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Textbook Deep Learning Vol 1 From Basics To Practice Andrew Glassner 2 Ebook All Chapter PDF
Textbook Deep Learning Vol 1 From Basics To Practice Andrew Glassner 2 Ebook All Chapter PDF
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Volume, 1 DEEP LEARNING: From Basics to Practice Andrew
Glassner
Chapter 4: Bayes Rule 153 4.1 Why This Chapter Is Here 155 4.2
Frequentist and Bayesian Probability 156 4.2.1 The Frequentist
Approach 156 4.2.2 The Bayesian Approach 157 4.2.3 Discussion
158 4.3 Coin Flipping 159 4.4 Is This a Fair Coin? 161 4.4.1
Bayes'Rule 173 4.4.2 Notes on Bayes' Rule 175 4.5 Finding Life Out
There 178 4.6 Repeating Bayes1 Rule 183 4.6.1 The Posterior-Prior
Loop 184 4.6.2 Example: Which Coin Do We Have? 186 4.7 Multiple
Hypotheses 194 References 203 Chapter 5: Curves and Surfaces 205
5.1 Why This Chapter Is Here 207 5.2 Introduction 207 5.3 The
Derivative 210 5.4 The Gradient 222 References 229
9.6 Bias and Variance 352 9.6.1 Matching the Underlying Data 353
9.6.2 High Bias, Low Variance 357 9.6.3 Low Bias, High Variance 359
9.6.4 Comparing Curves 360 9.7 Fitting a Line with Bayes' Rule 363
References 372 Chapter 10: Neurons 374 10.1 Why This Chapter Is
Here 376 10.2 Real Neurons 376 10.3 Artificial Neurons 379 10.3.1
The Perceptron 379 10.3.2 Perceptron History 381 10.3.3 Modern
Artificial Neurons 382 10.4 Summing Up 390 References 390 Chapter
11: Learning and Reasoning 393 11.1 Why This Chapter Is Here 395
11.2 The Steps of Learning 396 11.2.1 Representation 396 11.2.2
Evaluation 400 11.2.3 Optimization 400 11.3 Deduction and
Induction 402 11.4 Deduction 403 11.4.1 Categorical Syllogistic
Fallacies 410
14.5 Random Forests 547 14.6 ExtraTrees 549 14.7 Boosting 549
References 561 Chapter 15: Scikit-learn 563 15.1 Why This Chapter
Is Here 566 15.2 Introduction 567 15.3 Python Conventions 569
15.4 Estimators 574 15.4.1 Creation 575 15.4.2 Learning with fit()
576 15.4.3 Predicting with predict() 578 15.4.4 decision_function(),
predict_proba() 581 15.5 Clustering 582 15.6 Transformations 587
15.6.1 Inverse Transformations 594 15.7 Data Refinement 598 15.8
Ensembles 601 15.9 Automation 605 15.9.1 Cross-validation 606
15.9.2 Hyperparameter Searching 610 15.9.3 Exhaustive Grid Search
614 15.9.4 Random Grid Search 625 15.9.5 Pipelines 626 15.9.6 The
Decision Boundary 641 15.9.7 Pipelined Transformations 643
Chapter23: Keras Parti 1090 23.1 Why This Chapter Is Here 1093
23.1.1 The Structure of This Chapter 1094 23.1.2 Notebooks 1094
23.1.3 Python Warnings 1094 23.2 Libraries and Debugging 1095
23.2.1 Versions and Programming Style 1097 23.2.2 Python
Programming and Debugging 1098 23.3 Overview 1100 23.3.1
What's a Model? 1101 23.3.2 Tensors and Arrays 1102 23.3.3 Setting
Up Keras 1102 23.3.4 Shapes of Tensors Holding Images 1104
23.3.5 GPUs and Other Accelerators 1108 23.4 Getting Started 1109
23.4.1 Hello, World 1110 23.5 Preparing the Data 1114 23.5.1
Reshaping 1115 23.5.2 Loading the Data 1126 23.5.3 Looking at the
Data 1129 23.5.4 Train-test Splitting 1136 23.5.5 Fixing the Data
Type 1138 23.5.6 Normalizing the Data 1139 23.5.7 Fixing the
Labels 1142 23.5.8 Pre-Processing All in One Place 1148 23.6 Making
