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DESIGN OF STEEL
STRUCTURES
2nd EDITION
ECCS EUROCODE DESIGN MANUALS
ECCS EDITORIAL BOARD
Luís Simões da Silva (ECCS)
António Lamas (Portugal)
Jean­Pierre Jaspart (Belgium)
Reidar Bjorhovde (USA)
Ulrike Kuhlmann (Germany)

DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES – 2ND EDITION

Luís Simões da Silva, Rui Simões and Helena Gervásio
FIRE DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES – 2ND EDITION
Jean­Marc Franssen and Paulo Vila Real
DESIGN OF PLATED STRUCTURES
Darko Beg, Ulrike Kuhlmann, Laurence Davaine and Benjamin Braun
FATIGUE DESIGN OD STEEL AND COMPOSITE STRUCTURES
Alain Nussbaumer, Luís Borges and Laurence Davaine
DESIGN OF COLD­FORMED STEEL STRUCTURES
Dan Dubina, Viorel Ungureanu and Raffaele Landolfo
DESIGN OF JOINTS IN STEEL AND COMPOSITE STRUCTURES
Jean­Pierre Jaspart and Klaus Weynand
DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES FOR BUILDINGS IN SEISMIC AREAS
Raffaele Landolfo, Federico Mazzolani, Dan Dubina, Luís Simões da Silva and
Mario d'Aniello

ECCS – SCI EUROCODE DESIGN MANUALS

DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES, U. K. EDITION
Luís Simões da Silva, Rui Simões, Helena Gervásio and Graham Couchman

ECCS EUROCODE DESIGN MANUALS – BRAZILIAN

EDITIONS
DIMENSIONAMENTO DE ESTRUTURAS DE AÇO
Luís Simões da Silva, Rui Simões, Helena Gervásio, Pedro Vellasco, Luciano Lima

INFORMATION AND ORDERING DETAILS

For price, availability, and ordering visit our website www.steelconstruct.com.
For more information about books and journals visit www.ernst­und­sohn.de.
DESIGN OF STEEL
STRUCTURES
Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures
Part 1­1 – General rules and rules for buildings

2nd Edition

Luís Simões da Silva

Rui Simões
Helena Gervásio
Design of Steel Structures

2nd Edition, 2016

Published by:
ECCS – European Convention for Constructional Steelwork
publications@steelconstruct.com
www.steelconstruct.com

Sales:
Wilhelm Ernst & Sohn Verlag für Architektur und technische Wissenschaften
GmbH & Co. KG, Berlin Sales:

All rights reserved. No parts of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a

retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical,
photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the copyright
owner.

ECCS assumes no liability with respect to the use for any application of the material
and information contained in this publication.

Copyright © 2016 ECCS – European Convention for Constructional Steelwork

ISBN (ECCS): 978­92­9147­134­8

ISBN (Ernst & Sohn): 978­3­433­0316­36

Legal dep.: Printed in Multicomp Lda, Mem Martins, Portugal

Photo cover credits: Wolfdream16499 / Shutterstock.com
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

TABLE OF CONTENTS

FOREWORD xiii
PREFACE xv

Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION 1
1.1. General Observations 1
1.2. Codes of Practice and Normalization 3
1.2.1. Introduction 3
1.2.2. Eurocode 3 6
1.2.3. Other standards 7
1.3. Basis of Design 8
1.3.1. Basic concepts 8
_____
1.3.2. Reliability management 9 v
1.3.3. Basic variables 13
1.3.3.1. Introduction 13
1.3.3.2. Actions and environmental influences 13
1.3.3.3. Material properties 14
1.3.3.4. Geometrical data 15
1.3.4. Ultimate limit states 15
1.3.5. Serviceability limit states 16
1.3.6. Durability 18
1.3.7. Sustainability 19
1.4. Materials 21
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
1.4.1. Material specification 21
1.4.2. Mechanical properties 22
1.4.3. Toughness and through thickness properties 25
1.4.4. Fatigue properties 27
1.4.5. Corrosion resistance 27
1.5. Geometric Characteristics and Tolerances 28

Chapter 2
STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS 33
2.1. Introduction 33
2.2. Structural Modelling 34
2.2.1. Introduction 34
2.2.2. Choice of member axis 36
2.2.3. Influence of eccentricities and supports 38
2.2.4. Non­prismatic members and members with curved axis 39
2.2.5. Influence of joints 44
_____
2.2.6. Combining beam elements together with two and
vi
three dimensional elements 51
2.2.7. Worked examples 52
2.3. Global Analysis of Steel Structures 75
2.3.1. Introduction 75
2.3.2. Structural stability of frames 77
2.3.2.1. Introduction 77
2.3.2.2. Elastic critical load 80
nd
2.3.2.3. 2 order analysis 86
2.3.3. Imperfections 88
2.3.4. Worked example 94
2.4. Classification of Cross Sections 108
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter 3
DESIGN OF MEMBERS 119
3.1. Introduction 119
3.1.1. General 119
3.1.2. Resistance of cross sections 120
3.1.2.1. General criteria 120
3.1.2.2. Section properties 121
3.1.3. Buckling resistance of members 125
3.2. Tension 125
3.2.1. Behaviour in tension 125
3.2.2. Design for tensile force 128
3.2.3. Worked examples 131
3.3. Laterally Restrained Beams 138
3.3.1. Introduction 138
3.3.2. Design for bending 139
_____
3.3.2.1. Elastic and plastic bending moment resistance 139
vii
3.3.2.2. Uniaxial bending 141
3.3.2.3. Bi­axial bending 142
3.3.2.4. Net area in bending 142
3.3.3. Design for shear 143
3.3.4. Design for combined shear and bending 144
3.3.5. Worked examples 146
3.4. Torsion 157
3.4.1. Theoretical background 157
3.4.1.1. Introduction 157
3.4.1.2. Uniform torsion 159
3.4.1.3. Non­uniform torsion 161
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
3.4.1.4. Cross section resistance in torsion 166
3.4.2. Design for torsion 173
3.4.3. Worked examples 176
3.5. Compression 186
3.5.1. Theoretical background 186
3.5.1.1. Introduction 186
3.5.1.2. Elastic critical load 186
3.5.1.3. Effect of imperfections and plasticity 192
3.5.2. Design for compression 198
3.5.3. Worked examples 204
3.6. Laterally Unrestrained Beams 212
3.6.1. Introduction 212
3.6.2. Lateral­torsional buckling 212
3.6.2.1. Introduction 212
3.6.2.2. Elastic critical moment 213
3.6.2.3. Effect of imperfections and plasticity 223
_____
3.6.3. Lateral­torsional buckling resistance 225
viii
3.6.4. Worked examples 229
3.7. Beam­Columns 242
3.7.1. Introduction 242
3.7.2. Classification of cross sections under bending and axial force 243
3.7.3. Cross section resistance 247
3.7.3.1. Theoretical background 247
3.7.3.2. Design resistance 249
3.7.4. Buckling resistance 253
3.7.4.1. Theoretical background 253
3.7.4.2. Design resistance 256
3.7.5. Worked examples 265
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter 4
ELASTIC DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES 293
4.1. Introduction 293
4.2. Simplified Methods of Analysis 295
4.2.1. Introduction 295
4.2.2. Amplified sway­moment method 297
4.2.3. Sway­mode buckling length method 299
4.2.4. Worked example 300
4.3. Member Stability of Non­prismatic Members and Components 310
4.3.1. Introduction 310
4.3.2. Non­prismatic members 310
4.3.3. Members with intermediate restraints 316
4.3.4. General method 322
4.3.5. Worked example 325
4.4. Design Example 1: Elastic Design of Braced Steel­Framed
Building 340
4.4.1. Introduction 340 _____
ix
4.4.2. Description of the structure 342
4.4.3. General safety criteria, actions and combinations of actions 344
4.4.3.1. General safety criteria 344
4.4.3.2. Permanent actions 345
4.4.3.3. Imposed loads 345
4.4.3.4. Wind actions 346
4.4.3.5. Summary of basic actions 353
4.4.3.6. Frame imperfections 353
4.4.3.7. Load combinations 356
4.4.3.8. Load arrangement 358
4.4.4. Structural analysis 359
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
4.4.4.1. Structural model 359
4.4.4.2. Linear elastic analysis 360
nd
4.4.4.3. Susceptibility to 2 order effects: elastic critical
loads 361
4.4.4.4. 2nd order elastic analysis 362
4.4.5. Design checks 363
4.4.5.1. General considerations 363
4.4.5.2. Cross section resistance 365
4.4.5.3. Buckling resistance of beams 366
4.4.5.4. Buckling resistance of columns and beam­columns 366

