10'
10
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Engineer
60 58 56 54 52 50 48 46 44 42 40 38 36 34 32 30
23'
10'
20
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Engineer
48 46 44 42 40 38 36 34 32 30 28 26 24
FIGURE 2–1 Engineer’s scale.
23'
8'
1 0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40 44 48
8 46 44 42 40 38 36 34 32 30 28 26 24 22
Architect
2 10 9 8 7 6 5
1 0 2 4 6 8 10
23'
8'
16
0 1 2 3 4 5 Architect 6
60 58 56 54 52 50 48 46 44 42 40 38 36 34 32 30
FIGURE 2–2 Architect’s scale.

EXERCISE 2 Using Equipment and Working with Scale ◆ 15
The engineer’s scale is popular with landscape designers. For most residential properties, a scale of
1:10 will allow the property and building(s) to be placed on a standard sheet of vellum drafting paper
(17" 3 22", 24" 3 36", 30" 3 42", or 36" 3 48"). On larger residential properties, a scale of 1:20 may
be used; however, some symbols become very small at this scale. A better choice would be to divide
the property into two or more areas and use a 1:10 scale to draft the plan on two or more sheets of
vellum.
A 1:10 scale means that 1 inch is equal to 10 feet. Another way of looking at this is to say that
1
y10 inch is equal to 1 feet. In either case, every mark on the scale represents 1 foot. On the 1:20 scale
1 inch is equal to 20 feet. A drawing on this scale is exactly one-half the size of the same drawing on a
1:10 scale (Figure 2–1).
You will note that for every 10 feet, a longer mark exists on the scale, and a number is present.
Just add 0 (zero) to the number on the scale. For example, on the 1:20 scale, the number 1 is actually
1
y2 inch and represents 10 feet. The number 2 is actually 1 inch and represents 20 feet.
Some designers prefer the architect’s scale. The most popular architect’s scale for landscape de-
signers is the 1:8, where 1 inch 5 8 feet, or 1y8 inch 5 1 foot. For larger properties, the 1:16 scale can
be used, and on tiny properties a 1:4 scale is often appropriate.
As you study the architect’s scale, you will note that the 1y8-inch scale and the 1y4-inch scale are
located on the same edge. The 1y8-inch scale reads left to right, whereas the 1y4-inch scale reads right to
left. This makes the 1y8-inch scale somewhat more confusing at first, but with practice you will learn
to use one while ignoring the other (Figure 2–2).
Everything you draw, except for “thumbnail sketches” in Exercise 13, should be drawn to scale.
This is indicated on the drawing as “Scale: 1" 5 10', Scale: 1" 5 4',” and so on. This is usually noted
just outside the property line on a completed drawing, as shown in Figure 12–1 (Exercise 12) or near
the bottom of the drawing.
In addition to writing the scale being used, a useful symbol is the scale indicator bar (Figure 2–3).
A scale indicator bar is simple to draft and should be included on any final drawings, as shown in
Figure 12–1. With a minimum of practice, you will be able to draw the bar very quickly. The pur-
pose of the scale indicator bar is to show the scale as a length of space. In copying a drawing, scale
is sometimes slightly altered. In addition, you may desire to enlarge or reduce the drawing, and the
scale bar can be used to determine the size of a feature, because everything will be reduced or enlarged
proportionately.
Study Figures 2–1, 2–2, and 2–3. Be sure that you understand the scale you will use before you
begin the activity.
0 4 8 16 0 8 16 32
1:8 (1" = 8') 1:16 (1" = 16')
0 5 10 20 0 10 20 40
1:10 (1" = 10') 1:20 (1" = 20')

FIGURE 2–3 Sample scale indicator bars.

This activity will enable you to practice scale and use some of the tools you studied in Exercise 1.
Please have those tools readily available. You will also need two 81y2 3 11–inch sheets of drafting pa-
per (standard vellum is fine if you have a drawing board and T-square). Tape all four corners to your
drawing surface with the 11-inch side horizontal. If you are using a 10 3 10 or an 8 3 8 grid and a
T-square, you must align the grid lines with the T-square.
1. Use the drawings that follow to complete this exercise. Once completed and evaluated,
these drawings will continue to be used as we develop a complete landscape plan.
a. The drawing in Activity I is drawn on a scale of 1:20. Draw the same residence on a 1:10
scale on your own drafting paper. Write the scale you are using, and draw a scale indi-
cator bar on the same line. Your drawing will be much larger—actually twice as large.
Please also review the Evaluation rubric that is included to know how your drawing will
be assessed.
b. The drawing in Activity II is drawn on a scale of 1:16. Draw the same residence on a 1:8
scale on your own drafting paper. Write the scale you are using, and draw a scale indi-
cator bar on the same line. Please also review the Evaluation rubric that is included to
know how your drawing will be assessed.
NOTE: Measure each line with the scale indicated, either 1:20 or 1:16, and then draw each
line using the requested scale, 1:10 or 1:8, as indicated in each activity above.
notes
Exercise 2 Activity I
Scale: 1" = 20'

Residence
Patio
Evaluation
Consideration Points Student Score Instructor Score
Exact scale achieved 70
Lines are smooth and consistent 10
Scale indicator bar is accurate 10
Drawing is neat 10
Total 100
17
Exercise 2 Activity II
Scale: 1" = 16'

Residence
Patio
Evaluation
Exact scale achieved 70
Lines are smooth and consistent 10
Scale indicator bar is accurate 10
Drawing is neat 10
Total 100
18
e xe r c i S e 3
Developing
Lettering skills
o B Je c t i v e
To develop good lettering skills through supervised practice.
SKiLLS
● Properly use guidelines when lettering.
● Draw letters of consistent height and spacing.
● Draw letters using a single stroke.
● Demonstrate your lettering style.
Drawing board and T-square One 81y2 3 11–inch sheet drawing paper
Engineer’s scale or architect’s scale Drafting tape
Eraser and shield House plan drawn in Exercise 2
Drawing pencil (HB, F, H, or 2H)
IntroDUCtIon
Good lettering is essential to give a professional or distinctive look to a drawing. It can “sell” both you
and your plan to a prospective client. On the other hand, poor lettering is noticeable on a drawing,
and it can cause others to doubt your ability as a designer. Time spent developing your lettering skills
is time well spent.
Lettering is a developed skill. Although some people master lettering more quickly than others,
everyone can develop acceptable lettering skills through practice. The following explanations should
prove helpful:
1. Always use guidelines. Even the most experienced professionals use them. Horizontal guidelines
are drawn with the aid of a T-square or, preferably, a lettering guide. To letter, you must have two
guidelines, with the spacing between them determining the size of the letters. First, draw the top
guideline. Using a scale, measure down the desired distance and place a dot. Then, using the dot
as a reference, draw the second guide. A lettering guide eliminates this procedure. Always draw
19
guidelines lighter than your lettering, and never erase them after lettering. A blueprint or photo-
copy may pick up your guidelines, but that is acceptable so long as the lettering is darker.
Vertical guidelines are used for margins, columns, or as a guide for centering. Refer to Exer-
cise 28 for usage of vertical guidelines.
2. All lettering should be parallel with the bottom of the sheet. This enables you to read everything
on the sheet without having to turn it.
3. Letters should touch both the top and bottom guidelines. This gives even height to the letters.
4. Letters are usually drafted in capitals; however, lowercase—even cursive—letters have been used
effectively by architects and designers. Caution should be exercised in attempting to get too
fancy.
5. Don’t go over a line twice. This makes that part of the letter darker, and it will stand out on the
blueprint or photocopy. If you need to correct the letter, erase it fully and do it over.
6. Avoid wavy lines. Wavy lines are the result of marking too slowly. Relax and make deliberate
strokes.
7. Avoid making letters too narrow or too wide. This will take practice but will soon become sec-
ond nature (Figure 3–1).
NOTE: Use guidelines in your practice even if you are using fade-out vellum. Guidelines should
become a habit with you, because there will be many times when you will have to letter
on nongrid paper (Figure 3–2).
FIGURE 3–1 Do’s and don’ts of lettering.

