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ENCYCLOPEDIA OF MATERIALS:
COMPOSITES
Volume 1
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF MATERIALS:
COMPOSITES
EDITOR IN CHIEF
Dermot Brabazon
I-Form, Advanced Manufacturing Research Centre, and Advanced Processing Technology
Research Centre, School of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering,
Dublin City University, Dublin, Ireland
Volume 1
Section Editors
Section 1: Metal Matrix Composite Materials, Edited by Manoj Gupta
Section 2: Polymer Matrix Composite Materials, Edited by Dermot Brabazon
AMSTERDAM BOSTON HEIDELBERG LONDON NEW YORK OXFORD

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CONTENTS OF VOLUME 1
Contents of Volume 1 v
List of Contributors for Volume 1 xi
Editorial Board xvii
Preface xix
VOLUME 1
Section 1: Metal Matrix Composite Materials, Edited by Manoj Gupta
Introduction to Metal Matrix Composite Materials: An Introduction

Manoj Gupta 1
Fundamentals of Metal Matrix Composites
Sankaranarayanan Seetharaman and Manoj Gupta 11
An Insight Into Metal Matrix Composites With Micron Size Reinforcement
Arsha Antony Geetha, Madhusoodhanan Geethakumari Akhil, Thazhavilai Ponnu Devaraj Rajan, and
Ballambettu Chandrasekhara Pai 30
An Insight Into Metal Matrix Composites With Nano Size Reinforcement
Massoud Malaki 42
An Insight Into Magnesium Based Metal Matrix Composites With Hybrid Reinforcement
Sankaranarayanan Seetharaman, Subramanian Jayalakshmi, Ramachandra Arvind Singh, and Manoj Gupta 52
Metal Based Composites With Metastable/Amorphous Reinforcements
Penchal Reddy Matli and Manoj Gupta 78
Development and Properties of Amorphous Particles Reinforced Al Matrix Nanocomposites
Adnan Khan, Mattli M Reddy, Penchal Reddy Matli, Rana A Shakoor, and Manoj Gupta 96
Metal Matrix Syntactic Composites
Vyasaraj Manakari, Gururaj Parande, Manoj Gupta, and Mrityunjay Doddamani 109
Insight Into Layered Metal Matrix Composites
Akshay Padnuru Sripathy and Manoj Gupta 121
Eco-friendly Metal Matrix Composites
Gururaj Parande, Vyasaraj Manakari, and Manoj Gupta 140
Liquid Phase Processing of Metal Matrix Composites
Madhusoodhanan Geethakumari Akhil, Kaimanikal Madhurananthan Nair Sree Manu, Thazhavilai Ponnu
Devaraj Rajan, and Ballambettu Chandrasekhara Pai 160
Solid Phase Processing of Metal Matrix Composites
Mingyang Zhou, Lingbao Ren, Gaofeng Quan, and Manoj Gupta 173
Two Phase Processing of Metal Matrix Composites
Penchal Reddy Matli, Tirumalai Srivatsan, and Manoj Gupta 197
v
vi Contents of Volume 1
Additive Manufacturing of Metal Matrix Composites

Sankaranarayanan Seetharaman and Manoj Gupta 209
Severe Plastic Deformation Processing of Metal Matrix Composites
Sankaranarayanan Seetharaman, Ankita Mandal, and Manoj Gupta 230
Friction Stir Processing of Metal Matrix Composites
VK Bupesh Raja and Manoj Gupta 247
An Insight Into Processing Maps of Metal Matrix Composites
Biranchi N Sahoo and Sushanta K Panigrahi 257
Microstructural Aspects of Metal-Matrix Composites
Devadas Bhat Panemangalore and Rajashekhara Shabadi 274
Tensile Characteristics of Metal Matrix Composites
Milli S Kujur, Ved P Dubey, Ashis Mallick, and Manoj Gupta 298
Tensile Response of Al-Based Nanocomposites
Penchal Reddy Matli, Vyasaraj Manakari, Gururaj Parande, and Manoj Gupta 313
Compressive Response of Aluminum Metal Matrix Composites
Ramanathan Arunachalam and Pradeep K Krishnan 325
Fatigue Behavior of Magnesium Matrix Composites
Sravya Tekumalla and Manoj Gupta 344
High-Temperature Properties of Metal Matrix Composites
Oluseyi P Oladijo, Samuel A Awe, Esther T Akinlabi, Resego R Phiri, Lebudi L Collieus, and Rebaone E Phuti 360
Creep Characteristics of Metal Matrix Composites
Hong Yang, Sarkis Gavras, and Hajo Dieringa 375
Tribological Properties of Light Metal Matrix Composites
Jitendra K Katiyar, Jaafar Al Hammad, and Abdul Samad Mohammed 389
Mechanical and Tribological Properties of Aluminum Based Metal Matrix Nanocomposites
Mir Irfan Ul Haq, Sanjay Mohan, Ankush Raina, Subramanian Jayalakshmi, Ramachandra Arvind Singh,
Xizhang Chen, Sergey Konovalov, and Manoj Gupta 402
Damping Characteristics of Metal Matrix Composites
Penchal Reddy Matli and Manoj Gupta 415
Electromagnetic Shielding Capabilities of Metal Matrix Composites
Anisha Chaudhary, Vinay Gupta, Satish Teotia, Subhash Nimanpure, and Dipen K Rajak 428
Corrosion Characteristics of Metal Matrix Composites
Devadas Bhat Panemangalore and Udaya Bhat K 442
Coating Technologies for Metal Matrix Composites
Sumit Pramanik and Kamal K Kar 454
Biocompatibility of Metal Matrix Composites Used for Biomedical Applications
Somasundaram Prasadh, Santhosh Suresh, Vaishnavi Ratheesh, Raymond Wong, and Manoj Gupta 474
Joining of Metal Matrix Composites
VK Bupesh Raja and Manoj Gupta 502
High Performance Machining of Metal Matrix Composites
Keng S Woon 512
Application of Metal Matrix Composites in Engineering Sectors
Dipen K Rajak and Pradeep L Menezes 525
Contents of Volume 1 vii
Metal Matrix Composites for Automotive Components in Depth Case Study: Development
of Automotive Brake Disc
Nanang Fatchurrohman and Shamsuddin Sulaiman 540
Application of Metal Matrix Composites in Non-Structural Applications
Mubarak Ali M, Mohamed Thariq, Vishwesh Dikshit, and Bhudolia S Kumar 557
Section 2: Polymer Matrix Composite Materials, Edited by Dermot Brabazon
Introduction: Polymer Matrix Composite Materials

Dermot Brabazon 563
Particulate Reinforced Polymer Matrix Composites
Overview of Mechanical and Physicochemical Properties of Polymer Matrix Composites

Kai Bin Liew, Choon Fu Goh, Sajid Asghar, and Haroon K Syed 565
Processing of Polymers and Their Composites: A Review
Jaspreet Singh, Kulwinder Singh, JS Saini, and Mohammed SJ Hashmi 577
Tailored Behavior of Polymer Matrix Composite Materials
Yousef Tamsilian, Samira Alvani, Fatemeh Abdolkhani, and Elham Khademi Moghadam 604
Effect of Particle Size and Content of Crumb Rubber on the Dynamic Properties of Passenger Tyre
Tread Using Finite Element Method
Adnan A Alshukri, Faieza A Aziz, Mohd S Salit, Nuraini A Aziz, and Mohammed Al-Maamori 615
Overview of Surface Roughness Effect on Silver Nanoparticle Filled Epoxy Composites
MA Salim, R Hamidi, and AM Saad 628
Polymer Single-Screw Extrusion With Metal Powder Reinforcement
Rupinder Singh, N Singh, P Bedi, and IPS Ahuja 671
Polymer Twin Screw Extrusion With Filler Powder Reinforcement
Rupinder Singh, Sunpreet Singh, and Mohammed SJ Hashmi 691
The Effect of In-Situ-Formed Silver Nanoparticles on the Morphological Properties of Epoxy Resin
Filled Composites
MA Salim, R Hamidi, and AM Saad 706
Toughening Mechanisms of Devulcanized Rubber Modified Epoxy Based Composites Reinforced
With Zirconia
Alaeddin B Irez, Emin Bayraktar, and Ibrahim Miskioglu 713
Polymer Nanocomposite Characterization and Applications
Mahsa Shirazi, Gholamreza Masoudi Rad, and Yousef Tamsilian 725
Fibre Reinforced Polymer Matrix Composites
Effect of Fiber Orientation on the Mechanical Properties of Laminated Polymer Composites

N Ghamarian, Mohamed AA Hanim, P Penjumras, and Dayang LA Majid 746
Tensile Properties of Woven Intra-Ply Carbon/Kevlar Reinforced Epoxy Hybrid Composite at Sub-
Ambient Temperature
Nurain Hashim, Dayang LA Majid, Danish M Baitab, Noorfaizal Yidris, and Rizal Zahari 766
Thermoplastic Composites for Fused Deposition Modeling Filament: Challenges and Applications
Kamaljit S Boparai and Rupinder Singh 774
viii Contents of Volume 1
Biomedical Applications of Polymer Matrix Composites
Hydroxyapatite Based Polymer Composites for Regenerative Medicine Applications

Luis J del Valle and Jordi Puiggalí 785
Biopolymer Matrix Composite for Drug Delivery Applications in Cancer
Ankit Jain, Madhavi Tripathi, Shiv K Prajapati, and Ashok M Raichur 804
Covalent and Electrostatic Protein-Polysaccharide Systems for Encapsulation of Nutraceuticals
Hadis Rostamabadi, Seid Reza Falsafi, and Seid Mahdi Jafari 818
Polymer Matrix Composites Containing Carbon Nanomaterials for Medical Applications
Maryam Ahmadzadeh Tofighy, Soha Habibi, and Toraj Mohammadi 832
Biopolymer Matrix Composites for New Medical Applications
Zahra Shariatinia 842
Poly(methyl methacrylate)-Based Composite Bone Cements With Different Types of Reinforcement
Agents
Sanaz Soleymani Eil Bakhtiari, Hamid Reza Bakhsheshi-Rad, Saeed Karbasi, Ahmad Fauzi Ismail,
Safian Sharif, Alexander Seifalian, Houman Savoji, and Filippo Berto 867
Hydrogel Composite Films for Wound Healing
Ikram U Khan, Huma Mahmood, Yasser Shahzad, Sajid Asghar, and Haroon K Syed 887
Polymer Composites for Organ Reconstruction
Haroon K Syed, Sajid Asghar, Kai Bin Liew, Ikram U Khan, Fizza A Razzaq, and Saba Rafique 905
Overview of Additive Manufacturing Biopolymer Composites
Bankole I Oladapo, S Abolfazl Zahedi, Vincent A Balogun, Sikiru O Ismail, and Yarjan A Samad 915
Marine Polysaccharide-Based Composite Hydrogels
Saad Salman, Syed H Khalid, Ikram U Khan, Sajid Asghar, Fahad H Shah, and Muniba Tariq 929
Other Application Areas for Polymer Matrix Composites
Multifunctional Polymer Matrix Composites

Sajid Asghar, Haroon K Syed, Kai Bin Liew, Ikram U Khan, and Saad Salman 937
Polymer Matrix Composite Materials for Aerospace Applications
Subramani Devaraju and Muthukaruppan Alagar 947
Tribology of Polymer Matrix Composites Within the Automotive Industry
Leonardo I Farfan-Cabrera, Monica Tapia-Gaspar, and José Pérez-González 970
Polymer Matrix Composites Materials for Water and Wastewater Treatment Applications
Maryam Ahmadzadeh Tofighy and Toraj Mohammadi 983
Nanomaterial-Incorporated Polymer Composites for Industrial Effluent: From Synthesis to
Application
Yousef Tamsilian, Mahsa Shirazi, and Gholamreza Masoudi Rad 998
New and Emerging Processing Methods for Polymer Matrix Composites
Additive Manufacturing of Polymer Matrix Composites

Farnoosh Pahlevanzadeh, Hamid Reza Bakhsheshi-Rad, Dermot Brabazon, Mahshid Kharaziha,
Ahmad Fauzi Ismail, Safian Sharif, Mahmood Razzaghi, and Filippo Berto 1013
New Design Consideration of Polymer Matrix Composite Materials
Peng Liu 1029
Contents of Volume 1 ix
Thermal and Morphological Analyses of Polymer Matrix Composites

Subramani Devaraju, Arumugam Hariharan, Krishnasamy Balaji, and Muthukaruppan Alagar 1038
A New Design of Epoxy Based Composites Reinforced With Devulcanized Rubber, Alumina Fiber
and BN
Alaeddin B Irez, Emin Bayraktar, and Ibrahim Miskioglu 1069
Development of Low-Cost Graphene-Polymer Blended In-House Filament for Fused Deposition
Modeling
Rupinder Singh and Ranvijay Kumar 1081
PLA Composite Matrix as Functional Prototypes for Four Dimensional Applications
Sudhir Kumar, Rupinder Singh, Tajinder P Singh, and Ajay Batish 1091
Extrusion-Based Additive Manufacturing Techniques for Biomedical Applications
Ghazal Tadayyon, Daniel J Kelly, and Michael G Monaghan 1101
Preparation and Applications of Synergically Combined Polymer Matrix Composites
Shashank T Mhaske and Arjit Gadgeel 1112
LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS FOR VOLUME 1
Fatemeh Abdolkhani Danish M. Baitab

Shahid Chamran University of Ahvaz, Ahvaz, Iran University Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Selangor Darul
Ehsan, Malaysia
I.P.S. Ahuja
Punjabi University Patiala, Patiala, India Hamid Reza Bakhsheshi-Rad
Advanced Materials Research Center, Department of
Madhusoodhanan Geethakumari Akhil
Materials Engineering, Najafabad Branch, Islamic Azad
Council of Scientific & Industrial Research, National
University, Najafabad, Iran and Faculty of Engineering,
Institute for Interdisciplinary Science and Technology,
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Johor Bahru, Johor,
Trivandrum, Kerala, India and Academy of Scientific
Malaysia
and Innovative Research, Ghaziabad, New Delhi, India
Krishnasamy Balaji
Esther T. Akinlabi
PSG Institute of Technology and Applied Research,
Pan African University for Life and Earth Sciences
Coimbatore, India
Institute, Ibadan, Nigeria
Mohammed Al-Maamori Vincent A. Balogun
University of Babylon-Iraq, Babylon, Iraq Edo University Iyamho, Iyamho, Edo State, Nigeria
Muthukaruppan Alagar Ajay Batish