Chapter 5
PLASTIC DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES 367
5.1. General Principles for Plastic Design 367
5.1.1. Introduction 367
5.1.2. Plastic limit analysis: method of mechanisms 368
_____ 5.1.3. Code requirements for plastic analysis 372
x
5.2. Methods of Analysis 376
5.2.1. Introduction 376
5.2.2. Approximate methods for pre­design 376
5.2.3. Computational analysis 388
5.2.4. 2nd order effects 393
5.2.4.1. Introduction 393
5.2.4.2. Elastic critical load 394
nd
5.2.4.3. 2 order computational analysis 397
5.2.4.4. Simplified methods for analysis 397
5.2.5. Worked example 400
5.3. Member Stability and Buckling Resistance 410
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

5.3.1. Introduction 410

5.3.2. General criteria for the verification of the stability of
members with plastic hinges 410
5.3.3. Bracings 411
5.3.4. Verification of the stability of members with plastic
hinges 414
5.3.4.1. Introduction 414
5.3.4.2. Prismatic members constituted by hot­rolled or
equivalent welded I sections 415
5.3.4.3. Haunched or tapered members made of rolled or
equivalent welded I sections 417
5.3.4.4. Modification factors for moment gradients in
members laterally restrained along the tension flange 420
5.3.5. Worked examples 423
5.4. Design Example 2: Plastic Design of Industrial Building 432
5.4.1. Introduction 432
5.4.2. General description 433
5.4.3. Quantification of actions, load combinations and _____
general safety criteria 434 xi

5.4.3.1. General criteria 434

5.4.3.2. Permanent actions 434
5.4.3.3. Imposed loads 434
5.4.3.4. Snow loads 435
5.4.3.5. Wind loads 435
5.4.3.6. Summary of basic actions 440
5.4.3.7. Imperfections 440
5.4.3.8. Load combinations 441
5.4.4. Pre­design 443
5.4.5. Structural analysis 446
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
5.4.5.1. Linear elastic analysis 446
nd
5.4.5.2. 2 order effects 448
5.4.5.3. Elastic­plastic analysis 449
5.4.6. Code checks 451
5.4.6.1. General considerations 451
5.4.6.2. Cross section resistance 451
5.4.6.3. Buckling resistance of the rafters 451
5.4.6.4. Buckling resistance of the columns 454
5.4.7. Synthesis 454

REFERENCES 455

Annex A
FORMULAS FOR COMMON TORSIONAL CASES 465
A.1. Cross Sectional Properties for Torsion 465
A.2. Solution of Differential Equation for Torsion 467
_____
A.2.1 Concentrated torsional moment 467
xii
A.2.2 Distributed torsional moment 474

Annex B
ELASTIC CRITICAL MOMENT 483
B.1. Abacus to Calculate the Coefficients C1, C2 and C3 483
B.1.1 Elastic critical moment in beams submitted to end
moments simultaneously with transverse loads 483
B.1.2 Elastic critical moment of unbraced cantilevers 487
B.2. Alternative Equations for the Determination of the Elastic
Critical Moment 490
 FOREWORD

FOREWORD

The development program for the design manuals of the European Convention for
Constructional Steelwork (ECCS) represents a major effort for the steel
construction industry and the engineering profession in Europe. Conceived by the
ECCS Technical Activities Board under the leadership of its chairman, Professor
Luis Simões da Silva, the manuals are being prepared in close agreement with the
final stages of Eurocode 3 and its national Annexes. The scope of the development
effort is vast, and reflects a unique undertaking in the world.
The publication of the first of the manuals, Design of Steel Structures, is a
signal achievement which heralds the successful completion of the Eurocode 3
work and brings it directly to the designers who will implement the actual use
of the code. As such, the book is more than a manual – it is a major textbook
that details the fundamental concepts of the code and their practical
application. It is a unique publication for a major construction market.
Following a discussion of the Eurocode 3 basis of design, including the
principles of reliability management and the limit state approach, the steel
material standards and their use under Eurocode 3 are detailed. Structural _____
analysis and modeling are presented in a chapter that will assist the design xiii
engineer in the first stages of a design project. This is followed by a major
chapter that provides the design criteria and approaches for the various types
of structural members. The theories of behavior and strength are closely tied
to the Eurocode requirements, making for a unique presentation of theory
into practice. The following chapters expand on the principles and
applications of elastic and plastic design of steel structures.
The many design examples that are presented throughout the book represent
a significant part of the manual. These will be especially well received by
the design profession. Without a doubt, the examples will facilitate the
acceptance of the code and provide for a smooth transition from earlier
national codes to the Eurocode.

Reidar Bjorhovde
Member, ECCS Editorial Board
 PREFACE

PREFACE 2nd EDITION

The first edition of Design of Steel Structures was published by ECCS as a

paperback in 2010. Since 2012, this publication is also available in electronic
format as an e­book. The first edition was sold in over 100 countries and the
interest for this publication was so high that a second edition would have to
be printed.
The authors took the opportunity of this second edition to revise their
manuscript. The standard that constitutes the object of this book, namely
EN 1993­1­1, is still in application in the same versions as those that prevailed
at the time of writing the first edition except for a minor amendment published
in 2013. However, many comments were received by readers that resulted in
the correction of some small mistakes and the rephrasing of some sentences or
sections and the addition of some new material.
The new material comprises:
− A revised section dealing with the design for torsion of steel
members, including a new worked example illustrating an open
cross section beam subject to bending and torsional moments; _____
− A revised section on the elastic critical moment of beams; xv
− An improved explanation on the classification of cross sections
subject to bending and axial force;
− An additional worked example of a beam­column with transversal
loads and end moments;
− A new Annex containing formulas for common torsional cases;
− A revised and expanded Annex with formulas for elastic critical
moment calculation.
The authors are indebted to Profs. E. Mirambell and K. Rasmussen for their
thorough revision of the section on torsion.

Luís Simões da Silva

Rui Simões
Helena Gervásio
Coimbra, 2016
 PREFACE

PREFACE 1st EDITION

The General rules and rules for buildings of part 1­1 of Eurocode 3
constitute the core of the code procedures for the design of steel structures.
They contain the basic guidance for structural modeling and analysis of steel
frameworks and the rules for the evaluation of the resistance of structural
members and components subject to different loading conditions.
According to the objectives of the ECCS Eurocode Design Manuals, it is the
objective of this book to provide mix of “light” theoretical background,
explanation of the code prescriptions and detailed design examples.
Consequently, this book is more than a manual: it provides an all­in­one
source for an explanation of the theoretical concepts behind the code and
detailed design examples that try to reproduce real design situations instead
of the usually simplified examples that are found in most textbooks.
This book evolved from the experience of teaching Steel Structures according
to ENV 1993­1­1 since 1993. It further benefited from the participation in
Technical Committees TC8 and TC10 of ECCS where the background and the
applicability of the various clauses of EN 1993­1­1 was continuously _____
xvii
questioned. This book covers exclusively part 1­1 of Eurocode 3 because of
the required level of detail. Forthcoming volumes discuss and apply most of
the additional parts of Eurocode 3 using a consistent format.
Chapter 1 introduces general aspects such as the basis of design, material
properties and geometric characteristics and tolerances, corresponding to
chapters 1 to 4 and chapter 7 of EN 1993­1­1. It highlights the important
topics that are required in the design of steel structures. Structural analysis is
discussed in chapter 2, including structural modelling, global analysis and
classification of cross sections, covering chapter 5 of EN 1993­1­1. The design
of steel members subjected to various types of internal force (tension, bending
and shear, compression and torsion) and their combinations is described in
chapter 3, corresponding to chapter 6 of EN 1993­1­1. Chapter 4 presents the
design of steel structures using 3D elastic analysis based on the case study of a
 PREFACE
real building. Finally, chapter 5 discusses plastic design, using a pitched­roof
industrial building to exemplify all relevant aspects.
Furthermore, the design examples provided in this book are chosen from real
design cases. Two complete design examples are presented: i) a braced steel­
framed building; and ii) a pitched­roof industrial building. The chosen
design approach tries to reproduce, as much as possible, real design practice
instead of more academic approaches that often only deal with parts of the
design process. This means that the design examples start by quantifying the
actions. They then progress in a detailed step­by­step manner to global
analysis and individual member verifications. The design tools currently
available and adopted in most design offices are based on software for 3D
analysis. Consequently, the design example for multi­storey buildings is
analysed as a 3D structure, all subsequent checks being consistent with this
approach. This is by no means a straightforward implementation, since most
global stability verifications were developed and validated for 2D structures.
The authors are indebted to Prof. Reidar Bjorhovde who carried out a
detailed technical review of the manuscript and provided many valuable
comments and suggestions. Warm thanks to Prof. David Anderson who
carried out an additional detailed revision of the book and also made sure
that the English language was properly used. Further thanks to Liliana
_____ Marques and José Alexandre Henriques, PhD students at the University of
xviii Coimbra, for the help with the design examples of chapter 4. Additional
thanks to Prof. Tiago Abecasis who spotted innumerous “bugs” in the text.
Finally, thanks to Filipe Dias and the staff of cmm and ECCS for all the
editorial and typesetting work, making it possible to bring to an end two
years of work in this project.