EXERCISE 3 Developing Lettering Skills ◆ 21
FIGURE 3–2 Sample lettering.


Tape an 81y2 3 11–inch sheet of vellum to your drawing surface and align the bottom or top edge
using your T-square. Complete the following activity.
1. Draw two pairs of horizontal guidelines for several different size letters. Draw a vertical
guideline for your left margin.
2. Draw two alphabets (including numbers) using 2y10-inch letters for engineer’s scales or
3
y16-inch for architect’s scales. Draw the standard alphabet first, and then draw one of the
slanting alphabets (Figure 3–3).
3. Draw two alphabets for 1y10-inch letters or 1y8-inch letters, using the style you prefer.
4. Write your own first and last name, using both lettering sizes.
5. Write the sentence, “Good lettering skills are acquired through regular practice” (Figure 3–3).
6. Using the house plan you drew for Exercise 2: Activity I, label the rooms and areas as shown
in Figure 3–4. Save your house plan. It will be used for Exercise 4.
notes
EXERCISE 3 Developing Lettering Skills ◆ 23
FIGURE 3–3 Various lettering sizes.

24
FIGURE 3–4
◆ SECTION ONE
Patio
House plan lettering.

Landscape Design
Kitchen/
Bedroom Bedroom
Dining
Garage
Living Den
Bedroom
Room
Scale: 1" = 10'

Walk
Exercise 3 Activity
Evaluation
Letters touch guidelines 50
Letters are equal width 10
Spacing is acceptable 10
Pencil strokes are even 10
Overall neatness 20
Total 100
25
notes
e xe r c i S e 4
Using symbols
in Drawing the
residence
o B Je c t i v e
To gain experience in drawing and recognizing symbols for walls, windows, doors, and surfacing materials
for a residence.
SKiLLS
● Draft walls, windows, and doors of a residence.
● Draft surfacing materials for patios, walks, and drives of a residence.
● Darken walls of a residence plan with uniform shading.
House plan from Exercise 3 Eraser and shield
Drawing board and T-square Drawing pencil (HB, F, H, or 2H)
IntroDUCtIon
In drafting a residence, it is essential that the outside walls, windows, and doors be located accurately.
This will determine the kind, number, size, and placement of the foundation plants (plants near the
wall or foundation of a structure). To be usable, a landscape plan must be an accurate representation
of the actual house and property.
It is not necessary to draw inside walls when drafting the residence; however, it is useful to
indicate the location of rooms on the drawing, as you did in Exercise 3. This is helpful to the
designer in determining the views from a particular room or in locating other features in the
landscape. For example, a satisfying or interesting view from the den or family room might be a
primary consideration in developing the total garden design.
Once the general dimensions of a residence are drawn, the windows and doors should be the next
consideration. If you are working from an existing architect’s drawing, you can simply determine the
size and location of features and draw them on your plan.
27
Start by measuring from a corner to the first window or door of the wall. Always check your
measurement from both corners of a wall, and recheck often as you draw. Use the same procedure
if you are taking measurements of the actual residence, using a tape measure or other device.
The exact sizes of windows or doors vary greatly. For instance, a window might be 28 inches,
32 inches, or some other size. Because your engineer’s scale does not show inches, you will
have to estimate small measurements (Figure 4–1). A good rule of thumb for the landscape
designer is to round off such measurements to the nearest one-half foot, or 6 inches. It is best
to round off to the next largest one-half foot. This will help ensure that plants that are proposed
near windows will not cover or obstruct windows. The same procedure of rounding off to the nearest
one-half foot can be used in drafting doors.
FIGURE 4–1 Estimating measurements.
Standard windows can usually be drawn at 21y2 to 3 feet. Bathroom windows are often smaller
and measure 2 to 21y2 feet. Picture windows and bay windows can be almost any size, but they usually
vary from 6 to 8 feet in length. Doors usually vary between 21y2 and 31y2 feet.
Once windows and doors are located, the next step is to darken the remaining wall space. This
serves to make the residence stand out on the plan, and it makes windows and doors stand out. Strive
to use the same degree or density (darkness) in shading the walls (Figure 4–2).
Windows
Door Sliding Glass Door
“Picture” Window
Bay Window
FIGURE 4–2 Locating windows and doors and darkening

wall space.
Patios, drives, walks, and paths are made of concrete, stone, or brick. (Wooden decks will be
covered in another exercise.) It is not necessary to draw symbols for the entire area. Drawing symbols
to show the material for a section of the area is sufficient. Other surfacing materials, such as asphalt,
can simply be labeled as such on the plan (Figure 4–3).
EXERCISE 4 Using Symbols in Drawing the Residence ◆ 29
Concrete
Brick
Flagstone or State
A sphal t
Scored Concrete Concrete with Wood

Dividers
Exposed Aggregate Concrete Gravel or Sand

(Sectioned or Scored) (Label Your Choice)
FIGURE 4–3 Various materials used for patios, drives, walks, and paths.
(continued on next page)
Brick—Basketweave Pattern Brick—Herringbone Pattern
Brick—Running Bond Pattern Cut Stone or Concrete

(With Crosstie Dividers) (With Mortar Joints)
FIGURE 4–3 Various materials used for patios, drives, walks, and paths.
(continued from previous page)

