Human Interference on River Health: A

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Advances in Asian Human-Environmental Research

Shreya Bandyopadhyay
Sunil Kumar De

Human
Interference on
River Health
A Study on the Haora River, Tripura,
India
Advances in Asian Human-Environmental
Research

Series Editor
Prof. Marcus Nüsser, South Asia Institute, University of Heidelberg, Germany

Editorial Board
Prof. Eckart Ehlers, University of Bonn, Germany
Prof. Harjit Singh, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, India
Prof. Hermann Kreutzmann, Freie Universität Berlin, Germany
Prof. Ken Hewitt, Waterloo University, Canada
Prof. Urs Wiesmann, University of Bern, Switzerland
Prof. Sarah J. Halvorson, University of Montana, USA
Dr. Daanish Mustafa, King’s College London, UK
Aims and Scope
The series aims at fostering the discussion on the complex relationships between
physical landscapes, natural resources, and their modification by human land use in
various environments of Asia. It is widely acknowledged that human-environment
interactions become increasingly important in area studies and development
research, taking into account regional differences as well as bio-physical, socioeco-
nomic and cultural particularities.
The book series seeks to explore theoretic and conceptual reflection on dynamic
human-environment systems applying advanced methodology and innovative
research perspectives. The main themes of the series cover urban and rural land-
scapes in Asia. Examples include topics such as land and forest degradation, gla-
ciers in Asia, mountain environments, dams in Asia, medical geography, vulnerability
and mitigation strategies, natural hazards and risk management concepts, environ-
mental change, impacts studies and consequences for local communities. The rele-
vant themes of the series are mainly focused on geographical research perspectives
of area studies, however there is scope for interdisciplinary contributions.

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/8560

Shreya Bandyopadhyay • Sunil Kumar De

Human Interference
on River Health
A Study on the Haora River, Tripura, India
Shreya Bandyopadhyay Sunil Kumar De
Department of Geography Department of Geography
Adamas University North-Eastern Hill University
Kolkata, West Bengal, India Shillong, Meghalaya, India

ISSN 1879-7180 ISSN 1879-7199 (electronic)

Advances in Asian Human-Environmental Research
ISBN 978-3-319-41017-3 ISBN 978-3-319-41018-0 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-41018-0

Library of Congress Control Number: 2016953491

© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2017

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of
the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation,
broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information
storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology
now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication
does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant
protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book
are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the
editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors
or omissions that may have been made.

Cover image: Nomads near Nanga Parbat, 1995. Copyright © Marcus Nüsser (used with permission)

Printed on acid-free paper

This Springer imprint is published by Springer Nature

The registered company is Springer International Publishing AG Switzerland
Dedicated to the souls lost in different
natural hazards
Foreword

River health is a new discipline in geomorphology and hydrology. There is hardly

any book on the subject excepting a few research papers. As geomorphologists, we
never lose sight of human life so that our subject falls within the field of applied
geomorphology. This book offers a comprehensive overview of the knowledge nec-
essary for water management in the best interest of societies. Human health is
closely related to the health of rivers humans depend on for a living.
Rivers are vital for human life. They supply freshwater for domestic as well as
agricultural and industrial uses, produce fertile floodplains, and are used as an
important mode of inland communication. Thus, we should take necessary steps to
preserve the health of rivers.
The present book entitled Human Interference on River Health: A Study on the
Haora River, Tripura, India, authored by Shreya Bandyopadhyay and Sunil Kumar
De, is definitely a breakthrough on the subject as well as in the area of study. The
book is well designed in 11 chapters, covering almost all parameters of river health.
The most significant aspect of the book is that the authors have applied the concept
of river health to a river flowing through two neighboring countries, India and
Bangladesh. I hope that this work will encourage geomorphologists and hydrolo-
gists to study the health condition of all the major rivers of the world.
In fine, I believe that the book will open new perspectives on the traditional studies
of rivers and will be helpful to geomorphologists, hydrologists, environmentalists,
and planners.
President: International Association Prof. Eric Fouache
of Geomorphologists (IAG/AIG)
Vice Chancellor: Paris Sorbonne
University Abu Dhabi, Abu Dhabi, UAE

vii
Preface

Traditionally the term ‘river health’ is depended solely on the measurement of phys-
ical, chemical and some biological characteristics of the river. It is usually applied
to the assessment of river condition and often found as analogous to human health.
River health is exclusively a new branch both in geomorphology and hydrology as
well as in environmental science. In the present book, the authors tried to define the
term ‘river health’ and do an exhaustive study on the Haora River, which is flowing
between two countries, India and Bangladesh.
The Haora River is treated as the lifeline of Agartala, the capital city of Tripura.
Originating from the Baramura Hills, the river debouches onto the rolling plain at
Chandrasadhubari near the NH 44. Thousands of people between Chandrasadhubari
and the boundary of Bangladesh have been settled along the riverbank and directly
dependent on the river. Since 1950, the ever-growing population of the Haora River
basin is exerting tremendous pressure on the Haora River. Several anthropogenic
activities which are going on along the river are increasing the sedimentation and
the pollution problem of the river and leading the Haora River to its dying phase.
Therefore, the present study has been undertaken to find out the problems related to
the overall health of the Haora River and to bring out some possible suggestions for
restoring ecological balance and geopolitical stability of this strategically important
part of the country.
The present book is a complete reference on river health, which covers almost all
aspects of the subject. Moreover, a low-cost and effective method has been intro-
duced in the book on estimating BEVZ (bank erosion vulnerability zonation).
We hope and believe that the book will be beneficial for all the researchers and
students of fluvial geomorphology, hydrology and environmental science and at the
same it will serve the purpose of the planners and administrators to take proper
necessary measures to save any river.
First and foremost we are thankful to Prof. D. K. Nayak, Dean, School of Human
and Environmental Sciences, North-Eastern Hill University to encourage us to work
on River Health, which is definitely a branch of Geomorphology and Hydrology.
We are thankful to the Chief Minister of Tripura Sri Manik Sarkar, Former Vice

ix
x Preface

Chancellor of Tripura University Prof. Arunodoy Saha, present Vice Chancellor of

Tripura University Prof. Anajan Kumar Ghosh, Faculty Members and Research
Scholars of the Department of Geography and Disaster Management, Tripura
University and different Government and Non-government officials for their encour-
agement, help and cooperation in completing the present work. We would also like
to thank to the Tripura State Pollution Control Board, specially Prof. Mihir Deb,
Chairman, for their co-operation in collecting and testing the water samples of dif-
ferent places along the Haora River and also from different time periods.
We are also thankful to Prof. Marcus Nüsser of the Department of Geography,
South Asia Institute, Heidelberg University, Germany for reviewing the book thor-
oughly and given suggestions for upgrading the work.
Last but not the least, we are indebted to the individuals of the Springer Publishing
Company for extending their help and cooperation in publishing the book.