PSG Institute of Technology and Applied Research, Thapar Institute of Engineering and Technology, Patiala,
Coimbatore, India India
Mubarak Ali M Emin Bayraktar

TKM College of Engineering, Kollam, Kerala, India Supmeca-Paris, School of Mechanical and
Manufacturing Engineering, Saint-Ouen, France
Adnan A. Alshukri
University Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia P. Bedi
and State Company for Rubber and Tyres Industry, Guru Nanak Dev Engineering College, Ludhiana, India
Najaf, Iraq Filippo Berto
Samira Alvani Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering,
Shahid Chamran University of Ahvaz, Ahvaz, Iran Norwegian University of Science and Technology,
Trondheim, Norway
Ramanathan Arunachalam
Sultan Qaboos University, Muscat, Oman Udaya Bhat K
Department of Metallurgical and Materials Engineering,
Sajid Asghar National Institute of Technology Karnataka, Surathkal,
Department of Pharmaceutics, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Srinivasnagar, Karnataka, India
Sciences, Government College University Faisalabad,
Faisalabad, Pakistan Devadas Bhat Panemangalore
Department of Metallurgical and Materials Engineering,
Samuel A. Awe National Institute of Technology Karnataka, Surathkal,
Automotive Components Floby AB, Floby, Sweden Srinivasnagar, Karnataka, India
Faieza A. Aziz
Kamaljit S. Boparai
University Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
MRS Punjab Technical University, Bathinda, India
Nuraini A. Aziz
Dermot Brabazon
University Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
I-Form, Advanced Manufacturing Research Centre, and
Jaafar Al Hammad Advanced Processing Technology Research Centre, School
King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals, of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering, Dublin
Dhahran, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia City University, Dublin, Ireland
Mohamed A.A. Hanim Anisha Chaudhary
Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia University of Delhi, New Delhi, India
xi
xii List of Contributors for Volume 1
Xizhang Chen Manoj Gupta

Wenzhou University, Wenzhou, China National University of Singapore, Singapore
Lebudi L. Collieus Vinay Gupta
Botswana International University of Science and University of Delhi, New Delhi, India
Technology, Palapye, Botswana
Soha Habibi
Luis J. del Valle Iran University of Science and Technology, Tehran, Iran
Chemical Engineering Department, Polytechnic
University of Catalonia, Barcelona, Spain R. Hamidi
Technical University of Malaysia Melaka, Durian
Subramani Devaraju Tunggal, Melaka, Malaysia
Vignan’s Foundation for Science, Technology and
Research, Guntur, India Arumugam Hariharan
PSG Institute of Technology and Applied Research,
Hajo Dieringa Coimbatore, India
Helmholtz-Zentrum Geesthacht, Geesthacht, Germany
Nurain Hashim
Vishwesh Dikshit University Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Selangor Darul
Nanyang Technological University, Singapore Ehsan, Malaysia
Mrityunjay Doddamani Mohammed S.J. Hashmi
National Institute of Technology Karnataka, Surathkal, Dublin City University, Dublin, Ireland
Karnataka, India
Alaeddin B. Irez
Ved P. Dubey CentraleSupélec, University Paris-Saclay, Gif-sur-Yvette,
Indian Institute of Technology (Indian School of Mines) France and University Paris-Saclay, Gif-sur-Yvette,
Dhanbad, Dhanbad, India France
Seid Reza Falsafi Sikiru O. Ismail
Gorgan University of Agricultural Sciences and Natural University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield, United Kingdom
Resources, Gorgan, Iran
Seid Mahdi. Jafari
Leonardo I. Farfan-Cabrera Gorgan University of Agricultural Sciences and Natural
Tecnologico de Monterrey, Escuela de Ingeniería y Resources, Gorgan, Iran
Ciencias, Monterrey, México
Ankit Jain
Nanang Fatchurrohman Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, Karnataka, India
Universiti Malaysia Pahang, Pekan, Pahang, Malaysia
Subramanian Jayalakshmi
Ahmad Fauzi Ismail Wenzhou University, Wenzhou, China
Advanced Membrane Technology Research Center
(AMTEC), Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Johor Bahru, Kamal K. Kar
Johor, Malaysia Department of Mechanical Engineering and Materials
Science Programme, Indian Institute of Technology
Arjit Gadgeel
Kanpur, Kanpur, India
Institute of Chemical Technology, Mumbai, India
Saeed Karbasi
Sarkis Gavras
Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering Department, School
Helmholtz-Zentrum Geesthacht, Geesthacht, Germany
of Advanced Technologies in Medicine, Isfahan
Arsha Antony Geetha University of Medical Sciences, Isfahan, Iran
Council of Scientific & Industrial Research–National
Jitendra K. Katiyar
SRM Institute of Science and Technology, Chennai,
Tamil Nadu, India
Daniel J. Kelly
N. Ghamarian
Trinity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland; Advance
Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
Materials and BioEngineering Research(AMBER) Centre
Choon Fu Goh at Trinity College Dublin and the Royal College of
Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang, Malaysia Surgeons in Ireland, Dublin, Ireland; and Centre for
List of Contributors for Volume 1 xiii
Research in Medical Devices (CURAM), National Vyasaraj Manakari

University of Ireland, Galway, Ireland National University of Singapore, Singapore
Syed H. Khalid Ankita Mandal
Department of Pharmaceutics, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi, India
Kaimanikal Madhurananthan Nair Sree Manu
Faisalabad, Pakistan
Council of Scientific & Industrial Research, National
Adnan Khan Institute for Interdisciplinary Science and Technology,
Qatar University, Doha, Qatar Trivandrum, Kerala, India and Brunel University,
London, United Kingdom
Ikram U. Khan
Department of Pharmaceutics, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Pradeep L. Menezes
Sciences, Government College University Faisalabad, University of Nevada, Reno, NV, United States
Shashank T. Mhaske
Mahshid Kharaziha Institute of Chemical Technology, Mumbai, India
Department of Materials Engineering, Isfahan University
Ibrahim Miskioglu
of Technology, Isfahan, Iran
Michigan Technological University ME-EM Department,
Sergey Konovalov Houghton, MI, United States
Samara National Research University, Samara, Russia Elham Khademi Moghadam
Pradeep K. Krishnan Shahid Chamran University of Ahvaz, Ahvaz, Iran
National University of Science and Technology, Muscat, Toraj Mohammadi
Oman Iran University of Science and Technology, Tehran, Iran
Milli S. Kujur Abdul Samad Mohammed
Indian Institute of Technology (Indian School of Mines) King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals,
Dhanbad, Dhanbad, India Dhahran, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
Bhudolia S. Kumar Sanjay Mohan
Nanyang Technological University, Singapore Shri Mata Vaishno Devi University, Katra, Jammu,
Ranvijay Kumar India
Guru Nanak Dev Engineering College, Ludhiana, India Michael G. Monaghan
Sudhir Kumar Trinity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland; Advance
Thapar Institute of Engineering and Technology, Patiala, Materials and BioEngineering Research(AMBER) Centre
India at Trinity College Dublin and the Royal College of
Surgeons in Ireland, Dublin, Ireland; and Centre for
Kai Bin Liew Research in Medical Devices (CURAM), National
University of Cyberjaya, Cyberjaya, Selangor, Malaysia University of Ireland, Galway, Ireland
Peng Liu Subhash Nimanpure
Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, China Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, National
Physical Laboratory, New Delhi, India
Huma Mahmood
Department of Pharmaceutics, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Bankole I. Oladapo
Sciences, Government College University Faisalabad, De Montfort University, Leicester, United Kingdom
Oluseyi P. Oladijo
Dayang L.A. Majid Botswana International University of Science and
University Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Selangor Darul Technology, Palapye, Botswana and University of
Ehsan, Malaysia Johannesburg, Johannesburg, Gauteng, South Africa
Massoud Malaki Akshay Padnuru Sripathy
Isfahan University of Technology, Isfahan, Iran National University of Singapore, Singapore
Ashis Mallick Farnoosh Pahlevanzadeh
Indian Institute of Technology (Indian School of Mines) Department of Materials Engineering, Isfahan University
Dhanbad, Dhanbad, India of Technology, Isfahan, Iran
xiv List of Contributors for Volume 1
Ballambettu Chandrasekhara Pai V.K. Bupesh Raja

Council of Scientific & Industrial Research, National Sathyabama Institute of Science and Technology,
Institute for Interdisciplinary Science and Technology, Chennai, India
Trivandrum, Kerala, India
Dipen K. Rajak
Sushanta K. Panigrahi Sandip Institute of Technology and Research Centre,
Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai, India Nashik, Maharashtra, India
Gururaj Parande Thazhavilai Ponnu Devaraj Rajan
National University of Singapore, Singapore Council of Scientific & Industrial Research, National
P. Penjumras
Universiti Putra Malaysia, Selangor, Malaysia and
Maejo University-Phrae Campus, Phrae, Thailand
José Pérez-González Vaishnavi Ratheesh
Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Escuela Superior deFísica National University Centre for Oral Health, Singapore
y Matemáticas, Ciudad de México, México
Mahmood Razzaghi
Resego R. Phiri Advanced Materials Research Center, Department of
Botswana International University of Science and Materials Engineering, Najafabad Branch, Islamic Azad
Technology, Palapye, Botswana University, Najafabad, Iran
Rebaone E. Phuti Fizza A. Razzaq

Botswana International University of Science and Department of Pharmaceutics, Faculty of Pharmaceutical
Technology, Palapye, Botswana Sciences, Government College University Faisalabad,
Shiv K. Prajapati
Ram-Eesh Institute of Vocational and Technical Mattli M. Reddy
Education, Greater Noida, Uttar Pradesh Qatar University, Doha, Qatar
Sumit Pramanik Penchal Reddy Matli
Department of Mechanical Engineering, SRM Institute National University of Singapore, Singapore
of Science and Technology, Kancheepuram, Tamil Nadu,
India Lingbao Ren
Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an, China
Somasundaram Prasadh
National University Centre for Oral Health, Singapore Hadis Rostamabadi
Gorgan University of Agricultural Sciences and Natural
Jordi Puiggalí Resources, Gorgan, Iran
Chemical Engineering Department, Polytechnic
University of Catalonia, Barcelona, Spain A.M. Saad
Technical University of Malaysia Melaka, Durian
Gaofeng Quan
Tunggal, Melaka, Malaysia
Southwest Jiaotong University, Chengdu, China
Gholamreza Masoudi Rad Biranchi N. Sahoo

Petroleum University of Technology, Ahvaz, Iran Sardar Vallabhbhai National Institute of Technology,
Surat, Gujarat, India
Saba Rafique
Department of Pharmaceutics, Faculty of Pharmaceutical J.S. Saini
Sciences, Government College University, Faisalabad, Thapar Institute of Engineering and Technology, Patiala,
Faisalabad, Pakistan Punjab, India
Ashok M. Raichur M.A. Salim

Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, Karnataka, India Technical University of Malaysia Melaka, Durian
Tunggal, Melaka, Malaysia
Ankush Raina
Shri Mata Vaishno Devi University, Katra, Jammu, Mohd S. Salit
India University Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
List of Contributors for Volume 1 xv
Saad Salman Sunpreet Singh

Department of Pharmaceutics, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Guru Nanak Dev Engineering College, Ludhiana, India
Tajinder P. Singh
Thapar Institute of Engineering and Technology, Patiala,
Yarjan A. Samad India
University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
Sanaz Soleymani Eil Bakhtiari
Houman Savoji Advanced Materials Research Center, Department of
Institute of Biomedical Engineering, Department of Materials Engineering, Najafabad Branch, Islamic Azad
Pharmacology and Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, University, Najafabad, Iran
University of Montreal, CHU Sainte Justine Research
Tirumalai Srivatsan
Center, Montreal TransMedTech Institute, Canada
The University of Akron, Akron, OH, United States
Sankaranarayanan Seetharaman
Shamsuddin Sulaiman
National University of Singapore, Singapore
Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
Alexander Seifalian
Santhosh Suresh
Nanotechnology and Regenerative Medicine
National University Centre for Oral Health, Singapore
Commercialisation Centre (NanoRegMed Ltd), London
BioScience Innovation Centre, London, United Kingdom Haroon K. Syed
Department of Pharmaceutics, Faculty of Pharmaceutical
Rajashekhara Shabadi
Univ. Lille, CNRS, INRAE, Centrale Lille, UMR 8207 -
UMET - Unité Matériaux et Transformations, F-59000
Lille, France Ghazal Tadayyon
Trinity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
Fahad H. Shah
University of Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan Yousef Tamsilian
Shahid Chamran University of Ahvaz, Ahvaz, Iran
Yasser Shahzad
Department of Pharmacy, COMSATS University Monica Tapia-Gaspar
Islamabad, Lahore, Pakistan Tecnologico de Monterrey, Escuela de Ingeniería y
Ciencias, Monterrey, México
Rana A. Shakoor
Qatar University, Doha, Qatar Muniba Tariq
The University of Lahore, Islamabad Campus,
Zahra Shariatinia
Islamabad, Pakistan
Amirkabir University of Technology, Tehran, Iran
Sravya Tekumalla
Safian Sharif
Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia,
Johor Bahru, Johor, Malaysia Satish Teotia
Khalifa University of Science & Technology, Abu Dhabi,
Mahsa Shirazi
United Arab Emirates
Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran
Mohamed Thariq
Jaspreet Singh
University Putra Malaysia, Seri Kembangan, Malaysia
Thapar Institute of Engineering and Technology, Patiala,
Punjab, India Maryam Ahmadzadeh Tofighy
Iran University of Science and Technology, Tehran, Iran
Kulwinder Singh
Thapar Institute of Engineering and Technology, Patiala, Madhavi Tripathi
Punjab, India Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, Karnataka, India
N. Singh Mir Irfan Ul Haq
Guru Nanak Dev Engineering College, Ludhiana, India Shri Mata Vaishno Devi University, Katra, Jammu, India
Ramachandra Arvind Singh Raymond Wong
Wenzhou University, Wenzhou, China National University Centre for Oral Health, Singapore
Rupinder Singh Keng S. Woon
Guru Nanak Dev Engineering College, Ludhiana, India National University of Singapore, Singapore
xvi List of Contributors for Volume 1
Hong Yang S. Abolfazl Zahedi

