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 INTRODUCTION TO
Composite
Materials Design
THIRD EDITION
 INTRODUCTION TO
Composite
Materials Design
THIRD EDITION

Ever J. Barbero

Boca Raton London New York

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Barbero, Ever J., author.

Title: Introduction to composite materials design / Ever Barbero.
Description: Third edition. | Boca Raton : Taylor & Francis, CRC Press, 2017.
| Series: Composite materials : analysis and design | Includes
bibliographical references.
Identifiers: LCCN 2017026595| ISBN 9781138196803 (hardback : acid-free paper)
| ISBN 9781315296494 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Composite materials--Mechanical properties. | Manufacturing
processes.
Classification: LCC TA418.9.C6 B37 2017 | DDC 620.1/1892--dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017026595

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Dedicado a las instituciones en que cursé mis estudios, a saber,
Colegio Dean Funes, Escuela Nacional de Educación Técnica
Ambrosio Olmos, Universidad Nacional de Rı́o Cuarto, y
Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University
Contents

Preface xv

List of Symbols xxv

List of Examples xxxiii

Acknowledgment xxxv

1 Introduction 1
1.1 Basic Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Design Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.3 Composites Design Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.4 Fracture Mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.5 Design for Reliability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.5.1 Stochastic Representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.5.2 Reliability-Based Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.5.3 Load and Resistance Factor Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.5.4 Determination of Resistance Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.5.5 Determination of Load Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
1.5.6 Basis Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
1.5.7 Limit States Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

2 Materials 37
2.1 Fiber Reinforcements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
2.2 Fiber Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
2.2.1 Glass Fibers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
2.2.2 Silica and Quartz Fibers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
2.2.3 Carbon Fibers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
2.2.4 Carbon Nanotubes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
2.2.5 Organic Fibers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
2.2.6 Boron Fibers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
2.2.7 Ceramic Fibers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
2.2.8 Basalt Fibers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
2.2.9 Metallic Fibers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

vii
viii Introduction to Composite Materials Design

2.2.10 Natural Fibers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

2.3 Fiber-Matrix Compatibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
2.4 Fiber Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
2.4.1 Continuous and Discontinuous Fibers . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
2.4.2 1D Textiles: Strand, Tow, End, Yarn, and Roving . . . . . . 51
2.4.3 2D Textiles: Fabrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
2.5 Matrix Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
2.6 Thermoset Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
2.6.1 Polyester Resins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
2.6.2 Vinyl Ester Resins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
2.6.3 Epoxy Resins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
2.6.4 Phenolic Resins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
2.7 Thermoplastic Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
2.8 Biodegradable Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
2.9 Creep, Temperature, and Moisture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
2.10 Corrosion Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
2.11 Flammability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

3 Manufacturing Processes 85
3.1 Hand Layup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
3.2 Prepreg Layup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
3.3 Bag Molding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
3.4 Autoclave Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
3.5 Compression Molding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
3.6 Resin Transfer Molding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
3.7 Vacuum-Assisted Resin Transfer Molding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
3.8 Pultrusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
3.9 Filament Winding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
3.10 Textile Manufacturing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
3.10.1 Woven Fabrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
3.10.2 Knitted Fabrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
3.10.3 Braid Fabrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
3.10.4 Stitched Fabrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105

4 Micromechanics 107
4.1 Basic Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
4.1.1 Volume and Mass Fractions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
4.1.2 Representative Volume Element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
4.1.3 Heterogeneous Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
4.1.4 Anisotropic Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
4.1.5 Orthotropic Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
4.1.6 Transversely Isotropic Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
4.1.7 Isotropic Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Table of Contents ix

4.2 Stiffness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113

4.2.1 Longitudinal Modulus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
4.2.2 Transverse Modulus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
4.2.3 In-Plane Poisson’s Ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
4.2.4 In-Plane Shear Modulus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
4.2.5 Intralaminar Shear Modulus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
4.2.6 Restrictions on the Elastic Constants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
4.3 Moisture and Thermal Expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
4.3.1 Thermal Expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
4.3.2 Moisture Expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
4.3.3 Transport Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
4.4 Temperature-Dependent Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
4.4.1 Micromechanics of CTE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
4.4.2 Temperature Dependence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
4.5 Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
4.5.1 Longitudinal Tensile Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
4.5.2 Longitudinal Compressive Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
4.5.3 Transverse Tensile Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
4.5.4 Mode I Fracture Toughness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
4.5.5 In-Plane Shear Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
4.5.6 Mode II Fracture Toughness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
4.5.7 Transverse Compressive Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
4.5.8 Mohr–Coulomb Failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
4.5.9 Intralaminar Shear Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147

5 Ply Mechanics 151

5.1 Coordinate Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
5.2 Stress and Strain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
5.2.1 Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
5.2.2 Strain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
5.3 Stress–Strain Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
5.4 Off-Axis Stiffness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
5.4.1 Coordinate Transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
5.4.2 Stress and Strain Transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
5.4.3 Stiffness and Compliance Transformations . . . . . . . . . . . 166
5.4.4 Specially Orthotropic Lamina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170

6 Macromechanics 173
6.1 Plate Stiffness and Compliance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
6.1.1 Assumptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
6.1.2 Strains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
6.1.3 Stress Resultants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
6.1.4 Plate Stiffness and Compliance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
x Introduction to Composite Materials Design

6.2 Computation of Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185

6.3 Common Laminate Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
6.3.1 Laminate Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
6.3.2 Symmetric Laminates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
6.3.3 Antisymmetric Laminate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
6.3.4 Balanced Laminate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
6.3.5 Quasi-isotropic Laminates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
6.3.6 Cross-Ply Laminate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
6.3.7 Angle-Ply Laminate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
6.3.8 Specially Orthotropic Laminate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
6.4 Laminate Moduli . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
6.4.1 Trace-Normalized Moduli . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
6.5 Universal Carpet Plots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
6.5.1 Homogenization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
6.5.2 Membrane-Controlled design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
6.5.3 Bending-Controlled design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
6.6 Hygrothermal Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221

7 Strength 227
7.1 Lamina Failure Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
7.1.1 Strength Ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
7.1.2 Maximum Stress Criterion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
7.1.3 Maximum Strain Criterion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
7.1.4 Interacting Failure Criterion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
7.1.5 Hygrothermal Failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
7.2 First Ply Failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
7.2.1 In Situ Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
7.3 Last Ply Failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
7.3.1 Ply Discount . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
7.3.2 Truncated-Maximum-Strain Criterion . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
7.4 Laminate Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
7.4.1 Universal Carpet Plots: In-Plane Strength . . . . . . . . . . . 262
7.5 Stress Concentrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
7.5.1 Notched Plate under In-Plane Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278

8 Damage 283
8.1 Continuum Damage Mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
8.2 Longitudinal Tensile Damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
8.3 Longitudinal Compressive Damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
8.4 Transverse Tension and In-Plane Shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
8.4.1 Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
8.4.2 Approximations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
8.4.3 Displacement Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
Table of Contents xi

8.4.4 Strain Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297

8.4.5 Laminate Reduced Stiffness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
8.4.6 Lamina Reduced Stiffness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
8.4.7 Fracture Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
8.4.8 Solution Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
8.4.9 Lamina Iterations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
8.4.10 Laminate Iterations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301

9 Fabric-reinforced Composites 303

9.1 Weave Pattern Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
9.2 Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
9.3 Tow Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
9.4 Element Stiffness and Constitutive Relationship . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
9.4.1 Bending-Restrained Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
9.4.2 Bending-Allowed Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
9.5 Laminate Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
9.5.1 Elastic Constants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
9.5.2 Thermal and Moisture Expansion Coefficients . . . . . . . . . 319
9.6 Failure Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
9.6.1 Stress Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
9.6.2 Damage Initiation, Evolution, and Fracture . . . . . . . . . . 323
9.6.3 Cross-Ply Approximation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
9.7 Woven Fabrics with Gap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
9.8 Twill and Satin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
9.8.1 Twill Weave with ng > 2, ns = 1, ni = 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
9.8.2 Twill Weave with ns = 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
9.8.3 Satin Weave with ni = 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
9.8.4 Twill and Satin Thermo-Elastic Properties . . . . . . . . . . 340
9.9 Randomly Oriented Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
9.9.1 Elastic Moduli . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342
9.9.2 Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344