1. Using the house plan drawn in Exercise 2 and lettered in Exercise 3, draw the windows in
the same location as shown in Figure 3–4 of Exercise 3.
a. Erase part of the wall connected to the patio to allow for the sliding glass door; then
draft it as shown.
b. Darken the wall spaces between windows, as shown.
2. Using appropriate symbols, indicate the material you desire for the front walk and rear pa-
tio. You may select the concrete and flagstone drawn on the plan in Figure 3–4, or you may
select and draw another material. Use a 1:10 scale.
Exercise 4 Activity
Evaluation
Walls are darkened and 10
accurate
Windows are located 30
accurately
Doors are located accurately 30
Surfacing symbols are accu- 10
rate and acceptable
Overall neatness 20
Total 100
31
notes
e xe r c i S e 5
Using symbols in
Drawing trees
o B Je c t i v e
To provide experience in drawing and recognizing symbols of trees on a landscape plan.
SKiLLS
● Draw symbols to represent small, medium, and large trees.
● Draw symbols for both evergreen and deciduous trees.
● Create symbols of your own.
Drawing board and T-square Circle template (1y16" to 21y4")
Drawing pencil (HB, F, H, or 2H) One 81y2 3 11–inch sheet of drafting paper
Eraser and shield Drafting tape
IntroDUCtIon
In designing landscapes, most permanent plants are represented by circular symbols. On smaller
or partial plans containing a relatively small number of plants, it is appropriate to represent plants
by circles drawn with a circle template. However, on larger plans with a greater number of plants,
individual plants become lost in an endless “jungle” of simple circles.
The purpose of symbols is to represent variety in plants and, if desirable, to indicate whether the
plant is deciduous (loses its leaves in fall) or evergreen (has foliage all year). Whereas perfect circles
are not necessary in symbolizing plants, it is important to keep them mostly round.
Large trees are those trees that mature at 40 feet or taller. Medium trees mature at 20 to 40 feet,
and small trees mature at 10 to 20 feet.
The following guidelines will work for the majority of trees in your plan:
1. Large trees 20 feet in diameter or greater
2. Medium trees 15 to 20 feet in diameter
3. Small trees 10 to 15 feet in diameter
33
The diameter measurements indicate trunk diameter.

To draw a tree symbol, decide the diameter circle you need. Choose a circle that is the desired size
from the circle template. It might be helpful to place your scale over the circle template and measure
various circles. If you do not have a circle large enough on your template, a compass can be used to
draw the circle.
Once a circle is selected, draw it lightly, as you did in drawing guidelines for lettering. Next,
decide upon a symbol and begin to draw the plant. You will note from the sample provided with this
exercise that evergreen symbols tend to have points or straight lines as part of the symbol. Deciduous
symbols are less rigid or less pointed. Always mark the center of the plant, as this indicates the exact
location of the initial planting (Figures 5–1 and 5–2).
FIGURE 5–1 Large tree symbols.

EXERCISE 5 Using Symbols in Drawing Trees ◆ 35
FIGURE 5–2 Medium and small tree symbols.


Obtain an 81y2 3 11–inch sheet of drafting paper and tape it to your drawing surface. Draw the
following in 1:10 or 1:8 scale. Be neat and strive for smooth, even lines. Please review the Evaluation
rubric before beginning.
1. Draw two deciduous and one evergreen for each size group (small, medium, and large), for
a total of nine trees.
2. Design your own symbols and draw one each of large, medium, and small trees, for a total
of three additional trees.
notes
Exercise 5 Activity
Evaluation
Measurements are accurate 50
Symbols are uniform and 20
circular
Dots are centered 15
Overall neatness 15
Total 100
37
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At this time Porter’s brigade occupied a line considerably in
advance of that first occupied by the left wing of the rebels. The
battery was pouring its withering fire into the batteries and columns
of the enemy wherever they exposed themselves. The cavalry were
engaged in feeling the left flank of the enemy’s position, in doing
which some important captures were made, one by Sergeant Socks,
of the Second Dragoons, of a General George Stewart, of Baltimore.
The cavalry also did brave service.
General Tyler’s division was engaged with the enemy’s right. The
Twenty-Seventh was resting on the edge of the woods in the centre,
covered by a hill upon which lay the Eleventh and Fifth
Massachusetts, occasionally delivering a scattering fire. The
Fourteenth was moving to the right flank, the Eighth had lost its
organization, the marines were moving up in fine style in the rear of
the Fourteenth, and Captain Arnold was occupying a height in the
middle ground with his battery. At this juncture there was a
temporary lull in the firing from the rebels, who appeared only now
and then on the heights in irregular masses, but to serve as marks for
Griffin’s guns. The prestige of success had thus far attended the
efforts of the inexperienced but gallant Union troops. The lines of the
enemy had been forcibly shifted nearly a mile to their left and rear.
The flags of eight regiments, though borne somewhat wearily, now
pointed toward the hill from which disordered masses of the rebels
had been seen hastily retiring.
Rickett’s battery, together with Griffith’s battery, on the side of the
hill, had been objects of the special attention of the enemy, who had
succeeded in disabling Rickett’s battery, and then attempted to take
it. Three times was he repulsed by different corps in succession, and
driven back, and the guns taken by hand, the horses being killed, and
pulled away. The third time the repulse seemed to be final, for he was
driven entirely from the hill, and so far beyond it as not to be in
sight. He had before this been driven nearly a mile and a half, and
was beyond the Warrenton road, which was entirely in Federal
possession, from the Stone Bridge westward. The engineers were just
completing the removal of the abatis across the road, to allow
reinforcements (Schenck’s brigade and Ayers’ battery) to join in. The
enemy was evidently disheartened and broken.
But at this moment, when everything pointed to a speedy victory,
orders came through Major Barry of the Fifth artillery, for Griffin’s
battery to move from the hill upon which the house stood, to the top
of a hill on the right, with the “Fire Zouaves” and marines, while the
Fourteenth entered the skirt of wood on their right, to protect that
flank, and a column, composed of the Twenty-seventh New York,
Eleventh and Fifth Massachusetts, Second Minnesota, and Sixty-
Ninth New York, moved up toward the left batteries. It had taken
position, but before the flanking supports had reached theirs, a
murderous fire of musketry and rifles opened at pistol range, cutting
down every cannonier, and a large number of horses. The fire came
from some infantry of the enemy, which had been mistaken for
Union forces; an officer in the field having stated that it was a
regiment sent by Colonel Heintzelman to support the batteries.
As soon as the Zouaves came up, they were led forward against an
Alabama regiment, partly concealed in a clump of small pines in an
old field.
After a severe fire they broke, and the greatest portion of them fell
to the rear, keeping up a desultory firing over the heads of their
comrades in front; at the same moment they were charged by a
company of rebel cavalry on their rear, who came by a road through
two strips of woods on the extreme right. The fire of the Zouaves
dispersed them. The discomfiture of this cavalry was completed by a
fire from Captain Colburn’s company of United States cavalry, which
killed and wounded several men. Colonel Farnham, with some of his
officers and men, behaved gallantly, and many of his men did good
service as skirmishers later in the day. General Heintzelman then led
up the Minnesota regiment, which was also repulsed, but retired in
tolerably good order. It did good service in the woods on the right
flank, and was among the last to retire, moving off the field with the
Third United States infantry. Next was led forward the First
Michigan, which was also repulsed, and retired in considerable
confusion. They were rallied, and helped to hold the woods on the
right. The Brooklyn Fourteenth then appeared on the ground,
coming forward in gallant style. They were led forward to the left,
where the Alabama regiment had been posted in the early part of the
action, but had now disappeared, and soon came in sight of the line
of the enemy drawn up beyond the clump of trees. Soon after the
firing commenced, the regiment broke and retired. It was useless to
attempt a rally. The want of discipline in these regiments was so
great that the most of the men would run from fifty to several
hundred yards in the rear, and continue to fire, compelling those in
front to retreat.
During this time Rickett’s battery had been captured and retaken
three times by Heintzelman’s forces, but was finally lost, most of the
horses having been killed—Captain Ricketts being wounded, and
First Lieutenant D. Ramsay killed. Lieutenant Kirby behaved
gallantly, and succeeded in carrying off one caisson. Before this time,
heavy reinforcements of the enemy were distinctly seen approaching
by two roads, extending and outflanking Heintzelman on the right.
General Howard’s brigade came on the field at this time, having been
detained by the General as a reserve. It took post on a hill on
Heintzelman’s right and rear, and for some time gallantly held the
enemy in check. One company of cavalry attached to Heintzelman’s
division, was joined, during the engagement, by the cavalry of
Colonel Hunter’s division, under the command of Major Palmer.
Colonel W. B. Franklin commanded the first brigade of
Heintzelman’s division. A portion of that brigade rendered
distinguished service, and received official commendation from the
commanding general.
General Tyler, who kept his position at the Stone Bridge, to
menace that point, and at the proper moment to carry it and unite
with the turning column, had sent forward the right wing of his
command to co-operate with Hunter as soon as he was discovered
making his way on the flank.
Two brigades (Sherman’s and Keyes’) of that division had passed
the Run. Colonel Sherman joined himself to the divisions of Hunter
and Heintzelman, and was soon engaged in the hottest part of the
action.
The famous Irish regiment, 1,600 strong, who have had so much of
the hard digging to perform, claimed the honor of a share in the hard
fighting, and led the van of Tyler’s attack, followed by the Seventy-
ninth (Highlanders), and Thirteenth New York, and the Second
Wisconsin.
It was a brave sight—that rush of the Sixty-ninth into the death-
struggle—with such cheers as proved a hearty love of the work before
them! With a quick step at first, and then a double-quick, and at last
a run, they dashed forward and along the edge of the extended forest.
Coats and knapsacks were thrown to either side, that nothing might
impede their work. It was certain that no guns would slip from the
hands of those determined fellows, even if dying agonies were
needed to close them with a firmer grasp. As the line swept along,
Meagher galloped toward the head, crying, “Come on, boys! you’ve
got your chance at last!”
BRILLIANT CHARGE ON A REBEL BATTERY.
Sherman’s brigade thus moved forward for half a mile, describing