Luís Simões da Silva

Rui Simões
Helena Gervásio
Coimbra, 2010
 Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1. GENERAL OBSERVATIONS

Steel construction combines a number of unique features that make it

an ideal solution for many applications in the construction industry. Steel
provides unbeatable speed of construction and off­site fabrication, thereby
reducing the financial risks associated with site­dependent delays. The
inherent properties of steel allow much greater freedom at the conceptual
design phase, thereby helping to achieve greater flexibility and quality. In
particular, steel construction, with its high strength to weight ratio,
maximizes the useable area of a structure and minimizes self­weight, again
_____
resulting in cost savings. Recycling and reuse of steel also mean that steel 1
construction is well­placed to contribute towards reduction of the
environmental impacts of the construction sector (Simões da Silva, 2005).
The construction industry is currently facing its biggest transformation
as a direct result of the accelerated changes that society is experiencing.
Globalisation and increasing competition are forcing the construction
industry to abandon its traditional practices and intensive labour
characteristics and to adopt industrial practices typical of manufacturing.
This further enhances the attractiveness of steel construction.
All these advantages can only be achieved with sound technical
knowledge of all the stages in the life­cycle of the construction process
(from design, construction and operation to final dismantling). The objective
of the ECCS Eurocode Design Manuals is to provide design guidance on the
use of the Eurocodes through a “light” overview of the theoretical
background together with an explanation of the code’s provisions, supported
 1. INTRODUCTION

by detailed, practical design examples based on real structures. Each volume

addresses a specific part of the Eurocodes relevant for steel construction.
This inaugural volume of the ECCS Eurocode Design Manuals addresses
the Design of Steel Structures in terms of the General Rules and Rules for
Buildings, covering all the topics of Part 1­1 of Eurocode 3 (CEN, 2005a),
abbreviated in this book to EC3­1­1. These range from structural analysis of
skeletal structures to design of members and components. More specifically,
chapter 1 of this manual introduces general aspects such as the basis of design,
material properties and geometric characteristics and tolerances, corresponding
to chapters 1 to 4 and chapter 7 of EN 1993­1­1. It highlights the important
topics that are required in the design of steel structures. Structural analysis is
discussed in chapter 2, including structural modelling, global analysis and
classification of cross sections, covering chapter 5 of EN 1993­1­1. The design
of steel members subjected to various types of internal force (tension, bending
and shear, compression and torsion) and their combinations is described in
chapter 3, corresponding to chapter 6 of EN 1993­1­1. Chapter 4 presents the
design of steel structures using 3D elastic analysis based on the case study of a
real building. Finally, chapter 5 discusses plastic design, using a pitched­roof
industrial building to exemplify all relevant aspects.
The design examples are chosen from real design cases. Two
complete design examples are presented: i) a braced steel­framed building
_____ and ii) a pitched­roof industrial building. The chosen design approach tries
2 to reproduce, as much as possible, real design practice instead of more
academic approaches that often only deal with parts of the design process.
This means that the design examples start by quantifying the actions. They
then progress in a detailed step­by­step manner to global analysis and
individual member verifications. The design tools currently available and
adopted in most design offices are based on software for 3D analysis.
Consequently, the design example for multi­storey buildings is analysed as a
3D structure, all subsequent checks being consistent with this approach. This
is by no means a straightforward implementation, since most global stability
verifications were developed and validated for 2D structures.
The scope of this manual is limited to those issues covered by Part 1­1
of EC3. Issues such as fire design and the design of joints, which are covered
by Parts 1.2 and 1.8 of EN 1993, are not included in this manual. Other
companion publications on fire design (Franssen and Vila Real, 2015) and
 1.2. CODES OF PRACTICE AND NORMALIZATION

joint design (Jaspart and Weynand, 2016) address these. Seismic action is
also not considered in this manual. This is because the many different
options that could be adopted in the conceptual design phase would lead to
completely different structures for the same architectural brief. A
forthcoming manual dealing specifically with seismic design issues for
buildings is planned (Landolfo et al, 2016).
This manual follows the code prescriptions of the Structural
Eurocodes. This is done without loss of generality since the theoretical
background, the design philosophy and the design examples are code
independent, except when it comes to the specific design procedures.

1.2. CODES OF PRACTICE AND NORMALIZATION

1.2.1. Introduction

The European Union has spent several decades (since 1975) developing
and unifying the rules for the design of structures. This work has culminated in
a set of European standards called the Eurocodes which have recently been
approved by member states. The foreword to each part of the set of Eurocodes
contains the following statement:" In 1975, the Commission of the European
Community decided on an action programme in the field of construction, _____
based on article 95 of the Treaty. The objective of the programme was the 3

elimination of technical obstacles to trade and the harmonization of technical

specifications. Within this action programme, the Commission took the
initiative to establish a set of harmonized technical rules for the design of
construction works which, in a first stage, would serve as an alternative to the
national rules in force in the Member States and, ultimately, would replace
them. For fifteen years, the Commission, with the help of a Steering
Committee with Representatives of Member States, conducted the development
of the Eurocodes programme, which led to the first generation of European
codes in the 1980’s. In 1989, the Commission and the Member States of the
EU and EFTA decided, on the basis of an agreement between the Commission
and CEN, to transfer the preparation and the publication of the Eurocodes to
CEN through a series of Mandates, in order to provide them with a future
status of European Standard (EN). This links de facto the Eurocodes with the
 1. INTRODUCTION

provisions of all the Council’s Directives and/or Commission’s Decisions

dealing with European standards (e.g. the Council Directive 89/106/EEC on
construction products ­ CPD ­ and Council Directives 93/37/EEC, 92/50/EEC
and 89/440/EEC on public works and services and equivalent EFTA
Directives initiated in pursuit of setting up the internal market)."
The publication of the Construction Products Directive in 1989
(OJ L 040, 1989) established the essential requirements that all construction
works must fulfil, namely: i) mechanical resistance and stability; ii) fire
resistance; iii) hygiene, health and environment; iv) safety in use;
v) protection against noise and vi) energy economy and heat retention.
The first two requirements are addressed by the following nine
Structural Eurocodes. These have been produced by CEN (European
Committee for Standardization) under the responsibility of its Technical
Committee CEN/TC 250:
− EN 1990 Eurocode: Basis of Structural Design
− EN 1991 Eurocode 1: Actions on Structures
− EN 1992 Eurocode 2: Design of Concrete Structures
− EN 1993 Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures
− EN 1994 Eurocode 4: Design of Composite Steel and Concrete Structures
− EN 1995 Eurocode 5: Design of Timber Structures
− EN 1996 Eurocode 6: Design of Masonry Structures
_____
4
− EN 1997 Eurocode 7: Geotechnical Design
− EN 1998 Eurocode 8: Design of Structures for Earthquake Resistance
− EN 1999 Eurocode 9: Design of Aluminium Structures
Each Eurocode contains provisions that are open for national
determination. Such provisions include weather aspects, seismic zones,
safety issues etc. These are collectively called Nationally Determined
Parameters (NDP). It is the responsibility of each member state to specify
each NDP in a National Annex that accompanies each Eurocode.
More recently (July 2013) the Construction Products Directive was
replaced by the Construction Products Regulation (OJ L 088, 2013). This
document adds an additional basic requirement: sustainability. This seventh
basic requirement must follow the standards prepared by CEN/TC 350 and
should be incorpared in future revisions of the Eurocodes.
The Structural Eurocodes are not, by themselves, sufficient for the
construction of structures. Complementary information is required on: the
 1.2. CODES OF PRACTICE AND NORMALIZATION

products used in construction (“Product Standards”, of which there are

currently about 500);
− the tests used to establish behaviour (“Testing Standards”, of which
there are currently around 900);
− the execution standards used to fabricate and erect structures
(“Execution Standards”).
The flowchart in Figure 1.1 illustrates the full range of information
required. It also illustrates the relationship between the Construction
Products Regulation, the Eurocodes and their supporting standards. More
detailed information on the development process of the Eurocodes can be
found in Dowling (1992) and Sedlacek and Muller (2006).