10 Beams 351
10.1 Preliminary Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
10.1.1 Design for Deflections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356
10.1.2 Design for Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
10.1.3 Design for Buckling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359
10.1.4 Column Behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
10.2 Thin-Walled Beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362
10.2.1 Wall Constitutive Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366
10.2.2 Neutral Axis of Bending and Torsion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368
10.2.3 Axial Stiffness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370
10.2.4 Mechanical Center of Gravity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
xii Introduction to Composite Materials Design

10.2.5 Bending Stiffness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372

10.2.6 Torsional Stiffness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378
10.2.7 Shear of Open Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
10.2.8 Shear of Single-Cell Closed Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
10.2.9 Beam Deformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391
10.2.10 Segment Deformations and Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392
10.2.11 Restrained Warping of Open Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396

11 Plates and Stiffened Panels 399

11.1 Plate Bending . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400
11.1.1 Universal Carpet Plots: Flexural Strength . . . . . . . . . . . 400
11.2 Plate Buckling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403
11.2.1 All Edges Simply Supported . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404
11.2.2 All Sides Clamped . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406
11.2.3 One Free Edge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406
11.2.4 Biaxial Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407
11.2.5 Fixed Unloaded Edges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407
11.3 Stiffened Panels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408
11.3.1 Stiffened Panels under Bending Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
11.3.2 Stiffened Panel under In-Plane Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420

12 Shells 423
12.1 Shells of Revolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425
12.1.1 Symmetric Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426
12.2 Cylindrical Shells with General Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 434
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 440

13 Strengthening of Reinforced Concrete 443

13.1 Strengthening Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445
13.2 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 447
13.2.1 Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448
13.2.2 Steel Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449
13.2.3 FRP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449
13.3 Flexural Strengthening of RC Beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449
13.3.1 Unstrengthened Behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 450
13.3.2 Strengthened Behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 450
13.3.3 Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451
13.3.4 Strong Strengthening Configuration (SSC) . . . . . . . . . . . 453
13.3.5 Weak Strengthening Configuration (WSC) . . . . . . . . . . . 455
13.3.6 Balanced Strengthening Configuration (BSC) . . . . . . . . . 457
13.3.7 Serviceability Limit States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 458
13.3.8 Summary Design Procedure: Bending . . . . . . . . . . . . . 464
13.4 Shear Strengthening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469
Table of Contents xiii

13.4.1 Summary Design Procedure: Shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473

13.5 Beam-Column . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 476
13.5.1 Column: Pure Axial Compression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477
13.5.2 Summary Design Procedure: Column . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480
13.5.3 Beam-Column: Combined Axial Compression and Bending . 483
13.5.4 Summary Verification Procedure: Beam-Column . . . . . . . 489
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 498

Appendix A 501
A.1 SCILAB Code for Classical Lamination Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . 501
A.2 Periodic Microstructure Micromechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 501
A.3 Longitudinal Compressive Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 504

Bibliography 511

Index 525
Preface to the Third Edition

Design with composite materials is conducted in a two-step process: preliminary de-

sign and detailed analysis. In large aerospace companies, once preliminary design is
done, the project is handed over to the detailed analysis team, but in most other in-
dustries the whole process is done by the same person or the same team. Preliminary
design is covered by this textbook. The online software cadec-online.com is help-
ful for that as well. Detailed analysis is covered by companion textbooks: Finite
Element Analysis of Composites Materials Using Abaqus [1] and Finite Element
Analysis of Composites Materials Using ANSYS [2]. Together, these textbooks
cover all mechanics aspects of the design including deformation and strength. Other
topics that might be relevant depending on the application are covered in Multifunc-
tional Composites [3].
The second edition of this textbook has been on the market for seven years. In
that time, it has being broadly adopted for both self-study and teaching in senior
undergraduate and master programs worldwide. This third edition has been updated
to incorporate the latest state-of-the-art analysis techniques for the preliminary
design of composite structures, including universal carpet plots, reliability, basis
values, temperature dependent properties, and many others.
Furthermore, revisions have been highly focused on making the textbook easier
to use. The content has been streamlined for teaching, with updates, substitutions,
and reorganizations aimed at making the content more practical and pertinent to
industry needs. All examples have been revised and new examples have been added,
including cylindrical and spherical pressure vessels, domes, flywheels, notched plates
with stress concentration and notch sensitivity, pipes, shafts, stiffened panels, and
tanks. Material property tables have been revised and expanded, both in depth and
breadth of content. Scilab source code for most examples is now available on the
companion Website [4], and the online software cadec-online.com has been updated
to reflect the changes and enhancements of this third edition.
Like previous editions, this one remains a textbook for senior-level undergraduate
students and practicing engineers. Therefore, the discussion is based on math and
mechanics of materials background that is common by the senior year, avoiding
tensor analysis and other mathematical constructs typical of graduate school. With
the same aim, the sign convention for bending moment and transverse shear has
been changed to make it compatible with classical mechanics of materials textbooks
that are used in undergraduate courses, thus eliminating a source of confusion.

xv
xvi Introduction to Composite Materials Design

As in previous editions, the textbook contains much more content than what
can be taught in one semester. Therefore, some sections are marked with (*) to
indicate that they can be omitted during a first reading, but are recommended for
further study and reference.
The textbook now contains 88 fully developed examples (13% increase over the
second edition), 204 end-of-chapter problems (22% increase), 49 completely revised
and augmented tables including material properties and other practical information
(36% increase), 177 figures, and 300 bibliographic citations. The solution’s manual
(available to instructors) has been completely revamped with detailed solutions and
explanations. Since the solution’s manual is not available for self-study, a supple-
mentary workbook with a different set of fully solved problems is available for the
second edition [5] and will be soon available for the third edition [6]. The solutions
in both workbooks make reference to the respective editions of this textbook.
I trust that many students, practicing engineers, and instructors will find this
edition to be even more useful than the previous one.

Ever J. Barbero, 2017

Preface to the Second Edition
It has been over ten years since the first edition appeared. In the meantime, uti-
lization of composites has increased in almost every market. Boeing’s 787 main
technological advance is based on widespread incorporation of composites, account-
ing for about 50% of the aircraft. Its use allows the plane to be lighter and conse-
quently more fuel efficient. It also allows higher moisture content in the cabin, thus
increasing passenger comfort. Cost and production time still hamper utilization of
composites in the automotive sector, but as in all other industries, there is a re-
lentless transformation from using conventional to composite materials in more and
more applications.
Increased utilization of composites requires that more and more engineers be able
to design and fabricate composite structures. As a result, practicing engineers and
students are equally interested in acquiring the necessary knowledge. This second
edition incorporates the advances in knowledge and design methods that have taken
place over the last ten years, yet it maintains the distinguishing features of the first
edition. Like the first edition, it remains a textbook for senior-level undergraduate
students in the engineering disciplines and for self-studying, practicing engineers.
Therefore, the discussion is based on math and mechanics of materials background
that is common by the senior year, avoiding tensor analysis and other mathematical
constructs typical of graduate school.
Seventy-eight fully developed examples are distributed throughout the textbook
to illustrate the application of the analysis techniques and design methodology pre-
sented, making this textbook ideally suited for self-study. All examples use material
property data and information available in thirty-five tables included in the text-
book. One hundred and sixty-eight illustrations, including twelve carpet plots, aid
in the explanation of concepts and methodologies. Additional information is pro-
vided in the Website [4]. Finally, one hundred and sixty-seven exercises at the end
of chapters will challenge the reader and provide opportunity for testing the level of
proficiency achieved while studying.
The experiences of instructors from all over the world have confirmed that Chap-
ters 1 to 7 can be taught in a one-semester undergraduate course, assigning Chapters
2 and 3 for independent reading. Those seven chapters remain in the same order
in this second edition. Since they have been expanded to accommodate new infor-
mation, a number of sections have been marked with an (*) to indicate topics that
could be skipped on an introductory course, at the instructor’s discretion.
Experience from self-taught practitioners all over the world demanded to main-
tain the ten chapters from the first edition, including composite beams, plates, and
shells, as well as to add new topics such as fabric-reinforced composites and exter-
nal strengthening of concrete. Therefore, all ten chapters from the first edition have
been revised, updated, and expanded. Three additional chapters have been added,
expanding significantly the coverage of analysis and design of practical composite
applications. From the material in Chapters 8 to 13, an instructor/reader can pick
topics for special projects or tailor a follow-up graduate course. One such course,
xviii Introduction to Composite Materials Design

structural composites design, is now taught at several universities in the United