quite one-fourth of a circle on the right, Colonel Quimby’s regiment
in front, the other regiments following in line of battle—the
Wisconsin Second, New York Seventy-ninth, and New York Sixty-
ninth in succession. Quimby’s regiment advanced steadily up the hill
and opened fire on the enemy, who had made a stand. The regiment
continued advancing as the enemy gave way, till the head of his
column reached the point where Rickett’s battery had been cut up.
The other regiments followed under a fearful cannonading. At the
point where the road crossed the ridge to the left, the ground was
swept by a fire of artillery, rifles, and musketry. Regiment after
regiment were driven from it, following the Zouaves and a battalion
of marines.
When the Wisconsin Second was abreast of the enemy, it was
ordered to leave the roadway and attack him. This regiment
ascended the hill, was met with a sharp fire, returned it gallantly, and
advanced, delivering its fire. But the response was terrific, and the
regiment fled in confusion toward the road. It rallied again, passed
the brow of the hill a second time, and was again repulsed in
disorder. By this time the New York Seventy-ninth had closed up. It
was impossible to get a good view of the ground. In it there was one
battery of artillery, which poured an incessant fire upon the
advancing column, and the ground was irregular, with small clusters
of pines, which afforded shelter to the enemy. The fire of rifles and
musketry grew hotter and hotter. The Seventy-ninth, headed by
Colonel Cameron, charged across the hill, and for a short time the
contest was terrible. They rallied several times under fire, but finally
broke and gained the cover of the hill.
This left the field open to the New York Sixty-ninth, Colonel
Corcoran, who, in his turn, led his regiment over the crest, and had
in full open view the ground so severely contested. The firing was
terrific, the roar of cannon, musketry, and rifles, incessant. The
enemy was here in immense force. The Sixty-ninth held the ground
for some time with desperate courage, but finally fell back in
disorder.
At this time Quimby’s regiment occupied another ridge to the left,
overlooking the same field, fiercely engaged. Colonel Keyes, from
Tyler’s division, had formed in line with Sherman’s brigade, and
came into conflict on its right with the enemy’s cavalry and infantry,
which he drove back. The further march of the brigade was arrested
by a severe fire of artillery and infantry, sheltered by Robinson’s
house, standing on the heights above the road leading to Bull Run.
The charge was here ordered, and the Second Maine and Third
Connecticut regiments pressed forward to the top of the hill, reached
the buildings which were held by the enemy, drove them out, and for
a moment had them in possession. At this point, finding the brigade
under the fire of a strong force behind breastworks, the order was
given to march by the left flank, with a view to turn the battery which
the enemy had placed on the hill below the point at which the
Warrenton turnpike crosses Bull Run. The march was conducted for
a considerable distance below the Stone Bridge, causing the enemy to
retire, and giving Captain Alexander an opportunity to pass the
bridge, cut out the abatis which had been placed there, and prepare
the way for Schenck’s brigade and the two batteries to pass over.
Before this movement could be made on the enemy’s battery, it was
placed in a new position; but Colonel Keyes carried his brigade, by a
flank movement, around the base of the hill, and was on the point of
ascending it in time to get at the battery, when he discovered that the
troops were on the retreat, and that, unless a rapid movement to the
rear was made, he would be cut off. At this moment, the abatis near
the Stone Bridge had been cleared away by Captain Alexander, of the
engineers, and Schenck’s brigade (the third of Tyler’s division) was
about to pass over and join Keyes.
But one rash movement had decided the day—that movement the
last change of position given to Griffin’s battery, throwing it helpless
into a murderous fire, which no protecting force could encounter.
When the Zouaves broke on that fatal hill, the Union cause for that
day wavered. When hordes of fresh troops poured in upon the Union
battalions, beating back as brave regiments as ever trod the battle-
field, one after another, overwhelming them with numbers, and
driving them headlong into utter confusion, the battle was lost; and
after this any description of it must be wild and turbulent as the
scene itself—in no other way can a true picture of the tumultuous
fighting and more tumultuous retreat be truly given.
THE CLIMAX AND THE RETREAT.
We have described the battle of Manassas, Stone Bridge, or Bull
Run, as it is variously called, in its plain details, giving each
regiment, so far as possible, its share in the glorious fight; for up to
mid-day and after, no braver fighting was ever done than the Union
troops performed on that 21st of July. Now a wilder, more difficult,
and very painful effort taxes the pen. The heat, turmoil and terrible
storm of death rolls up in a tumultuous picture—troops in masses—
stormy action—the confused rush of men—all these things have no
detail, but hurl the writer forward, excited and unrestrained as the
scene to be described.
At high noon the battle raged in its widest circumference. The
batteries on the distant hills began to pour their volleys on the Union
troops with terrible effect. Carlisle’s and Sherman’s batteries
answered with tremendous emphasis, while the great 32-pounder
hurled its iron thunderbolts first into one of the enemy’s defences,
then into another, tearing up everything as they went. The noise of
the cannonading grew deafening, and kept up one incessant roll.
Compared to it the sharp volleys of riflemen were like the rattle of
hail amid the loud bursts of a thunder tempest. The people of
Centreville, Fairfax, Alexandria, and even Washington, heard the
fearful reverberations, and trembled at the sound.
Five powerful batteries were in operation at once, joined to the
hiss and hurtle of twenty thousand small arms! No wonder the sky
turned black, impaled with death-smoke—no wonder the sun shone
fierce and red upon the pools of warm human blood that began to
gather around those batteries, where the slain were lying in heaps
and winrows!
Still amid this roar and carnage, the Federal forces were making
sure headway, and driving the enemy before them. Except one
brigade of Tyler’s division, the entire force of eighteen thousand men
was in fierce action. As the Union forces pressed upon the enemy,
approaching each moment to the completion of their plan of battle,
the rebels grew desperate. The batteries on the western hills poured
forth their iron tempest with accumulated fury. The Union guns
answered them with fiercer thunder. The roar of the cannonading
was deafening, drowning the volleys of riflemen, and sweeping off in
one overpowering sound the rattle and crash of musketry. The
clamor of the guns was appalling—the rush and tumult of action
more appalling still. The whole valley was like a vast volcano, boiling
over with dust and smoke. Through this turbid atmosphere
battalions charged each other and batteries poured their hot breath
on the air, making it denser than before. Now and then the dust
would roll away from the plain, and the smoke float off from the
hills, revealing a dash of cavalry across some open space, or a charge
of infantry up to a fortified point where the struggle, success, or
repulse, was lost or vaguely seen through volumes of rolling smoke—
columns of ruddy dust trailed after the infantry, broken now and
then by the fiery track of a battery masked in foliage. A sullen report,
and horrid gaps appeared in what a moment before was a living wall
of men. A curl of blue vapor rose gracefully from the trees, and it was
only the dead bodies blackening the ground that made the sight so
awful.
But the fight gathered fiercest on the westward hill, from which the
booming thunder rolled in long incessant peals. Its sides swarmed
with armed men, changing positions, charging and retreating.
Curtains of smoke, swayed by the wind, revealed the horses around a
battery, rearing, plunging and falling headlong, dozens together, in
one hideous death. Then in mercy the smoke drifted over the hill
again. The enemy were giving ground at every point. The
Mississippians had fled in dismay from the batteries, and desperately
taken to the field in wavering columns. Other regiments were
actually fleeing before the Union troops, but they were generally
moving with sullen steadiness to the rear. The entire line which
arrayed itself against Tyler in the morning had been relinquished,
except one fortified elevation. Still their peculiar mode of warfare
was kept up. Masked batteries were constantly opening in
unexpected places, leaving heaps of slain in the track of their fiery
hail.