European Commission

Construction Products Regulation (OJL 088, 2013)

Basic Requirements

Mechanical Resistance and

Fire Resistance
Stability

Interpretative document No. 1 Interpretative document No. 2

Support documents: application and use of Eurocodes _____

5

EN 1990 - Basis of structural design

EN 1991 EN 1992
EN 1993
EN 1994
EN 1995
EN 1996
EN 1997
EN 1998
EN 1999

Product
hEN’s - Harmonized
Standards, ETA’s -
Standards of products for
Testing European
materials and
Standards and Technical
premanufactured
Execution Approvals
components
Standards
Figure 1.1 – European normative structure for the construction sector
 1. INTRODUCTION

Initially the Eurocodes were presented as Pre­Standards (ENVs), and

between 2002 and 2007 were converted in to European Standards (ENs).
This was followed by the development and publication of the National
Annexes in each CEN country and the translation of the Eurocodes into the
various national languages. After a period of coexistence the Eurocodes
replaced all conflicting national standards from 2010.
The development of technical rules is also taking place outside Europe.
Codes such as the North American AISC code, the Chinese code and the
Australian code contain alternative design procedures that sometimes appear
to be quite different, mostly because they reflect local engineering tradition.

1.2.2. Eurocode 3

EN 1993, Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures (abbreviated in this

book to EC3) is divided in the following parts:
EN 1993­1 General rules and rules for buildings
EN 1993­2 Steel bridges
EN 1993­3 Towers, masts and chimneys
EN 1993­4 Silos, tanks and pipelines
EN 1993­5 Piling
EN 1993­6 Crane supporting structures
_____
6 EN 1993­1, Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures ­ General rules
and rules for buildings is further sub­divided in the following 12 sub­parts:
EN 1993­1­1 General rules and rules for buildings
EN 1993­1­2 Structural fire design
EN 1993­1­3 Cold­formed thin gauge members and sheeting
EN 1993­1­4 Stainless steels
EN 1993­1­5 Plated structural elements
EN 1993­1­6 Strength and stability of shell structures
EN 1993­1­7 Strength and stability of planar plated structures
transversely loaded
EN 1993­1­8 Design of joints
EN 1993­1­9 Fatigue strength of steel structures
EN 1993­1­10 Selection of steel for fracture toughness and
through­thickness properties
 1.2. CODES OF PRACTICE AND NORMALIZATION

EN 1993-1-11 Design of structures with tension components

made of steel
EN 1993-1-12 Supplementary rules for high strength steel
According to the normative framework described in section 1.2.1,
EC3 is used together with a series of complementary standards. The
execution standard for steel structures EN 1090­2 (CEN, 2011) guarantees
an execution quality that is compatible with the design assumption in EC3.
The product standards provide the characteristic properties of the materials
used, that in turn must conform to the quality control procedures specified in
the test standards. Finally, the EC3 National Annexes specify the national
parameters relating to actions and safety levels, as well as some options
concerning design methodologies.

1.2.3. Other standards

EN 1090: Execution of structures in steel and aluminium (CEN, 2011),

establishes the execution conditions compatible with the design prescriptions
of EC3. In particular, it establishes the execution classes and the tolerances of
structural components. It is noted that the fulfilment of these tolerances and of
the other requirements of EN 1090 constitutes necessary conditions for the
validity of the EC3 rules. EN 1090 is organised in 3 parts:
_____
− EN 1090­1: Steel and aluminium structural components – Part 1: 7
General delivery conditions
− EN 1090­2: Technical requirements for the execution of steel
structures
− EN 1090­3: Technical requirements for the execution of
aluminium structures
Part 2 is divided in the following 12 chapters (including 12 annexes):
− Chapter 1: Scope
− Chapter 2: Normative references
− Chapter 3: Terms and definitions
− Chapter 4: Specifications and documentation
− Chapter 5: Constituent products
− Chapter 6: Preparation and assembly
− Chapter 7: Welding
 1. INTRODUCTION

− Chapter 8: Mechanical fastening

− Chapter 9: Erection
− Chapter 10: Surface treatment
− Chapter 11: Geometrical tolerances
− Chapter 12: Inspection, testing and correction
The other relevant standards for steel structures can be grouped into
standards for materials (steel, steel castings, welding consumables,
mechanical connectors, high­resistance steel cables and support devices),
fabrication, welding, testing, assembly, protection against corrosion and
other complementary standards.

1.3. BASIS OF DESIGN

1.3.1. Basic concepts

Eurocode 3 must be used in a consistent way with EN 1990 Eurocode:

Basis of structural design, EN 1991 Eurocode 1: Actions on Structures,
EN 1998 Eurocode 8: Normative rules for the design of earthquake resistant
structures, and EN 1997 Eurocode 7: Geotechnical design.
Chapter 2 of EC3­1­1 introduces and complements the normative
_____
8
rules included in these standards. According to the basic requirements
specified in EN 1990, a structure must be designed and executed so as to
perform the functions for which it was conceived, for a pre­determined
service life. This includes ensuring that the conditions that prevent failure
(ultimate limit states) are verified, as well as conditions that guarantee
proper performance in service (serviceability limit state) and those related to
durability (among others, protection against corrosion). These basic
requirements should be met by: i) the choice of suitable materials;
ii) appropriate design and detailing of the structure and its components and
iii) the specification of control procedures for design, execution and use.
The limit states shall be related to design situations, taking into
account the circumstances under which the structure is required to fulfil its
function. According to EN 1990 (CEN, 2002a) these situations may be:
i) persistent design situations (conditions of normal use of the structure);
ii) transient design situations (temporary conditions); iii) accidental design
 1.3. BASIS OF DESIGN

situations (exceptional conditions, e.g. fire or explosion) and iv) seismic

design situations. Time dependent effects, such as fatigue, should be related
to the design working life of the structure.
The Ultimate Limit States (ULS) correspond to states associated with
failure of the structure, endangering people’s safety; in general, the following
ultimate limit states are considered: loss of equilibrium considering the
structure as a rigid body, failure by excessive deformation, transformation of
the structure or any part of it into a mechanism, rupture, loss of stability and
failure caused by fatigue or other time­dependent effects.
The Serviceability Limit States (SLS) correspond to a state beyond which
the specific service conditions, such as the functionality of the structure, the
comfort of people and acceptable appearance are no longer met; in steel
structures, limit states of deformation and of vibration are normally considered.
The requirements for limit state design are, in general, achieved by the
partial factor method as described in section 6 of EN 1990; as an alternative,
a design directly based on probabilistic methods, as described in Annex C of
EN 1990, may be used.
In a design process, the loading on the structure must be quantified
and the mechanical and geometrical properties of the material must be
accurately defined; these topics are described in the subsequent sub­chapters.
The effects of the loads for the design situations considered must be
obtained by suitable analysis of the structure, according to the general _____
requirements specified in section 5 of EN 1990. The different types of 9

analysis for steel structures and all the main procedures involved are treated
in detail in chapter 2 of this book.
For the design of a structure in circumstances where: i) adequate
calculation models are not available; ii) a large number of similar
components are to be used or iii) to confirm a design of a structure or a
component, EN 1990 (Annex D) allows the use of design assisted by testing.
However, design assisted by test results shall achieve the level of reliability
required for the relevant design situation.

1.3.2. Reliability management

The design and execution of steel structures should be performed

according to a required level of reliability. The levels of reliability should be
 1. INTRODUCTION

achieved by an appropriate choice of quality management in design and

execution, according to EN 1990 and EN 1090. The levels of reliability
relating to structural resistance and serviceability can be achieved by suitable
combinations of the following measures:
− preventive and protective measures (e.g implementation of safety
barriers, active or passive protective measures against fire, protection
against risks of corrosion);
− measures related to design calculations (representative values of
actions or partial factors);
− measures related to quality management;
− measures aimed to reduce human errors in design and execution;
− other measures related to aspects such as basic requirements, degree
of robustness, durability, soil and environmental influences, accuracy
of the mechanical models used and detailing of the structure;
− measures that lead to an efficient execution, according to execution
standards (in particular EN 1090);
− measures that lead to adequate inspection and maintenance.
To ensure that the previous measures are verified, EN 1990, in Annex B,
establishes three classes of reliability: RC1, RC2 and RC3, corresponding to
values of the reliability index β for the ultimate limit state of 3.3, 3.8 and 4.3
_____ respectively, taking a reference period of 50 years. The β index is evaluated
10 according to Annex C of EN 1990, depending on the statistical variability of the
actions, resistances and model uncertainties. The design of a steel structure
according to EC3­1­1, using the partial factors given in EN 1990 ­ Annex A1, is
considered generally to lead to a structure with a β index greater than 3.8 for a
reference period of 50 years, that is, a reliability class not less than RC2.
According to the consequences of failure or malfunction of a
structure, Annex B of EN 1990 establishes three consequence classes as
given in Table 1.1 (Table B1 of Annex B of EN 1990). The three reliability
classes RC1, RC2 and RC3 may be associated with the three consequence
classes CC1, CC2 and CC3.
Depending on the design supervision level and the inspection level,
Annex B of EN 1990 establishes the classes given in Tables 1.2 and 1.3
(Tables B4 and B5 of Annex B of EN 1990). According to Annex B of
EN 1990, the design supervision level and the inspection level are also
associated with the reliability classes, as given in Tables 1.2 and 1.3.
 1.3. BASIS OF DESIGN

Table 1.1 – Definition of consequence classes

Consequence Examples of buildings and civil

Description
Classes engineering works

High consequence for loss of

Grandstands, public buildings
human life, or economic,
CC3 where consequences of failure
social or environmental
are high (e.g. a concert hall).
consequences very great.