States as an advanced-undergraduate/introductory-graduate course.
Two new topics, design for reliability and fracture mechanics, are now introduced
in Chapter 1 and applied throughout the book. The composite property tables in
Chapter 1 have been expanded in order to support an expanded set of examples
throughout the book.
Chapter 2 is thoroughly revised and updated, including new information on
modern fibers, carbon nanotubes, and fiber forms such as textiles. A new section
on fabric-reinforcement serves as introduction for the new Chapter 9 on Fabric-
Reinforced Composites. More material properties for fibers and matrices are given
in the tables at the end of Chapter 2, to support the revised and expanded set of
examples throughout the book.
Chapters 3, 5, and 6 sustained the least changes. Chapter 3 was revised and
updated with a new section on Vacuum Assisted Resin Transfer Molding (VARTM).
Major advances in prediction of unidirectional-lamina properties were incorpo-
rated in Chapter 4, which, as a result, is heavily updated and expanded. For exam-
ple, prediction of fracture toughness in modes I and II of the unidirectional lamina
are now included, and they serve as background for the discussion about insitu
strength values in Chapter 7. The more complex sections have been rewritten in an
attempt to help the student and the instructor make faster progress through com-
plex material. In each section, a short summary describes the main concepts and
introduces practical formulas for design. This is followed by (*)-labeled sections for
further reading, provided the time allows for it. The sections on prediction of lon-
gitudinal compressive strength, transverse tensile strength, transverse compressive
strength, and in-plane shear strength have been re-written in this way. This layout
allows for in-depth coverage that can be assigned for independent study or be left
for later study. In this way, new topics are added, such as Mohr–Coulomb theory,
as well as mode I and mode II fracture toughness of composites.
Over the last ten years, the most advances have occurred on the understanding of
material failure. Consequently, Chapter 7 has been thoroughly revised to include the
most advanced prediction and design methodologies. As in the first edition, Chapter
7 remains focused on design and can be the ending chapter for an undergraduate
course, perhaps followed by a capstone design project. However, it now transitions
smoothly into Chapter 8, thus providing the transition point to a graduate course
on structural composites design.
Chapters 8 to 13 cover applied composites design topics without resorting to
finite element analysis, which is left for other textbooks used for more advanced
graduate courses [1, 2]. Chapters 8 to 13 are designed for a new course aimed si-
multaneously at the advanced-undergraduate and introductory-graduate levels, but
selected topics can be used to tailor the introductory course for particular audiences,
such as civil engineering, materials engineering, and so on.
Chapter 8 includes the methodology used to perform damage mechanics anal-
ysis of laminated composites accounting for the main damage modes: longitudinal
tension, longitudinal compression, transverse tension, in-plane shear, and transverse
Preface xix

compression. The methodology allows for the prediction of damage initiation, evolu-
tion, stiffness reduction, stress redistribution among laminae, and ultimate laminate
failure.
Chapter 9 includes an in-depth description of fabric-reinforced composites, in-
cluding textile and nontextile composites. The methodology for analysis of textile-
reinforced composites includes the prediction of damage initiation, evolution, stiff-
ness reduction, and laminate failure.
Chapters 10, 11, and 12 are revised versions of similarly titled chapters in the
first edition. The chapters have been revised to include design for reliability and to
correct a few typos in the first edition.
Finally, Chapter 13 is a new chapter dealing with external strengthening of
reinforced-concrete beams, columns, and structural members subjected to both axial
and bending loads. External strengthening has emerged as the most promising and
popular application of composite materials (called FRP) in the civil engineering
sector. Therefore, this chapter offers an opportunity to tailor a course on composites
for civil engineering students or to inform students from other disciplines about this
new market.
In preparing this second edition, all examples have been revised. The number of
examples has grown from 50 in the first edition to 78 in this one. Also, the exercises
at the end of chapters have been revised. The number of exercises has grown from
115 in the first edition to 167 in this one. I trust that many students, practicing
engineers, and instructors will find this edition to be even more useful than the first
one.

Ever J. Barbero, 2010

Preface to the First Edition

This book deals with the design of structures made of composite materials, also
called composites. With composites, the material and the structure are designed
concurrently. That is, the designer can vary structural parameters, such as geome-
try, and at the same time vary the material properties by changing the fiber orienta-
tion, fiber content, etc. To take advantage of the design flexibility composites offer,
it is necessary to understand material selection, fabrication, material behavior, and
structural analysis. This book provides the main tools used for the preliminary de-
sign of composites. It covers all design aspects, including fiber and matrix selection,
fabrication processes, prediction of material properties, and structural analysis of
beams, plates, shells, and other structures. The subject is presented in a concise
form so that most of the material can be covered in a one-semester undergraduate
course.
This book is intended for senior-level engineering students, and no prior know-
ledge of composites is required. Most textbooks on composites are designed for
graduate courses; they concentrate on materials behavior, leaving structural analysis
and design to be covered by other, unspecified, graduate courses. In this book,
structural analysis and design concepts from earlier courses, such as mechanics of
materials, are used to illustrate the design of composite beams, plates, and shells.
Modern analysis and design methodology have been incorporated throughout
the book, rather than adding a myriad of research-oriented material at the end of
the book. The objective was to update the material that is actually taught in a
typical senior technical-elective course rather than adding reference material that
is seldom taught. In addition, design content is included explicitly to provide the
reader with practical design knowledge, thus better preparing the student for the
workplace. Among the improvements, it is worth mentioning the following: A chap-
ter on materials and a chapter on processing, which emphasize the advantages and
disadvantages of various materials and processes, while explaining materials science
and process-engineering topics with structural-engineering terminology. In Chapter
4, proven micromechanical formulas are given for all the properties required in the
design, as well as reference to the American Society of Testing Materials (ASTM)
standards used for testing. In Chapter 6, shear-deformable lamination theory is
presented in lieu of the obsolete classical lamination theory. In Chapter 7, the
truncated-maximum-strain criterion, widely accepted in the aerospace industry, is
explained in detail. Chapters 10, 11, and 12 present simple, yet powerful methods
for the preliminary design of composite beams, plates, stiffened panels, and shells.
The material in these later chapters does not require, for the most part, any back-
ground beyond that provided by the typical engineering curricula in aerospace, civil,
or mechanical engineering.
Design content is distributed throughout the book in the form of special design-
oriented sections and examples. The presentation emphasizes concepts rather than
mathematical derivations. The objective is to motivate students who are interested
in designing useful products with composites rather than performing research. Every
Preface xxi