On the uplands whole regiments, seen from the distance, seemed
to drive against or drift by each other, leaving beautiful curls and
clouds of smoke behind; but under this smoke lay so many dead
bodies that the soul grew faint in counting them.
Through all this the Federal troops progressed toward a union of
their attacking columns. Tyler had already spoken to McDowell, and
the two forces were drawing nearer and nearer together. Victory
appeared so certain that nothing but a junction of the two columns
was wanting to a glorious result, and this now seemed inevitable.
The clamor of the artillery was checked for a little time on both
sides. Red-handed death cannot rush panting on the track forever.
Black-mouthed guns will get too foul for belching fire, and the
swarthy men who feed them must have breathing time. As the fight
flagged, and the men paused to draw breath, their terrible suffering
was apparent in the parched lips that had tasted water but once
through all that hot day, and the bloodshot eyes with which each
man seemed to beseech his comrade for drink which no one had to
give. Still, with dry lips and throats full of dust, they talked over a
thousand details of valor performed on the field. They spoke sadly of
the loss of brave Cameron, the wounding of Hunter, the fall of
Haggerty and Slocum, the doubtful fate of noble young Wilcox. They
discussed the impetuous dash and resolute stand of the Irishmen,
the murderous shock sustained by the Rhode Island regiments, how
the Hignlanders had done justice to their own warlike traditions, and
the Connecticut Third had crowned its State with honors. They told
how Heintzelman had stooped down from his war-horse to have his
wounded wrist bound up, refusing to dismount—of the intrepid
Burnside, and of Sprague, the patriotic young Governor, who led on
the forces his generosity had raised, to one victorious charge after
another, till with his own hands he spiked the Rhode Island guns
when compelled to leave them to the enemy.
So tranquil was the field during this short period of rest, that the
soldiers who had foreborne to throw their rations away in the march,
unslung their haversacks and sat down upon the grass to share the
contents with their less prudent companions; those who had been
fortunate enough to pick up the enemy’s haversacks, cast off in
retreat, added their contents to the scanty store.
While a few thus snatched a mouthful of food, others climbed up
the tall trees and took a triumphant view of the vast battle-field their
valor had conquered. The scene of carnage which it presented was
awful. Dead and dying men heaped together on the red earth,
crippled horses struggling desperately in their death-throes,
wounded men lying helplessly on the grass to which they had been
dragged from under the hoofs of the war-chargers—all this grouped
where the angry waves of battle had rolled down the beautiful valley,
with its back-ground of mountains, looking immovable and grandly
tranquil against the sky, was a picture which no man who saw it will
ever forget.
The army, far advanced within the enemy’s defensive lines,
believing itself victorious, was thus falling into quiet. The great
struggle of the contending forces, each to outflank the other, had
ceased. The prestige of success belonged to the Union, whose stars
and stripes shone out triumphantly as the smoke which had engulfed
the combatants rolled away.
All at once those in the tree-tops saw a commotion in the far
distance. Columns of troops were moving toward them with flashing
bayonets, and Southern banners, unfurling the stars and bars to the
sun. On they came—rank after rank, column after column, one
continuous stream of armed men, pouring down upon the battle-
field with bursts of music and wild shouts of enthusiasm.
It was Johnston’s reinforcements, marching up from the railroad.
On they rushed, fresh, vigorous, and burning with ardor, through
masses of wounded soldiers that lay by the road. The infantry broke
from the double-quick to a swift run—the cavalry rode in on a sharp
gallop—the artillery wagons were encircled with men eager to get
their ordnance in place against the thrice-exhausted Union troops. In
a continuous stream these columns swarmed into the woods, the
greater force centering around the hill about which the storm of
battle had raged fiercest.
In an instant the whole battle commenced again. The officers
sprang to their guns, anxious but not appalled. The men fell into
rank ready for a new onset, tired as they were.
Then it was that Griffin’s battery changed position, and the Fire
Zouaves coming up under a terrible fire, broke and scattered down
the hill-side, but rallied again in broken masses to rescue Rickett’s
battery, dragging the guns off with their own hands from amid the
pile of dying horses that lay around them. Then it was that the Sixty-
ninth and Seventy-ninth New York swept through the meadows from
the north across the road, and charged up the hill with such daring
courage, resisting the shock of battle fifteen minutes, and breaking
only when mortal valor could withstand the storm of bullets no
longer.
Then the bold Connecticut regiments charged up the hill.
Thousands of the impetuous enemy fell upon them, but in spite of all
they planted the star-spangled banner and sent its folds sweeping
out from the crest of the hill. Not till this was done, and a long last
shout sent ringing after the banner, were these heroic regiments
driven from their position. But beaten back at last, they retired step
by step, fighting as they went.
Then the Zouaves broke into the fight once more, scattered on the
ground, some prostrate on their faces, others with limbs huddled
together as if dead—while many stood with their eyes to the sun,
waiting the onset of the Black Horse cavalry that came galloping
upon them from the woods. A few of these eccentric warriors were
making a feint of defending themselves while the cavalry stood
hesitating on the margin of the wood, but the rest seemed to have
been cut down by the sweep of some deadly cannonade, and lay in
the grass like a flock of partridge shot down in full flight.
Out from the woody cover the Black Hawks thundered on, their
arms flashing and the jetty necks of their horses flinging off the
sunshine. The handful of Zouaves now flocked together in front of
their prostrate comrades, seeming doubtful whether to fight or flee.
On the black chargers came, champing the bit and tossing their
heads angrily, the riders ready to trample the scattered Zouaves
under hoof, as too easy a conquest for their flashing swords. A
sudden, sharp ringing yell, and the dead Zouaves sprang to life,
confronting the horsemen in a wall of bristling steel. A sharp volley—
the horses reared, plunged, and ran back upon each other, some
falling dead with quivering limbs as the fatal bullets rent their vitals,
and gushes of blood crimsoned their coal-black chests; others
staggering from a dozen wounds, rushed madly through the broken
ranks of the terrified cavalry.
Before the chargers could again be brought into line, the Zouaves
flung away their rifles, and sprang like tigers upon them. Seizing
them by the bit, they wound themselves up over their arched necks—
a flash of bowie-knives gleamed like chain-lightning across the ranks,
and many a wild black horse plunged on riderless with burning eyes,
streaming mane, and ringing empty stirrups, headlong through the
already half-disorganized ranks, and scouring over the battle-field,
scattering dismay as they went.
A last struggle now ensued, with desperate men and broken forces
—then a retreat, so wild, so impetuous and reckless, that all
organization was given up. Regiments lost their officers, broke,
mingled into others, and rushed across the field a headlong torrent,
which no human power could arrest. On they went, plunging through
the sea of carnage that surrounded the hill—the surging, angry
broken waves of a brave army hurrying tumultuously from what had
been a victorious field but an hour before.
Down from the hills, broken into frightened masses, pallid, reeling
with exhaustion, they swept onward like a whirlwind, bearing the
protesting officers with them, or trampling them under foot; for
human life was nothing to them in that hot, mad race. The contagion
of retreat spread like a prairie fire, from one point of the battle-field
to another, scattering the army in wild confusion.
Still it was not quite a panic; two regiments, the Seventy-first New
York and Second Rhode Island, kept their ranks in all this confusion,
and were led in order from the field, over the road they had passed in
the morning. Other regiments were led off in a wild, scattered way,
but most of the great army was broken up, battalions and regiments
surging together, and dashing through each other, till they became
one mighty scene of confusion.
THE ENEMY LARGELY REINFORCED—DESPERATE
FIGHTING OF THE UNION TROOPS AGAINST SUPERIOR
NUMBERS.
The enemy pursued them in a broken, hesitating way, like men