the Model 1150 23.6.1 Turning Grids into Lists 1152 23.6.2 Creating
the Model 1154 23.6.3 Compiling the Model 1163 23.6.4 Model
Creation Summary 1167
23.7 Training The Model 1169 23.8 Training and Using A Model 1172
23.8.1 Looking at the Output 1174 23.8.2 Prediction 1180 23.8.3
Analysis of Training History 1186 23.9 Saving and Loading 1190
23.9.1 Saving Everything in One File 1190 23.9.2 Saving Just the
Weights 1191 23.9.3 Saving Just the Architecture 1192 23.9.4 Using
Pre-Trained Models 1193 23.9.5 Saving the Pre-Processing Steps
1194 23.10 Callbacks 1195 23.10.1 Checkpoints 1196 23.10.2
Learning Rate 1200 23.10.3 Early Stopping 1201 References 1205
Image Credits 1208 Chapter 24: Keras Part 2 1209 24.1 Why This
Chapter Is Here 1212 24.2 Improving the Model 1212 24.2.1
Counting Up Hyperparameters 1213 24.2.2 Changing One
Hyperparameter 1214 24.2.3 Other Ways to Improve 1218 24.2.4
Adding Another Dense Layer 1219 24.2.5 Less Is More 1221 24.2.6
Adding Dropout 1224 24.2.7 Observations 1230
Chapter 25: Autoencoders 1380 25.1 Why This Chapter Is Here 1382
25.2 Introduction 1383 25.2.1 Lossless and Lossy Encoding 1384
25.2.2 Domain Encoding 1386 25.2.3 Blending Representations 1388
25.3 The Simplest Autoencoder 1393 25.4 A Better Autoencoder
1400 25.5 Exploring the Autoencoder 1405 25.5.1 A Closer Look at
the Latent Variables 1405 25.5.2 The Parameter Space 1409 25.5.3
Blending Latent Variables 1415 25.5.4 Predicting from Novel Input
1418 25.6 Discussion 1419 25.7 Convolutional Autoencoders 1420
25.7.1 Blending Latent Variables 1424 25.7.2 Predicting from Novel
Input 1426 26.8 Denoising 1427 25.9 Variational Autoencoders 1430
25.9.1 Distribution of Latent Variables 1432 25.9.2 Variational
Autoencoder Structure 1433 29.10 Exploring the VAE 1442
References 1455 Image credits 1457
Chapter 30: Glossary 1658 About The Glossary 1660 0-9 1660 Greek
Letters 1661 A 1662 B 1665 C 1670 D 1678 E 1685 F 1688 G 1694 H
1697 1 1699 J 1703 K 1703 L 1704 M 1708 N 1713 O 1717 P 1719 Q
1725 R 1725 S 1729 T 1738 U 1741 V 1743 W 1745 X 1746 Z 1746
Preface What You'll Get from This Book Hello! If you're interested in
deep learning (DL) and machine learning (ML), then there's good
stuff for you in this book. My goal in this book is to give you the
broad skills to be an effective practitioner of machine learning and
deep learning. When you've read this book, you will be able to: •
Design and train your own deep networks. • Use your networks to
understand your data, or make new data. • Assign descriptive
categories to text, images, and other types of data. • Predict the
next value for a sequence of data. • Investigate the structure of your
data. • Process your data for maximum efficiency. • Use any
programming language and DL library you like. • Understand new
papers and ideas, and put them into practice. • Enjoy talking about
deep learning with other people. We'll take a serious but friendly
approach, supported by tons of illustrations. And we'll do it all
without any code, and without any math beyond multiplication. If
that sounds good to you, welcome aboard! ii
Preface Who This Book Is For This book is designed for people who
want to use machine learning and deep learning in their own work.