Kolkata, India Shreya Bandyopadhyay

Shillong, India Sunil Kumar De
Contents

1 Introduction ............................................................................................. 1
1.1 River Health ................................................................................... 1
1.2 The Problem................................................................................... 2
1.3 Past Works ..................................................................................... 4
1.3.1 Earlier Published Works on Different Issues
Related to the Haora River............................................... 4
1.3.2 Human Population Growth and Its Impact
on the River Basin............................................................ 4
1.3.3 Course Change of the River ............................................. 6
1.3.4 Bank Erosion of the River................................................ 6
1.3.5 Soil Erosion and Sedimentation Problem
of the River Basin ............................................................ 7
1.3.6 Water Pollution ................................................................ 8
References ................................................................................................. 9
2 Haora River Basin: Location and Geographical Background............ 15
2.1 General Background of the Haora River Basin ............................. 15
2.1.1 Location ........................................................................... 15
2.1.2 Physiographic Setting ...................................................... 16
2.1.3 Tectonic Setting ............................................................... 18
2.1.4 Geological Setup .............................................................. 20
2.1.5 Climatic Condition........................................................... 20
2.1.6 Drainage Network ............................................................ 21
2.1.7 Condition of Tributaries ................................................... 22
2.1.8 Discharge Condition of the Haora River ......................... 23
2.1.9 Soil Characteristics .......................................................... 24
2.1.10 Forest Cover ..................................................................... 25
2.1.11 Land Utilisation ............................................................... 26

xi
xii Contents

2.2 Study of the Cross Sections at Different Critical Points

of the Haora River.......................................................................... 26
2.2.1 Selection of the Location of the Cross Sections .............. 27
References ................................................................................................. 44
3 Materials and Methods ........................................................................... 47
3.1 Materials ........................................................................................ 47
3.2 Methods ......................................................................................... 48
3.2.1 For Population Growth Study of the Haora
River Basin....................................................................... 48
3.2.2 For Course Change of the Haora River............................ 48
3.2.3 For Analysing the Impact of Industrialisation
and Agriculture on the River............................................ 49
3.2.4 For Analysing the Impact of Slum Growth
on the Haora River ........................................................... 49
3.2.5 For Estimation of Soil Loss and Sediment Yield............. 50
3.2.6 For Bank Erosion Zonation.............................................. 56
3.2.7 For Assessment the Water Quality
of the Haora River............................................................ 57
3.2.8 For Estimating the Consequences .................................... 57
References ................................................................................................. 58
4 Status of Population Growth .................................................................. 61
4.1 Analysis of Population Status of the Haora River Basin ............... 61
4.1.1 Status of Population Growth of the Basin Area ............... 61
4.1.2 Status of SC and ST Population of the Basin Area ......... 65
4.2 Growth of Households Within the Basin Area .............................. 67
4.3 Economic Status of the River Basin Area...................................... 69
References ................................................................................................. 73
5 Changing Course of the Haora River.................................................... 75
5.1 Introduction.................................................................................... 75
5.2 Course Change in the Interfluvial Zone Between
the Haora, Katakhal and Titas Rivers ............................................ 76
5.2.1 Shifting Course of the Haora River ................................. 77
5.2.2 Evidence of Shifting Course of the Haora River ............. 78
5.2.3 Shifting of Haora River and Katakhal Confluence .......... 79
5.2.4 Evidence of Shifting Course of the Katakhal .................. 79
5.2.5 Linkage Between the Katakhal and the Deota Chara ...... 79
5.2.6 Present Condition of the Haora River
and the Katakhal Basins................................................... 82
5.2.7 Physiographic Changes Along the Confluences
of the Titas, the Haora and the Katakhal Rivers .............. 83
5.2.8 Structural Control ............................................................ 85
5.2.9 Neotectonic Activity ........................................................ 85
Contents xiii

5.3 The Course from the College Tilla up

to the Bangladesh Border............................................................... 86
5.4 The Course in the Jirania and Ranirbazar Blocks .......................... 87
5.5 Remarks ......................................................................................... 88
References ................................................................................................. 88
6 Impact of Industrialization and Agriculture on the Haora River ...... 91
6.1 Industrialization in Haora River Basin .......................................... 92
6.1.1 Brickfield Industries Along the Haora River Basin ......... 93
6.1.2 Status of Brickfields in the Study Area............................ 94
6.1.3 Impact of Brickfields on the River ................................... 97
6.1.4 Impact of Automobile–Chemical Industries
on the Haora River ........................................................... 106
6.1.5 Impact of Hotel–Restaurant–Refrigerator
Industries on the Haora River .......................................... 107
6.2 Impact of Agriculture on the Haora River Basin ........................... 108
References ................................................................................................. 110
7 Impact of Slums and Rural Clusters on the Haora River ................... 111
7.1 Introduction.................................................................................... 111
7.2 Growth of Major Slums of the Haora River Basin ........................ 113
7.3 Nature and Types of Latrines Used and Their Impacts
on the River .................................................................................... 114
7.4 Distribution of Major City Outlets and Domestic Outlets
into the River.................................................................................. 115
7.5 Distribution of Major Garbage Disposal Sites............................... 117
7.6 Analysis of Water Quality of the Haora River ............................... 118
7.7 Use of River Water by the Slum and Rural Dwellers .................... 119
References ................................................................................................. 121
8 Soil Loss and Sediment Yield of the Haora River Basin...................... 123
8.1 Introduction.................................................................................... 123
8.1.1 Method for Estimating Soil Erosion ................................ 124
8.1.2 Method for Estimating Sedimentation ............................. 125
8.2 Estimation of Soil Loss of the Haora River Basin
by Using RUSLE ........................................................................... 126
8.2.1 Rain Erosivity (R) ............................................................ 126
8.2.2 Soil Erodibility (K) .......................................................... 126
8.2.3 Topographic Erosivity (LS) ............................................. 127
8.2.4 Biological Erosivity (CP)................................................. 129
8.2.5 Estimation of Potential Soil Loss .................................... 131
8.2.6 Estimation of Actual Soil Loss ........................................ 131
8.3 Estimation of Sediment Yield Rate of the Haora River Basin ....... 132
8.3.1 Estimation of V Coefficient ............................................. 132
8.3.2 Estimation of Travel Time of Flow .................................. 134
8.3.3 Estimation of Sediment Yield .......................................... 137
xiv Contents