Helmholtz-Zentrum Geesthacht, Geesthacht, Germany De Montfort University, Leicester, United Kingdom
Noorfaizal Yidris
University Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Selangor Darul
Ehsan, Malaysia Mingyang Zhou
Science and Technology on Reactor System Design
Rizal Zahari Technology Laboratory, Nuclear Power Institute of
University Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Selangor Darul China, Chengdu, China
Ehsan, Malaysia
EDITORIAL BOARD
Editor in Chief
Dermot Brabazon
I-Form, Advanced Manufacturing Research Centre, and Advanced Processing Technology Research Centre, School of Mechanical and
Manufacturing Engineering, Dublin City University, Dublin, Ireland
Section Editors
Manoj Gupta, Section 1: Metal Matrix Composite Materials
Department of Mechanical Engineering, NUS, Singapore
Dermot Brabazon, Section 2: Polymer Matrix Composite Materials

Fatima Zivic, Section 3: Ceramics Matrix Composites
Faculty of Engineering, University of Kragujevac, Kragujevac, Serbia
Eva Pellicer, Section 4: Smart Composite Materials
Departament de Física, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Campus de la UAB, Barcelona, Spain
Dermot Brabazon, Section 5: Processing of Composite Materials and Physical Characteristics
Robertt Valente, Section 6: Design Methods for Composite Materials

Center for Mechanical Technology and Automation, Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Aveiro, Portugal
Mohamed El Mansori, Section 7: Nature Based and Inspired Composite Materials

Arts et Metiers Institute of Technology, Mechanics Surfaces and Materials Processing, HESAM Université, Châlons-en-Champagne, France
Texas A& M Engineering Experiment Station, Institute for Manufacturing Systems, College Station, Texas, United States
Lorna Fitzsimons, Section 8: Life Cycle Analysis and Sustainability of Composite Materials
Advanced Processing Technology Research Centre, School of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering and the Water Institute, Dublin City
University, Dublin, Ireland
Antonello Astarita, Section 9: Joining of Composite Materials

Department of Chemical, Materials and Industrial Production Engineering, University of Naples Federico II, Naples, Italy
xvii
PREFACE
This is the first Encyclopedia of Materials: Composites published by Elsevier which presents a vast and widely encompassing content in
the area of composite materials science and engineering. Composite materials have become even more important and ubiquitous
over the recent decades due to the many advantages that they can provide over single monolithic materials. This includes
improvements in the properties such as the physical, electrical, chemical, optical and magnetic properties which can be achieved by
combining two or more materials.
The two main types of composites, Metal and Polymer matrix based, are presented in detail within Sections 1 and 2 respectively
while Ceramic matrix composites are presented in Section 3. Smart composites which is an area that is growing fast with increasing
industrial relevance is covered in Section 4. Assessing the properties of composite materials thereby enabling their application is a
crucial aspect of composite materials development and usage. As such, Section 5 presents the testing methods used and property
results from the testing of composite materials. The design of composite materials is covered in Section 6. The recyclability and
sustainability of materials used in products is an ever more important topic. There are some challenges to achieve well the
recyclability of composite constructs. The Encyclopedia presented two Sections covering this one (Section 7) covering nature based
composites and another covering the life cycle analysis of composite materials (Section 8). In the last section of the Encyclopedia,
Section 9 covers how to join composite materials together and with more conventional monolithic materials.
As an Encyclopedia, these sections were prepared to be the primary central source of background knowledge for undergraduate,
postgraduate and researchers studying or working with composites. The audience of this work covers both academic and industrial
researchers. In todays’ composite materials market, engineers, architects, and even policy makers, need reference literature where to
find definitions, concepts and state-of-the-art knowledge. As such this Encyclopedia will be an invaluable reference for engineers,
architects, scientists, and policy makers.
Each section contains articles written by world experts in their area. As well as providing the latest background information, the
state of the art in the niche areas is presented in the individual articles. A particular concern in preparing these articles by the
authors and Section editors was to make the content as accessible as possible to the reader. This is important given the multi-
disciplinary nature of people working on the development and implementation of composite materials.
I take this opportunity to thank the 337 authors from across the world who have contributed the 171 articles to this
Encyclopedia. It has been enjoyable to work with you are encouraging to see your expertise, interest and desire to help others from
your contribution. With the many co-authored articles, there has been extensive collaboration which has resulted in a more
informed and well-presented Encyclopedia content for the reader.
I am indebted also to the members of the Editorial team who have worked many long hours over the last couple of years to provide
feedback and iterate on articles with the authors. The Editorial team have collectively many years of expertise working in their research
areas. This team was formed via a variety networking events including conferences such as ESAFORM and Global Conference on
Nanomaterial Forming (Manoj Gupta, Robertt Valente, Antonella Astarita), EU research projects and COST Actions (Fatima Zivic and
Eva Maria Pellicer), and via other Dublin City University and sustainable engineering networking events (Mohamed El Mansori and
Lorna Fitzsimons). I thank the Elsevier Major Reference Works team who supported in a professional manner the compiling of this
work. In particular, I thank Laura Jackson, Sajana P K, and Ruth Rhodes for their direction and support throughout the preparation of
this Encyclopedia.
Dermot Brabazon
May 2021
xix
Introduction to Metal Matrix Composite Materials: An Introduction
Manoj Gupta, National University of Singapore, Singapore
r 2021 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
Introducing Composites
Composite refers to a material that is an outcome of unification of two different class of materials (Fig. 1) (Ceschini et al., 2016;
Gupta and Sharon, 2011). To note that composites were used in making bricks in prehistoric times and more importantly by
nature in providing functionality to both plants and animals including humans. The keen observations made by humans led to
development of modern composites including MMCs.
Composites can traditionally be classified using two approaches:
(1) Matrix based.
(2) Reinforcement based.
Schematics of these approaches to classify composites are shown in Figs. 2 and 3, respectively. For matrix-based classifications,
there may be other matrices such as Carbon matrix but they are more specialized types and do not come under mainstream
composites.
Based on reinforcements, the composites can be classified as (see Fig. 4):
(1) Continuously reinforced composites.

(2) Discontinuously reinforced composites.
Continuously reinforced composites display anisotropic properties while discontinuously reinforced composites exhibit iso-
tropic properties.
Based on length scale of reinforcements, the composites can further be classified as shown in Fig. 5. Each of these types of
composites have their unique advantages and limitations and their selection for industrial applications depends largely on the
properties requirements of the end applications.
Selection of metallic matrix for a composite is based on the combination of chemical, physical, thermal and mechanical
properties and cost factor depending on the requirements of end applications (Fig. 6) (Lloyd, 1994; Ibrahim et al., 1991).
Similarly, the selection of reinforcement is based on similar factors including the directionality of properties (isotropic or
anisotropic) and compatibility with matrix (see Fig. 7).
Metal Matrix Composites – Matrix and Reinforcements
Metal matrix composites (MMCs) represent conscious unification of metallic matrix and at least one reinforcement. The rein-
forcement can be (Ceschini et al., 2016; Gupta and Sharon, 2011; Lloyd, 1994; Ibrahim et al., 1991; Jayalakshmi and Gupta, 2015):
(1) Metallic.
(2) Ceramic (oxides, carbides, nitrides, borides).
(3) Intermetallic.
(4) Carbon based (CNT, graphene, buckyball, graphene oxide).
(5) Hollow (cenospheres, metal or ceramic based).
(6) Hybrid (combination of above and combination of length scales).
(7) Amorphous.
(8) Multicomponent alloys.
Most commonly used metallic matrices include but not limited to the following:
(1) Aluminum and its alloys.

(2) Magnesium and its alloys.
(3) Iron and its alloys.
(4) Nickel and its alloys.
(5) Copper and its alloys.
(6) Tin and its alloys.
(7) Titanium and its alloys.
Major factors that govern the properties of MMCs are based on: (a) Processing and (b) Constituents and (c) Microstructure
(see Fig. 8) (Lloyd, 1994; Ibrahim et al., 1991).
The capability of primary processing type on the microstructure and properties realization is expressed in Fig. 9.
Encyclopedia of Materials: Composites, Volume 1 doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-819724-0.00044-6 1

2 Introduction to Metal Matrix Composite Materials: An Introduction
Fig. 1 Definition of composite.
Fig. 2 Matrix based classification of composites.
Parcle
Reinforced
Composites
Layered Reinforcement Fiber reinforced

Composites Composites
Interconnected
Reinforcement
Based
Composites
Fig. 3 Reinforcement based classification of composites.

Introduction to Metal Matrix Composite Materials: An Introduction 3
Fig. 4 Continuously (left) and discontinuously (right) reinforced composites.
Fig. 5 Classification of composites based on length scale of reinforcement.
Fig. 6 Factors related to selection of matrix.
The major (not limited to) matrix and reinforcement related factors that govern the end properties of MMCs are shown in
Figs. 10 and 11, respectively (Ceschini et al., 2016; Gupta and Sharon, 2011; Lloyd, 1994; Ibrahim et al., 1991).
Metal Matrix Composites – Processing
As indicated in Fig. 9, MMCs can primary processed using following economically viable routes (Lloyd, 1994; Ibrahim et al., 1991):
(1) Liquid phase methods.
(2) Solid phase methods.
(3) Two phase methods.
There are other methods that are being researched but those methods are still in the developmental stages for scalable and/or
economical production. The liquid, solid and two-phase methods are listed in Figs. 12–14.
Among the liquid phase methods, the one including ultrasonic probes/transmitters are relatively new developments that have
shown promising results.
Fig. 7 Factors controlling selection of reinforcement.
Fig. 8 Major factors governing the properties of MMCs.
Fig. 9 Processing type effects on microstructure and properties of MMCs.

Fig. 10 Matrix related factors governing the properties of MMCs.
Fig. 11 Reinforcement related factors governing the properties of MMCs.
Liquid Phase
Processing
In-situ Ultrasonic Liquid metal

Sr Casng Die Casng
Processing Processing Infiltraon
Fig. 12 Most commonly used/researched methods to synthesize MMCs using liquid phase processing.
Among powder metallurgy methods, use of microwave sintering (Gupta and Leong, 2007), spark plasma sintering (Azarniya
et al., 2017), flake powder metallurgy (Xu et al., 2017), molecular level mixing (Bakshi et al., 2010) and friction stir processing
(Eskandari et al., 2016) are relatively new processes with significant potential.
Two phase methods probably were most exciting from metallurgical point of view, however, their utility in industrial
processing is limited. Disintegrated melt deposition technique is the latest process in this category with potential of scalability at a
very low equipment and infrastructural costs.
Solid Phase
Processing
Powder Semi-powder Flake Powder Molecular Level In-situ Fricon sr

Metallurgy Metallurgy Metallurgy Mixing Process synthesis Processing
Fig. 13 Most commonly used/researched methods to synthesize MMCs using solid phase processing.
Two Phase
Processing
Spray
Disintegrated
Rheocasng Atomizaon and Osprey Process
Melt Deposion
Deposion
Fig. 14 Most commonly used/researched methods to synthesize MMCs using two phase processing.
Secondary
Processing
Techniques
Severe Plasc
Rolling Forging Extrusion
Deformaon
Fig. 15 Most commonly used/researched secondary processing methods.
Severe Plasc
Deformaon
Techniques
Equal Channel Cyclic Extrusion

High Pressure Accumulave Mul-direconal
Angular and
Torsion Roll Bonding Forging
Processing Compression
Fig. 16 Most commonly used/researched severe plastic deformation methods.
The selection of the process in each category depends largely on the:

(1) Size of the part.
(2) Geometry of the part.
(3) Number of parts to be produced.
(4) Microstructural characteristics expected in parts.
(5) Level of properties expected from the end part.
(6) Price tag of the final part.
Depending on the end application, at times the MMC billets are also secondary processed to further enhance their micro-
structural characteristics and properties. Common secondary processing techniques are indicated in Fig. 15.
In more recent times, efforts are continuously made to significantly enhance the properties of MMCs using severe plastic defor-
mation methods. Some of the promising methods sever plastic deformation processes used on bulk materials are listed in Fig. 16.
Metal Matrix Composites – Properties
Like other structural materials, MMCs are used where certain enhanced functionalities from metallic materials is expected in end
applications due to the more demanding nature of emerging end applications. Most commonly investigated properties where
enhancement is expected include (Ceschini et al., 2016; Gupta and Sharon, 2011; Lloyd, 1994; Ibrahim et al., 1991):
Joining Methods
Fusion Welding Fricon Sr Welding Explosive Welding Diffusion Bonding Brazing Soldering
Low Heat Intensity High Heat Intensity Vibraon Assisted

Fusion Welding Fusion Welding
Gas Tungsten Arc Laser Beam Welding

Electromagnec Field
Welding and Gas and Electron Beam
Aided
Metal Arc Welding Welding
Vacuum Brazing
Ultrasonic Assisted
Fig. 17 Commonly used/researched joining methods for MMCs.
(1) Coefficient of thermal expansion: For dimensional stability of parts.

(2) Elastic modulus: For stiffness based designs.
(3) Damping: For mitigating vibrations in structures that are prone to it.
(4) Hardness: For erosion, wear and crack initiation resistance.
(5) Strength: Tensile, compressive, flexural, torsional and high temperature.
(6) Fatigue: Cyclic loading is common in many applications.
(7) Creep: To enhance the working temperature limits.
(8) Wear resistance: For sliding parts.
(9) Erosion resistance: Such as in hydro-thermal power plants.
A detailed analysis of these properties can be found elsewhere in this encyclopedia and will not be discussed here.
Metal Matrix Composites – Joining
For industrial applications, joining of MMCs with MMCs or other metallic materials is required. Welding is one of the common
practice for the same. Different joining methods that have evolved and used are indicated in Fig. 17 (Ellis, 1996; Prater, 2011).
More recent development in joining of composites can be referred to in another article in this encyclopedia.
Metal Matrix Composites – Machining
Machining is an important operation before a part is assembled into a device. Machining is done on both the cast and wrought
parts to different extents. Conventional machining processes such as turning, milling, drilling and wire cutting (EDM) are used for
machining MMCs (Lane, 1992; Gururaja et al., 2013). As traditional MMCs are reinforced with ceramic reinforcements which are
typically harder than materials used for making conventional tools (e.g. tool steels), the wear or deterioration of tools increases
faster affecting the surface characteristics of material that is machined. The problem is more severe when the micron and higher
length scale ceramic reinforcements are used as they can be loaded to a higher extent. Similarly, reduction in particle diameter also
assist in reducing tool wear and in that context, it is anticipated that nano-composites will perform better than microcomposites
(Lane, 1992). Diamond coated tools in that respect display better machining performance.
While investigating a machining process, researchers typically focus and optimize on the following parameters (Gururaja et al., 2013):
(1) Workpiece material: Nature of metallic matrix and reinforcement associated variables.
(2) Type of tool used: Polycrystalline diamond tools are most favored.
Surface
Protecon
Methods
Surface
Painng Coang
Treatment
Surface
Spray Electroplang
Hardening
Electroless Anodic
Electrostac
Plang Oxidaon
Powder Vacuum Plang
Chemical
Coang
Hot Dipping
Thermal
Spraying
Metallic
Cementaon
Fig. 18 Commonly used/researched surface protection methods for MMCs.
(3) Use of lubricant.