This includes programmers, artists, engineers, scientists, executives,
musicians, doctors, and anyone else who wants to work with large
amounts of information to extract meaning from it, or generate new
data. Many of the tools of machine learning, and deep learning in
particular, are embodied in multiple free, open-source libraries that
anyone can immediately download and use. Even though these tools
are free and easy to install, they still require significant technical
knowledge to use them properly. It's easy to ask the computer to do
something nonsensical, and it will happily do it, giving us back more
nonsense as output. This kind of thing happens all the time. Though
machine learning and deep learning libraries are powerful, they're
not yet user friendly. Choosing the right algorithms, and then
applying them properly, still requires a stream of technically
informed decisions. When things often don't go as planned, we need
to use our knowledge of what's going on inside the system in order
to fix it. There are multiple approaches to learning and mastering
this essential information, depending on how you like to learn. Some
people like hardcore, detailed algorithm analysis, supported by
extensive mathematics. If that's how you like to learn, there are
great books out there that offer this style of presentation [Bishopo6]
[Goodfellowi7]. This approach requires intensive effort, but pays off
with a thorough understanding of how and why the machinery
works. If you start this way, then you have to put in another chunk
of work to translate that theoretical knowledge into contemporary
practice. iii
Preface At the other extreme, some people just want to know how
to do some particular task. There are great books that take this
cookbook approach for various machine-learning libraries [Cholleti7]
[Muller-Guidoi6] [Raschkais] [VanderPlasi6]. This approach is easier
than the mathematically intensive route, but you can feel like you're
missing the structural information that explains why things work as
they do. Without that information, and its vocabulary, it can be hard
to work out why something that you think ought to work doesn't
work, or why something doesn't work as well as you thought it
should. It can also be challenging to read the literature describing
new ideas and results, because those discussions usually assume a
shared body of underlying knowledge that an approach based on a
single library or language doesn't provide. This book takes a middle
road. My purpose is practical: to give you the tools to practice deep
learning with confidence. I want you to make wise choices as you do
your work, and be able to follow the flood of exciting new ideas
appearing almost every day. My goal here is to cover the
fundamentals just deeply enough to give you a broad base of
support. I want you to have enough background not just for the
topics in this book, but also the materials you're likely to need to
consult and read as you actually do deep learning work. This is not a
book about programming. Programming is important, but it
inevitably involves all kinds of details that are irrelevant to our larger
subject. And programming examples lock us into one library, or one
language. While such details are necessary to building final systems,
they can be distracting when we're trying to focus in the big ideas.
Rather than get waylaid by discussions of loops and indices and data
structures, we discuss everything here in a language and library
independent way. Once you have the ideas firmly in place, reading
the documentation for any library will be a straightforward affair. We
do put our feet on the ground in Chapters 15, 23, and 24, when we
discuss the scikit-learn library for machine learning, and the Keras
library for deep learning. These libraries are both Python based. In iv
Preface Thank You! Authors like to say that nobody writes a book
alone. We say that because it's true. For their consistent and
enthusiastic support of this project, and helping me feel good about
it all the way through, I am enormously grateful to Eric Braun, Eric
Haines, Steven Drucker, and Tom Reike. Thank you for your
friendship and encouragement. Huge thanks are due to my
reviewers, whose generous and insightful comments greatly
improved this book: Adam Finkelstein, Alex Colburn, Alexander
Keller, Alyn Rockwood, Angelo Pesce, Barbara Mones, Brian Wyvill,
Craig Kaplan, Doug Roble, Eric Braun, Eric Haines, Greg Turk, Jeff
Hultquist, Jessica Hodgins, Kristi Morton, Lesley Istead, Luis
Avarado, Matt Pharr, Mike Tyka, Morgan McGuire, Paul Beardsley,
Paul Strauss, Peter Shirley, Philipp Slusallek, Serban Porumbescu,
Stefanus Du Toit, Steven Drucker, Wenhao Yu, and Zackory Erickson.
Special thanks to super reviewers Alexander Keller, Eric Haines,
Jessica Hodgins, and Luis Avarado, who read all or most of the
manuscript and offered terrific feedback on both presentation and
structure. Thanks to Morgan McGuire for Markdeep, which enabled
me to focus on what I was saying, rather than the mechanics of how
to format it. It made writing this book a remarkably smooth and fluid
process. Thanks to Todd Szymanski for insightful advice on the
design and layout of the book's contents and covers, and for
catching layout errors. Thanks to early readers who caught typos
and other problems: Christian Forfang, David Pol, Eric Haines, Gopi
Meenakshisundaram, Kostya Smolenskiy, Mauricio Vives, Mike Wong,
and Mrinal Mohit. All of these people improved the book, but the
final decisions were my own. Any problems that remain are my
responsibility. ix
Preface References This section appears in every chapter. It contains
references to all the documents that are referred to in the body of
the chapter. There may also be other useful papers, websites,
documentation, blogs, and other resources. Whenever possible, I've
preferred to use references that are available online, so you can
immediately access them using the provided link. The exceptions are
usually books, but occasionally I'll include an important online
reference even if it's behind a paywall. [Agiiera y Areas 17] Blaise
Agiiera y Areas, Margaret Mitchell and Alexander Todorov,
"Physiognomy's New Clothes", Medium, 2017.