8.4 Correlation Between Discharge and Sediment Load

of the Haora River.......................................................................... 137
8.5 Sediment Load of the Haora River ................................................ 138
8.6 Validation of Sediment Yield Method with Hydrological Data..... 139
References ................................................................................................. 139
9 Estimation of Bank Erosion of the Haora River and Proposition
of Bank Erosion Vulnerability Zonation Model ................................... 141
9.1 Introduction.................................................................................... 141
9.2 Estimation of Bank Erosion by BEHI Model ................................ 143
9.2.1 Bank Erodibility............................................................... 143
9.2.2 Bank Erosivity or Near-Bank Stress ................................ 146
9.2.3 Validation of BEHI–NBS Model with Field Data ........... 147
9.3 A Proposed Model for Bank Erosion Vulnerability
Zonation Mapping ......................................................................... 150
9.3.1 Zonation Mapping of Bank Erosion Vulnerability .......... 151
9.4 Comparison Between Proposed (BEVZ)
and BEHI–NBS Methods .............................................................. 162
9.5 Remarks ......................................................................................... 164
References ................................................................................................. 164
10 Spatio-temporal Changes in Pollution Status of the Haora River...... 169
10.1 Pollution Status of the Haora River ............................................... 169
10.2 Selection of the Water Sampling Sites ........................................... 171
10.3 Analysis of Water Quality of the Haora River ............................... 172
10.3.1 Physical Components of the Water Quality ..................... 172
10.3.2 Chemical Components of Water Quality ......................... 174
10.3.3 Biological Components of Water Quality ........................ 177
References ................................................................................................. 180
11 Recommendation and Conclusion ......................................................... 183
11.1 Consequences ................................................................................ 183
11.1.1 Flooding ........................................................................... 184
11.1.2 Loss of Properties and Resources Due to Rapid
Bank Erosion ................................................................... 184
11.1.3 Epidemic of Water-Borne Diseases ................................. 186
11.2 Recommendation ........................................................................... 190
11.3 Conclusion ..................................................................................... 192
References ................................................................................................. 193

Annexure-1 ...................................................................................................... 195

List of Publications Related to the Book ....................................................... 199

Bibliography .................................................................................................... 201

Index ................................................................................................................. 217

List of Figures

Fig. 2.1 Location map of the study area ...................................................... 16

Fig. 2.2 Physiographic division of the Haora River basin ........................... 17
Fig. 2.3 Digital elevation model (DEM) of the Haora River basin .............. 17
Fig. 2.4 Slope map of the Haora River basin ............................................... 18
Fig. 2.5 Long profile of the Haora River showing its different
courses of flow ................................................................................ 18
Fig. 2.6a Map showing major tectonic elements in and around
the Bengal basin including Tripura. Hinge zone
demarcates the deeper basin from the Indian platform area ........... 19
Fig. 2.6b Schematic cross section of the Bengal basin including
Tripura fold belt; E–W, through the northern
Chittagong Hill region .................................................................... 19
Fig. 2.7 Geology map of the Haora River basin .......................................... 21
Fig. 2.8 Yearly rainfall distribution and monthly temperature
graphs of the Haora River basin ..................................................... 22
Fig. 2.9 Tributary distribution of the Haora River basin .............................. 22
Fig. 2.10 Drainage density map of the Haora River basin ............................. 23
Fig. 2.11 Monthly discharge graph for 20 years of the Haora River ............. 24
Fig. 2.12 Maximum and minimum discharge graph of the Haora River ....... 24
Fig. 2.13 Soil distribution map of the Haora River basin .............................. 25
Fig. 2.14 NDVI map depicting the forest cover of the Haora
River basin ...................................................................................... 26
Fig. 2.15 Land cover, land use map of the Haora River basin ....................... 27
Fig. 2.16 3 years’ superimposed profile of cross section-1 at 300 m
downstream from the confluence of the Haora and Bardwal
rivers (January–April, 2010–2012)................................................. 29
Fig. 2.17 3 years’ superimposed profile of cross section-2
at the confluence of the Haora and the Champa rivers,
Champaknagar (January–April, 2010–2012) ................................. 30