Medium consequence for loss Residential and office buildings,

of human life, economic, public buildings where
CC2 social or environmental consequences of failure are
consequences considerable. medium (e.g. an office building).

Low consequence for loss of Agricultural buildings where

human life, and economic, people do not normally enter
CC1 social or environmental conse­ (e.g. storage buildings),
quences small or negligible. greenhouses.

Table 1.2 – Design supervision levels

Design Minimum recommended requirements
Supervision Characteristics for checking of calculations, drawings
Levels and specifications.
Third party checking: Checking _____
DSL3
Extended supervision performed by an organisation different 11
relating to RC3
from that which has prepared the design.

Checking by different persons than those

DSL2
Normal supervision originally responsible and in accordance
relating to RC2
with the procedure of the organisation.

DSL1 Self­checking: Checking performed by

Normal supervision
relating to RC1 the person who has prepared the design.

The reliability classes are also associated with the execution classes
defined in EN 1090­2 (CEN, 2011). Four execution classes, denoted EXC1,
EXC2, EXC3 and EXC4, are defined, with increased requirements from EXC1
to EXC4. The requirements related to execution classes are given in Annex A.3
of EN 1090­2. The choice of the execution class for a steel structure is related to
production categories and service categories (defined in Annex B of EN 1090­2)
 1. INTRODUCTION

with links to consequence classes as defined in Annex B of EN 1990 and

consequently with reliability classes defined in the same standard.

Table 1.3 – Inspection levels

Inspection
Characteristics Requirements
Levels

IL3
Extended inspection Third party inspection.
relating to RC3

IL2 Inspection in accordance with the

Normal inspection
relating to RC2 procedures of the organisation.

IL1 Normal inspection Self inspection.

relating to RC1

Annex B of EN 1090­2 defines two service categories:

SC1 – Structures submitted to quasi­static actions or low seismic and fatigue
actions and SC2 – Structures submitted to high fatigue load or seismic action
in regions with medium to high seismic activity. The same standard defines
two production categories: PC1 – Structures with non welded components or
welded components manufactured from steel grade below S 355, and PC2 –
Structures with welded components manufactured from steel grades S 355
_____ and above or other specific components such as: components essential for
12
structural integrity assembled by welding on a construction site, components
hot formed or receiving thermal treatment during manufacturing and
components of CHS lattice girders requiring end profile cuts. The
recommended matrix for the determination of the execution class of a steel
structure, after the definition of the production category, the service category
and the consequence classes, is given in the Table 1.4 (Table B.3 of Annex B
in EN 1090­2).
One way of achieving reliability differentiation is by distinguishing
classes of γF factors (partial safety factors for the actions) to be used in
fundamental combinations for persistent design situations. For example, for
the same design supervision and execution inspection levels, a multiplication
factor KFI, given by 0.9, 1.0 and 1.1 for reliability classes RC1, RC2 and
RC3 respectively, may be applied to the partial factors given in
EN 1990 ­ Annex A1. Reliability differentiation may also be applied through
 1.3. BASIS OF DESIGN

the partial factors γM on resistance; however, this is normally only used for
fatigue verifications.

Table 1.4 – Determination of execution classes in steel structures

Consequence classes CC1 CC2 CC3

Service categories SC1 SC2 SC1 SC2 SC1 SC2

PC1 EXC1 EXC2 EXC2 EXC3 EXC3 a) EXC3 a)

Production
categories PC2 EXC2 EXC2 EXC2 EXC3 EXC3 a) EXC4
a)
EXC4 should be applied to special structures or structures with extreme
consequences of a structural failure as required by national provisions.

The working life period should be taken as the period for which a
structure is expected to be used for its intended purpose. This period may be
specified according to Table 2.1 of EN 1990 (CEN, 2002a).

1.3.3. Basic variables

1.3.3.1. Introduction
_____
The basic variables involved in the limit state design of a structure are 13
the actions, the material properties and the geometric data of the structure
and its members and joints.
When using the partial factor method, it shall be verified that, for all
relevant design situations, no relevant limit state is exceeded when design values
for actions or effects of actions and resistances are used in the design models.

1.3.3.2. Actions and environmental influences

The actions on a structure may be classified according to their

variation in time: i) permanent actions (self weight, fixed equipment, among
others); ii) variable actions (imposed loads on building floors, wind, seismic
and snow loads); and iii) accidental loads (explosions or impact loads).
Certain actions, such as seismic actions and snow loads may be classified as
either variable or accidental depending on the site location. Actions may also
Another random document with
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were now married, and sat on two golden thrones, looking
wonderfully handsome and happy. Below them on the marble floor
all the lords and ladies were dancing the most graceful dances in the
world, and the musicians placed up in a high gallery sang and played
the most delightful music, while tables covered with nice tarts and
cakes and other beautiful things ran down on each side of the hall.
But notwithstanding that Duldy had married the Princess, and was
going to be king when Arago died, he felt quite unhappy, as the foam
bracelet still clasped his wrist.
“What is the matter, Prince?” asked Elsa, putting her beautiful white
arms round his neck; “you look so sad.”
“I’m afraid of Foamina,” said Duldy, showing Elsa his wrist. “Look at
the foam bracelet chaining my wrist; I cannot get it off. Look, you can
see it quite plainly.”
And indeed they could, a slender ring of white foam which clasped
his wrist so tightly that Duldy felt as though it were the hand of the
enchantress grasping him, to drag him away from his lovely bride to
the depths of her cold pool.
“Is it cold?” asked Elsa.
“Yes, very cold,” replied Duldy disconsolately. “I wish I could take it
off.”
“I think I can do that,” said the Princess, laughing. “If it’s cold, it will
soon melt away under my warm kisses;” and so saying, she bent
down and kissed his wrist three times with her red lips. Much to
Duldy’s surprise, at the first kiss the foam bracelet seemed to grow
loose, at the second it fell off his wrist and lay on the floor like a
white ring, and at the third it vanished with a loud noise.
Duldy was overjoyed that he was now free from the power of the
enchantress, and led the Princess out on to the balcony which
overlooked the river. It was a beautiful night, and Duldy saw the
great white peak of Kel shining against the dark blue sky, and the
heaving waters of the river at his feet. Just as he kissed the lips of
his Princess, a confused noise sounded from the city below. The
river, lashing itself into angry waves, began to rise, and as Duldy and
the Princess, full of dismay, retreated to the hall, a crowd of people
rushed in and stopped the dancing.
“Sire! sire!” they called out to the King, “the river is rising round the
city, and all the fountains are spouting foam! We are lost! we are
lost!”
Everything was in confusion, people rushing here and there
shrieking and crying, while the lights of the city died out, and the
cruel, dark waters kept on rising, until every one thought the whole
city would sink beneath the flood.
Duldy knew it was the work of Foamina, and his mind was quite
satisfied on that point when a great white wave of foam rolled into
the hall over the balcony. On this the Water-witch was riding, singing
loudly,—
“Give me my lover,
King’s daughter, king’s daughter,
Or I will cover
Your city with water.”

The Princess shrieked and hid her face on Duldy’s shoulder, while
Arago and all the people around looked at the witch in dismay.
Suddenly Duldy recollected how Salamander had promised to help
him, so he called out,—
“Salamander,
O, withstand her!
She has brought her
Cruel water.
Drive from land her,
Salamander!”