https://medium.eom/@blaisea/ physiognomys-new-clothes-
f2d4b59fdd6a [Barratis] James Barrat, "Our Final Invention: Artificial
Intelligence and the End of the Human Era", St. Martin's Griffin,
2015. [Bishopo6] Christopher M. Bishop, "Pattern Recognition and
Machine Learning", Springer-Verlag, pp. 149-152, 2006. [Cholleti7]
Francois Chollet, "Deep Learning with Python", Manning Publications,
2017. [Domingosi5] Pedro Domingos, "The Master Algorithm", Basic
Books, 2015. [Goodfellowi7] Ian Goodfellow, Yoshua Bengio, Aaron
Courville, "Deep Learning", MIT Press, 2017.
http://www.deeplearning- book.org/ [JetBrainsi7] Jet Brains,
"Pycharm Community Edition IDE", 2017.
https://www.jetbrains.com/pycharm/ [Jupyten6] The Jupyter team,
2016. http://jupyter.org/ X
As yet we have only been talking about the crust of the earth; we
shall now return and enter upon its actual examination. It will not be
necessary for us personally to descend into the abysmous caverns
that lie beneath our feet, nor, with hammer in hand, to go forth and
explore the district of country in which we may happen to dwell: we
may do all this by and by, when we know both how and what to
observe. Meanwhile, with such teachers as Buckland, Sedgwick,
Murchison, Pye Smith, Hugh Miller, De la Beche, Lyell, Owen and
others, we may for some while to come be only tarry-at-home
travellers; for in a true sense, in this department of knowledge,
“other men have laboured, and we enter into their labours.” Let us
now look at the crust of the earth, as it may be represented in two
imaginary sections. Suppose we could make a vertical section of the
earth’s crust, and cut straight down some eighty miles till we reached
the central mass of incandescence that we believe lies beneath this
crust, or Erdrinde (earth-rind), as the Germans call it, and then
bring out this section to daylight, it would present something very
much like the following appearance.
DIAGRAM I.
Here, in the words of another writer, we would add for the reader’s
guidance, that “the unstratified or igneous rocks occur in no regular
succession, but appear amidst the stratified without order or
arrangement; heaving them out of their original horizontal positions,
breaking up through them in volcanic masses, and sometimes
overrunning them after the manner of liquid lava. From these
circumstances they are, in general, better known by their mineral
composition than by their order of occurrence. Still it may be
convenient to divide them into three great classes; granite,
trappean, and volcanic—granite being the basis of all known rocks,
and occurring along with the primary and transition strata; the
trappean, of a darker and less crystalline structure than the granite,
and occurring along with the secondary and tertiary rocks; and the
volcanic, still less crystalline and compact, and of comparatively
recent origin, or still in process of formation.” This the student will
observe by another reference to the previous diagram; but, in looking
at the one now before him, we must also add for his further guidance,
—for we are presuming that we address those who need initiation
into the rudiments of this science, and the circumstance that we
never met with a preliminary treatise that quite satisfied us, or
helped such intelligent youth as were prying into the apparently
cabalistic mysteries of the earth’s structural divisions, is one strong
inducement to the present undertaking;—we must add, that “it must
not be supposed, however, that all the stratified rocks always occur in
any one portion of the earth’s crust in full and complete succession
as represented” in Diagram II. “All that is meant is, that such would
be their order if every group and formation were present. But
whatever number of groups may be present, they never happen out
of their regular order of succession; that is, clay-slate never occurs
above coal, nor coal above chalk. Thus in London, tertiary strata
occupy the surface; in Durham, magnesian limestone; in Fife, the
coal measures; and in Perthshire, the old red sandstone and clay-
slate; so that it would be fruitless to dig for chalk in Durham, for
magnesian limestone in Fife, or for coal in Perthshire. It would not
be absurd, however, to dig for coal in Durham, because that mineral
underlies the magnesian limestone; or for old red sandstone in Fife,
because that formation might be naturally expected to occur under
the coal strata of that country, in the regular order of succession.”[8]
Still, after reading all this, we can easily imagine, not so much an
air of incredulity taking possession of the countenance of our
courteous reader as a feeling somewhat like this, with which we have
often come into contact in those geological classes of young persons
which it has been our pleasure to conduct: “Well, all that’s very plain
in the book; I see granite lies at the bottom, and pushes itself up to
the top very often; and I see in the diagrams that coal and chalk are
not found in the same place, and that different localities have their
different formations, and the various formations have their different
fossils, but I confess that I cannot realize it. I know the earth is round
like an orange, a little flattened at the poles—what is called an oblate
spheroid; but all this surpasses my power of comprehension; can’t
you make it plainer?” Well, let us try; on page 27 is a diagram,
representing no ideal, but an actual boring into the earth. London is
situated on the tertiary formation, in what is called geologically the
basin of the London clay, that is almost on the very top of the crust,
or external covering that lies on the vast mass of molten and other
matter beneath. Here is first a drawing and then a section that may
represent this basin:—
DIAGRAM III.