xv
xvi List of Figures

Fig. 2.18 3 years’ superimposed profile of cross section-3

at 30.5 m downstream from the Haora and Champa
rivers confluence (January–April, 2010–2012) .............................. 30
Fig. 2.19 3 years’ superimposed profile of cross section-4 at
60 m upstream from the Champaknagar Bazar
(January–April, 2010–2012)........................................................... 31
Fig. 2.20 3 years’ superimposed profile of cross section-5 at
60 m downstream from the Champaknagar Bazar
(January–April, 2010–2012)........................................................... 32
Fig. 2.21 3 years’ superimposed profile of cross section-6
at Purba Debendra Nagar (very close to NH44)
(January–April, 2010–2012)........................................................... 33
Fig. 2.22 3 years’ superimposed profile of cross section-7
near Dilona Petrol Pump (very close to NH44)
(January–April, 2010–2012)........................................................... 33
Fig. 2.23 3 years’ superimposed profile of cross section-8 near
the confluence of the Donaigang and the Haora rivers
(January–April, 2010–2012)........................................................... 34
Fig. 2.24 3 years’ superimposed profile of cross section-9
at 600 m downstream from the Haora River and Donaigang
confluence (January–April, 2010–2012) ........................................ 35
Fig. 2.25 3 years’ superimposed profile of cross section-10 near
the confluence of Sishima River with the Haora River
(January–April, 2010–2012)........................................................... 35
Fig. 2.26 3 years’ superimposed profile of cross section-11
at 350 m downstream from the Haora and Sishima
River confluence (January–April, 2010–2012)............................... 36
Fig. 2.27 3 years’ superimposed profile of cross section-12
at 600 m downstream from the Haora and Sishima
River confluence (January–April, 2010–2012)............................... 36
Fig. 2.28 3 years’ superimposed profile of cross section-13
at 1 km north to Mohanpur Bazar (behind the grocery
shop of Biplab Debnath) (January–April, 2010–2012) .................. 37
Fig. 2.29 3 years’ superimposed profile of cross section-14 at 30 m
downstream from the cross section of the Mohanpur
Bazar (January–April, 2010–2012) ................................................ 38
Fig. 2.30 3 years’ superimposed profile of cross section-15
near the Bridhhanagar Bazar .......................................................... 38
Fig. 2.31 3 years’ superimposed profile of cross section-16
at the confluence of the Ghoramara Chara and the Haora
River (January–April, 2010–2012) ................................................. 39
Fig. 2.32 3 years’ superimposed profile of cross section-17
at 120 upstream from the Khairpur Bridge
(January–April, 2010–2012)........................................................... 40
List of Figures xvii

Fig. 2.33 3 years’ superimposed profile of cross section-18

at the confluence of the Deota Chara and the Haora
River (January–April, 2010–2012) ................................................. 40
Fig. 2.34 3 years’ superimposed profile of cross section-19
near Reshambagan .......................................................................... 41
Fig. 2.35 3 years’ superimposed profile of cross section-20
at 5 m downstream from Jogendranagar Bridge
(College Tilla) (January–April, 2010–2012) .................................. 42
Fig. 2.36 3 years’ superimposed profile of cross section-21
at 300 m upstream from Pratapgarh wooden bridge
(January–April, 2010–2012)........................................................... 43
Fig. 2.37 3 years’ superimposed profile of cross section-22
at 5 m downstream from the Haora River and Bongeswar
River confluence (January–April, 2010–2012)............................... 43
Fig. 2.38 3 years’ superimposed profile of cross section-23 near
the Rajnagar water intake point ...................................................... 44
Fig. 2.39 3 years’ superimposed profile of cross section-24 at
few km upstream from the Indo-Bangladesh border
in Rajnagar (January–April, 2010–2012) ....................................... 44
Fig. 3.1 DEM of the Haora River basin ....................................................... 52
Fig. 3.2 (a) Slope length and (b) slope steepness map
of the Haora River basin ................................................................. 53
Fig. 3.3 (a) NDVI map and (b) land cover–land use map
of the Haora River basin ................................................................. 54
Fig. 4.1 Growth of population in Sadar Subdivision
during 1961–2011 ........................................................................... 62
Fig. 4.2 Total population growth within the Haora River
basin during 1981–2011 ................................................................. 63
Fig. 4.3 Decadal growth of population within the basin
during 1981–2011 ........................................................................... 64
Fig. 4.4 Population density within Haora River basin
during 1981–2011 ........................................................................... 64
Fig. 4.5 Decadal growth of population density within
the basin during 1981–2011 ........................................................... 65
Fig. 4.6 Growth of SC populations to total populations
within Haora River basin during 1981–2011.................................. 66
Fig. 4.7 Decadal growth of SC population within the basin
during 1981–2011 ........................................................................... 66
Fig. 4.8 Growth of ST populations to total populations within
the basin during 1981–2011 ........................................................... 67
Fig. 4.9 Decadal growth of ST population within the basin
during 1981–2011 ........................................................................... 67
Fig. 4.10 Growth of household within the Haora River basin
during 1981–2011 ........................................................................... 68
xviii List of Figures

Fig. 4.11 “Decadal growth of household” within the basin

during 1981–2011 ........................................................................... 68
Fig. 4.12 Growth of main workers within the basin during
1981–2011 ...................................................................................... 69
Fig. 4.13 Growth of workers in different economic sectors
within the basin............................................................................... 70
Fig. 4.14 Growth of marginal workers within the basin
during 1981–2011 ........................................................................... 71
Fig. 4.15 Growth of non-workers within the Haora River
basin during 1981–2011 ................................................................. 71
Fig. 4.16 Growth of agricultural workers within the Haora
River basin during 1981–2001........................................................ 72
Fig. 4.17 Growth of industrial workers within the basin
during 1981–2011 ........................................................................... 72
Fig. 5.1 Course changes of the Haora River during
the period of 1932–2005 ................................................................. 76
Fig. 5.2 Location of Katakhal and the then Haora River basin.................... 77
Fig. 5.3 Trend of shifting the Haora River course near
the confluence between 1932 and 2005. Numbers 1, 2, 3, 4
and 5 indicate the cut-offs formed in different periods .................. 78
Fig. 5.4 Changing condition of the Katakhal between 1932
and 2005. Major fault lines in the study area are shown
in the 1932 map .............................................................................. 80
Fig. 5.5 Temporal changes of the confluences of the Haora
and Katakhal rivers. Numbers 1, 2 and 3 (in the excerpts
of Google Images) indicate the remnants of earlier
course as well as earlier confluence of both of the rivers ............... 80
Fig. 5.6 (a) The Katakhal course. (b) Present status of the Katakhal–Deota
Chara link near Chandrapur Bus stand (flag symbol
represents the GPS points taken along the link canal
during field survey). The upper photograph indicates
that the Haora–Katakhal link has been converted into
agricultural field, and the lower photograph shows
the present condition of the remaining part of the
Haora–Katakhal link ....................................................................... 81
Fig. 5.7 Change in basin area of the Haora River due to detachment
of the Katakhal ............................................................................... 82
Fig. 5.8 Long profiles of the Haora and the Katakhal rivers (2005) ............ 83
Fig. 5.9 Interfluvial zone with the stretch of elevated relief
between the Haora, the Katakhal and the Titas rivers
near the confluence. AB, CD, EF and GH are the cross
section drawn on Google Images between the Titas,
Haora and Katakhal rivers to show the microrelief
altitudinal variations ....................................................................... 84
List of Figures xix