The witch laughed loudly, and the wave rolled on, amid the
lamentations sounding from the city below, when suddenly, in the
place where the Fountain of Jewels had been, a tall flame shot up,
and out of it flashed Salamander, glowing like a beautiful crimson
star.
“Foamina, beware!” he cried, shaking a torch which he held in his
hand; “or I will burn up your springs, scorch your forests, and crush
you for ever.”
“No, you won’t,” said Foamina, flinging her white arms aloft. “This
shepherd is mine—mine! and you can do nothing.”
“Can’t I?” cried Salamander, waving his torch. “Behold!”
There was a great roar, like the report of a thousand cannons, and
every one looked through the open window with a cry of alarm.
Far away, from the snowy peak of Kel shot a tall column of red flame,
with a black cloud above it spreading over the midnight sky, and
vividly bright streams of burning lava began to run down the white
snow like veins of fire.
“Oh, my springs, my springs!” shrieked Foamina wildly; “they will all
be burned up, and I’ll die—I can’t put that fire out.”
“No, you cannot,” said Salamander sternly; “nor will I till you give up
all claim to Duldy.”
“I do! I do!” shrieked the Water-witch, listening with terror to the roar
of the fire mountain.
“And tell Duldy who he really is?” said Salamander relentlessly.
“Yes! yes!” cried Foamina, who was now getting thinner and thinner
as the hot lava scorched her springs in the distant mountain. “Only
stop that cruel, cruel fire!”
“Who am I?” asked Duldy. “Quick! tell me, and Salamander will stop
the fire.”
“You are the son of the old King,” cried Foamina wildly. “I drowned
your mother and carried you off. I surrender all claim to you now,
only stop the fire—stop the fire!”
“You will never do cruel things again?” said Salamander.
“Never!—never!” said the Water-witch, who was now writhing on the
floor.
“Then make the waters leave the city,” cried Duldy.
The Water-witch flew to the window and muttered some words,
whereupon the river sank down to its usual level, all the fountains
stopped pouring out jets of foam, and in a short time the city was as
dry and clean as if no waters had been there at all.
“Now go!” cried Salamander, and stretched out his torch towards the
mountain. Immediately the column of fire sank back again, the
smoke vanished and nothing could be seen but the snow-white
peak, the dark blue sky, and the serene moon. As soon as Foamina
saw this, she gave a cry of joy, and, flinging herself in a foaming
torrent from the window, vanished in the river, and was never seen
again.
Then Salamander turned to Duldy and Arago, who stood near,
delighted with the defeat of the Water-witch.
“You heard what Foamina said,” he observed to Duldy; “you are the
son of the old king, and ought to reign now.”
“And so he shall,” cried Arago, taking off his beautiful silver crown
and placing it on Duldy’s head. “I will give up the throne to Duldy and
my daughter, and become prime minister once more. Hail, King
Duldy!”
“No, he must not be called Duldy,” said Salamander, smiling, “but by
his father’s name. So, Hail, King Sama!”
Then all present, including Arago, kneeled down before Duldy, who
ascended the throne with his silver crown, and his beautiful Queen
Elsa by his side.
“Be happy,” cried Salamander; “you have a kind heart, and that
always brings happiness.”
Whereupon he vanished, and was never more seen again, nor did
he allow the mountain of Kel to breathe fire any more. So King Sama
and Queen Elsa ruled over the land of Metella, and were very, very
happy, and were guided by the advice of Arago, who once more
became prime minister.
Duldy brought Dull and Day from the forest, and gave them a
beautiful palace to live in, but they did not like the city life, and went
back again to their cottage, where they died
after many years.
So Duldy became king after all, but while his
people hailed him as King Sama, his beautiful
wife called him nothing but Duldy, the
shepherd lad who had released her from the
enchantment of the Water-witch.
 MOON FANCIES