(4) Cutting speed.
(5) Cutting depth.
It was emphasized by researchers that due to above mentioned factors and complexity of machining processes, detailed
optimization of the parameters is important to ensure minimal tool wear and to realize desirable surface finish. Latest and detailed
information on high performance machining of MMCs can be referred to in another article on machining in this encyclopedia in
the Metal Matrix Composites section.
Metal Matrix Composites – Surface Protection
Surface protection of metallic surfaces is important and MMCs are no exception. The common purposes of providing surface
protection include:
(1) Corrosion protection: Both dry and wet.

(2) Mechanical protection such as against scratches.
(3) Erosion resistance.
(4) Wear resistance.
Surface protection methods primarily include:

(1) Painting: Layers of organic substances such as use of paints containing acrylic/vinyl resins.
(2) Coating: Use of metallic layers or ceramic powders.
(3) Surface treatment: Altering the surface characteristics using processes such as carburizing, laser hardening etc.
Tougher tools Space/Aerospace
Hydroelectric
power
Sports
plants/Power
transmission lines
Transportaon
Consumer (Automobiles,
Electronics trains and
marime)
Defense
Fig. 19 Potential sectors for application of MMCs.
Various types under these categories are shown in Fig. 18 and discussed in details elsewhere in this Encyclopedia.
Metal Matrix Composites – Applications
Metal matrix composites are actively been looked into many structural and non-structural applications and most prominent of
them are indicated in Fig. 19 (Ceschini et al., 2016; Gupta and Sharon, 2011; Lloyd, 1994; Ibrahim et al., 1991). Main physical,
thermal, mechanical and surface properties that are actively looked for these applications are:
(1) Density: For light weighting.

(2) Coefficient of thermal expansion: For dimensional stability.
(3) Thermal conductivity: Heat management in transportation and electronic sectors.
(4) Elastic modulus: For improving stiffness and deflection resistance.
(5) Hardness: For erosion resistance such as in hydroelectric thermal plants.
(6) Wear resistance: For sliding resistance such as in oil and gas and transportation sectors.
Most of the abovementioned properties can be easily tailored and realized using MMC technology. Besides investigators are
looking into the possibility of using MMC technology in many other more specific applications which include and not restricted to
the following:
(1) Infrastructural applications.

(2) Biomedical applications (Gupta and Meenashisundaram, 2015).
(3) Recreational applications.
(4) Home appliances such as CermeTi knives.
(5) Nuclear applications for thermos-neutron shielding.
Challenges With MMC Technology
Active research in MMCs has almost spanned five decades and tremendous lessons are learnt on the fundamental principles
governing their microstructure and properties. Researchers have convincingly established the efficacy of many formulations at lab
scale and certain leading multinational companies have shown the capabilities to convert them into industrial products. However,
the issue of scalability to synthesize MMCs using liquid metallurgy based high volume production routes with microstructural
consistency is still a big issue for many countries for their widespread use. More involvement of industry is required to take these
highly tailorable and property specific materials to the next level.
References
Ceschini, L., Dahle, A., Gupta, M., et al., 2016. Aluminum and Magnesium Metal Matrix Nanocomposites. Springer. (ISBN: 978-981-10-2680-5 (Print) 978-981-10-2681-2
(Online)).
Azarniya, A., Azarniya, A., Sovizi, S., et al., 2017. Physicomechanical properties of spark plasma sintered carbon nanotube-reinforced metal matrix nanocomposites. Progress in
Materials Science 90, 276–324.
Bakshi, S.R., Lahiri, D., Agarwal, A., 2010. Carbon nanotube reinforced metal matrix composites – A review. International Materials Reviews 55 (1), 41–64.
Ellis, M.B.D., 1996. Joining of Al-based metal matrix composites – A review. Materials and Manufacturing Processes 11 (1), 45–66. doi:10.1080/10426919608947460.
Eskandari, H., Taheri, R., Khodabakhshi, F., 2016. Friction-stir processing of an AA8026-TiB2-Al2O3 hybrid nanocomposite: Microstructural developments and mechanical
properties. Materials Science and Engineering A 660 (13), 84–96.
Gupta, M., Meenashisundaram, G.K., 2015. Insight into Designing Biocompatible Magnesium Alloys and Composites. Springer.
Gupta, M., Wong Wai Leong, E., 2007. Microwaves and Metals. Singapore: John Wiley and Sons (Asia) Pte Ltd, (ISBN: 978-0-470-82272-2; ISBN: 978-0-470-49417-2).
Gupta, M., Sharon, N.M.L., 2011. Magnesium, Magnesium Alloys and Magnesium Composites. John Wiley.
Gururaja, S., Ramulu, M., Pedersen, W., 2013. Machining of MMCs: A review. Machining Science and Technology: An International Journal 17 (1), 41–73.
Ibrahim, I., et al., 1991. Particulate reinforced metal matrix composites – A review. Journal of Materials Science 26 (5), 1137–1156.
Jayalakshmi, S., Gupta, M., 2015. Metallic Amorphous Alloy Reinforcements in Light Metal Matrices. Springer.
Lane, C., 1992. Machininability of aluminium composites as a function of matrix alloy and heat treatment. In Proceedings of the Machining of Composite Materials
Symposium. Chicago, IL: ASM Material Week.
Lloyd, D., 1994. Particle reinforced aluminium and magnesium matrix composites. International Materials Reviews 39 (1), 1–23.
Prater, T., 2011. Solid-state joining of metal matrix composites: A survey of challenges and potential solutions. Materials and Manufacturing Processes 26 (4), 636–648.
doi:10.1080/10426914.2010.492055.
Xu, R., Tan, Z.Q., Xiong, D.B., et al., 2017. Balanced strength and ductility in CNT/Al composites achieved by flake powder metallurgy via shift-speed ball milling. Composites
Part A: Applied Science and Manufacturing 96, 57–66.
Fundamentals of Metal Matrix Composites
Sankaranarayanan Seetharaman and Manoj Gupta, National University of Singapore, Singapore
r 2021 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
Introduction
Metal matrix composites (MMCs) comprise of a continuous matrix of metallic alloys together with ceramic reinforcements, or metallic
phases (Clyne and Withers, 1995). They offer a wide range of opportunities in various applications such as automobile, power train,
aerospace, consumer electronics, packaging, and sports due to improved mechanical properties, wear resistance, creep resistance, damping
characteristics, and reduced thermal expansion characteristics (Sijpkes and Vergouwen, 2004; Kainer, 2006; Barrett, 2017) (Fig. 1).
Fig. 2 Shows some of the commonly used matrix materials which include aluminum, copper, magnesium, titanium, nickel,
steel whose properties are listed in Table 1. While MMCs based on aluminum, magnesium, and titanium alloys are the excellent
candidates for lightweight structures in automotive, aerospace, and defense applications (Adebisi et al., 2011; Jayalakshmi and
Gupta, 2015), MMCs based on steel, nickel, and copper alloys are highly recommended for tooling, heavy industries, and
electronic packaging, respectively.
In general, the reinforcement phases are hard and strong, and they are known to exhibit good thermal stability and Young’s
modulus. Hence, the inclusion of reinforcements can improve the performance of matrix material (Ashby, 2005; Callister and
Rethwisch, 2007). Some of the commonly used reinforcements are shown in Figure and their properties are listed in Table 2. Based
on the size and shape, reinforcements can be broadly classified into continuous and discontinuous reinforcement forms (Chawla
and Chawla, 2004). The most common continuous reinforcement are the carbon or ceramic fibers. As these fibers are brittle and
flaw sensitive, they are often provided protective coatings to avoid any unwanted chemical reactions and to improve the bonding/
wetting characteristics. The fiber reinforcements are also known to exhibit size effects (i.e., the strength of these fibers decreases as
the length increases), and they can be further classified into long or short fibers. Similarly, discontinuous reinforcement includes
ceramic and metallic particulates in the size range from few nanometers to few hundred micrometers which are known to develop
MMCs with isotropic properties (Chawla and Chawla, 2004; Kainer, 2006).
Classification of Metal Matrix Composites
Based on the type of reinforcement, MMCs are classified into (1) fiber reinforced MMCs, (2) particle reinforced MMCs, and (3) multi-
layered laminates (Fig. 3). The fiber composites can be further classified as continuous and discontinuous fiber reinforced composites.
Fiber Reinforced MMCs

The fiber reinforced MMCs can be broadly classified into either (i) long, or (ii) short fiber reinforced metal matrix composites.
While the long-fiber reinforced composites consists of a dispersed phase in the form of continuous fibers (length 4100*diameter),
the fiber lengths are often short (o100*diameter) in the case of short fiber reinforced MMCs.
Fig. 1 (a) Turbofan made using MMC and (b) Structural component in F16 Falcon landing gear made using SiC monofibers reinforced Ti MMC.
Courtesy: Barrett, T., 2017. The Future of Metal Is in Matrix Composites. Available at: https://www.machinedesign.com/materials/article/21835569/
the-future-of-metal-is-in-matrix-composites. Sijpkes, T., Vergouwen, P., 2004. Composite materials for structural landing gear components. In: ERF
2004, 38. Available at: https://dspace-erf.nlr.nl/xmlui/bitstream/handle/20.500.11881/282/38_sijpkes.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y.
Encyclopedia of Materials: Composites, Volume 1 doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-819724-0.00001-X 11

12 Fundamentals of Metal Matrix Composites
Fig. 2 Usage of matrix and reinforcement materials in MMCs.
Table 1 Properties of common matrix materials
Base matrix alloy Density (g/cc) Modulus (GPa) Yield strength (MPa) Ductility
Magnesium 1.74–1.95 42–47 70–400 3.5–18

Aluminum 2.5–2.9 68–82 30–500 1–44
Titanium 4.4–4.8 90–120 250–1250 1–40
Steels 7.1–8.0 187–215 240–690 18–31
Nickel 7.75–8.65 150–245 300–1900 0.5–60
Copper 8.93–8.94 112–148 300–500 3–50
Table 2 Properties of common reinforcement materials
Metal Crystal structure Density Melting point Thermal Thermal expansion Mohr Modulus
(g/cm3) (1C) conductivity coefficient hardness (GPa)
Al2O3 Hex. 3.9 2050 25 8.3 6.5 410

AlN Hex. 3.25 2300 10 6 – 350
B4C Rhom. 2.52 2450 29 5–6 9.5 450
BN Hex. 2.2 3000 25 3.8 1–2 90
SiC Hex. 3.21 2300 59 4.7–5 9.7 480
Si3N4 a-trigonal/b-Hex./g-cub 3.29 1900 29 3.3 – 310
TiB2 Hex. 4.5 2900 27 7.4 – 370
TiC Cub. 4.93 3140 29 7.4 – 320
TiN Cub. 5.24 2950 29 9.4 – 600
WC Hex 15.7 2800 110 5.2 9.5 690
Fundamentals of Metal Matrix Composites 13
Fig. 3 Classification of metal matrix composites.
Particulate Composites
Particulate composites consist of a matrix reinforced by particles that are dispersed randomly or with a well-defined orientation.
Nanocomposites
In particulate composites. when one of the dimensions of the particulate reinforcement is less than 100 nm, the resulting
composite is referred to as nanocomposite. Recently, metal matrix composites containing nanoscale reinforcements are receiving
stupendous attention as the low volume dispersion of hard and strong reinforcing phases in nano-length scale contributes
significantly towards the strengthening of the matrix material. Unlike micron and sub-micron length scale reinforcement addition,
the efficient dispersion of nanoscale reinforcement improves the strength of matrix material without adversely affecting the
ductility (Goh et al., 2006b; Casati and Vedani, 2014; Gupta and Wong, 2015).
Carbon nanotubes reinforced MMCs

The outstanding strength properties of carbon nanotubes (11–150 GPa) make them highly suitable for use as particulate rein-
forcements in various metal matrix composites (Popov, 2004; Goh et al., 2006a; Esawi and Farag, 2007; Bakshi et al., 2010;
Neubauer et al., 2010; Bhat et al., 2011; Casati and Vedani, 2014). Although several publications report the exceptional
strengthening promise of multiwalled CNT, defect free processing of CNT reinforced MMCs is challenging. Some of the recent
research works also explored the effects of nanoscale graphene platelets (Saboori et al., 2018) and other advanced engineering
materials such as metallic glass (Jayalakshmi et al., 2018) and shape memory alloys (Ferguson et al., 2014; Rohatgi, 2014) as
discontinuous reinforcement.
Laminate Composites
Composite laminates consist of multiple layers of sheet laminates made of the matrix and reinforcement materials stacked and
cemented in a specific pattern in order to achieve the desired strength. Based on the stacking sequence, the composite laminates are
classified into angle and cross-ply laminates which can be either symmetric, antisymmetric, or balanced. Fig. 4 shows the
construction of a lightweight laminated composite (0.16 kg) developed to replace the aluminum heat sink (0.29 kg) of printed
circuit boards.
Processing of Metal Matrix Composites
A variety of methods can be employed in the fabrication of metal matrix composites and they can be broadly grouped under either
liquid or solid-state processing methods. Similarly, based on the nature of reinforcement addition, the processing methods can be
either ex-situ or in-situ processing.
Fig. 4 Lightweight laminated composite heat sink developed for printed circuit boards. Redrawn from Holz, J.M., Niemeyer, L., Puckett, D., 2000.
Composite-Material Heat Sink for Printed-Circuit Boards, Technical Support Package. GSC-14142. Goddard Space Flight Center. Available at:
https://www.techbriefs.com/component/content/article/tb/techbriefs/materials/6720.
Liquid State Processing