Fig. 5.10 Proposed model of tectonic changes that lead to the changes
in courses of the Haora and the Katakhal rivers ............................. 86
Fig. 5.11 Changing course of the Haora River from College
Tilla up to Bangladesh border......................................................... 87
Fig. 5.12 Evidences of the left of course of the Haora River
near Bangladesh border .................................................................. 87
Fig. 5.13 Changing course of Haora River in between the Donaigang
and Ghoramara Chara confluences ................................................. 88
Fig. 6.1 Location of different types of industries/manufacturing
units within the Haora River basin ................................................. 92
Fig. 6.2 Location of brickfields within the Haora River basin..................... 93
Fig. 6.3 Increasing number of brickfields in Haora River basin
(1971–2010) ................................................................................... 94
Fig. 6.4 Area of brick kiln in different brickfields ....................................... 95
Fig. 6.5 Number of local and migrated workers in different
brickfields ....................................................................................... 96
Fig. 6.6 Production (number in lakh) of bricks in different
brickfields ....................................................................................... 96
Fig. 6.7 Raw materials used by different brickfields ................................... 97
Fig. 6.8 Location of brickfields and cut-off lands in 3D model ................... 98
Fig. 6.9 Location of brickfields and agricultural land within
the Haora River basin ..................................................................... 99
Fig. 6.10 Rate of scouring and filling of the riverbed along
the cross sections during 2010–2012 .............................................. 101
Fig. 6.11 Sequential changes within the riverbed caused
by unscientific quarrying of sand ................................................... 102
Fig. 6.12 Location of RBI brickfield and the places of sediment
sample collection ............................................................................ 103
Fig. 6.13 (a) Superimposed map showing the places of sequential
changes noticed in Haora River course, (b) changes
of Haora River course near brickfield areas ................................... 104
Fig. 6.14 Location of automobile–chemical industries within
Haora River basin ........................................................................... 107
Fig. 6.15 Location of hotel–restaurant–refrigerator industries
within Haora River basin ................................................................ 107
Fig. 6.16 Increase of agricultural land within the Haora River basin ............ 109
Fig. 6.17 Area under shifting cultivation within the Haora River basin ........ 109
Fig. 7.1 Location of the slums–rural clusters along the Haora
River within Indian territory ........................................................... 112
Fig. 7.2 Decadal growth of two major slums within Haora River basin ...... 113
Fig. 7.3 Distribution of four types of latrines along the Haora River .......... 114
Fig. 7.4 Distribution of latrine density and the solid waste
density along the Haora River ........................................................ 115
xx List of Figures

Fig. 7.5 Distribution of major drains connecting with

the Haora River ............................................................................... 116
Fig. 7.6 Distribution of domestic outlets (blockwise).................................. 116
Fig. 7.7 Major garbage disposal sites along the Haora River ...................... 117
Fig. 7.8 Temporal changes in the Haora River course due
to garbage disposal in Bridhhanagar .............................................. 118
Fig. 7.9 Distribution maps of different types of use of river
water by the dwellers ...................................................................... 120
Fig. 8.1 (a) Average annual rainfall distribution map. (b) Rainfall
erosivity map of the Haora River basin .......................................... 127
Fig. 8.2 (a) Soil taxonomy map. (b) Soil erodibility map
of the Haora River basin ................................................................. 129
Fig. 8.3 Topographical factor of the Haora River basin ............................... 130
Fig. 8.4 C factor map of the Haora River basin ........................................... 130
Fig. 8.5 Potential soil loss map of the Haora River basin ............................ 131
Fig. 8.6 Actual soil loss map of the Haora River basin ............................... 132
Fig. 8.7 A coefficient map of the Haora River basin ................................... 133
Fig. 8.8 V coefficient map of the Haora River basin ................................... 133
Fig. 8.9 Overland flow (L coefficient) map of the Haora
River basin ...................................................................................... 134
Fig. 8.10 Travel time (t) coefficient map of the Haora River basin ............... 134
Fig. 8.11 Sediment delivery ratio (Dr coefficient) map
of the Haora River basin ................................................................. 135
Fig. 8.12 Sediment yield map of the Haora River basin ................................ 136
Fig. 8.13 (a) Discharge graph. (b) Correlation graph of discharge
and sediment load of the Haora River ............................................ 137
Fig. 8.14 Annual sediment load of the Haora River ...................................... 138
Fig. 8.15 Graph showing deviation between observed
and estimated sediment yield rates ................................................. 138
Fig. 9.1 Location map of the study area. Blue lines are showing
the cross sections along the Haora River for the measurement
of erosion in BEHI–NBS method and in field data ........................ 143
Fig. 9.2 Bar graphs of four different parameters of BEHI model ................ 145
Fig. 9.3 Graphs showing numbers of spots are under different
BEHI and NBS classes ................................................................... 147
Fig. 9.4 Scattered diagrams for calculating bank erosion
for both banks (BEHI model) ......................................................... 147
Fig. 9.5 Graphs of erosion and deposition of the river banks
and bed within 3 years time period................................................. 148
Fig. 9.6 Superimposed profiles for 3 consecutive years
of three sections .............................................................................. 149
List of Figures xxi