THERE was once a girl called Lurina, who dwelt with her parents in
a cottage on the edge of a great forest, which was said to be
enchanted. She was an only child, and her parents, whose names
were Panus and Cora, were very fond of her, although she certainly
gave them a great deal of trouble. Not that she was naughty in any
way, for no one could have been better or more obedient; but she
was generally very dull and sleepy all the day, and only woke up at
night-time, when she liked to wander outside in the moonlight,
instead of going to bed. This habit led her parents to think she had
faery blood in her veins, and, although Panus was a dull, stupid man,
he nevertheless remembered how very peculiar his old grandmother
had been in her actions.
Another curious thing was that Lurina had been born just at full
moon, which is the time when all the faeries hold their great monthly
festival, and Cora remembered hearing them singing a birth-song
about little Lurina, who lay by her side. So there was no doubt but
that the faery blood which flowed in the veins of the old grandmother
had missed a generation, and once more came out in Lurina. Panus
and Cora therefore let her do just as she liked, which was the best
thing they could do, as they had been told by a Wise Woman who
lived near them.
Lurina was a most beautiful girl, with golden hair, a delicate white
skin, and dark, dark eyes, which had a somewhat mournful look in
their depths. When she arrived at the age of eighteen, a young
woodman called Berl fell in love with her, and, after some hesitation,
Lurina promised to become his wife, provided he let her do exactly
as she pleased, and did not stop her night wanderings.
“You can go into the forest whenever you like,” said Berl, kissing her;
“but why do you not come when the sun is bright, instead of the
feeble moonlight?”
 “I don’t like the sun,” said Lurina, pouting, “it
makes everything so hot and disagreeable;
but the moonlight is so soft and beautiful that I
love it. Besides, you don’t know what strange
fancies come to me when the moon is
shining.”
“What kind of fancies?” asked Berl, who was a
somewhat dull youth.
“Oh, all sorts of beautiful things,” replied
Lurina dreamily; “lovely little men and women
dressed in green, who dance lightly on the
emerald turf, and strange, sweet songs which sound like rushing
water and the whispering of leaves. I dream about them when I’m in
the wood, but nowhere else.”
Berl was now convinced that Lurina had faery blood in her veins, and
attended the festivals of the faeries, which she called moon fancies;
but, being a very cautious man, he said nothing to Lurina;
nevertheless, before he got married he consulted the Wise Woman.
She was really a very wonderful old woman,
with snow-white hair and a form nearly bent
double with age. She listened to Berl’s story
about Lurina’s moon fancies, and then spoke
in a harsh, determined voice.
“Your future wife has dealings with the
faeries,” she said, looking at Berl from under
her bushy white eyebrows; “but what she sees
at night in the forest are real truths, and not
fancies as she thinks. My advice to you is not
to marry her, lest evil befall you.”
But Berl was too much in love with the beautiful Lurina to take this
advice, so he said nothing, but asked Panus and Cora to let him
marry their daughter at once, which they were very pleased to do, for
he was quite a rich man among the woodmen and, moreover, very
good-natured.
The wedding-day arrived at last, and Lurina was married to Berl by
the village pastor. Those who thought she had faery blood in her
veins said she would never be able to enter the church; but, much to
their surprise, nothing unusual occurred at the ceremony, so they
began to think Lurina was only a dull, stupid girl after all. This was a
mistake, however, as you will soon hear.
Berl and Lurina took up their abode in a pretty
cottage under the shade of a great oak, and
lived very happily for a long time. Lurina was
still dreamy and quiet all the day, but as Berl
was generally at work in the wood, he did not
notice it much. At night-time, however, she still
wandered into the forest, especially when the moon was very bright,
and this habit began to annoy Berl very much, but as he had given
his word not to interfere with Lurina, he said nothing.
One night, however, when the moon was full, and the whole of the
forest was bathed in the pale, cold light, he woke up, and, missing
his wife from his side, knew that she had gone into the forest to
indulge in her moon fancies. Berl sprang out of bed, and just caught
a glimpse of her shadow disappearing among the trunks of the trees;
so he rapidly slipped on his clothes and hurried after her, being
determined to find out why she was so fond of these midnight
wanderings.
“She’s going to a meeting of the faeries,” thought Berl, as he ran
across the lawn. “I hope the little people won’t be angry if they see
me; but my wife will protect me.”
For you must know that the faeries never like their revels gazed
upon by mortal eye, and if they catch any one looking they pinch him
black and blue; so Berl had good reason to be afraid of venturing
into the enchanted wood at night.
He followed his wife cautiously, always keeping her in sight, but
taking care she should not see him, when suddenly she crossed an
open glade and vanished. Berl ran after her, but could find no trace
of Lurina at all, and was quite disconsolate, when all at once he
espied her sitting at the foot of a great beech tree, leaning against
the trunk, with her beautiful face looking pale and white in the
moonshine. Having watched her for a long time, he ventured to
approach and call her by name, but, to his astonishment, she did not
answer nor express surprise at seeing him, but simply stared across
the glade with vague, unseeing eyes.
Emboldened by her silence, Berl ran up and fell on his knees with a
little laugh, thinking she would scold him for having dared to follow
her. He was perplexed, however, to see that she still did not seem to
notice him, and when at last he took one of her hands, it was as cold
as ice. Starting up in alarm, he looked closely at her, and found that
she did not breathe—placed his hand on her heart, and discovered
that it did not beat.
“Why, she’s dead!” he cried in alarm. “Lurina, it is I, your husband,
Berl.”
Still Lurina did not answer. So, convinced she was dead, Berl threw
her body over his shoulder and hurried home. When he got inside,
he did everything he could to revive her, but it was no use; the
beautiful Lurina was dead, and Berl sat all night beside her body,
weeping bitterly.
At the first red flush of dawn, he went from house to house, telling
Lurina’s parents and all the neighbours that his wife had died the
preceding night in the forest. Every one came to Berl’s house to see
if it was true, and offer advice, which one’s neighbours are very fond
of doing. Among those who came was the Wise Woman, who
surveyed the beautiful Lurina for some time in silence, then laughed
loudly.
“Why do you laugh?” asked Berl, angry with her for doing so.
“I laugh at your folly,” said the Wise Woman, looking oddly at him.
“Lurina is no more dead than I am.”
“But her heart is not beating, and she does not breathe,” said Panus
quickly.
“Nevertheless, she is not dead,” replied the Wise Woman quietly.
“Have you ever seen her like this before?” she added, turning to
Cora.
“No, never,” answered Cora, who was weeping bitterly.
“Ah! that is because you never followed her to the forest as Berl did,”
said the Wise Woman thoughtfully. “I told you, Berl, that your wife
had faery blood in her veins, and you should have taken my advice
about the marriage.”
“Well, it’s too late now to blame me,” said Berl roughly, for he did not
like to be reproached. “What am I to do?”
“I will tell you,” observed the Wise Woman. “Come to my cottage at
once.”
So Berl left the body of his beautiful Lurina with her parents, and
walked with the Wise Woman to her cottage, which was just on the
verge of the wood, but protected from the entry of the faeries by a
rusty horse-shoe fastened on the door.
When Berl entered, the Wise Woman drew a
circle on the ground with her magic staff,
whereupon a ring of pale flickering fire
appeared; then she pulled seven hairs out of
the tail of her black cat, and threw them into
the midst of the circle, where they began to
twist about in a most surprising manner. While
they were doing this, the Wise Woman waved
her staff seven times in the air, muttering
strange words, and a white smoke arose from
the centre of the fire circle where the hairs
were jumping about. This white smoke went up like a white cloud,
then suddenly vanished, and Berl saw a little man, all dressed in red,
sitting in the centre of the circle.
“Well, what do you want?” he said graciously
to the Wise Woman, whose bright eyes
sparkled when she saw him.
“Why did Lurina die?” asked the Wise
Woman. “Tell me, Pop.”
“She’s not dead at all,” answered Pop quickly;
“she is a faery, and went into the woods to attend the festival. As she
could not join the revels of Oberon in her human body, which would
be too big, she left it behind, leaning against the trunk of a beech
tree, and her faery body went to dance with the faeries. Of course,
when Berl took her body away, she could not find it again when she
returned, and she never will find it till it’s brought back to the same
place.”
“What is to be done, then?” asked the Wise
Woman.
“Berl must take Lurina’s body back again from
where he brought it,” said Pop; “but before
Lurina’s faery body can come back to it, Berl
will have to get permission for it to do so from
Oberon.—Now let me go, I’ve told you all I
know.”
The Wise Woman waved her staff again, the
white smoke came down on the little red man
like an extinguisher, then everything vanished, and Berl found
himself standing outside the door of the cottage, with the Wise
Woman smiling at him.
“You heard what Pop said,” she observed kindly; “you will have to go
to the court of King Oberon, and ask him to let your wife come back.”
“But will he do so?” asked Berl doubtfully.
“Ah, that I do not know,” said the Wise Woman; “but as the faeries
may treat you badly for looking at their festival, take this sprig of the
rowan tree, and it will protect you. Don’t forget to take Lurina’s body
back to the beech tree.”
Berl took the sprig of rowan with its red berries that she handed to
him, and walked away to his own cottage. He did not tell any one
what the Wise Woman had said, but managed to put off all their
questions by pretending to be too grieved to speak. So one after
another the neighbours departed, until only Panus and Cora were
left, and they, too, after kissing the pale lips of Lurina, went away,
leaving Berl alone.
Berl waited impatiently for night to come, and as soon as the moon
was glowing like glittering silver in the starry sky, he took Lurina up in
his arms, and, carrying her into the forest, placed her in the same
position as he had found her, leaning against the trunk of the beech
tree.
When he had done this, he looked round perplexed, for he did not
know how to find the faery court, but, taking out the rowan twig, he
looked at it earnestly, wondering if it would by some magic means
show him the way. But the rowan twig made no sign, and Berl put up
the hand in which he held it to take off his cap and fasten it in it,
when the twig happened to strike his ear, and immediately the silent
forest became full of sounds.
He heard the most delightful music, then a burst of gay laughter,
and, following the direction from whence they proceeded, he came
upon a wide open glade, with a smooth green sward upon which the
moon was shining. Still, though he looked very hard, he could not
see a faery; then, suddenly remembering how the rowan twig had
bewitched his ears, he took it out of his hat, and pressed the red
berries against his eyes. To his delight, he now saw that all the
sward was covered with thousands of little men and women all
dressed in pale green, and at the end was a throne of great white
lilies, upon which sat the King and Queen of Faeryland. All round the
glade were a circle of glow-worms, whose pale lights illuminated the
festival, and the bright moonlight pouring down through the boughs
of the trees made everything as bright as day.

As soon as the faeries discovered that Berl could really see them at
their revels, they shrieked with rage, and hundreds of the little green
creatures swarmed up on his body to pinch him black and blue. Berl
was in a great fright at first, till he suddenly remembered what the
Wise Woman had said about the rowan sprig, so immediately called
out—
“Magic branch of rowan tree,
Work the charm and set me free.”

At once there was a dead silence, and all the faeries fell to the
ground like withered leaves in autumn. Some of them ran to the
throne of lilies, and spoke to the King, upon which Oberon stepped
down, and, followed by a long train, walked up to Berl and
commanded him to sit down. Berl did so, and then Oberon struck the
ground with his wand, whereupon a great red rose sprang up, in
which he took his seat with Queen Titania, while the other faeries
gathered round and prepared to listen.
“Now, mortal,” said Oberon in a dignified manner, “how is it that with
an earthly eye you have beheld the unseen revels of the faeries?”
“It was by this rowan twig, your Majesty,” said Berl, showing Oberon
the sprig; “the Wise Woman gave it to me as a protection, in case
the faeries should be angry.”
“We are only angry with evil-disposed people,” said Oberon gently;
“and if you come here with a pure heart, no one will harm you. What
do you want with us?”
“I want my wife Lurina,” said Berl boldly.
There was a cry of astonishment at this. Suddenly a faery flew
forward on emerald wings, and, as she stood before Oberon, Berl
saw that it was Lurina.
“Yes, your Majesty,” said the faery Lurina, “I am his wife, but he lost
me through his curiosity, as your Majesty knows. I was exiled from
Faeryland many years ago, and condemned to dwell in a human
body. I lived in Lurina’s body, but was allowed by the Queen to join in
the faery revels at night. I told my husband not to follow me, but he
did so, and found my human body lying as if dead under the beech
tree, because I had left it to attend the festival. When I went back, I
could not find it, so had to stay in the forest all day as a faery.”
“Is this true?” asked Oberon, turning to Titania.
“Perfectly true,” answered Titania. “It was I who punished Lurina by
exiling her from Faeryland, but now I think she is punished enough,
and, as she has lost her human body through no fault of her own,
she is pardoned.”
On hearing these words, the faery Lurina dropped on her knees and
kissed the Queen’s hand, then flew off to be congratulated on her
good luck by her faery friends. But Berl was not at all pleased to
think he had lost his wife for ever, and spoke to the King.
“But what am I to do, your Majesty?” he said, with tears in his eyes.
“I love Lurina very much, and don’t want to lose her.”
“There is only one thing to be done,” said Oberon. “Have you
brought back the human body of Lurina?”
“Yes, your Majesty; it’s under the beech tree,” replied Berl eagerly.
“Then I’ll tell you what I’ll do,” said the King. “As the Queen has
pardoned Lurina, of course she can’t go back, as no faery likes to
live in your world; but the faery Mala has been very naughty of late,
so I will condemn her to inhabit your wife’s body, and stay in exile
until she is good enough to come back to court.”
“But that won’t be Lurina,” said Berl.
“She will wear Lurina’s body,” replied Oberon, laughing; “and no one
but yourself will be the wiser. Leave the forest at once, and to-
morrow morning you will see your wife come to the cottage door.
Strike up, music!”
Whereupon the faery music began to play loudly—the blue bells
rang merry chimes, the grasshoppers creaked gaily, and the wind
commenced to sigh among the forest leaves.
Berl dare not disobey the King’s command, and, after seeing Oberon
return to the throne of white lilies, and all the faeries commence their
dance again, he arose to his feet. As he did so, he accidentally
dropped the rowan twig, which was snatched up by a faery at once,
and then the whole of the faery revel vanished. Berl could see
nothing of the dancing, nor hear anything of the music, but only
beheld the smooth green lawn, the myriad trees around, and the
round orb of the moon.
There was nothing left to do but to return home, which he did at
once, and you may be sure he got very little sleep that night. At early
dawn he was standing at his cottage door, looking towards the wood,
when he beheld Lurina tripping gaily towards him, singing merrily.
When she saw Berl, she flung herself into his arms.
“Dear Berl, here I am at last!” she cried, kissing him.
“But you are the faery Mala,” said Berl, looking at her in perplexity.
“Who is the faery Mala?” asked Lurina, who had forgotten all about
her faery existence now she was in a human body. “I never heard of
her. I went into the forest and fell asleep, I suppose. When I awoke I
came straight back to you.”
Berl was a wise man, and said no more, but kissed his newly-
recovered wife heartily, then called all the neighbours to congratulate
him, which they did loudly.
When they told Lurina she had been dead, she declared it was
nonsense, as it was only a sleep, and soon every one believed it
except Berl and the Wise Woman, to whom Berl told all about his
reception by Oberon.
Lurina became bright and gay all day, and never more wandered into
the forest to indulge in moon fancies, so Berl thought the faery Mala
must have been exiled altogether from Faeryland.
She was very good indeed, so good that Berl was quite afraid lest
she should be called back to Faeryland, but as yet that has not
happened.
THE ROSE-PRINCESS
 I.