DIAGRAM IV.
The water which falls on the chalk hills flows into them, or into the
porous beds adjoining, and would rise upwards to its level but for the
superincumbent pressure of the bed of clay above it, cccc. Under
these circumstances, in order to procure water, Artesian[9] wells are
sunk through the bed of clay, perhaps also through the chalk, but at
any rate till the depressed stratum of chalk is reached; and this gives
exit to the subterranean water, which at once rises through the iron
tubes inserted in the boring to the surface. By these borings through
the clay, water is obtained where it would be impossible to sink a
well, or where the expense would prohibit the attempt. To explain
this matter, here is a diagram (No. V.) which represents the Artesian
well at the Model Prison at Pentonville, London, the strata upon
which London is built, and which we can apply to the diagram on
page 21, that the theory of the earth’s crust may be the more
thoroughly understood before we proceed.
DIAGRAM V.
In the same manner Artesian wells have been sunk in other places,
as at Hampstead Water Works, 450 feet deep; Combe & Delafield’s,
500 feet deep; and the Trafalgar-square Water Works, 510 feet deep.
[10]
Now, the reader has only to take this last diagram, and in
imagination to apply it to the one on page 21, in order to see that so
far as actual boring and investigation go, the geological theory of the
earth’s crust is correct; only again let it be observed that this order is
never inverted, although it frequently happens that some one or
more of the strata may be absent.
Hitherto we have spoken of the earth’s crust without reference to
that wondrous succession and development of living beings which
once had their joy of life, and whose fossil remains, found in the
different strata, waken such kindling emotions of the power of Deity,
and enlarge indefinitely our conceptions of the boundless resources
of His Mind. This will open before us a new chapter in the history of
our planet, already the theatre of such vast revolutions, and which,
under the influence of Divine truth, is yet to undergo one greater and
nobler than any of these. We have as yet only glanced at the surface
page of the wondrous book, now happily opened for us by geologists,
to whose names we have already made reference; and as the mind
rests with intense pleasure on the discoveries of Champollion,
Belzoni, Lane, Layard, Botta, and others who have deciphered the
hieroglyphics, in which were written the wars and the chronicles of
ancient nations, whose names and deeds are becoming, by books and
lectures, and above all by our noble national Museum, familiar even
to our children, and a source of help and solace to the hard-toiling
artisan; so with profounder interest, as carried back into remoter
ages of antiquity, so remote that they seem to lie beyond the power of
a human arithmetic to calculate, do we humbly endeavour to
decipher the hieroglyphics,[11] not of Egypt or of Nineveh, but of the
vast creation of God, written in characters that require, not only
learning and science to understand, but modesty, patience, and
triumphant perseverance. He who with these pre-requisites
combines reverence for God and His revelation, will always find in
Geology material both for manly exercise of thought, and also for
reverent adoration of Him who is Himself unsearchable, and whose
ways are past finding out.
“We not to explore the secrets, ask
Of His eternal empire, but the more
To magnify His works, the more we know.”—Milton.