Liquid state processing generally involves the preparation of a composite slurry through the dispersion of reinforcement materials
into a molten matrix which is then followed by the solidification into required shape. Here, the reinforcement dispersion can be
performed using multiple ways such as: (1) melt infiltration, (2) stir casting or compo-casting, and (3) melt deposition.
Melt infiltration
Melt infiltration involves either spontaneous or forced infiltration of a liquid metal alloy into a porous preform containing fibers/
whiskers reinforcements upto 70 vol% (Kainer, 2006). The spontaneous infiltration is also known as pressure less infiltration in
which no external pressure or force is used to process MMCs based on Al–Si, Al–Mg, and Al–Zn alloys with better flowability.
However, the poor wettability between the matrix and the reinforcing phase slows down the fabrication process resulting in
undesirable reaction products at the interface. Several studies have reported an improvement in the wettability through activators
or processing in nitrogen atmosphere. In forced infiltration process, the infiltration of molten metal into the porous reinforcement
is achieved through the application of external pressure or by using mechanical force as shown below to overcome the issues
associated with poor wetting and adhesion characteristics.
Pressure die infiltration:

In pressure die infiltration, the molten composite slurry is force injected into the mold using an injection barrel (Cook and Werner,
1991; Altinkok et al., 2003). The key advantages of this methods are its low cost and the high precision capability (Figs. 5 and 6).
Gas pressure infiltration:

In this process, the reinforcement preforms are infiltrated using pressurized inert gas in which the gas pressure can be applied in two
ways: (1) application of gas pressure to the melt surface after dipping the preform into the melt for infiltration, (2) the applied gas first
presses the molten bath into the preform and then infiltrates the bath (Daoud, 2004). Generally, the gas pressure is applied in
combination with vacuum at the other end of preform to avoid air entrapment to help easy penetration at lower pressures. Since
reaction times are relatively short, fibers are subjected to less damage (compared to other processes) and the reactive materials can be
processed without difficulty. Also, this method can be used for large-scale production of the composite materials.
Ultrasonic infiltration:
In this process, the pressure waves generated by ultrasonic vibrations assists in the acoustic cavitation and the collapse of bubbles
originating close to the molten metal helps in the penetration of molten metal into the reinforcement preform (Matsunaga et al.,
2007). Fig. 7 shows the ultrasonic infiltration experimental setup used to fabricated carbon fiber reinforced Al composite wires.
Fig. 5 Pressure die infiltration process. Redrawn from Garg, P., et al., 2019. Advance research progresses in aluminium matrixcomposites:
Manufacturing & applications. Journal of Materials Research and Technology. 8 (5), 4924-4939. doi:10.1016/j.jmrt.2019.06.028.
Fig. 6 Gas pressure infiltration. Redrawn from Garg, P., et al., 2019. Advance research progresses in aluminium matrixcomposites:
Manufacturing & applications. Journal of Materials Research and Technology. 8 (5), 4924-4939. doi:10.1016/j.jmrt.2019.06.028.
Fig. 7 Ultrasonic infiltration furnace set up. Reproduced from Matsunaga, T., et al., 2007. Fabrication of continuous carbon fiber-reinforced
aluminum-magnesium alloy composite wires using ultrasonic infiltration method. Composites Part A: Applied Science and Manufacturing. 38 (8),
1902-1911. doi:10.1016/j.compositesa.2007.03.007.
Fig. 8 Centrifugal infiltration setup and principle. From Sánchez, M., Rams, J., Ureña, A., 2010. Fabrication of aluminium composites reinforced with
carbon fibres by a centrifugal infiltration process. Composites Part A: Applied Science and Manufacturing. 41 (11), 1605-1611. doi:10.1016/j.compo-
sitesa.2010.07.014. Sánchez-Martínez, A., et al., 2016. Main process parameters for manufacturing open-cell Zn-22Al-2Cu foams by the centrifugal
infiltration route and mechanical properties. Materials and Design. 108, 494-500. doi:10.1016/j.matdes.2016.07.032.
Centrifugal infiltration:
In this process, the reinforcement is positioned inside a mold with long runners filled with molten metal which infiltrates the
preform under large rotational velocities or centrifugal forces which is given by:
1 2 2
Pc ¼ ro L ð1Þ
2
where, Pc ¼ pressure generated at the preform top surface during the rotation in centrifugal casting, p ¼ density of the molten
metal, o ¼ 2 pO/60 where O is rotational speed (rpm), L ¼ molten metal level from the rotational axis (Sánchez et al., 2010;
Sánchez-Martínez et al., 2016) (Fig. 8)
Lorentz force infiltration:

It is an infiltration technique in which a high frequency electromagnetic pulse is used to immerse the reinforcement into the
molten metal and the interaction of magnetic pulse with eddy current generates Lorentz force to force the liquid metal to enter in
reinforcement phase at a very high speed (Andrews and Mortensen, 1991) (Fig. 9).
Squeeze casting:
Squeeze casting infiltration process is one of the widely used fabrication techniques for producing net shape MMCs with control
over shapes, chemistry, volume fraction and distribution of reinforcement (Uozumi et al., 2008). In squeeze casting, the molten
metal is forced into the preform and a pressure is applied until the solidification is complete. This method can be applied for both
the fibers and particles reinforced composites as the prefabricated fiber or particle preforms can be melt infiltrated and solidified
under pressure. To avoid damage to the preforms, the melt is first pressed into the preform at low pressure and then the pressure is
increased for solidification. Since the melt solidifies under very high pressure, the squeeze cast composites are free from the
common casting defects such as porosity and shrinkage cavities. As the duration of the infiltration is relatively short, the squeeze
casting method can be applied for reactive materials like magnesium (Jayalakshmi et al., 2006) (Fig. 10).
Based on the mode of pressure application, squeeze casting can be classified into direct and indirect squeeze casting. In direct
squeeze casting method, pressure for the infiltration of preforms is applied directly to the melt. However, in indirect squeeze
casting, the melt is pressed into the preform through a gate system. Although the tooling is relatively simple for direct squeeze
casting, the absence of gate system necessitates accurate determination of the melt volume. Another disadvantage is the presence of
oxide residue in the composite which are normally restricted by the gate in the indirect squeeze casting.
Fig. 9 Lorentz force infiltration setup. Reproduced from Andrews, R.M., Mortensen, A., 1991. Lorentz force infiltration of fibrous preforms.
Metallurgical Transactions A.22, 2903–2915. doi:10.1007/BF02650251.
Fig. 10 Squeeze casting. Redrawn from Garg, P., et al., 2019. Advance research progresses in aluminium matrixcomposites: Manufacturing &
applications. Journal of Materials Research and Technology. 8 (5), 4924–4939. doi:10.1016/j.jmrt.2019.06.028.
Stir casting
Stir casting or compo-casting is the most common and cost-effective method of producing composite materials (Kainer, 2006;
Tzamtzis et al., 2009). In this method, the reinforcement phase (fiber or particles) is mixed with the molten matrix metal by means
of mechanical or ultrasonic stirring. The molten composite slurry is then cast by conventional casting methods. The properties of
the MMCs produced using stir casting methods will depend on the processing parameters such as temperature of melt, stirring
speed, stirring duration, geometry of the stirrer and size of crucible which will affect the distribution of the reinforcements in the
matrix. The dispersed phases are also often coated with proper wetting agents to achieve better interfacial bonding with the matrix
material and to avoid any unwanted reaction and the dissolution of reinforcement at high temperatures. In case of particulate
reinforcement, careful attention must be paid to the dispersion of the particles as they tend to form agglomerates. In general, the
Fig. 11 Schematic of (a) mechanical stir casting and (b) ultrasonic stir casting.
proper selection of processing parameters such as melt temperature, stirring speed, duration, and stirrer geometry, etc., allows
the effective dispersion of particles (in the size range 5–100 mm) up to 30% by volume (Fig. 11).
Melt deposition
There are several deposition techniques available to produce metal matrix composites. While deposition methods like immersion
and electroplating, chemical vapor deposition (CVD), physical vapor deposition (PVD) are only used for fiber reinforced MMcs,
the spray and disintegrated melt deposition methods can be used for both the particle reinforced metal matrix composites
(Harrigan, 1998).
Immersion plating:
This method is applicable for continuous fiber reinforcement which are passed through baths of molten metal, slurry, sol, or
organometallic precursors.
Electroplating or electrodeposition:
In this method, the matrix metal coating is produced from a solution containing the ion of the desired material in the presence of
an electric current. As this process is carried out at moderate temperatures, this method offers less/no damage to the reinforcement
fibers. However, processing defects such as poor bonding and porosity are common for MMcs produced using this method. Also,
only limited alloy matrices can be processed using this method.
Chemical vapor deposition:

It involves chemical reaction or decomposition of a vaporized component on to the substrate to form a coating. Using this
method, amorphous and crystalline (single and polycrystals) coatings of oxide, carbide, nitride, or pure metals can be made. When
this method is used to deposit the matrix material on the reinforced preforms, it is called chemical vapor infiltration.
Physical vapor deposition:

This method is highly suitable for producing fiber reinforced metal matrix composites in which the vapors of matrix metal were
condensed to create coatings on the reinforcement fibers. The coated fibers are then consolidated by hot pressing or hot isostatic
pressing. Based on the vapor generation techniques, the PVD processes can be classified into: (1) evaporation based, (2) sputtering,
and (3) ion-plating. While the evaporation PVD methods include techniques based on electron beam/arc evaporation, radiation
heating, laser ablation and resistive heating, the sputtering techniques involve vaporization of the coating material from an ionized
argon gas molecule via momentum transfer. Similarly, ion plating involves passing the vaporized component through an argon
gas glow discharge around the substrate which ionizes and subsequently deposit the vapor onto the substrate.
The primary advantage of PVD is the versatility in the compositions of the coating produced and the superior bonding with the
substrate. In addition, there are no chemical reaction by products in these methods. However, the PVD methods are relatively
complex and expensive.
Spray deposition:
In spray deposition, reinforcements in the form of particles/whiskers are injected into the spray of molten metal, creating a
deposition layer on the substrate (Wood, 1997). The depositions are then densified by suitable post-processing techniques.
Similarly, for continuous fiber reinforcements, the molten matrix metal is sprayed onto the fibers with preferred orientation. In this
method, fiber alignment can be easily controlled and a relatively faster solidification rates can be achieved.
Fig. 12 Spray deposition. Redrawn from Garg, P., et al., 2019. Advance research progresses in aluminium matrixcomposites: Manufacturing &
applications. Journal of Materials Research and Technology. 8 (5), 4924–4939. doi:10.1016/j.jmrt.2019.06.028.
It is a promising method for producing particle reinforced MMCs. It involves spray techniques which are used to develop
monolithic alloys. Fig. 12 shows an example of the spray forming process in which a spray gun is used to atomize the molten
matrix metal into which the reinforcement particles are injected. The resulting metal matrix composite (about 97% dense) is then
subjected to scalping, consolidation, and secondary finishing processes to produce wrought composites. To facilitate the efficient
transfer of particle reinforcement, an optimum particle size and shape must be maintained.
Disintegrated melt deposition:

Disintegrated melt deposition (DMD) is a unique liquid processing technique which combines the advantages of stir casting and
spray processing methods (Gupta et al., 1995) (Fig 13). It involves the vortex mixing of reinforcements and the deposition of
molten slurry onto a metallic substrate after disintegration by jets of inert gases. Unlike spray deposition, DMD employs lower
impinging velocity to achieve a bulk composite. Hence, it offers the features of (1) fine grain structure and low segregation of
reinforcements of spray process and (2) simplicity and cost effectiveness of conventional stir cast foundry process.
Solid State Processing

Some of the widely used solid-state processing methods include (1) powder mixing, (2) mechanical alloying, (3) diffusion
bonding, and (4) deformation processing.
Powder consolidation
In this method, the required amounts of matrix alloy and reinforcement powders are mixed to prepare a composite blend which is
then cold or hot compacted into a billet. The prepared green billet is then canned, degassed and sintered at temperature closer to
the solidus temperature of the matrix alloy (Sankaranarayanan and Gupta, 2015) (Fig. 14).
While this method can be effectively used for particle reinforced aluminum or magnesium composites, cold-pressing and sintering are
not preferred in case of long fiber reinforcement which are often damaged under the high pressure. Hence, for long continuous fibers, the
fiber tows are first infiltrated by dry matrix powder which is then followed by hot isostatic pressing (Gupta and Sharon, 2010).
Mechanical alloying
Mechanical alloying involves repeated cold welding, fracturing, and re-welding of powder particles in a high energy ball mill
(Suryanarayana, 2001). In this process, the frictional heat developed at the particle interface results in the local melting
and consolidation of powder particles. The composite powder mixture obtained from ball-milling is then densified using cold or
hot-pressing techniques (Sankaranarayanan and Gupta, 2015) (Fig. 15).
Due to the nature of high dislocation densities generated in this method and the homogenous distribution of reinforcing
constituents, this method can be effectively applied to develop a range of equilibrium/non-equilibrium alloys and composites
with excellent set of properties.
Post-processing (or) sintering of powder compact

Cold compacted billets from the powder mixing and mechanical alloying methods are often heat treated or sintered for better
densification and strengthening. It involves heating of the green compact to a temperature closer to the solidus line of the matrix
Fig. 13 Disintegrated melt deposition. Reproduced from Gupta, M., Wong, W.L.E., 2015. Magnesium-based nanocomposites: Lightweight
materials of the future. Materials Characterization.105, 30-46. doi:10.1016/j.matchar.2015.04.015.
Fig. 14 Powder consolidation.
alloy for a certain period in order to allow atomic diffusion and inter-particle bonding (Padmavathi et al., 2011; Slotwinski et al.,
2014). In most cases, the sintering of green powder compact also facilitates the microstructural recrystallization for strengthening
alongside densification and removal of residual lubricant (Fig. 16).
Fig. 15 Schematic showing mechanical alloying.
Fig. 16 Stages in sintering: Stage I: Particle bonding in green compact, Stage II: Growth of contact points into ‘necks’ and Stage III: final
microstructure showing grains and pores.
Microwave assisted rapid sintering