THE QUEEN WHO DID NOT BELIEVE IN FAERIES.

ONCE upon a time there was a King and Queen who reigned over a
most beautiful country. They were very rich and very happy, and
lived in a most gorgeous palace, the grand gardens of which sloped
down to the blue sea, on which sailed many richly-laden ships,
carrying merchandise to the capital city of the kingdom.
The palace was built of silver and ivory, and adorned with pale blue
velvet hangings, upon which were painted the most exquisite
pictures in the world. It stood on a high green hill, and far below lay
the immense city of Buss, with its wide streets, many towers, and
glittering fountains. As the King and Queen looked down from their
beautiful castle on to the mighty city and great green plains which
surrounded it, they ought to have been happy, but, curious to say,
they were not. They had everything in the world to make them happy
except one thing, and that one thing they longed for ardently, the
more so because they did not see any chance of obtaining it.
“Ah, if I only had a child!” sighed the Queen.
“Yes; a little boy,” said the King.
“Or a little girl,” retorted the Queen. “Don’t you know any faeries, my
dear, who would gratify our one desire?”
“No,” replied the King, shaking his head sadly. “My great-grandfather
was the last person who ever saw a faery; no one has ever seen one
since.”
“I don’t believe they exist,” said the Queen angrily.
“Oh yes, they do,” observed her husband. “This palace is said to
have been built by faery hands.”
“I don’t believe they exist,” declared the Queen again. “If they did,
they would surely help me by giving me a little girl or boy. What’s the
good of faeries if they don’t help you?”
“I wish they would help me,” sighed his Majesty; “all my subjects are
getting so unruly that I don’t know but what there will be a revolution,
and they’ll put some one else on the throne.”
“Who else could they find?” asked the Queen curiously.
“Oh, I’m not certain of that,” replied the King. “You see, my
grandfather, who was the first of our dynasty, ascended the throne
by the help of the faeries, and the king who was deposed vanished,
but they say some of his descendants live there;” and he pointed
downward to the city.
“And there they will stay,” said the Queen angrily. “I don’t believe a
word of it. Faeries indeed! they don’t exist.”
“But they do,” persisted the King.
“Pooh!” replied her Majesty. “Pooh!”
Now, when the Queen said “Pooh!” her husband knew it was no use
talking any more, so he retired to his cabinet to look over some
petitions from starving people, while the Queen went down with the
ladies-in-waiting to walk in the garden.
It was really a delightful garden, filled with the most wonderful
flowers. There were great beds of scented carnations, glowing with
bright colours, red and white foxgloves, in whose deep bells the
faeries were said to hide, masses of snowy white lilies, and a great
mixture of marigolds, hollyhocks, sweet-williams, daisies, buttercups,
and dahlias, which made the whole ground look like a brightly-
coloured carpet. And as for the roses—oh, what a quantity of
charming roses there were growing there! Red roses, varying in
colour from a deep scarlet to a pale pink; white roses looking like
snowflakes; yellow roses that glittered like gold, and faintly-tinted
tea-roses that perfumed the still air with their sweet odours. Oh, it
was really a famous garden, and bloomed all the year round, for the
kingdom was situated in the region of perpetual summer, where
snow never fell and frost never came.
The Queen, whose name was Flora, wandered disconsolately about
the garden, quite discontented with the beautiful flowers, because
she could not obtain the wish of her heart. The ladies-in-waiting
began to pluck flowers in order to adorn the royal dinner-table, and
Queen Flora walked on alone towards a great white rose tree that
was covered with blossoms. As she stood looking at it, she suddenly
heard a tiny laugh, and a great white rose unfolded its petals,
showing a golden heart, and also a dainty little faery dressed in
delicate green leaves, with a crown of little white rosebuds, and a
wand made of a blade of grass. When the Queen saw her, she was
much astonished, because she did not believe in faeries, but, now
she really saw one, she had to believe her own eyes.
“I am called Rosina,” said the faery in a sweet, low voice, “and I
heard you say you did not believe faeries existed; now you see they
do, because I am a faery.”
“Yes, you must be a faery,” replied the Queen, clasping her hands,
“because no human being could be so small.”
“Oh, I can be any size I please,” said the Faery Rosina, with a laugh,
and, stepping down from the rose, she alighted on the ground, and
instantly grew as tall as the Queen herself.
“Oh, you are a real, real faery!” cried Flora in
delight. “But why do the faeries not appear
now?”
“Because the land is so badly governed,” said
Rosina in a severe tone. “Yourself and the
King only think of luxury, and never of
assisting the poor people; but I am going to
cure you both of such neglect.”
“But how?” asked the Queen, trembling.
“By giving you your wish,” said the faery,
plucking a white rosebud off the tree. “Lay this bud beside your bed
to-night, and at the dawn of day it will change into a beautiful little
baby Princess, which is what you want.”
“Oh yes, yes!” cried the Queen; “I do want a Princess.”
“Every night at sundown,” said the faery slowly, “the Princess will
once more change into a flower, and become a human being again
at sunrise.”
“But will she change like this all her life?” asked the Queen, in great
dismay, for she did not like to have such a curious baby.
“She will be a Princess by day and a rosebud by night,” said Rosina,
smiling, “until she marries the great-grandson of the King whom your
husband’s grandfather deposed from the throne.”
“And where is this Prince to be found?” demanded the Queen
breathlessly. “I’ll marry my Princess to him at once.”
“You can’t do that,” said the faery, shaking her head. “The exiled
Prince does not know who he is, and the Princess herself will have
to tell him he is of the royal blood. When she does that, and you
marry them to one another, the spell will be removed, and she will be
a Princess both by day and by night.”
“I don’t see how she’s ever going to find this lost Prince!” said the
Queen angrily. “I shall certainly not let my child run about the world
looking for him.”
“Fate is stronger than you are,” replied the faery, “and you will see
what you will see.” So saying, she suddenly disappeared, and, as
the white rose slowly curled up its petals, the Queen knew the Faery
Rosina was inside.
The ladies-in-waiting, who had seen the Queen talking to a strange
lady, dared not approach before, but now they saw their royal
mistress was alone, they ventured to come near, and one of them
offered to take the white rosebud which the Queen held.
“Oh no!” cried Flora, hastily drawing back her hand; “I am going to
keep this rosebud. It is my”—
She was going to say Princess, but, thinking it wiser to keep her own
counsel, she held her tongue, and, on returning to the palace, told no
one but the King about the faery’s promise. The King laughed at her,
and said he did not believe her story—that she must be dreaming;
but the Queen persisted in her tale, that the rosebud would become
a Princess, and placed it on a velvet cushion by the side of her bed.