Fig. 9.7 Classified bank slope map of the Haora River with
the graph showing the total lengths of banks under
different categories. (a) and (b) the procedure of measuring
the bank slope. [1], [2] and [3] some parts of the river
in large scale ................................................................................... 154
Fig. 9.8 Classified meander index map of the Haora River
with the graph, showing the bank length in different
categories. (a) and (b) the technique of measuring the
meander value from the Google Images. [1], [2] and [3]
some parts of the river in large scale .............................................. 155
Fig. 9.9 Longitudinal river gradient map of the Haora River
basin with the graph, showing the lengths under different
categories. (a) and (b) the basic formula of measuring
the gradient value from the DEM or Google Images.
[1], [2] and [3] some parts of the river in large scale...................... 156
Fig. 9.10 A soil taxonomy map of the Haora River basin. In this
map 1 laterite, 2 fine loamy typic dystrochrepts/paleudults,
3 fine loamy umbric/oxic dystrochrepts, 4 fine loamy
umbric/typic dystrochrepts, 5 fine loamy umbric
dystrochrepts, 6 fine loamy typic kandiudults, 7 fine loamy
typic dystrochrepts, 8 fine loamy typic epiaquepts, 9 coarse
loamy typic dystrochrepts, 10 fine loamy typic/over-sandy
typic epiaquepts, 11 fine loamy typic haplumbrepts, 12 fine
typic dystrochrepts. (b) soil erodibility map of the Haora
River along with the graph indicating the total bank length
in different categories. [1], [2] and [3] some parts of the
river bank in large scale .................................................................. 157
Fig. 9.11 Vegetation cover map of the Haora River basin
with the graph, showing bank length under different
categories. (a) and (b) are the pictorial evidences of different
types of vegetation cover noticed along the river. [1], [2]
and [3] some parts of the river in large scale .................................. 158
Fig. 9.12 (a) Multi-buffer zonation map of six individual anthropogenic
activities, going on along the Haora River. (b) Anthropogenic
impact map of the Haora River bank along with the graph
showing total lengths in individual parameters. (a), (b),
(c), (d) and (e) the major human activities, i.e. sand
quarrying, road or causeway, brickfields, bridges
and tilla cutting, noticed along the river ......................................... 159
Fig. 9.13 (a) Final bank erosion vulnerability zonation (BEVZ)
mapping along with the graph showing bank length
in individual categories. (b) Zone-wise distribution
of BEVZ map ................................................................................. 161
xxii List of Figures

Fig. 9.14 Cross section number ten where proposed method

(BEVZ) is matching with field data for the right
bank of the river .............................................................................. 163
Fig. 9.15 Cross section number 26, where for the left bank
BEHI–NBS model is matching with the field data
and the proposed method is revealed as incorrect .......................... 163
Fig. 10.1 Location of sampling sites along the Haora River
for water quality testing .................................................................. 170
Fig. 10.2 Status of physical components of the water quality
of the Haora River .......................................................................... 174
Fig. 10.3 Chemical components of water quality of the Haora River ........... 176
Fig. 10.4 Biological components of water quality of the Haora River .......... 178
Fig. 11.1 Intense flood-prone areas within the Haora River basin................. 184
Fig. 11.2 Perception about frequency of fever along the Haora River........... 187
Fig. 11.3 Perception about frequency of stomach problem
along the Haora River ..................................................................... 188
Fig. 11.4 Perception about frequency of skin problem
along the Haora River ..................................................................... 189
Fig. 11.5 Risk of infected diseases along the banks of the Haora River........ 190
List of Plates

Plate 6.1 Evidences of step-by-step sequential degradations

of tilla lands ................................................................................... 99
Plate 6.2 Field photographs showing the use of riverbed
as transporting road ....................................................................... 100
Plate 6.3 Field photographs showing different methods
of sand collection from the Haora River ....................................... 101
Plate 6.4 Evidence of river course change near Debendra
Nagar (2010, 2011 & 2012) .......................................................... 103
Plate 6.5 Photographs of sediment sample collected from
the field of Haora River ................................................................. 104
Plate 6.6 Evidences of pollutant waste coming out from
the brickfields ................................................................................ 105
Plate 6.7 Major types of crops: (a) paddy, (b) vegetables,
(c) flowers, practised along the river ............................................. 108
Plate 8.1 Evidences of sedimentation in different spots along
the Haora River.............................................................................. 136
Plate 9.1 Evidence of erosion in section 1 along the right bank
of the Haora River ......................................................................... 149
Plate 9.2 High risk of erosion along the right bank in section 7
as it possesses cliff slope ............................................................... 150
Plate 9.3 Photos of extreme bank erosion along the Haora River
marked by the BEVZ method........................................................ 164
Plate 10.1 Major source of TSS and TDS concentration in the Haora
River water. (a) Rapid soil erosion. (b) Residue of plant
and animal dead bodies within the river ........................................ 173
Plate 10.2 Sources of major pollutants along the Haora River.
(a) Brickfield wastes, (b) industrial dumping,
(c) market garbage, (d) drain outlets, (e) organic residues,
(f) causeway, (g) idle emersion, (h) flow of excreta from
Kachha latrine, (i) wastages from cremation ground .................... 179
xxiii
xxiv List of Plates

Plate 11.1 Temporary damage of wooden bridge in Joynagar

during the 2013 monsoon .............................................................. 185
Plate 11.2 Temporary degradation of causeway, located across
the Haora River in Champaknagar ................................................ 185
Plate 11.3 Loss of life and properties due to bank failures,
(a) attempt for bank protection, (b) uprooting of trees,
(c) damage to National Highway, (d) loss of land,
(e) damage to tea garden and (f) damage of roads ........................ 186
Plate 11.4 (1a, b) bank stabilising by rounding up the bend
and by seeding herbaceous vegetation and shrubs;
(2a, b) removal of sediment and deepening the channel;
(3a, b) evidence of widening erosion in the downstream
of culvert and the condition after
taking necessary protection ........................................................... 191
List of Tables

Table 2.1 Geological setup of study area ...................................................... 21