final equation in every section is useful in the design process. Most of the equations
needed for design are programmed into the accompanying software to eliminate
the need for tedious computations on part of the students. The software, enti-
tled Computer Aided Design Environment for Composites (CADEC), is a windows
application with an intuitive, web-browser-like graphical user interface, including
a help system fully cross-referenced to the book. Examples are used to illustrate
aspects of the design process. Suggested exercises at the end of each chapter are
designed to test the understanding of the material presented.
Composites design involves synthesis of information about materials, manufac-
turing processes, and stress-analysis to create a useful product. An overview of
the design process as well as composites terminology are introduced in Chapter 1,
followed by a description of materials and manufacturing processes in Chapters 2
and 3. Composites design also involves stress- and deformation-analysis to predict
how the proposed structure/material combination will behave under load. Since a
one-semester course could be spent on analysis alone, an effort has been made in
this book to simplify the presentation of analysis methods, leaving time for design
topics.
Composites design can be accomplished following one of various methodologies
outlined in Chapter 1 and developed throughout Chapters 4 to 7. The instructor
can choose from the various design options described in Section 1.2 to strike a
balance between simplicity and generality. Self-study readers are encouraged to
read through Chapters 4 to 7, with the exception of those sections marked with a
star (*), which can be studied afterward. The book is thoroughly cross-referenced
to allow the reader to consult related material as needed. Since the constituent
materials (fiber and matrix) as well as the manufacturing process influence the
design of a composite structure, the designer should understand the characteristics
and limitations of various materials as well as manufacturing processes used in the
fabrication of composites, which are described in Chapters 2 and 3.
Prediction of composite properties from fiber and matrix data is presented in
Chapter 4. Although composite properties could be obtained experimentally, the
material in Chapter 4 is still recommended as the basis for understanding how
fiber-reinforced materials work. Only those formulas useful in design are presented,
avoiding lengthy derivations or complex analytical techniques of limited practical
use. Some of the more complex formulas are presented without derivations. Deriva-
tions are included only to enhance the conceptual understanding of the behavior of
composites.
Unlike traditional materials, such as aluminum, composite properties vary with
the orientation, having higher stiffness and strength along the fiber direction. There-
fore, the transformations required to analyze composite structures along arbitrary
directions not coinciding with the fiber direction are presented in Chapter 5. Fur-
thermore, composites are seldom used with all the fibers oriented in only one di-
rection. Instead, laminates are created by stacking laminae with fibers in various
orientations to efficiently carry the loads. The analysis of such laminates is presented
in Chapter 6, with numerous design examples.
xxii Introduction to Composite Materials Design

While stress-analysis and deformation-controlled design is covered in Chapter

6, failure prediction is presented in Chapter 7. Chapter 7 includes modern mate-
rial, such as the truncated-maximum-strain criterion, which is widely used in the
aerospace industry. Also, a powerful preliminary-design tool, called carpet plots, is
presented in Chapters 6 and 7 and used in examples throughout the book.
The instructor or reader can choose material from Chapters 10 to 12 to tailor
the course to his/her specific preferences. Chapter 10 includes a simple preliminary-
design procedure (Section 10.1) that summarizes and complements the beam-design
examples presented throughout Chapters 4 to 7. In Section 10.2, a novel meth-
odology for the analysis of thin-walled composite sections is presented, which can
be used as part of an advanced course or to tailor the course for aerospace or civil
engineering students. All of the thin-walled beam equations are programmed into
CADEC to eliminate the need for tedious computations or programming by the
students.
Chapter 11 is intended to provide reference material for the preliminary design
of plates and stiffened panels. Rigorous analysis of plate problems has not been in-
cluded because it requires the solution of boundary value problems stated in terms
of partial differential equations, which cannot be tackled with the customary back-
ground of undergraduate students. Similarly, Chapter 12 can be used to tailor a
course for those interested in the particular aspects of composite shells. Again,
complex analytical or numerical procedures have not been included in favor of a
simple, yet powerful membrane-analysis that does not require advanced analytical
or computational skills.
Introduction to Composite Materials Design contains more topics than can be
taught in one semester, but instructors can tailor the course to various audiences.
Flexibility is built primarily into Chapters 2, 3, 10, 11, and 12. Chapters 2 and 3
can be covered in depth or just assigned for reading, depending on the emphasis
given in a particular curriculum. Chapters 10, 11, and 12 begin with simple approx-
imate methods that can be taught quickly, and they evolve into more sophisticated
methods of analysis that can be taught selectively depending on the audience or
be left for future reading. Video references given in Chapter 1 provide an efficient
introduction to the course when hands-on experience with composite manufacturing
is not feasible.
An effort has been made to integrate the material in this book into the under-
graduate curriculum of aerospace, civil, and mechanical engineering students. This
has been done by presenting stress-analysis and structural-design in a similar fash-
ion as covered in traditional, mandatory courses, such as mechanics of materials,
mechanical design, etc. Integration into the existing curriculum allows the students
to assimilate the course content efficiently because they are able to relate it to their
previously acquired knowledge. Furthermore, design content is provided by spe-
cial design-oriented sections of the textbook, as well as by design examples. Both
integration in the curriculum and design content are strongly recommended by en-
gineering educators worldwide, as documented in engineering accreditation criteria,
such as those of Accreditation Board of Engineering Technology (ABET).
Preface xxiii

The market for composites is growing steadily, including commodity type appli-
cations in the automotive, civil infrastructure, and other emerging markets. Because
of the growing use of composites in such varied industries, many practicing engineers
feel the need to design with these new materials. This book attempts to reach both
the senior-level engineering student as well as the practicing engineer who has no
prior training in composites. Practicality and design are emphasized in the book,
not only in the numerous examples but also in the material’s explanation. Struc-
tural design is explained using elementary concepts of mechanics of materials, with
examples (beams, pressure vessels, etc.) that resemble those studied in introductory
courses. I expect that many students, practicing engineers, and instructors will find
this to be a useful text on composites.

Ever J. Barbero, 1998

List of Symbols

hat () b Average
tilde () e Undamaged (virgin) or effective quantity
overline () Transformed, usually to laminate coordinates
α Load factor. Also, fiber misalignment
α0 Angle of the fracture plane
α1 , α2 Longitudinal and transverse coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE)
αA , αT Axial and transverse CTE of fibers
[α] Membrane compliance of a laminate
[α] In-plane compliance of a laminate
[β] Bending-extension compliance of a laminate
[δ] Bending compliance of a laminate
θk Orientation of lamina k in a laminate
β1 , β2 Longitudinal and transverse coefficient of moisture expansion
δb , δs Bending and shear deflections of a beam
1t Ultimate longitudinal tensile strain (strain-to-failure)
2t Ultimate transverse tensile strain (strain-to-failure)
1c Ultimate longitudinal compressive strain (strain-to-failure)
2c Ultimate transverse compressive strain (strain-to-failure)
f u Ultimate fiber tensile strain (strain-to-failure)
mu Ultimate matrix tensile strain (strain-to-failure)
 Strain tensor
εij Strain components in tensor notation
α Strain components in contracted notation
eα Elastic strain
pα Plastic strain
0x , 0y , γxy
0 Strain components at the midsurface of a shell

e Effective strain in contracted notation (6 = γ6 )
εe Effective strain in tensor notation (6 = γ6 /2)
γ6u Ultimate shear strain (strain-to-failure)
0
γxy In-plane shear strain
κx , κy , κxy Curvatures of the midsurface of a shell
κσ , κF Load and resistance coefficient of variance (COV)
λ Lamé constant, Crack density, Weibull scale parameter

xxv
xxvi Introduction to Composite Materials Design

µ, υ Population mean and variance

η Eigenvalues
ηL , ηT Coefficients of influence, longitudinal, transverse
η2 , η4 , η6 Stress partitioning parameters
ηi = Ei /E Modular ratio in the transformed section method
φ Resistance factor. Also, angle of internal friction
φ(z) Standard PDF
φx , φy Rotations of the normal to the midsurface of a shell
ρ Density
ρf , ρm , ρc Density of fiber, matrix, and composite
ψ Load combination factor
σ Stress tensor
σij Stress components in tensor notation
σα Stress components in contracted notation
σ
e Effective stress
τL , τT Longitudinal and transverse shear stress
υ Variance
ν Poisson’s ratio
ν12 In-plane Poisson’s ratio
ν23 , ν13 Intralaminar Poisson’s ratios
νxy Laminate Poisson ratio x-y
νA Axial Poisson’s ratio of fibers
νT Transverse Poisson’s ratio of fibers
Γ Gamma function
Λ022 , Λ044 Dvorak parameters
Λ22 , Λ√44 New Dvorak parameters
Ω = I-D Integrity tensor
2a0 Representative crack size
df Degradation factor
g Damage activation function
hr Homogenization ratio
kf Fiber stress concentration factor
kQC Basis value coefficient with coverage Q and confidence C
m Weibull shape parameter
n1 , n2 , n3 Components of the vector normal to a surface
p(z) Probability density function (PDF)
r1 (ϕ), r2 (ϕ) Radii of curvature of a shell
s Standard deviation
sα Standard deviation of fiber misalignment
tk Thickness of lamina k in a laminate
t1 , t2 , t3 Projection components of a vector on the coordinate axes 1, 2, 3
tt = 4a0 Transition thickness
tr(Q) Trace of the Q matrix
u, v, w Components of the displacement along the directions x, y, z
List of Symbols xxvii