Microwave sintering has recently emerged as an energy efficient technique to consolidate powder materials (Wong and Gupta, 2007;
Gupta and Eugene, 2011; Padmavathi et al., 2011). While the microwave processing has been largely limited to ceramic materials in
the past, recent literatures confirm that the metallic materials can also be densified using the microwaves. However, it should be
noted that the microwave heating is fundamentally different compared to conventional heating. In conventional heating, the transfer
of heat from the surface to the interior of material takes place by conduction, convection and radiation. However, microwave heating
involves the self-heating of material core due to dielectric and magnetic losses resulting from the interaction between the electric and
magnetic fields (Fig. 17). Since microwaves exhibit an inverse temperature distribution, the heating by microwaves happens rapidly
from the core to the surface and cause a substantial reduction in the processing time by more than 80%. Hybrid microwave sintering
utilizing susceptors in recent year has emerged to minimize temperature and microstructural variations across the thickness of
samples.
Diffusion bonding
Diffusion bonding is a solid-state technique used to process a wide variety of fiber reinforced MMCs. It involves the interdiffusion
of atoms at the mating surface between the matrix and reinforcement to cause chemical/mechanical bonding under the influence
of temperature and pressure (Fig. 18). Although the fiber orientation and volume fraction can be effectively controlled, the
processing time and cost are relatively high thus limiting its extended application.
Deformation processing
Fabrication methods based on mechanical deformation are highly applicable for metal-metal or layered metal composites. Fig. 19
illustrates the methodology of roll bonding process used to produce sheet metal composite laminates. Here, a two-phase alloy
Fig. 17 Schematic of microwave sintering and heat transfer principle. Modified from Penchal Reddy, M., et al., 2016. Microwave rapid sintering of al-
metal matrix composites: A review on the effect of reinforcements, microstructure and mechanical properties. Metals. doi:10.3390/met6070143.
Fig. 18 Schematic showing diffusion bonding process. Redrawn from Garg, P., et al., 2019. Advance research progresses in aluminium
matrixcomposites: Manufacturing & applications. Journal of Materials Research and Technology. 8 (5), 4924–4939. doi:10.1016/j.jmrt.2019.06.028.
material is subjected to mechanical deformation causing the minor phase to elongate and become fibrous within the matrix
(major phase). However, it should be noted that this method is limited to ductile two-phase materials in which the two phases
exhibit similar flow stresses pattern for co-deformation. Further, the deformation processed materials also require post-processing
heat treatments to reduce mechanical anisotropy.
In-Situ Processes
In-situ methods include processes based on liquid–gas, liquid–solid, liquid–liquid, and mixed salt reactions in which the chemical
reaction between reacting constituents leads to in-situ formation of reinforcement (Harrigan, 1998; Thein et al., 2009; Ghosh et al., 2010;
Fig. 19 Roll bonding process for making a laminated MMC. Reproduced from Khaledi, K., et al., 2018. Modeling of joining by plastic
deformation using a bonding interface finite element. International Journal of Solids and Structures. doi:10.1016/j.ijsolstr.2018.10.014.
Fig. 20 Self-propagating high temperature synthesis of MMCs. Redrawn from Garg, P., et al., 2019. Advance research progresses in aluminium
matrixcomposites: Manufacturing & applications. Journal of Materials Research and Technology. 8 (5), 4924–4939. doi:10.1016/j.jmrt.2019.06.028.
Jayalakshmi et al., 2013). Hence, a good understanding of reaction kinetics and thermodynamics is essential in order to obtain the
desirable end-products. Generally, the in-situ developed composites exhibit very fine and well dispersed reinforcement phases which
are stable and free from surface contaminants and has a coherent interface assisting in stronger bond between the reinforcement and the
matrix material.
One of the well-known examples of in-situ methods is the unidirectional solidification of eutectic alloy resulting in the
formation and distribution of fibers like phases in the matrix alloy (Livingston, 1974). Sometimes, it is also referred to as self-
propagating high temperature synthesis (SHS) when the reinforcing phases are produced by exothermic reaction between the
matrix constituents (Subrahmanyam and Vijayakumar, 1992; Mossino, 2004; Xiao et al., 2004) (Fig. 20). In these methods, the
characteristics of the reinforcing phases, especially the interfacial compatibility are controlled by the solidification rate which is
generally limited to B1–5 cm/h to maintain the temperature gradient for a stable growth front.
Additive Manufacturing
Laser-based additive manufacturing techniques such as selective laser melting and laser deposition were also used to fabricate
metal matrix composites based on Al, Ti, and Ni based matrix materials (Gu et al., 2012; Manfredi et al., 2014; Pouzet et al., 2016;
Fig. 21 Schematic of selective laser melting and laser deposition methods. Courtesy Benedyk, J.C., 2018. Additive manufacturing of aluminum
alloys: Augmenting or competing with traditional manufacturing? Light Metal Age.
Aboulkhair et al., 2019; Behera et al., 2019). These methods involved a high energy laser source to melt and deposit the powder
raw materials in a layer-by-layer fashion (Fig. 21). In most cases, the reinforcement phases are often developed in-situ due to the
chemical reaction between the powder raw materials (Banerjee et al., 2005; Attar et al., 2014a). On the other hand, the laser
processing of ex-situ prepared composite powder mixture was also investigated and it was found that the composite powder
preparation plays an important role in determining the end properties of the bulk composite (AlMangour et al., 2016, 2017a,b;
Famodimu, 2016).
Properties of MMCs
The end properties of composite materials are controlled by many variables including reinforcement form, volume fraction,
geometry, distribution, matrix/reinforcement interface, void content, and manufacturing process. The presence, amount, and
distribution of reinforcement influence the dislocation behavior and hence the physical and mechanical properties of the com-
posites. In addition to physical and mechanical properties, the reinforcement also influences other material properties such as the
wear resistance and damping capacity. The mechanical properties of MMCs are not only affected by the properties of matrix and
reinforcing materials, but also by the interfacial characteristics and it is well established that the week bonding between them
generally worsen the properties of MMCs. The following section will provide an overview of the properties of metal matrix
composites.
Volume and Weight Fractions

Based on the rule of mixtures, the properties of a composite material are the volume weighed average of the phases (matrix and
dispersed phase) properties. Hence, to estimate the mechanical properties of a composite material, it is important to know the
relative proportions of matrix and reinforcement. The proportion can be expressed in terms of volume fraction of weight (or mass)
fraction. Weight fractions are commonly used as it is easy to weigh the relative proportions of matrix and reinforcement using an
analytical balance. The volume fraction is used in the computation of the properties of the composite, therefore knowing the
conversion between weight and volume fraction is essential.
The relationships between the volume fractions and weight fractions can be expressed as:
rm r
Wm ¼ Vm and WR ¼ r Vr ð2Þ
rc rc
where,
Wm and Wr - weight fraction of matrix and reinforcement materials, respectively,

Vm and Vr - volume fractions of matrix and reinforcement materials, respectively
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"You did not take it?" the governess interposed hastily.
"Oh, no!" A painful blush rose to Margaret's cheeks as she remembered that her mother
had not declined the same offer. "Mrs. Lute said total abstinence from all intoxicants is the
only thing for some people," she added.
"She is quite right," was the grave response.
There was silence for a few minutes. Miss Conway was asking herself what was the reason
of her pupil's evident confusion, and Margaret was hoping she would not be questioned as
to its cause.
"I have been a teetotaler all my life," Miss Conway proceeded presently. "My father had a
great horror of drink because his own father had been a drunkard, and he had suffered
much on that account. It is sad to think that there is scarcely a family that does not
possess at least one member given over to the vice of drinking to excess. Oh, Margaret!
Mr. Fowler was right when he laid down the rule that no intoxicants should be brought into
his house."
"I am sure he was right," Margaret agreed heartily, "though everyone does not think so.
Mother calls it a fad—"
"Did your mother—" The governess hesitated momentarily, scarcely knowing how to put
the question which trembled on her lips. "Perhaps you will think I have no right to ask
you," she continued hastily, "but, believe me, Margaret, it is no idle curiosity which
prompts me. Did your mother have any wine at Mrs. Lute's yesterday?"
Margaret nodded gravely, observing her companion anxiously in order to read by her
countenance what she thought. She was prepared to see her exhibit surprise, and perhaps
disapproval, but Miss Conway appeared absolutely frightened, and her very lips turned
white. She made no remark in response however, but when she kissed her pupil ere they
separated for the night, there was marked tenderness in her manner and in her voice as
she said, "God bless you, dear Margaret. You look tired out yourself. Try to have a good
night's rest."
The little girl was very sleepy, so, almost as soon as her head was on the pillow, she was in
the land of dreams. But such unhappy, disturbing dreams they were. She imagined her
mother was very ill, and that her father could not be sent for, because no one knew his
address, and that she was in terrible grief and perplexity. At length, frightened and shaking
in every limb, she awoke, and sprang out of bed with a shriek. The conviction was strong
upon her that something was wrong with her mother, and she felt compelled to go and
ascertain what was amiss. Lighting a candle, she took it up and hurried to Mrs. Fowler's
room. A sigh of deep thankfulness escaped her lips as she found everything quiet there.
Softly she stole to the bedside and saw her mother lying asleep, one hand beneath her
cheek, her fair hair strewn over the pillow. Margaret thought how pretty she looked, and
carefully shaded the candle with her hand as she gazed at the sleeper with love and
admiration in her glance; but it would have taken more than the feeble rays of the candle
to awaken Mrs. Fowler from that deep, dreamless sleep.
Margaret would have liked to have kissed her mother's flushed cheek, but feared to disturb
her; so she contented herself with pressing her lips to the soft, white hand which lay
outside the counterpane, then stole back to her own room as quietly as she had left it, and
after putting out the candle crept back to bed. She felt she could rest with an easy mind
now, and was no longer disturbed by distressing dreams.
The following day Mrs. Fowler did not go far. She appeared depressed and out of sorts until
after tea-time, when her drooping spirits revived, and she spent the evening under the
lilac tree with Miss Conway, whilst the children played croquet on the lawn. Suddenly she
remembered that a letter she had written to her husband had not been posted, and
suggested that Margaret and Gerald might take it to the post-office.
"I'm afraid it's too late to catch to-night's post," she said regretfully, "but never mind. Your
father will not be anxious, as he heard this morning. Still, you may as well post it. Dear
me, what could have made me so forgetful!"
So Margaret and Gerald hurried off to the post-office, which was only two doors from the
village inn, from which it was divided by Samuel Moyle's shop.
After posting the letter, they went into the shop to purchase some sweets, and whilst they
were there, Josiah Petherick came out of the "Crab and Cockle," much the worse for drink,
and staggered past on his way home.
Mrs. Moyle, a rosy-cheeked dame, so stout that she appeared to be almost as thick as she
was long, went to the door to stare after Josiah, whilst her husband, who was attending to
the requirements of his customers, shook his head gravely and prophesied that "such a
drunken beast," as he called him, "would come to a bad end," adding, with a touch of real
feeling, "Ah, I'm sorry for that poor motherless maid of his!"
Margaret returned to Greystone very sad at heart, full of the lame girl's trouble, and
informed her mother and Miss Conway of the state Josiah was in; whilst Gerald, who had
been more amused than disgusted, began to imitate the drunken man's rambling walk, a
proceeding which his governess promptly put a stop to by grasping him forcibly by the
shoulder and making him stand still.
"For shame!" she cried with unusual severity in her tone. "How can you make fun of the
unhappy man? Poor wretch! Never make a joke of a drunkard again."
"Well, I won't," Gerald returned. "I meant no harm. Please let me go, Miss Conway. I
promise you I won't do it again."
"No, I do not think you meant any harm," the governess admitted. "You acted
thoughtlessly, I know. But you must never laugh at what is wrong—remember that."
"Isn't it terrible for poor Salome, mother?" Margaret said sadly.
"Very," Mrs. Fowler replied. "It would be better for her if she had no father at all."
"Oh, mother!" Margaret cried in shocked tones. "Do you mean that?"
"Yes, I do. What can her father be, but a perpetual shame and trouble to her?"
"But she loves him so dearly."
"I don't know how she can!" Mrs. Fowler exclaimed vehemently. "But, there, don't let us
talk of Josiah any more. Of course, the letter was too late for to-night's post?"
"Oh, yes. But I posted it all the same. I wonder when father will be home."
"Not till the end of the week, I expect. It's getting chilly; we will go in." And rising, Mrs.
Fowler moved towards the house, the others following.
Margaret's thoughts were all of Salome during the remainder of the evening. And before
she went to rest, she prayed earnestly that God would give His help and protection to the
lame girl, and reward her patience and love in His own good time.
"Drink is an awful thing," was her last waking thought that night, as she crept into her
little, white-curtained bed, and laid her head down on the soft pillow. "I only wish poor
Salome's father could be brought to see what an awful thing it is."
CHAPTER IX.
The Blow Falls.
IT was nearly noon, and quietude reigned over Yelton. The fishermen were all at sea,
whilst their wives were busy with their domestic duties within doors, and the children were
at school. The village looked actually deserted as Margaret Fowler walked soberly by the
"Crab and Cockle." Not a living soul was in sight, and there was no one in Silas Moyle's
shop, not even behind the counter, where Mrs. Moyle was generally to be found. Margaret
strolled on to Josiah Petherick's cottage, and there was Salome seated in the porch,
knitting rapidly whilst she sang to herself in a low, soft undertone. The lame girl's face lit
up with a bright smile of pleasure at sight of Margaret, and she turned to reach the
crutches by her side.
"Oh, please don't get up!" Margaret cried quickly. "I'll sit down in the porch with you for a
little while, if I may. How nice it is here!"
"Yes. Isn't it a beautiful day, miss? Such a fine breeze! All the fishing boats are out. Father
was off at daybreak this morning. I got up to give him his breakfast; so that's how it is my
work's finished so early."
"What are you making?" Margaret asked, noticing the thick, navy-blue fingering which
Salome was knitting.
"A jersey for father, miss. He'll want a new one against the winter."
"What! Do you mean to say you knit your father's jerseys? How clever of you!"
The lame girl smiled and blushed as she responded, "Mother taught me to knit when I was
a very little girl, but it was not until after her death that I learnt to make father's jerseys.
Mrs. Moyle taught me the way."
"Mrs. Moyle? The baker's wife, do you mean?"
"Yes, miss; she's always most kind to me."
"She looks good-natured," Margaret remarked. "Mother is not very well," she proceeded to
explain, "so she is lying in bed this morning, and Gerald is at his lessons with Miss Conway,
so I thought I would look you up, Salome."
"I am very glad to see you, miss. But I am sorry to hear Mrs. Fowler is ill."
"She is not ill exactly—at least, I hope not. She complained of a bad headache, so Ross
advised her to remain in bed and rest. It worries me if she's not well, now father's away."
"Then Mr. Fowler is not back yet, miss?"
"No. We expected him to stay away only a few days, but his business is keeping him longer
than he thought it would, so he will not be at home till next week. It is so dull without
him."
"I daresay it is, miss."
"Before he went, he told me he left mother in my charge, and that's why I'm so anxious
about her. You know, she was very, very ill before we came here. I never saw her for
weeks then, and—oh, it was a terrible time!"
"It must have been," Salome said sympathetically.
"How bright you look to-day!" Margaret exclaimed presently, after observing her
companion in silence for several minutes.
"I feel bright," the lame girl acknowledged with a smile, "for I know father'll come home
sober by-and-by, when the fishing boats return, and that's enough to make one happy."
"How brave you are, Salome!" And Margaret wondered if she had Salome's trouble,
whether she would ever be happy for a day or even an hour.
The other shook her head. She did not think she was brave at all, but she took the
sunshine of her life gratefully, and tried not to remember the hours of gloom.
"I wish I could knit," said Margaret, as she watched the lame girl's busy fingers.
"Why don't you learn, miss? Then you might knit your father's socks."
"Do you think I could?"
"Oh, yes, with a little practice. Would you—would you like me to teach you?" Salome asked
somewhat diffidently.
"Oh, I should be so much obliged to you if you would! Oh, thank you! I'll buy some wool
and knitting needles the very next time we drive to N—. But I'm afraid you'll find me a
very stupid pupil."
"I can't believe that, miss. Besides, knitting is quite easy—of course it takes time to learn
to knit fast. You can get knitting needles and wool at Mrs. Moyle's shop; she keeps a very
good supply."
"Does she? That's capital! Oh Salome, whatever has happened to that rose-bush by the
gate? Why, it's smashed off close to the ground! What a pity!"
"Yes," was the response, spoken in a low, pained tone.
"How did it happen?" Margaret asked concernedly, noticing the tears had sprung into her
companion's brown eyes.
"Father did it."
"Oh! Not on purpose?"