Table 2.2 Numbers, length and condition of streams of different orders...... 23
Table 2.3 Location of all cross sections at different critical points............... 28
Table 6.1 Water quality analysis of three places along
the Haora River ............................................................................. 106
Table 7.1 Water quality analysis of the Haora River along
the slum and rural clusters............................................................. 119
Table 8.1 Individual soil taxonomy, texture, structure
and K value of the soils ................................................................. 128
Table 8.2 A coefficient value for different land cover–land use..................... 133
Table 9.1 Summary and method of different existing models
for estimating bank erosion ........................................................... 142
Table 9.2 Assigned index value for all the individual parameters
to calculate BEHI .......................................................................... 145
Table 9.3 Total parametric values for estimating NBS ................................. 146
Table 9.4 Comparison between BEHI model and field generated data ........ 150
Table 9.5 Index value of six parameters for estimating BEVZ method ........ 153
Table 9.6 Major types of anthropogenic activity and their limit
of effectiveness in river ................................................................. 159
Table 9.7 Comparison of erosional values between the BEHI–NBS
and proposed methods ................................................................... 162

xxv
Chapter 1
Introduction

Abstract River health is a new branch of geomorphology and hydrology. This

chapter mainly deals with the definition of the term, past works as well as the prob-
lem related to the present work. River health may be defined as the condition of the
anatomy and physiology of any river. Anatomy of any river mainly includes the
physical condition of the river, whereas the physiology of any river includes the
chemical and biological condition of the river. Physical condition of the river further
includes the changing hydrological behaviour of the river, channel shifting and
migration, river course change, flood and river bank erosion and related phenomena.
On the other hand, physiological condition of the river includes the chemical and
biological properties of the river water.

Keywords River health • Anatomy and physiology of river • Physical • Chemical

and biological properties of river

1.1 River Health

Traditionally the term ‘river health’ (Richard et al. 1999) depends solely on the
measurement of physical, chemical and some biological characteristics of the river
(Gore 1985; Boon et al. 1992; Brookes and Shields 1996). It is usually applied to
the assessment of river condition and often found as analogous to human health.
Physical characteristics of river include the fluvial geomorphology and surface
hydrology of a river basin, which control the structure and dynamics of river chan-
nel. Changes in flow and sediment regimes following catchment modification can
markedly alter the physical nature of the channel. River channel can function in
unnatural ways (Schumm 1988; Gurnell and Petts 1995). Moreover the chemical
indicators (mostly of water quality) are the most commonly used for detecting the
‘river health’ (Hart et al. 1999; Maher et al. 1999).
Hynes (1975) argued that ‘in every respect the valley rules the stream’, where
catchment character influences a river by large-scale controls on hydrology, sedi-
ment delivery and chemistry (Allan and Johnson 1997). Rivers are among the most
intensively human-influenced ecosystems on the earth. They serve for transporta-
tion, water supply, power generation and also as a source of food as well as sinks for

© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2017 1

S. Bandyopadhyay, S.K. De, Human Interference on River Health,
Advances in Asian Human-Environmental Research,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-41018-0_1
2 1 Introduction

waste products. As a result, in highly industrialised countries and in some develop-

ing countries, many rivers are now severely unhealthy. Most common impacts are
channel and bank modifications (i.e. canalisation for agricultural purposes, bank
protection, development of slums), flow regulation and fragmentation (i.e. reservoirs
for water supply, diversion for irrigation and industrial purposes), unscientific col-
lection of soil and sediments (e.g. sand quarrying from the riverbed and bank for
industrial as well as domestic purpose) and chemical pollution (e.g. heavy metals,
pesticides, fertilisers) and organic pollution (e.g. domestic and cattle-raising waste
water). All these alterations have led to an extensive ecological degradation of these
rivers, making them no longer sustainable in providing goods and services (e.g.
decline in water quality and availability, intense flooding) (Poff et al. 1997). Norris
and Thoms (1999) defined the term river from biological point of view. According
to them the term ‘river health’, applied to the assessment of river condition, is often
seen as being analogous with human health, giving many a sense of understanding.
Unfortunately, the meaning of ‘river health’ remains obscure. It is not clear what
aspects of river health sets of ecosystem-level indicators actually identify, nor how
physical, chemical and biological characteristics may be integrated into measures
rather than just observations of cause and effect.
Certainly it is argued that if the river side habitat was in poor condition, the
health of the stream would be affected adversely (Plafkin et al. 1989; Brookes and
Shields 1996). It shows that if we have an unhealthy catchment or valley, we would
have an unhealthy stream. Similarly, this assessment can also do in reverse: a stream
may be assessed as being unhealthy and then it is concluded that the catchment is
unhealthy (Sweeney 1992; Osborne and Kovacic 1993).
In a nutshell, river health may be defined as the condition of the anatomy and
physiology of any river. Anatomy of any river mainly includes the physical condi-
tion of the river, whereas the physiology of any river includes the chemical and
biological condition of the river. Physical condition of the river further includes the
changing hydrological behaviour of the river, channel shifting and migration, river
course change, flood and river bank erosion and related phenomena. On the other
hand, physiological condition of the river includes the chemical and biological
properties of the river water. Thus, river health is a subject, which combines fluvial
geomorphology, river hydrology and environmental pollution. It is worth mention-
ing that all of the aforesaid conditions of the river health may be changed due to
human intervention.

1.2 The Problem

The river is treated as the lifeline of Agartala, the Capital City of Tripura. Originating
from the Baramura Hill, the river debouches onto the rolling plain at Chandrasadhubari
near the NH 44. Thousands of people between Chandrasadhubari and the boundary
of Bangladesh have been settled along the river bank and directly dependent on the
1.2 The Problem 3

river. Moreover, about 60 % of population of Agartala City is directly or indirectly