u0 , v0 , w0 Components of the displacement at the midsurface of a shell

w Fabric weight per unit area
x̄, s Sample mean and standard deviation
z Standard variable
[A] Membrane stiffness of a laminate; Aij ; i, j = 1, 2, 6
[B] Bending-extension coupling stiffness of a laminate; Bij
C, Q Confidence and Coverage (reliability), respectively
Cij 3D stiffness matrix
CT E Coefficient of thermal expansion
D Damage tensor
[D] Bending stiffness of a laminate; Dij ; i, j = 1, 2, 6
E Young’s modulus of isotropic material
EA , ET Axial and transverse moduli of fibers
E1 , E2 Lamina longitudinal and transverse moduli
Ex , Ey , Gxy Laminate moduli
Ex∗ , Ey∗ , G∗xy Normalized laminate moduli
F Resistance (material strength)
F1t Longitudinal tensile strength
F2t Transverse tensile strength
F6 In-plane shear strength
F1c Longitudinal compressive strength
F2c Transverse compressive strength
F4 Intralaminar shear strength
Ff t Apparent fiber tensile strength
Fmt Apparent matrix tensile strength
Fmc Apparent matrix compressive strength
Fms Apparent matrix shear strength
Fcsm−t Tensile strength of a random-reinforced lamina
Fx , Fy , Fxy Laminate in-plane strength
Fxb , Fyb , Fxy
b Laminate flexural strength
Fx∗ , Fy∗ , Fxy
∗ Normalized laminate in-plane strength
b∗ b∗
Fx , Fy , Fxy b∗ Normalized laminate flexural strength
G Shear modulus of isotropic material
G12 In-plane shear modulus
G23 Transverse shear modulus
GA , GT Axial and transverse shear modulus of fibers
GIc , GIIc Fracture toughness mode I and II
G0 Slope of the universal shear modulus
[H] Transverse shear stiffness of a laminate Hij ; i, j = 4...5
HDT Heat distortion temperature
I Second moment of area
IF Failure Index
M Bending moment applied to a beam
Mx , My , Mxy Bending moments per unit length at the midsurface of a shell
xxviii Introduction to Composite Materials Design

MxT , MyT , MxyT Thermal moments per unit length

Nx , Ny , Nxy Membrane forces per unit length at the midsurface of a shell
N T , T Membrane thermal force and strain caused by thermal expansion
NxT , NyT , Nxy
T Thermal forces per unit length
P Cumulative distribution function (CDF)
Q=1−P Coverage or reliability, depending on context
[Q] Reduced stiffness matrix in lamina coordinates x1 , x2 , x3
Q∗ Intralaminar reduced stiffness matrix
Q Reduced stiffness matrix in laminate coordinates X, Y, Z
Q Undamaged reduced stiffness matrix in lamina coordinates
Qe Undamaged reduced stiffness matrix in laminate coordinates
QCSM Reduced stiffness of a random-reinforced lamina
R Strength ratio, safety factor
[R] Reuter matrix
Sij 3D compliance matrix
S∗ Intralaminar components of the compliance matrix S
SF T Stress-free temperature [◦ C]
Tg Glass transition temperature
T = T (θ) Stress transformation matrix from laminate to lamina coordinates
T −1 = T (−θ) Stress transformation matrix from lamina to laminate coordinates
Vx , Vy Transverse shear forces per unit length at the midsurface of a shell
Vf , Vm Fiber and matrix volume fraction
Vv Void content (volume fraction)
VQC Basis value coefficient with coverage Q and confidence C
Wf , Wm Fiber and matrix weight fraction

Symbols Related to Fabric-reinforced Composites

θf , θw Undulation angle of the fill and gap tows, respectively
Θf , Θw Coordinate transformation matrix for fill and gap
af , aw Width of the fill and gap tows, respectively
gf , gw Width of the gap along the fill and gap directions, respectively
hf , hw , hm Thickness of the fill and gap tows, and matrix region, respectively
ng Harness
ns Number of subcells between consecutive interlacings
ni Number of subcells in the interlacing region
zf (x), zw (y) Undulation of the fill and gap tows, respectively
Af ill , Awarp Cross-section area of fill and warp tows
Ff a Apparent tensile strength of the fiber
Fmta , Fmsa Apparent tensile and shear strength of the matrix
Lf ill , Lwarp Developed length of fill and warp tows
Tf , Tw Stress transformation matrix for fill and gap
Vfo Overall fiber volume fraction in a fabric-reinforced composite
Vmeso Volume fraction of composite tow in a fabric-reinforced composite
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 CHAPTER XXXIV
FARMING ON THE EDGE OF THE ARCTIC