astonished at their own success; wanting confidence, they did not
venture in force to follow the retreating army, but captured many of
the scattered bands dispersed over the wide field of conflict. One
detachment of cavalry charged on a helpless crowd of wounded, who
were gathered near a hospital building; when a handful of
unorganized men, mostly civilians, seized upon the first weapons at
hand, and repelled it bravely.
Up to this time Schenck’s brigade had kept its position at Stone
Bridge. Captain Alexander, with his sappers and miners, had just cut
through the abatis by the side of the mined bridge, that Schenck
might lead his forces after those of Sherman and Keyes, when the
torrent of retreat rolled toward him; his protecting battery was taken,
and a force of cavalry and infantry came pouring into the road at the
very spot where the battle of the morning commenced.
The first battery attacked that day had been silenced, but not
taken; and there, in the woods which protected it, four hundred
South Carolinians had been concealed during the entire battle, to
swarm out now and fall upon the Union infantry in this most critical
moment. A sudden swoop of cavalry completed that unhappy day’s
work. The Union infantry broke ranks, and plunging into the woods
fled up the hill. A crowd of ambulances and army wagons had
concentrated close to this spot, and civilians, led to the field by
curiosity, blocked up the ground. The panic which had swept the
battle-field seized on them. Kellogg of Michigan, Washburne of
Illinois, and it is said, Lovejoy of Illinois, flung themselves in the
midst of the fugitives, and entreated them to make a stand. Ely, of
New York, was taken prisoner in a rash effort to restore confidence to
the panic-stricken masses of men. But the maddened crowd plunged
on. The teamsters urged their frightened horses into a headlong rush
for the road; everything and everybody, brave or craven, were swept
forward by the irresistible human torrent. It was a stampede which
no power could check or resist. From the branch road the trains
attached to Hunter’s division had caught the contagion, and rushed
into the staggering masses, creating fresh dismay and wilder
confusion.
It was a frightful scene, more terrible by far than the horrors of the
battle-field. Broken regiments, without leaders, filled the road, the
open fields, and skirted the fences, in one wild panic. Army wagons,
sutler’s teams and artillery caissons rushed together, running each
other down, and leaving the wrecks upon the road. Hacks were
crushed between heavy wagon wheels and their occupants flung to
the ground. Horses, wild with fright and maddened with wounds,
galloped fiercely through the crowd, rearing and plunging when the
worn-out fugitives attempted to seize them and save themselves from
the destruction that was threatened at every step.
Wounded men, who had found strength to stagger off the battle-
field, fell by the wayside, begging piteously to be taken up. Now and
then a kind fellow would mount a wounded soldier behind him, and
give the horse he had caught a double load; most of the poor fellows
were brought forward in this way. Sometimes a wounded man would
be picked up by two passing companions, and carried tenderly
forward—for the sweet impulses of humanity were not all lost in that
wild retreat.
Then came the artillery—for much was saved—thundering through
the panic-stricken crowd, crushing everything as it went, dragged
recklessly along by horses wild as the men that urged them on.
Rifles, bayonets, pistols, blankets, haversacks and knapsacks were
flung singly or in heaps along the way. Devoured by intense thirst,
black with powder, famished and halting, these stricken men
plunged into the fields, searching for water. If a muddy pool
presented itself, they staggered to its brink with a pitiful laugh, and
lying down on their faces, drank greedily, then arose with tears in
their eyes, thanking God for the great luxury.
As they passed by the few houses on the road, women—God bless
them!—would come out, some with curt, but genuine hospitality,
others with tears streaming down their cheeks, and gave drink and
food to the wounded men as they halted by. Those who fell upon the
wayside were taken in and tended kindly till the next day. Boys came
from the wells, bearing pailsful of water, which their little sisters
distributed to the jaded men in their own tin cups.
But this panic, like all others, was of brief duration. When the
fugitives reached Centreville, they found Blenker’s brigade stretched
across the road ready to guard the retreat. Some of the fugitives
rallied and formed into line, but they had flung away their arms, and
the highway from Stone Bridge to Centreville was literally covered
with these cast-off weapons and munitions of war, hurled from the
army wagons by reckless teamsters. In places the road was blocked
up by the wagons themselves, from which the drivers had cut their
teams loose and fled on the relieved horses.
Blenker, of Miles’ division, whose duty up to this time had been
one of inaction at Centreville, now did good service at his important
post. With three regiments he kept the road, expecting every moment
to be assailed by an overpowering and victorious enemy, eager to
complete his fatal work. As the darkness increased, the peril of his
position became imminent. At eleven o’clock the attack came upon
the advance company of Colonel Stahel’s rifles, from a body of the
enemy’s cavalry, which was, however, driven back, and did not
return. At this time Richardson and Davies were both in Centreville
with their brigades, which composed the entire left wing, all well
organized and under perfect command. These troops were put under
the command of Colonel Davies, who led them off the field—
Blenker’s brigade being the last to leave the town it had done so
much to protect.
The cause of this stupendous stampede no one ever has or can
explain. Cowardice it certainly was not. Those men had fought too
bravely, and suffered too patiently for that charge to be brought
against them. They were in fact victorious soldiers, for the rout of a
single half hour, disastrous as it proved, should have no power to
blot out the deeds of heroism that had marked the entire day. Was it
excitement, acting on an exhausted frame?
Let those answer who bore the flag of our Union through the long
hours of that July day, carried it under the hot sun through the fierce
fight, the dust and smoke and carnage, when the sky was one mosaic
of flame, and the earth groaned under the vibrations of artillery.
They had marched twelve miles fasting, and with but one draught of
water; marched without pause straight on to the battle field, and for
nearly five hours fought bravely as men ever fought on earth. Many
who had food found no time to eat it till the battle was at its close,
but in the rash eagerness for the field, these men, new to the
necessities of war, had flung their rations away, restive under the
weight. They had started not far from midnight, from camps in a
tumult of preparation, and therefore lacked sleep as well as food.
To all this was added THIRST—that hot, withering thirst, which
burns like lava in the throat, and drives a man mad with craving.
Panting for drink, their parched lips were blackened with
gunpowder; and exhausted nature, when she clamored for food, was
answered by the bitter saltness of cartridges ground between the
soldiers’ teeth.
Think of these men, famished, sleepless, drinkless, after fighting
through the fiery noon of a hot day, suddenly overwhelmed in the
midst of a positive victory—called upon to fight another battle, while
every breath came pantingly, from thirst, and every nerve quivered
with the overtax of its natural strength. Think of them under the
hoofs of the Black Horse cavalry, and swept down by the very
batteries that had been their protection. Think of all this, and if men
of military standing can condemn them, war is a cruel master, and