"No, no! He—he fell over it. He was sorry—afterwards; but I'm so grieved, because mother
planted that rose-bush herself not long before she died, and now it is quite ruined."
"Oh, I am sorry!" Margaret cried.
"It was an accident; but—but it wouldn't have happened, if he'd been sober. He's as upset
about it as I am now—he is indeed. He valued that rose-bush for mother's sake."
"Salome, why don't you try to persuade your father to take the pledge?" Margaret inquired
very seriously.
"I've tried heaps and heaps of times."
"And he won't?"
"No. Father says he hates teetotalers. I can't think he does really, though. Only, he likes
drink, and he won't give it up."
"It's very selfish of him. He ought to consider you. But, there, I won't run out against him,
for I know you're very fond of him. Perhaps, he'll be different some day."
"I pray every night that God will make him a sober man. He used to be so steady when
mother was living. Mr. Amyatt will tell you the same. It seems so dreadful that her death
should have changed him so. It was the trouble, I suppose, and having no one to speak to
at home but me that drove him to the 'Crab and Cockle' first along; then he grew to like
the drink, and now he can't bear the thought of going without it. Did you know Mr. Fowler
spoke to father about it, miss?"
"No; did he?"
"Yes, he did indeed. They had an argument, and I fancy from father's manner that he was
impressed by what Mr. Fowler said."
Long the little girls talked, until Margaret declared she really must go, or she would be late
for dinner. She hurried back to Greystone, to find that her mother was not up yet. On the
landing, at the top of the stairs, she met Ross, who had that minute come from Mrs.
Fowler's bedroom door.
"Is mother's head no better?" Margaret inquired concernedly.
"I'm afraid not," Ross answered. She looked somewhat perturbed, the little girl thought.
"I've not seen the mistress since breakfast-time, miss," she proceeded hurriedly, "for she
said she wished to be undisturbed, and now she has locked her door."
"Locked her door!" Margaret echoed in utter astonishment.
"Yes, and she won't open it, miss. I was going to ask Miss Conway what I should do—"
Not waiting to hear the conclusion of the sentence, Margaret ran to her mother's bedroom
door and tried to open it. The handle turned, but the door remained closed. She rapped
sharply with her knuckles and listened; then, receiving no answer, knocked again.
"Who there?"
It was her mother's voice that asked the question; but something in its tone fell
discordantly upon the ears of the listeners and did not lessen their uneasiness.
"It is I—Margaret. Let me in, mother dear."
"You can't come in; go away."
"But, mother, I want to know how you are. Is your head better?"
"Yes—no."
"Please let me in. Why have you locked the door?"
"I wish—to be alone."
At that moment Miss Conway appeared upon the scene. She turned white as death when
the situation was explained to her, and begged Margaret to go away, and let her try to
persuade Mrs. Fowler to unlock the door.
"No, no," cried the little girl. "Something must be amiss with mother, or she would never
act so strangely. Mother, mother, let me in," and she knocked at the door louder than
before.
There were sounds inside the room of some one moving about, then the door was opened,
and Mrs. Fowler, clad in a dressing-gown, with her hair streaming over her shoulders,
appeared in the doorway.
"What do you all want—coming here—disturbing me?" she questioned irritably; then she
lurched forward, and would have fallen on her face, if Miss Conway had not sprung to her
assistance and caught her.
"Oh, she has fainted!" Margaret cried, terribly frightened and distressed.
With the help of Ross, who was looking pale and scared, the governess succeeded in
dragging Mrs. Fowler across the room, and laying her upon the bed; and then turned to
her little pupil and told her to shut and lock the door. Wondering greatly, Margaret obeyed.
Returning to the bedside, she looked from one to the other of her companions in mingled
astonishment and reproach, for neither was making the least attempt to bring Mrs. Fowler
back to consciousness. The tears were streaming down Miss Conway's cheeks, and Ross
was murmuring—"I never guessed it. No, I never guessed it."
"Oh, can't you do anything?" Margaret cried distractedly. "Oh, she is very ill!" And she bent
over her mother, then suddenly drew back. Mrs. Fowler's cheeks were unusually flushed;
she was breathing heavily, and upon her lips hung the smell of spirit. Margaret experienced
a sensation as though an icy hand had gripped her heart. She looked inquiringly at Miss
Conway, who avoided her glance, then her eyes travelled slowly around the room. On the
dressing-table was a nearly empty brandy bottle, and by its side a glass.
With an exceedingly bitter cry, Margaret realised the truth. Her mother was not ill—that is,
not in the way she had supposed—but intoxicated. The blow had fallen, and everything
was now plain to her.
As in a dream, she heard Ross whispering to Miss Conway that she had never suspected
her mistress of this, that she had never had such a shock in her life before, and listened to
Miss Conway's answer that she herself would remain with Mrs. Fowler, and that the
servants must be told she was ill. Then, the governess put her arms around her pupil and
kissed her, begging her to be a brave girl. And all the while, Margaret was experiencing a
strange feeling of unreality, as though she was living through a horrible nightmare. She
watched Miss Conway fling the windows open wide, and place a blanket carefully over her
mother's unconscious form, and the conviction grew upon her, that though the governess
was deeply grieved, she was not surprised and shocked as she herself was and poor Ross
who looked almost scared to death.
Suddenly the governess pointed to the brandy bottle and appealed to the maid.
"Did you supply her with that?" she questioned sternly.
"No, miss, on my word of honour, I did not," Ross replied earnestly. "I never knew she had
it; she must have kept it under lock and key."
There was absolute truth in the girl's voice; and Miss Conway looked puzzled.
"I can't make it out—how she obtained it, I mean," she said at last. "Ross, I think you had
better leave your mistress to me for the present. I rely upon you not to speak of this
downstairs. And Margaret—" the governess's voice softened to the tenderest pity—"will
you take care of Gerald for the rest of the day? Tell him his mother is very poorly, and that
he may have a half-holiday. You could take him down to the beach this afternoon. God help
you to bear this trouble, poor child!"
Margaret made no response. Ringing in her ears were words her father had spoken to her
when they had been discussing Salome's trouble. "We cannot tell how much our patience
and love may be tried, nor what trials and troubles the future may hold for us. We can only
pray that God will strengthen us in our time of need."
Had her father anticipated this hour for her? She could not tell, but she thought it more
than likely.
Meanwhile, Miss Conway was leading her to the door, begging her to put a brave face on
matters, and to go down to dinner without her.
"I feel my duty is here, my dear," she said impressively. "If any one questions you about
your mother, you can truly say she is ill. Oh, Margaret, pray for her; she is greatly to be
pitied!" And so saying, the governess opened the door and pushed her little pupil gently
outside.
For a few minutes Margaret stood perfectly still. Then the sound of Gerald's voice in the
hall below reminded her that she must, as Miss Conway had said, put a brave face on
matters. So she went downstairs and delighted her brother by promising to take him down
to the beach. She was conscious that the burden of a great sorrow was upon her, and she
felt bowed down with an intolerable weight of shame. But she devoted herself assiduously
to Gerald for the remainder of the day; and it was not until nearly nine o'clock, when her
charge was in bed and asleep, that she dared give way to her grief. Then, in the privacy of
her own room, she flung herself upon the bed and wept as though her heart would break.
CHAPTER X.
Mr. Fowler's Return.
"MARGARET! Oh, my dear little girl! Do not grieve so terribly. You will make yourself ill, if
you go on like this."
Margaret tried to stifle her sobs at the sound of the kind, pitying voice, and turned a
swollen, tear-stained countenance towards Miss Conway, who had come in search of her.
She longed to ask for her mother, but for the present, she was incapable of speech. Her
governess, however, read aright her questioning eyes, and said reassuringly, "Your mother
is better, my dear. She regained consciousness some time ago, since when she has had a
cup of tea, and is now asleep. Ross is with her at present."
Miss Conway drew a chair to the bedside and sat down, then she took one of her little
pupil's hands and pressed it softly. "I have sent for your father," she continued; "after—
after what has happened I considered it was my duty to do so. I did not think there was
any necessity to alarm him by a telegram though, so I wrote by to-night's post and—
explained. He will get my letter in the morning, and probably return home at once. So,
dear Margaret, if all's well, he will doubtless be here to-morrow evening."
The little girl was glad to hear this; but at the same time, she dreaded meeting her father
with this new knowledge concerning her mother weighing on her mind. Her sobs had
ceased now, and she could speak collectedly.
"Miss Conway, do you think Ross has told the other servants?" she asked anxiously.
"I am sure she has not, nor do I believe she will. Ross is a thoroughly good girl, and most
sincerely attached to your mother. At first, I confess, I suspected her of having procured
that—that poison, but I was quite wrong! Mrs. Fowler bought the brandy herself, the
afternoon we drove to N— with her. Do you remember we drove on whilst she went into a
grocer's shop? She obtained it there. Oh, it is a shame that grocers should be allowed
licences for supplying intoxicating liquors! Poor soul, she has been telling me how sorely
she was tempted! Oh, Margaret, this all comes of Mrs. Lute's offering her that glass of
wine! She had not touched a stimulant since her illness till then, and had almost lost her
craving for drink. That glass of wine, however, was too much for her, and she felt she must
have more. I need not dwell on the result."
"Oh, Miss Conway, how shameful, how degrading!" Margaret cried passionately. "Oh, to
think that mother should be like that! Oh, no wonder father wished us all to be
teetotalers!"
She covered her flaming face with her hands and shuddered. "How long—how long have
you known this—about mother?" she inquired hesitatingly.
"Many months. Since—oh, long before her illness."
"Was that illness—"
"Caused by drink? Yes. Oh, my dear, I see you guess it all. Your father hoped you would
never know. He trusted that the complete change from life in town to the quietude of the
country, where Mrs. Fowler would meet comparatively few people of her own class, and
where he believed she would be free from temptation, would ultimately cure her of the
fatal habit she had acquired of drinking to excess, and I believe that would have been the
happy result, if you had not unfortunately met Mrs. Lute. Little does Mrs. Lute—good, kind
creature that she is—dream of the mischief she has wrought. Your poor mother is full of
grief and remorse now; and oh, so shocked that you should have seen her to-day. She
knows I have written to Mr. Fowler, and you can imagine how she is dreading his return;
yet she knows he will not be hard upon her. He loves her too well for that!"
Margaret felt at that moment that her affection for her mother was being swallowed up by
a sickening sensation of disgust. She had always loved her very dearly; and had been so
pleased and happy when people had admired her for her beauty and winning ways. Even
when Mrs. Fowler had openly shown her preference for Gerald of her two children, the little
girl, though often hurt, had never evinced any jealousy or resentment. She had accepted
the fact that Gerald was her mother's favourite, and had loved her none the less on that
account. But now, her love was being tried very severely.
The remembrance of Mrs. Fowler as she had last seen her, lying on the bed with flushed
cheeks, breathing stertorously, was absolutely revolting to her. She had many times asked
herself how Salome could continue to love her drunken father; now, she asked herself, was
it possible that she could continue to love her drunken mother? Oh, the horror of the
thought that one so gentle and refined should be on a par with Josiah Petherick, fellow-
victim to a disgraceful, degrading sin!
Perhaps Miss Conway guessed some of the thoughts which were passing through her
companion's mind, for she watched her anxiously, and presently remarked, "I daresay, you
can faintly imagine how your poor mother is feeling now. She had hoped to keep the secret
of her weakness and sin from your knowledge. Your father, too, will be terribly troubled
when he hears you have learnt the truth; but I do not doubt, dear child, that God in His
wisdom has ordered all for the best. You will understand now, as you never did before,
how much Mrs. Fowler needs all your love and devotion. You can help her, if you will, to
the restoration of that self-respect which, once lost, is so hard to regain. You can show her,
by loving her as unfalteringly as Salome loves her erring father, that she can rise above
this habit which has done so much to ruin her health, and happiness, and earn everyone's
respect and her own as well!"
Miss Conway paused, and there was a solemn silence which Margaret at length broke by
saying with a sob, "I do love mother, I do indeed."
"I am sure of it. Mrs. Fowler is a very sweet, lovable woman!"
"Yes," Margaret agreed. "See what a lot of friends she had in town, and how popular she
was! She was always going about—"
"Yes, dear, I know," the governess interposed, "and that was how it was she commenced
taking stimulants. She used to get tired with her constant gaieties, and then she would
take a glass of wine, or some other intoxicant, to revive her, until she grew to like
stimulants, and took more and more. The craving increased, and she drank to the injury of
her health, yet no outsiders guessed it. Then she had nervous attacks, followed at last by
a serious illness. The doctors told your father she was killing herself, and immeasurably
horrified, he took the only course he saw could save his wife—became a teetotaler himself,
and insisted that his household should follow suit. Mrs. Fowler knew he was acting wisely,
and for her sake, but she would not admit it. However, she found total abstinence from all
intoxicants was restoring her to health, and had made up her mind never to touch a
stimulant again when temptation was put in her way, and she fell. God grant she may
prove stronger in the future. Now, my dear, tell me, have you had any supper?"