This is the story of Chicken Billy and his ten-thousand-dollar

potato patch. It is about a young American who became the poultry
king of the Klondike, and then turned to farming with such success
that he has had a field of potatoes that brought in ten thousand
dollars in one year.
Chicken Billy is a representative type of the farmers of the Far
North. I first met him yesterday afternoon when he called at my hotel
here in Dawson. A rough-looking man of less than medium height,
his face is bronzed by the hot summer sun of the Arctic and his
hands are horny from handling the plough. He had brought some of
his crops of hot-house vegetables into Dawson for sale, and he wore
his working clothes—a flannel shirt open at the neck, blue jeans
somewhat the worse for wear, and a pair of rough boots that reached
to his knees.
Billy was born in Philadelphia and went to school there. He was
still under twenty when he passed the examinations for appointment
to the navy. He was so excited over his success that when he came
into the hands of the surgeons to be tested as to his physical fitness
his heart was throbbing at the rate of a hundred-odd beats to the
minute, and the result was that the doctors said he had heart
disease and pronounced him unfit for service.
Billy then worked at odd jobs, without great success, until one
day he read in a newspaper about the gold strike in the Klondike.
The article was headed “Gold at the Grass Roots,” and Billy tells me
he decided to dig into the grass and take out a fortune. He had only
seventeen dollars at the time, but with that he got to St. Paul and
thence worked his way up to Skagway. He walked in over the Dyea
trail and fought for his own with the miners of Dawson. He got some
gold from his various ventures, but made no big strikes, and finally
gave up mining to raise chickens. For this purpose he bought an
island in the Yukon not far from the mouth of the Klondike, and built
a henhouse of logs with glass windows facing the south.
For a while Billy prospered. His eggs sold for fifty cents each,
and his fat chickens brought in forty or fifty dollars a dozen. He built
up his flock until he had nine hundred chickens, and his fresh-laid
eggs became so well known that he acquired the nickname of
Chicken Billy. When he thought he was on the sure road to success,
competition arose. The other poultry raisers cut prices, and chickens
dropped to a dollar apiece. Billy began to lose money and so looked
about for other kinds of farming. He is now raising only fancy
chickens, and is devoting his energy to hogs and potatoes, with
occasional crops of turnips and oats.
My visit to Billy’s farm was one of the most interesting trips I
have had in the Yukon. We started up the river from Dawson in a
gasoline boat about three feet wide and forty feet long. The boat had
a big paddle wheel at the end attached to the engine by a long iron
shaft. We had gone only two miles when this shaft broke and we had
to row ourselves to the nearest island. Leaving the beach, we made
our way through the potato rows from one farm to another. The first
farm we visited was owned by a Swede. He had eleven acres under
cultivation, half in potatoes, and half in oats. The oats are grown for
hay, and some of it stood in shocks as high as my head, while that
not yet cut reached halfway to my waist.
The owner told me that this oats hay often sells for sixty dollars a
ton. When I asked what he expected to get for his potato crop, he
fixed the price at ninety dollars a ton, saying that it might go as high
as one hundred dollars. He told me of one crop from three acres that
had yielded him thirty-seven hundred dollars. That was when the
Guggenheim syndicate began to dredge out the gold of the Klondike.
They were employing large numbers of men, and potatoes were
scarce. Since then he has raised nothing but potatoes and oats. The
next farm we visited produced potatoes and carrots. The woman in
charge told me that the carrots paid as well as the potatoes. She
said that she and her husband enjoyed their summer home on the
Yukon. They live in Dawson in winter.
Leaving this farm, we found ourselves at the end of the island
with the next one about a half mile upstream. This was Billy’s island,
and a loud shout brought his helper after us in a canoe. Upon
landing we first took a look at the hot-house, where cucumbers and
tomatoes are raised for the markets of Dawson. This is one of the
most interesting features of farming in the Far North. There are more
than twenty-five big hothouses in Dawson itself, and they are all
doing well, although Billy says his farm makes more profit than any
two of the others.
Billy’s hot-house is about thirty feet wide and fifty feet long. It
consists of a great pit walled with logs to the surface of the ground
and above that a framework entirely covered with glass. The house
is kept warm by wood fires, the ever-present gasoline tank having
been made into a stove for the purpose. The plants are set out in
beds upon low tables, which are connected with a network of wires.
The vines of the cucumbers and tomatoes are trained on the wires.
They climb up the walls and hang down from the roof. Many of the
cucumbers are over ten inches in length and the largest tomatoes
are bigger than the head of a baby.
Leaving the hot-house we took a look at the hogs. During the
summer they are kept in enclosures out in the open and in the winter
they live in the log henneries, which have been turned into pig pens.
The buildings are warmed with good stoves, and the fires are kept
up day and night. In the winter the pigs are fed upon potatoes and
grain. Their food is cooked and served hot morning and evening.
Every bit of manure is saved, Billy says, for the soil of the Yukon
needs fertilizing, and this by-product is worth almost four times as
much as in the United States.
I went with Billy from pen to pen to examine the stock. It is said
that a man may be known by the way animals act in his presence;
that if they like him he is to be trusted, if not, he is a man to be
watched. If this is true, Chicken Billy should sprout angel’s wings. His
hogs seemed to love him. He talked to them as though they were
human, and they lay down and rolled over like pet dogs. One of his
biggest boars did tricks. The babies of the hog pens were of all ages,
from little red piggies as big as a kitten to lusty black Berkshires the
size of a fox terrier.
Chicken Billy started in the hog business with fourteen pigs—
Duroc-Jerseys, Berkshires, and Yorkshires—most of which had
taken prizes at the agricultural fair at Vancouver. He bought them for
sixty dollars apiece, and shipped them into the Klondike for breeding
purposes.
Leaving the pigs, we went to the farmhouse, a log cabin of two
rooms besides a kitchen. The earth was banked up around the
outside to keep out the winter cold, and inside were great stoves. For
dinner we had eggs fresh from the hens, fried with ham that fairly
melted in our mouths. There were mealy potatoes as good as any
that ever came out of Ireland, although they had been harvested
more than a year before. The bread was made by Billy’s hired man,
and there were more cucumbers than we could possibly eat.
After dinner we took a skiff and rowed from the island over to
Billy’s potato farm on the mainland. This farm was on the banks of
the Yukon, and the crop was raised within a stone’s throw of the river
in a seventeen-acre field a half mile long. I have seen many farms,
but none better cultivated and more free from weeds than this potato
patch. The rows were perfectly straight and the vines reached to my
knees. Billy told me he hoped to get six or seven tons to the acre, or
more than three thousand bushels in all. At one hundred dollars a
ton the gross receipts would be something like ten thousand dollars.
In the centre of the patch is a log cabin with a great cellar where
the potatoes are stored until shipped to market. This is so well built
and so insulated with air spaces that the potatoes do not freeze,
even in the severest weather.
There is no doubt that potatoes can be raised in most parts of
Alaska and the Yukon. When Luther Burbank was in Dawson he said
that these regions may some day be among the chief potato lands of
the world and that by selective breeding a potato can be developed
that will mature here to perfection. Even now the country is raising
nearly all that it needs, and the potato imports are decreasing. This
year the crop is especially good, and the potatoes are equal in
quality to any brought in from outside.
Plants live upon sunshine, and as the Yukon Territory has about
one third more sunlight than the United States in the same period of
summer, Nature puts on its seven-league boots and makes things
grow during our nights. Growth begins in April, when the crocuses
come up through the snow. Gardens are planted by the middle of
May, and by the latter part of June there are vegetables to eat. The
chief summer month is July, although the frosts do not come until the
middle of September. After that follows Indian summer, when the
hills are ablaze with gold.
The country about Dawson is virgin land covered with trees,
which are usually stunted except in the river bottoms. There are
meadows in the south and the southwest, and also great areas that
can be used for grazing. Doctor Dawson, the man who first surveyed
the territory, says that there are thirty-eight million acres that can be
utilized either for crops or for grazing. He compares the Yukon with
some of the inland provinces of Russia where oats, rye, barley, flax,
and hemp are raised successfully.
Most of the farming is in small patches. There are gardens about
the miners’ cabins where potatoes and turnips, green peas and
beets, and carrots and celery are raised. Last year one man grew
forty tons of turnips upon a single acre, and from another acre the
same man raised five hundred and sixty-one bushels of potatoes.
Another farmer brought in to Dawson a cauliflower measuring ten
inches in diameter, a turnip weighing fourteen pounds, and six heads
of cabbage that tipped the scales at one hundred and thirty pounds.
Already a number of homesteads have been taken up in the
territory, and there are little farms here and there on the banks of the
Yukon and on the islands with which it is dotted. The soil is a sandy
loam made up of silt brought down by the river. The land is so thickly
covered with bushes and trees that it costs one hundred dollars and
upward an acre to clear it. Farm wages are high, although the
demand for labour is limited, and the market for potatoes and other
vegetables is confined to the small population in the mines and in
Dawson. If the farms are increased by many new homesteaders
there may be a glut in the market and the prices will fall.
 CHAPTER XXXV
MINING WONDERS OF THE FAR NORTH