dependent on the river for drinking water and other domestic purposes.
Previous records show that the river bank was almost uninhabited and the popu-
lation of the whole basin was also less. During that period, most part of the upper
catchment of the river was densely covered with vegetation without any human
intervention. Since the partition of India and East Pakistan (presently Bangladesh),
and particularly from 1950, huge number of people immigrated to the state from
East Pakistan (Bangladesh) as refugee. Most of those immigrants were spread over
the whole basin, and the weaker section (below poverty line) of such population
settled along the river and thereby increased the pressure on the river enormously.
Moreover, with the increasing population, medium- and small-scale industries have
also emerged within the Haora River basin. The workers of such industries started
to commit nuisances and throw all types of solid wastes along the river bank. All of
these activities affected the quality of river water and the pollution level of water
also started to increase.
Vulnerable geological structure, unconsolidated soil layers and heavy and con-
centrated rainfall along with deforestation, cutting of uplands (locally called tilla)
and unscientific and unplanned usage of land have led to the establishment of a
vicious cycle of denudation. All these eroded materials are carried down the lower
reach of the Haora River during monsoon period and created a fluctuating nature of
river physiology through the enhancement of scouring and filling. In addition to
that, artificial deposit of solid waste along the river bank supplies some extra amount
of sediment load to the river. The river sometimes fails to carry these excess sedi-
ment loads and deposits them in different sections of its lower reach. As a result, the
depth as well as the cross-sectional area of the river valley decreases that fails to
carry excess amount of unusual monsoonal discharge and allows water to spill caus-
ing floods ruining the lives and properties of the local inhabitants.
Moreover, in some places, people hinder the natural flow of the river by con-
structing causeways, putting cement bags across the river for water storage and also
cultivating the dry riverbed during lean season, through which the natural dynamics
of the river is being changed. If immediate necessary measures are not taken, the
whole area will suffer from the scarcity of drinking water and flood hazard during
monsoon period. Therefore, the present study has been undertaken to find out the
problems related to the overall health of the Haora River and to bring out some pos-
sible suggestions for restoring ecological balance and geopolitical stability of this
strategically important part of the country.
For an in-depth study of the river health, the Haora River from the state of Tripura
(NE India) has been taken into consideration under the following points:
• To identify the nature and extent of population change within the basin along the
river up to the floodplain boundaries
• To detect the nature of changing course of the Haora River and probable causes
behind it
• To assess anthropogenic impact on the river in terms of agricultural growth,
industrialisation and expansion of slums
4 1 Introduction

• To analyse the pollution status of river water

• To estimate the amount of soil loss contributing to augmented sediment load
within the channel with the help of RUSLE method
• To analyse the nature and extent of bank erosion along the Haora River

1.3 Past Works

1.3.1 Earlier Published Works on Different Issues Related

to the Haora River

Many research works have been carried out on several topics like population and
urban growth, sedimentation and pollution on the Haora River both nationally and
internationally.
Different government and non-government agencies have prepared reports on
the inventory about the present status of the water quality of Haora River near
Agartala town by analysing the impact of slum dwellers and urban growth on the
river near Agartala; urban infrastructure and service improvement including the
rehabilitation, improvement and expansion of (i) water supplies, (ii) sewerage and
sanitation and (iii) solid waste management for the Agartala city. Most of the reports
are kept for departmental use only and not available for public use. Tripura State
Pollution Control Board (2004) prepared a detailed study on pollution status of the
Haora River.
Datta et al. (2008) used distributed hydrological modelling to quantify the future
water availability as well as the importance of Haora River basin and to formulate
the water quality management. The Tripura State Pollution Control Board has pub-
lished the detailed monograph of De (2012) on the ‘Geoenvironmental status of
Haora River’. The monograph was prepared on the basis of an intensive study on the
Haora River in order to save the river from its deterioration and was the premier
report of its kind on the river. Bhattacharyya et al. (2007) prepared a model for esti-
mating the soil loss and its impact on crop productivity for the entire Tripura.

1.3.2 Human Population Growth and Its Impact on the River

Basin

Anthropogenic activity plays an important role in the modification of environment.

With the rapid development of technology, man is reforming landforms for fulfilling
their need and greed. This reformation of topography has both positive and negative
impacts on the environment. Several anthropogenic activities are responsible for
changing the physical, chemical and biological characteristics of any river, but most
1.3 Past Works 5

of the earlier works are mainly concentrated on the human impacts on the chemical
and biological properties of the river. Very few works have been done on the physi-
cal health of the river.
Keith et al. (2013) prepared a survey on the demand of water resource of the
growing population within the Nile Valley. Some other works of Swain (1997,
2002) and Tadesse (2004) have also emphasised on the demand of population on the
same area. On the same issue, but on other rivers have been conducted by Pitchammal
et al. (2009). Yeasmin and Khan (2012) published a detailed report on the impact
brick industries within a river basin.
Impact of anthropogenic activity on river is an important issue, but there is hardly
any generalised work on it. Most of the works have been carried out on the basis of
one or two individual parameters, e.g. Nawa and Frissell (1993), Langer (2003) and
Salahuddin (2009) have published papers on the impact of sand mining in the river
and also recommend best possible alternative ways for scientific sand quarrying.
Michael and Layher (1998) and Kori and Mathada (2012) have worked on the
impact of sand mining in altering land use and habitat degradation of the riparian
environment.
Similarly very few works have been published internationally on the impact of
causeways on river (e.g. Percy 2008). The effect on bridges on the river system is an
important issue worldwide (Hencock 2002). Heidarnejad et al. (2010) accounted for
a detailed engineering report on the flow pattern and mechanisms of unnatural riv-
erbed scouring around the bridge piers. Coleman and Melville (2001) also provide
a detailed work on the mechanism of scouring and bridge failure. The works on
related field, such as the nature of gravel scouring around the bridge on different
rivers, and the works of Laursen (1960), Ettema (1980), Klaassen and Vermeer
(1988a) and Watson (1990) are notable.
Impact of bridge piers in the river system is an emerging issue in the current
research. The works of Breusers et al. (1977), Heidarnejad et al. (2010) and Shen
and Schneider (1969) are mainly based on the mechanism of scouring of river
around the bridge piers and the impact of this on the river. Biswas (2010) and
Seiyaboh et al. (2013) have given more emphasis on the environmental impact of
bridge piers on the river.
Saviour (2012) has prepared a detailed report on the impact of sand mining on
the environment. A field analysis on the impact of sand mining on the natural
dynamics of the Padma River has been done by Singh et al. (2007). Suvendu (2013)
has prepared a report on the impact of four causeways on the temporal change in the
cross section, course and depositional pattern of the Kunur River, West Bengal.
Impact of bridge piers has also been an important issue in India (Dey 1999; Kumar
et al. 1999).
Large river systems throughout the planet have been dramatically transformed
due to river control projects such as large dams and embankments. Unlike other
major human impacts like anthropogenic climate change, the alteration of river sys-
tems has been deliberate and planned by a small, powerful set of experts (Baghel
2014). The concept of large-scale transformation of fluvial environments into tech-
nological hydroscapes originated in the West, widespread construction of large
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