Most happily for Christendom, our noblest men of science are not
ashamed of the “reproach of Christ;” and we know not how to
conclude this chapter in a strain more accordant with our own
thoughts than by quoting the words of an eminent living naturalist:
—“I can echo with fullest truth the experience of Bishop Heber; ‘In
every ride I have taken, and in every wilderness in which my tent has
been pitched, I have found enough to keep my mind from sinking
into the languor and the apathy which have been regarded as natural
to a tropical climate.’ Nay, I may truly say, I found no tendency to
apathy or ennui. Every excursion presented something to admire;
every day had its novelty; the morning was always pregnant with
eager expectation; the evening invariably brought subjects of interest
fresh and new; and the days were only too short for enjoyment. They
were not days of stirring adventure, of dangerous conflicts with man
or with beast, or of hair-breadth escapes in flood and field; their
delights were calm and peaceful, I trust not unholy, nor unbecoming
the character of a Christian, who has his heart in heaven, and who
traces, even in earth’s loveliest scenes, the mark of the spoiler. The
sentiments expressed by my friend[12] and fellow-labourer are those
which I would ever associate with the study of science. ‘If the sight of
nature,’ observes Mr. Hill, ‘were merely the looking at a painted
pageantry, or at a spectacle filling the carnal mind with wonder and
delight, the spirit would be overpowered and worked into weariness;
but it is admiration at the wisdom, and reverence for the beneficence
of Almighty power. He who dwelleth in the light which no man can
approach unto, whom no man hath seen, nor can see,’ is yet visible in
His perfections through the works of His hand, and His designs are
made manifest in the purpose of His creatures. Wherever our lot is
cast, into whatever scenes our wayward impulses lead us, the mind-
illumined eye gazes on divine things, and the spirit-stirred heart feels
its pulses bounding with emotions from the touch of an ever-present
Deity. The habit that sees in every object the wisdom and the
goodness as well as the power of God, I may speak of, as Coleridge
speaks of the poetical spirit, ‘it has been to me an exceeding great
reward; it has soothed my afflictions; it has multiplied and refined
my enjoyments; it has endeared my solitude; and it has given me the
habit of wishing to discover the good and the beautiful in all that
meets and surrounds me.’
“‘Great are thy works, Jehovah, infinite
Thy power! what thought can measure thee, or tongue
Relate thee?’”[13]
CHAPTER III.
THE ANCIENT EPOCH.
“Where wast thou when I laid the foundations of the earth?”—Job xxxviii. 4.
The Scandinavians, the Hartz mountains, the Alps, and the Pyrenees
are mine; nor is my territory less in Asia, Africa, the great Americas,
and in the becoming great Australia; and thus, by my deeply rooted
foundations and my vast extension, I constitute the framework, solid
and immoveable, of this ‘great globe and all that it inherits.’”
Thus, at any rate, the granite might speak, nor would there be one
word of vain boasting in it. Having beard it, or fancied we heard it,
which amounts to the same thing, let us soberize ourselves, and put
granite into the third person. There are no fossils in granite and the
other Plutonic and volcanic rocks; even supposing any forms of life
to have been in existence at the period to which we are referring, the
action of fire has annihilated all their remains. We should not
therefore expect in Cumberland and Cornwall, nor in those parts of
Devonshire where granite prevails, to find the fossils peculiar to
other formations with which in time we hope to make familiar
acquaintance. But though destitute of interest in this respect, how
great is its importance and interest in those economic uses which
have the geologist for their guide, and the whole family of man for
their beneficent operations! “Many varieties of granite are excellent
as building stones, though expensive in working to definite forms.
Some of the most important public works of Great Britain and
Ireland, France and Russia, are of this material. In selecting granite,
those varieties in which the constituent minerals and the scales of
mica are superabundant, should be avoided; and, as a practical test,
it is wise to notice the country immediately around the quarry, as the
sandy varieties rapidly disintegrate,[19] and form accumulations of
micaceous sand. The Hayter or Dartmoor granite, the Aberdeen
granite, the Kingstown (Dublin) granite, some beds of the Mourne or
county of Down granite, and the Guernsey or Channel Island granite,
are well known for their excellence. In some of the quarries the
bedding of the granite is more defined than in others; and wherever
this is the case, or where marked cleavages or joints prevail, the work
is much facilitated. Many old Egyptian works and statues were
formed of granite, and it is still used for colossal works, as it takes a
fine polish. For example, the great fountain shell, or vase, before the
Museum at Berlin, and the pedestal of Peter the Great at St.
Petersburg, are of the northern granite, being sculptured from erratic
blocks. The splendid Scotch granite columns, in the vestibule of the
Fitzwilliam Museum at Cambridge, are beautiful examples of a
modern application of this rock to the arts.”[20]
It is also in the Plutonic or igneous rocks that almost all the metals
are found; and here we have our first illustration of that order to
which we shall frequently call attention; an order as exquisite as can
be found in the drawers of a lady’s cabinet, forbidding the thought
that anything observable at the present time, in the bowels or on the
surface of the crust of the earth, can be attributed to the violent
diluvial action of the Noachian deluge. The diagram below represents
an ideal section of a mining district.