This faraway land of the North is the treasure cave of Jack Frost,
where gold and gravel are cemented together by perpetual ice. You
know of the thousands who rushed here years ago, and of the
hundreds who went back loaded with riches. You may have heard
how the district about Dawson, where I am writing, produced gold by
the ton, the output for ten years being worth more than one hundred
million dollars.
In those days pockets worth hundreds of dollars were not
uncommon. In August, 1899, George T. Coffey took up two
shovelfuls of earth from Bonanza Creek, from which he washed
sixty-three ounces of gold, worth nearly a thousand dollars. A miner
by the name of MacDonald got ninety-four thousand dollars for the
gold from a forty-foot patch of ground. Some of the miners on
Bonanza Creek were dissatisfied if the gravel ran less than a dollar a
pan. They worked the rich spots only, and when the cream had been
skimmed off the surface, gave up their claims.
The gold diggers were followed by corporations. They brought to
the abandoned fields millions in capital and the best mining
machinery. They thawed the frozen gravel with steam and scooped
up the gold-bearing earth with dredges run by electricity. They
carried rivers in pipes over the mountains to wash down the gold-
sprinkled hills. They handled millions of tons of material, each of
which yielded only a few grains of pure gold, but altogether they
produced as much wealth as was taken out in those first prosperous
years by the individual miners.
 There are two methods by which the treasure that has been left
is being recovered. One is hydraulic mining and the other is
dredging. Let me give you some of the pictures of the first method,
as I saw it on a ride up the Klondike Valley this afternoon. I went with
the resident manager of the Yukon Gold Company, the Guggenheim
corporation doing most of the gold mining in the Dawson district. We
flew along in a high-powered automobile, winding in and out through
great piles of débris. We rode up Bonanza and Eldorado creeks,
which have been dredged from one end to the other. The whole way
was through a mass of gravel, rock, and earth washings. The beds
of the rivers and creeks had been ploughed in great furrows many
feet deep. There were places where miles of boulders, pebbles, and
broken rock seemed to flow down the mountain sides into the valley.
Streams of water as big around as the thigh of a man were shooting
from pipes with such force that they gouged out great chunks of icy
gravel. In some places the water dropped from the top of the
mountain, washing down the earth in its fall. The whole gave me the
impression of a mighty cloudburst that had torn down the hills and let
loose avalanches of earth.
The story behind those streams of water will give you some idea
of the marvels of mining in the Far North. When the company bought
what were supposed to be the exhausted creeks of the Klondike, it
found that in order to work its concessions it must have water with
sufficient force to wash out the hills. There was no adequate supply
nearer than the Tombstone Mountains, seventy-odd miles away. The
Guggenheims spent four years and millions of dollars in bringing this
river to their gold fields. They carried it across frozen morasses,
through vast ravines, down stupendous valleys, and then lifted it
over mountains and delivered it by a great inverted siphon across
the Klondike River to the once famous diggings.
Much of the ditch had to be thawed out and cut from the
perpetual ice. In crossing the swamps new methods of road building
had to be devised, and men and machinery were assembled far in
the interior of a region once thought inaccessible to all but the most
daring arctic explorers. The supplies, mostly from the United States,
had to come a thousand miles over the ocean and then be carried
five hundred miles more across the mountains and down the Yukon
to Dawson. Machinery was taken to pieces and dragged by horses
and dogs through almost impassable wilds.
The water flows through about twenty miles of flume, twelve and
a half miles of steel and stave pipes, and thirty-eight miles of ditch. It
comes out at the rate of one hundred and twenty-five cubic feet a
second, and with a pressure of four hundred pounds to the square
inch.
As the stream is applied, the gold-bearing sand, gravel, and
water go tumbling down into sluice boxes filled with steel riffles
bedded in mercury. The quicksilver catches the gold, while the rock
and sand go on to the tailings below. Some of the gold sinks into the
pile at the foot of the sluicing, but this is reclaimed at the clean-up in
the fall. Something like three million cubic yards of earth are treated
in this way by the hydraulic giants each season. The average
amount of gold in the gravel is about twenty cents’ worth per yard,
and of this amount one half is said to be profit. The dividends paid by
the Yukon Gold Company have amounted to more than ten million
dollars, and the profits of a single year have been as much as one
million.
As we rode up the valleys I asked the manager whether this
process took out all of the gold. He replied:
“We may lose a cent or two to the ton, but the amount is so small
that we are unable to tell just what it is. The gold content varies a
good deal. The stuff that goes through the dredges may at times
yield sixty cents a yard, and we have struck patches that ran five
dollars per yard or more.
“The old miners threw away the values that are now being
saved,” he went on. “One day I showed an old-timer a pan I had just
finished washing, and asked him how much he thought it would run.
The pan contained a few flakes of gold and quite a little fine flour
gold. The miner tilted it so that the grains ran to one side, and then
took his thumb and scraped out the flour and threw it away. He threw
out just the sort of stuff which we are trying to save, and upon which
all our calculations are based.”
 The dredges, by which much of the gold is now being taken out,
operate in ground that has to be thawed before it can be worked.
With the exception of a foot or so at the surface, this whole Klondike
region is one mass of ice, mixed with boulders, pebbles, and sand
that has been frozen for thousands of years. The ice goes down no
one knows how deep. Diamond drills sunk to a depth of three
hundred feet have gone all the way through frozen earth. The
mixture is covered by a thin bed of muck, on top of which grows a
layer of arctic moss. It is only when the moss and the muck are
stripped off that the hot summer sun makes any impression on the
ice below. Sprinkled through this ice, earth, and rock lies the gold in
the proportion of from thirty to sixty cents’ worth to the ton. In a
wagon load of this mass there is not more pure gold than you can
pinch up between your forefinger and thumb. Yet methods for mining
it have been devised that make it worth going after. There is a little
gold not far from the surface, but most of it is at bed-rock, which may
be thirty, forty, or fifty feet down.
The earth has to be thawed out, inch by inch, and foot by foot, in
such a way that the dredges can bite into it and gulp it down at the
rate of twenty-six bites to the minute and about one third of a ton to
the bite.
The dredges do their work so thoroughly that no bit of earth ever
escapes them. You can throw a red cent into the heart of a ten-acre
field that is to be upturned by these machines and be sure that the
coin will come out with the gold. A common amusement is to saw a
dime in two and then bet whether the dredges will bring up one of
the pieces. The man who bets in the negative holds one of the
halves, and the other is buried in the earth. As soon as that spot is
dredged, the missing half is almost certain to turn up.
The first miners kept wood fires burning until they had thawed
their shafts down to the gold. Other fires were then built along the
bed-rock and the earth was dugout until they had made great
caverns and tunnels thirty or forty feet under the frozen earth
overhead. They used hot stones to aid in the thawing and took out
the loosened material in wheel-barrows and raised it to the surface
with buckets and a windlass like an old-fashioned well-sweep. The
earth being frozen, the miners did not have to bother to use any
timbers to support the roofs of their tunnels.
Much of the thawing of to-day is done by steam forced into the
earth through steel tubes three fourths of an inch in diameter, and
from ten to thirty feet long. These are called “points.” Each tube has
a hard metal cap or steel head on the top, and below this an opening
where the connection with the main steam pipe is made. The bottom
of the tube is pointed so that it can be forced down into the ground. A
man stands on a tall derrick and with a twelve-pound sledge hammer
drives the pipe, inch by inch, through the earth. The steam-heated
steel melts the ice as it goes down. When the point reaches bed-
rock, it is left there for two or three days, oozing forth steam. To thaw
out enough ground for the dredges to work on, hundreds of these
steam points have to be sunk. In places the pipes are so close
together that they stand out on the back of old Mother Earth like the
quills on a porcupine. They soften the ground so that it is dangerous
to walk over it until it has cooled. A man may think it is solid under
foot, when all at once he may sink to his knees or waist in scalding
hot mud.
In the creeks where the Yukon Gold Company has been
operating with steam points and dredges, the values amount to sixty
or seventy cents’ worth of gold to the ton. The thawing costs about
thirty cents for each ton. When the famous Joe Boyle, organizer of
the Canadian Klondike Company, came to figure on his problem he
found that the steam-point method would cost him four cents more a
ton than the value of the gold he could recover. He concluded that if
he could get rid of the great non-conductor of muck and moss that
covered the frozen earth, the sun of a few summers would eventually
thaw its way down to bed-rock.
Then came the question of how to strip off the muck at a cost
that would not eat up the profits. Boyle decided that the Klondike
River itself could be made to do the job. He dammed it in places and
turned its course this way and that. The current soon cleaned off the
top layer, and when the water was drawn off it left the gravel
exposed to the rays of the sun.
 Boyle spent in the neighbourhood of a half million dollars apiece
for some of the dredges with which he scooped up the earth thawed
out by the sun. They were the largest ever built up to that time, and
were manufactured especially for his purposes. They were brought
in pieces by sea to Skagway, Alaska, carried over the coast
mountains by train, and transported down the Yukon by steamer to
Dawson, where they were put to work. They are now lifting the bed
of the Klondike Valley and turning it upside down at the rate of five
hundred tons in an hour. Buckets that hold a ton apiece pick up
boulders as big as a half-bushel basket and earth as fine as flour.
They raise this stuff to the height of a six-story house and pour it
through revolving screens. The rock, gravel, and sand are carried
away, and the gold is caught in layers of coconut matting. Every
twenty-four hours the mats containing the gold are lifted and
washed. The gold and the black sand fall to the bottom and the mats
are put back again.
While I was cashing a draft at the Bank of British North America
the other day, I had concrete evidence of the wealth being won, grain
by grain, from the Klondike. I saw a shipment of gold ready to be
sent out. It had come to the bank in the form of dust and nuggets
and had been melted down into bricks. There were fifty thousand
dollars’ worth of these bricks lying on the counter, covering a space
about three feet square. They were of a light yellow colour, and
some were almost white on account of their high percentage of
silver. Some were the size of a cake of laundry soap while others
were only as big as a cake of milk chocolate. I lifted one of the larger
ones. It weighed a little more than twelve pounds and its value was
two thousand dollars. Later I saw the bank clerk put the bricks into
canvas bags and label them for export by registered mail.
Leaving the bank, I dropped in at the offices of the Northern
Commercial Company, where I watched gold dust and nuggets being
made ready for shipment to the States. The gold filled two satchels
and was worth in the neighbourhood of one hundred thousand
dollars. It was put up in little sacks the size of a five-pound salt bag.
Each sack was worth from five to ten thousand dollars.
 All gold that is shipped out of Canada pays a royalty or tax to the
government, and everyone who leaves the Klondike is examined to
see that he has no gold upon him. Once a woman succeeded in
smuggling out a large quantity of nuggets and dust. She was
examined by the inspectors, but they took no account of a big flower
pot containing a rose bush that she was carrying with her. Not until
she got safely away was it learned that the soil with which the pot
seemed to be filled was only half an inch deep and that underneath
were hundreds of dollars’ worth of almost pure gold.
 CHAPTER XXXVI
ROMANCES OF THE KLONDIKE