warriors hard critics.
It is very easy for civilians, who sit in luxurious parlors and sip cool
ices under the protection of the old flag, to sneer at this panic of Bull
Run, but many a brave man—braver than their critics, or they would
not have been in the ranks—was found even in the midst of that
stampede.
What if all along the road were the marks of hurried flight—
abandoned teams, dead horses, wasted ammunition, coats, blankets?
Were there not dead and dying men there also? brave and hardy
spirits, noble, generous souls, crushed beneath the iron hoof of war—
sacrificed and dying bravely in retreat, as they had fought in the
advance?
Never on this earth did the proud old American valor burn fiercer
or swell higher than on that day and field. And a reproach to the
heroes who left the impress of bravery, and gave up their lives on
that red valley, should never come from any true American heart.
THE BATTLE ON THE LEFT WING.
On the morning of the 21st, according to McDowell’s plan of battle,
the left wing, composed of Colonel Miles’ division, was stationed at
Centreville and at Blackburn’s Ford, the scene of Tyler’s disaster on
the 18th. Thus during the heat and struggle of that awful day the
greater portion of the left wing was six miles from the centre of
action. But notwithstanding, no better service was rendered to the
country on that day than that of this comparatively small handful of
men. The first brigade of this command, under Colonel Blenker,
occupied the heights of Centreville.
The second brigade, under Colonel Thomas A. Davies, of New
York, and Richardson’s brigade, were ordered by Colonel Miles to
take position before the batteries at Blackburn’s Ford, near the
battle-ground of the 18th, to make demonstrations of attack. In
pursuance of General McDowell’s order, Colonel Davies, being
ranking officer, took command of Richardson’s brigade.
On his route from Centreville in the morning, when about half way
to Blackburn’s Ford, Colonel Davies, while conversing with the guide
who rode by him, saw a country road, apparently little used, leading
through the woods to the left. “That road,” said the guide, a fine,
intelligent fellow, “will give position farther left and nearer the
enemy, for it runs directly to Beauregard’s headquarters.”
Colonel Davies, who had graduated at West Point and served in
the Mexican war, was prompt to recognize the importance of a point
which might enable the enemy to move upon his rear. He ordered a
halt, and detailed the Thirty-first New York regiment, Colonel Pratt,
and the Thirty-second, Colonel Mathewson, with a detachment of
artillery, to guard the road at its junction, and deployed another
regiment with a section of artillery on the road, which was shaded
and hedged in on both sides by a heavy growth of timber.
This duty performed, the troops continued their march. Davies
took his position in a wheat field with what was left of his brigade,
leaving Richardson to make his own arrangements to defend the
position in front of the enemy’s batteries at Blackburn’s Ford, the
battle-ground of the 18th. Richardson posted his command in this
place, on the road from Centreville heights to Blackburn’s Ford.
The wheat field which Davies occupied contained a hill which
overlooked a ravine, thickly wooded, on the opposite slope. On this
hill Hunt’s battery, commanded by Lieutenant Edwards, was placed,
having been exchanged from force of circumstances for Green’s
battery, which belonged to Davies’ command, but was now with
Richardson. The battery was supported by Davies’ own regiment, the
Sixteenth New York, and the Eighteenth, Colonel Jackson. This hill
commanded a broad view of the country on every side. The battle-
ground of the right wing, six miles off, was in full sight. Opposite his
position, across the stream, was the road which led from Bull Run to
Manassas, and also to Beauregard’s extreme right. Parallel with the
river to his extreme left, it was plainly traced, except where groves
and clumps of trees concealed it. This road, with all the high grounds
sloping from Manassas, covered with broken ridges, rich pasture
lands and splendid groves, lay before the men as they placed their
battery.
On their rear the Centreville road stretched along a beautiful tract
of country, hidden by a waving sea of luxuriant foliage. Indeed all the
converging roads that threaded the vast battle-field were plainly
visible from that point.
Posted in this commanding position, Davies opened his
demonstration with two twenty-pound rifle guns from Hunt’s
battery. The first shot hurled a shell into Beauregard’s headquarters,
which sent the rebels scattering in every direction. Richardson also
commenced firing across the Run, producing the desired effect of
keeping the enemy at their defences in the neighborhood.
At ten o’clock Colonel Miles visited the command. Finding the two
regiments and artillery posted at the country road, he ordered the
regiments to move forward one-fourth of a mile, and the artillery to
join Davies’ command, leaving the road exposed. He then sent two
companies to reconnoitre the enemy’s position. They had a skirmish
on the stream, at Blackburn’s Ford, and came back with little
damage.
The moment Miles rode back to Centreville, Davies ordered out his
brigade pioneer corps, all sturdy lumbermen of the North, with
orders to fell trees and block up the country road thus left exposed.
For two hours these sturdy men swung their axes among the heavy
timber, answering the distant roar of the battle-field with a wild,
crashing music, that broke with a new and more startling expression
of war through the familiar roll of cannon. With sharp, crashing
groans, the great trees were hurled to the earth, locked their
splintered and broken boughs across the road, and covered it with
mangled foliage, forming a barricade one-fourth of a mile long,
impassable as a thousand cactus hedges. The roar of cannon afar off,
and the batteries belching iron close by, failed to drown the groaning
rush of these forest monarchs; and when the near guns were silent
for a little time, as often happened, the almost human shiver of a
tree, in its last poise before it rushed downward with a wail in all its
leaves and branches, conveyed an idea of death more thrilling than
any noise that battle-field had to give. At twelve o’clock, just after the
pioneers had returned to position, a body of the enemy came down
this road from Bull Run, intending to march on Centreville and take
Miles’ division in the rear. Clouds of red dust rising from the trees
betrayed them just as they had discovered the barricade, and a storm
of shell and shrapnel hastened their backward march.
About this time the road on the other side of Bull Run was one
cloud of flying dust. It was Johnston’s forces, a close line, going up to
snatch victory from the brave army at Stone Bridge. The advance of
these forces became visible at first in tiny curls of dust rising from
the woods. Then it swelled into clouds, through which jaded horses
and tired men seemed struggling onward in a continued stream.
At this time the distant cannonading became louder and more
continuous; the far-off woods rolled up vast volumes of smoke, and
where the battle raged, a black canopy hung suspended in mid-air.
How those brave men, chained to their post by inevitable military
law, panted to plunge into that hot contest! The inaction forced upon
them when a struggle of life and death was going on in the distance,
was worse than torture. They suspected the character of those troops
moving forward in the red cloud, and followed them with eager,
burning eyes. But they soon had work of their own to do!
The firing on the right slackened between three and four o’clock,
growing fainter and fainter. About five, Colonel Davies received a
line from Richardson, saying: “The army is in full retreat;” but the
line was written in the haste and agitation of bad news, and was