Sit beside me on the top of King Solomon’s Dome and listen to

some of the romances of the Klondike, true stories surpassing the
fiction of the “Arabian Nights.” King Solomon’s Dome is the very
centre of the Klondike gold region. It is a mountain higher than the
average peaks of the Alleghanies, rising three thousand feet above
Dawson, and I have climbed to its top in an automobile. There at the
west is Bonanza Creek, where, twenty-five years ago, gold was first
found, and running into it is Eldorado Creek, where Swift-Water Bill
Gates and Charlie Anderson, the Lucky Swede, as well as scores of
others, made their fortunes.
The man who first discovered gold in the Klondike was George
Carmack, a New Englander who had come to Alaska from North
Adams, Massachusetts. He married an Indian and he had three
Indians with him when he was prospecting on the ground just below
us. As the story goes, one of the Indians who had gone to the creek
for some water saw the gold shining there in the sand. Taking up
some dirt on the edge of the creek, the men washed it, and within a
half hour had recovered twenty dollars’ worth of gold. Carmack then
laid out claims for himself and his three companions, each of which
brought a fortune that all too soon slipped through its owner’s
fingers. The news of the discovery spread like wildfire over the
North. It was telegraphed to all parts of the world and by the next
year men were rushing to the Klondike from every direction. They
staked both sides of the Bonanza. They set up claims along
Eldorado, Dominion, and Hunker creeks, and dug out gold all along
the valley of the Klondike River.
 Although the earth contains only a few cents’
worth of gold to the ton, the use of giant dredges to
scoop up the gravel from the beds of the Klondike and
Yukon rivers enables the mining companies to
operate at a profit.
 With all the force of a shell from a big gun, a giant
stream of water is played against the hillside, washing
the earth into sluice boxes, where a layer of mercury
catches even the most infinitesimal particles of gold.
Charlie Anderson’s claim was No. 29 Eldorado and it cost him
six hundred dollars. He had saved this money from his wages as a
pick-and-shovel miner at Forty Mile, and bought the mine one night
when he was too drunk to know what he was doing. When he awoke
the next day he wept bitter tears and asked the men who thought
they had swindled him to take back the claim and give him his
money. They refused, and so Anderson walked eighty miles to the
Klondike and started work. He found only a hole in the ground, but
he thawed and dug eighteen feet deeper and came upon a fortune.
When he made the first strike the men who had sold him the claim
were near by and asked with a sneer what he had found. He replied:
“Ay tank Ay got some gold here,” and showed them his pan. There
were fourteen hundred dollars’ worth of gold nuggets in it, and the
claim eventually yielded between one and two million dollars. But,
like other Klondikers, Anderson ran through his money as fast as it
came. He was cheated by every one, and ended as a day labourer
somewhere in the States.
In coming down the Yukon to Dawson the captain of the steamer
told me many stories about Charlie Anderson, whom he had known
well. Said he:
“Anderson had been doing railroad work in the States, but was
discharged, and that drove him to Alaska. When he struck it rich he
took out more than two hundred thousand dollars the first year, and
during the next four years his claim yielded him almost two million
dollars.”
“What did he do with the money?” I asked.
“He spent it as fast as he got it. He kept a gang of gamblers and
dance hall girls about him and gave away thousands. When he was
at the height of his fortune and had an income of a half million a
year, he fell in love and was married. He took his wife to San
Francisco, where he bought her a house and gave her all the money
she could spend besides. When he was about at the end of his
fortune he told me she had cost him a quarter of a million. He then
pulled out of his pocket a garter with a clasp set with a diamond as
big as the end of your thumb, and said:
“‘And this is all I have to show for it. I am almost broke now, but I
will go back and find some more.’
 “Anderson’s claim was then played out,” the captain continued.
“He tried to find others, but failed. In his first trips with me he
travelled in state, buying all the liquor and cigars that the ship had
and standing treat to the passengers. On his last trip he booked in
the steerage. He was dead broke. Shortly after we started I saw him,
dressed in rough clothes, sitting at the prow of the boat. I went up to
him and said:
“‘Well, Charlie, it is different with you from what it used to be.’
“He looked up and his eyes filled with tears.
“‘Yes,’ said he,’ I am travelling steerage, for I have not enough
money to pay first class.’
“I was so sorry for him that I put him in one of the first cabins and
took him home without charge.”
Swift-Water Bill Gates’ story was a good deal like Anderson’s. He
was a Portuguese, who got his nickname from his claim that he
swam down the rapids of the Yukon on his way to the gold fields. He
began as a waiter in an eating house. One day while serving two
miners he heard one tell the other of the gold discovery in the
Klondike. He left their order unfilled, got a dog team, and rushed to
Dawson. He was in at the first and picked out a number of claims,
including that on Eldorado, which made him a fortune. He was
successful for years, but was so dissipated that he ran through his
millions, and when he left with the stampede to Fairbanks, he had
only fifty cents in his pockets. There he made a second great strike,
but he lost that fortune as well.
Swift-Water once cornered the egg market in Dawson, and all for
the love of a lady. He was a gallant suitor, and at this time he was
courting Miss Gussie Lamore, a popular and beautiful young woman
who had been nicknamed “The Little Klondike Nugget.” But the
course of true love did not run smooth, and for a time it seemed as
though Bill’s cake were all dough. Then he remembered that Gussie
doted on eggs, and he prepared to corner the supply. There were
just eight thousand eggs in the town, and they were selling at a
dollar apiece. Bill slipped about from store to store and bought every
one of them. He then remarked that if Gussie wanted more eggs she
would have to eat out of his hand, or if she stuck to his rival “she
wouldn’t eat no eggs.” Gussie succumbed, and so Cupid won by an
egg.
In another claim on Eldorado a young Y. M. C. A. secretary
struck it rich. This man had started mining on Forty Mile Creek, but
when gold was discovered near Dawson he left his young wife there
and came on with the crowd. The first claim he selected was
comparatively small and had no timber upon it. As he needed logs to
build a cabin, he traded his claim for another farther down the creek
where the valley was wider and timber was plentiful. He built a cabin,
sent for his wife, and they started to work. When he had thawed the
earth to some distance below the surface he laboured down in the pit
and his wife wound the windlass that drew up the buckets of rocks.
Time and again, in despair, they talked of selling out and going back
home. But they held on until they came to bed-rock, where the gold
was so rich that their claim paid them about two million dollars.
Unlike Anderson and Gates, this man invested his money in real
estate in Seattle.
All sorts of characters came to the Klondike in the early days.
With such types as the Lucky Swede, Swift-Water Bill, and Frank
Slavin, the prize fighter, came business and professional men from
all parts of the United States. Joaquin Miller came to mine gold and
write poetry and newspaper articles. Rex Beach was here, and so
was Jack London. Jack London was at one time a partner of Swift-
Water Bill, and it is said that the two owned a claim that eventually
produced more than one million dollars in gold. Jack London began
the work on the property. He made a fire and thawed the muck on
the top of the gravel. He left his tools in the soft mud over night.
Before morning the thermometer dropped to sixty degrees below
zero, and when he again started to work he found he would have to
thaw out his tools, but that if he did so their handles would be
burned. He left in disgust, and Swift-Water Bill got all the gold. Jack
London’s wealth came from the literary material he carried away as
the result of his experiences. The same may be said of Rex Beach,
who has written so many good stories of Alaskan life, and of Robert
Service, whose shabby cabin still stands near the Dome.

To-day most of the Klondike gold is recovered by

machinery in large-scale workings, but now and then
one sees a miner washing the gravel by hand in a
contrivance like this.