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Student Workbook for Ingels/Smith’s

Landscaping Principles and Practices

Australia ● Brazil ● Mexico ● Singapore ● United Kingdom ● United States

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Printed in the United States of America

ex e r c iS e 1 Identifying Materials and Equipment 3

ex e r c iS e 2 Using Equipment and Working with Scale 13

ex e r c iS e 3 Developing Lettering Skills 19

ex e r c iS e 4 Using Symbols in Drawing the Residence 27

ex e r c iS e 5 Using Symbols in Drawing Trees 33

ex e r c iS e 6 Using Symbols in Drawing Shrubs 39

ex e r c iS e 7 Using Symbols in Drawing Ground Covers,

ex e r c iS e 8 Drawing Symbols for Nonplant Features 51

ex e r c iS e 9 Understanding Foundation Plantings 57

ex e r c iS e 10 Recognizing Faulty Foundation Design 63

ex e r c iS e 11 Designing a Foundation Planting 69

ex e r c iS e 12 Organizing Space in the Landscape 79

ex e r c iS e 13 Making Thumbnail Sketches 85

ex e r c iS e 14 Designing Walks and Drives 91

ex e r c iS e 15 Drafting Guest Parking and Turnarounds 95

ex e r c iS e 16 Designing Patios 103

ex e r c iS e 17 Designing Decks 109

ex er ci Se 18 Understanding Balance 115

ex er ci Se 19 Designing Curvilinear Gardens 119

ex er ci Se 20 Designing Berms 125

ex er ci Se 21 Understanding Focalization 133

ex er ci Se 22 Organizing/Beginning the Planting Plan 143

ex er ci Se 23 Placing Artificial Features on the Plan 151

ex er ci Se 24 Developing the Design 155

ex er ci Se 25 Selecting Plants 161

ex er ci Se 26 Labeling Plants on a Plan 167

ex er ci Se 27 Preparing a Finished Plant List 171

ex er ci Se 28 Preparing a Title Block 175

ex er ci Se 29 Drafting Details on Landscape Plans 179

ex er ci Se 30 Creating a Cost Estimate of

ex er ci Se 31 Pricing Landscape Maintenance 193

ex er ci Se 32 Communication and Marketing

ex er ci Se 33 Measuring Customer Satisfaction 205

ex er ci Se 34 Handling Customer Complaints 209

Section Four L A n d S c A P e m Ai ntenAnce

ex er ci Se 35 Operating a Lawn Mower 215

ex er ci Se 36 Operating a Commercial Dethatcher 221

ex er ci Se 37 Operating a Lawn Aerator 227

ex er ci Se 38 Operating a Walk-Behind Blower 233

ex er ci Se 39 Lawn Renovation (Reseeding) 239

ex er ci Se 40 Lawn Renovation (Overseeding) 243

Precision Exam Alignment

ex er ci Se 2 Using Equipment and Working with Scale 13

ex er ci Se 3 Developing Lettering Skills 19

ex er ci Se 4 Using Symbols in Drawing the Residence 27

ex er ci Se 5 Using Symbols in Drawing Trees 33

ex er ci Se 6 Using Symbols in Drawing Shrubs 39

ex er ci Se 7 Using Symbols in Drawing Ground Covers, Vines,

ex er ci Se 8 Drawing Symbols for Nonplant Features 51

ex er ci Se 9 Understanding Foundation Plantings 57

ex er ci Se 10 Recognizing Faulty Foundation Design 63

ex er ci Se 11 Designing a Foundation Planting 69

ex er ci Se 12 Organizing Space in the Landscape 79

ex er ci Se 13 Making Thumbnail Sketches 85

ex er ci Se 14 Designing Walks and Drives 91

ex er ci Se 15 Drafting Guest Parking and Turnarounds 95

ex er ci Se 16 Designing Patios 103