"No," Margaret replied, "I am not in the least hungry."
"Oh, that's nonsense! You must eat whether you are hungry or not. Come with me."
Margaret demurred at first, but her governess overruled all her objections. And after she
had bathed her tear-stained face, the two went downstairs and had supper together. Miss
Conway did not leave her pupil again until she saw her comfortably tucked up in bed for
the night; then she kissed her, bade her try to sleep well, and left her to herself.
And Margaret did sleep well, absolutely worn out with excitement and grief, whilst the
governess spent the night in Mrs. Fowler's room. At daybreak, Ross came to take Miss
Conway's place, and found her mistress sleeping tranquilly.
"She looks more like herself, miss, doesn't she?" she whispered gladly.
"Yes," Miss Conway answered; "I should let her sleep as long as she will."
She did not say what a harrowing time she had endured during that night watch, or how
Mrs. Fowler had implored her to give her a stimulant, and had declared she would die
without it. But she went away quietly to her own room, and before she lay down to rest,
prayed earnestly to Almighty God for the unhappy woman, whom she pitied from the
depths of her heart.
SHE WENT TO THE FRONT DOOR TO MEET MR. FOWLER.
Early in the morning, a telegram arrived from Mr. Fowler saying he would be at home that
night, and ordering the carriage to be sent to N— to meet him at the railway station. The
governess made no secret of the fact that she had written to inform him of his wife's
illness, and as Ross kept her own counsel, the other servants supposed their mistress to
be suffering from one of the hysterical, nervous attacks to which she had been subject on
her arrival at Greystone.
It was nearly eight o'clock before Mr. Fowler reached home. Margaret, who had spent most
of the day on the beach with her brother, shrank sensitively from the thought of meeting
her father. When she heard the carriage wheels nearing the house, she longed to run away
and hide, but she knew it would never do to act in such a cowardly fashion as that.
Appearances must be kept up, at any rate before the servants, so she went to the front
door with Gerald to meet Mr. Fowler, and returned his loving kiss as quietly and
composedly as though her heart was not beating almost to suffocation.
As she had anticipated, he immediately went upstairs to his wife's room, and it was not
until much later, that she found herself with him alone. Then, after Gerald had gone to
bed, he joined her in the garden, and strolled up and down the lawn by her side, his arm
around her shoulders. For some minutes he did not speak, and she could not see the
expression of his face, for there was no moon, and the stars gave but little light.
At last he said gravely, "Life is very hard, sometimes, Margaret."
"Yes," she agreed, adding with a little sob: "Oh, father, you left her in my care, but I did
not know, and if I had, it would not have made any difference."
"No, no; I understand. She has told me everything herself."
"Oh, father, it is shocking! Think of the disgrace. Oh, you can't imagine how dreadful I feel
about it!"
"I think I can," he replied sadly. "My poor child, I had hoped to have been allowed to keep
this trouble from you, but God willed it otherwise. Have you seen your mother to-day?"
"No, father. She said she did not wish to see me."
"Ah, poor thing, she is ashamed to face you! If I were you, when you meet, I would not
revert to—to her illness at all."
"I will not."
"I shall try and persuade Mrs. Lute to come and spend a few days with us, in order to
cheer us all up."
"Oh, father, Mrs. Lute was the cause of all this trouble."
"I am aware of it; but her intention in offering your mother wine was an excellent one, she
had no idea of working mischief. I shall simply explain to her that this is a teetotal
household, and she is not the woman I take her to be if, after that, she refuses an
invitation to visit us."
"Did you finish your business in London, father?" Margaret questioned.
"Not quite. It must stand over for a few weeks. I shall not leave home again for the
present."
Though he spoke so quietly, Margaret knew her father must be very sore at heart. She had
often wondered why her mother was more at her ease when not in her husband's
presence, and now she understood the reason. Mrs. Fowler was conscious that he was
always keeping a watch upon her, that he did not trust her, and dear though he was to her,
she stood in awe of him.
Until her illness in the spring, he had always allowed her, her own way. But his alarm for
her well-being once aroused, he had taken the reins of government into his own hands,
and had shown her plainly that he meant his will to be law. She had always been a
pleasure-seeking woman and fond of society; but, broken down in health, she had not
found life at Yelton so utterly unbearable as she had anticipated. Her husband had devoted
much of his time to her, and, thrown more in contact with her little daughter, she had
begun to take a deeper interest in her than she had done before.
She had always been pleased to notice her beauty, but of late, she had discovered that
Margaret possessed other and higher attractions—goodness and unselfishness—which she
could not but admire. She saw the little girl had inherited many of her father's excellent
qualities of mind and heart, and uneasily conscious of her own weakness of character, she
was delighted that it was so. Unfortunately there had never been the same sympathy of
feeling between Margaret and her mother as there had always been between the little girl
and her father.
Now, as she strolled by Mr. Fowler's side up and down the lawn, she slipped her hand
through his arm, whilst she leaned her head confidingly against his shoulder, as she said,
"Father, I'm so very glad you've come home."
CHAPTER XI.
Josiah at His Worst.
THE afternoon subsequent to her husband's return, Mrs. Fowler was sufficiently well to
come downstairs and lie on the sofa in the drawing-room. Margaret, who had gone back to
her usual routine of work with Miss Conway, saw little of her mother during the next few
days, and after Mr. Fowler drove to N— one morning, and brought Mrs. Lute home with
him, Mrs. Fowler spent most of her time with her friend, and avoided her little daughter's
society as much as possible.
Mrs. Lute, though she had been much astonished when Mr. Fowler had frankly explained to
her that his was now a teetotal household, was far too well-bred a woman to question him
concerning what his wife had called his "fad;" and though she had been accustomed all her
life to the sparing use of stimulants, she could very well do without them, and was
perfectly satisfied and happy at Greystone.
"So many people are teetotalers nowadays," she remarked pleasantly to Mr. Fowler on one
occasion when she had been several days beneath his roof, "so really you are quite in the
fashion."
"I wish I could think that," he replied, with rather a sad smile.
"Oh, one meets a great many people who are total abstainers!" she assured him. "Why,
Miss Conway tells me she has always been one. It seems drink has been the cause of a
great deal of trouble in her family. And your good Vicar here is a teetotaler too, so he
informed me yesterday. He argues truly that he cannot teach what he does not practise. I
was surprised to hear that even in this quiet little village drink is the curse of the place."
"I believe that is so. There are several notorious drunkards amongst the fishermen, and
one in whom we, as a family, are much interested, on his daughter's account, is likely to
join their ranks."
"You refer to that fine, strong man who took us out boating yesterday, I presume?"
"Yes; Josiah Petherick. He is a most reliable man when sober, but when he has been
drinking—which often happens now, I fear—he is a perfect brute. I have been hearing
many tales to his discredit lately, and this morning I was told on reliable authority in the
village, that he spends nearly all his earnings at the 'Crab and Cockle' now, and begrudges
the money for the household accounts. Last night, he went home more intoxicated than
usual—actually mad drunk—and smashed up some of the furniture in his cottage, after
which he turned his little daughter out-doors. The poor child was forced to beg a night's
lodging from Mrs. Moyle at the village shop, and to-day, all Yelton is talking about it."
A faint exclamation of dismay caused Mrs. Lute and Mr. Fowler, who had been conversing
in the garden, close outside the drawing-room window, to look around. They encountered
Mrs. Fowler's shocked gaze. Hearing them talking, she had come to the window and had
overheard all that had been said.
"Oh, Henry, that poor Salome!" she cried, her blue eyes full of tears. "Have you seen her
to-day?"
"No; but the Vicar has. Hearing what had happened, he went down to Petherick's cottage
the first thing this morning. Salome had just returned and was doing her utmost to put the
place to rights, and her father had gone out in his boat in a very humbled, repentant state
of mind, after having apologised to her for his abominable behaviour, and having promised
he would not act so madly again."
Mrs. Fowler sighed, whilst Mrs. Lute said gravely, "Let us hope he will keep his word."
"He will not, without he gives up the drink," Mr. Fowler rejoined, with conviction in his
tone. "No, he will go from bad to worse until, in one of his drunken frenzies, he will do
something he will never cease to regret—perhaps some injury to his child."
Mrs. Fowler sank into a chair looking pale and perturbed, whilst her husband and friend
drifted into another channel of conversation. The news she had heard about the Pethericks
had upset her, and when, a short while later, Margaret entered the room, the first question
she put to her was to ask if she had seen Salome that day.
"No, mother," the little girl answered. "Why?" she added, struck by the almost frightened
expression on Mrs. Fowler's face.
She listened in silence, her colour alternately coming and going, to all there was to tell,
then exclaimed "Oh, I am sorry! Poor Salome! And it rained heavily last night. Perhaps she
will come up to the church this evening to hear me practise the organ. Oh, I hope she will!
When are you coming to hear me play again, mother?"
"Oh, some time! Perhaps when Mrs. Lute has gone."
"Wouldn't Mrs. Lute come too?"
"Oh, I don't think you play well enough—" Mrs. Fowler paused abruptly, conscious of the
hurt look on her little daughter's countenance. She had avoided Margaret lately, and
Margaret had noticed the fact with acute pain. What had she done that her mother should
abstain from meeting her gaze? An insurmountable barrier seemed to have sprung up
between mother and child.
Margaret's heart was full of bitterness as she turned away and left the room. She had
endeavoured to show no feeling but that of love for her mother since her recent
indisposition, but it had been impossible for Mrs. Fowler not to remark a slight difference in
her manner, of which Margaret was unconscious herself. She thought she read reproach in
the little girl's eyes, and shrank sensitively from being alone with her. She was ashamed in
the presence of her own child.
Had Margaret grasped the truth of the situation, she would have judged her mother less
harshly; but failing to do so, she was deeply pained, and told herself that her mother liked
her less than ever. Upon Gerald, Mrs. Fowler lavished all her affection. She would listen to
his chatter untiringly, talking gaily in return; and, however much he teased her, she always
found excuses for him.
Miss Conway did not give Margaret a music lesson that evening, for Mrs. Fowler requested
her to accompany Mrs. Lute and herself for a walk, and to bring Gerald with her, so
Margaret went alone to the church.
She practised for an hour, then dismissed the boy who had blown the organ for her, and
was leaving the church when she caught sight of a small figure huddled up in a corner of a
pew near the west door. It was Salome.
"Is it you, Salome?" Margaret cried, hastening to her side, and laying her hand tenderly
upon her shoulder. The lame girl lifted her bowed head, and in the dim light, Margaret saw
she had been weeping, though there were no tears in her brown eyes now, and her lips
were curved in a smile.
"I've been asleep," she said. "I'm glad you didn't go without speaking to me, Miss
Margaret. I came in whilst you were practising, and I was tired. I—I had little rest last
night."
"I know—I've heard," Margaret returned hurriedly, as the other paused in confusion.
"Have you, miss? I'm glad of that, for now I shan't have to tell you, and I'd rather not talk
of it."
"Of course you would rather not."
"I was tired," Salome proceeded; "so tired and worn out, that I couldn't help crying. My
poor legs ached so—but oh! not so badly as my heart. The pain here—" clasping her hands
against her breast—"was almost more than I could bear. Then I fell asleep, and I was
dreaming when you awoke me."
"I hope it was a pleasant dream," Margaret said softly.
"Oh, very pleasant! I thought it was evening time—getting almost dark as it is now—and
service was going on in the church. I could hear father's voice singing with the choir. You
can't imagine what a deep, beautiful voice father has, Miss Margaret. I was listening to it
when you awoke me. But I'm glad you happened to catch sight of me, though you did
disturb my dream. Is anything wrong, miss?" And the lame girl's brown eyes peered
anxiously at her companion.
"I am not happy," Margaret confessed with a sigh.
"Mrs. Fowler is not ill again?" Salome questioned in concerned tones.
"No, no; she is perfectly well. We have an old friend visiting us, and that makes it pleasant
for mother."
"I saw a strange lady in church with you on Sunday, miss; and father took her out in his
boat with Mrs. Fowler. She treated him very handsomely, he said; but I wish she hadn't."
"Why?" Margaret asked in surprise.
"Because he spent the money she gave him in drink at the public-house, and that was the
beginning of the trouble last night. There, I didn't mean to talk of it, but, naturally, it's
uppermost in my mind."
"Of course it is. Did you—did you get wet last night?"
"Dripping to the skin," Salome admitted. "But Mrs. Moyle—God bless her!—took me in and
gave me dry clothes, and a bed too. But oh, I couldn't sleep for wondering what father was
up to at home. You can never be certain what a drunken body will not do. How selfish I
am, though, to talk so much of myself. Won't you tell me what troubles you, Miss
Margaret?"
"No, Salome, I can't," was the low response. "It's something I can never speak of."
"Then try not to think too much about it, miss," the lame girl advised. "If I were you, I'd
tell my trouble to God, and leave it to Him. That's what I do with mine."
"By your trouble, you mean your father?" Margaret inquired diffidently.
"Yes, miss. Do you remember saying to me that night you and I had been sitting in the
porch, and father had come home drunk—'May God help you, Salome'? I think you saw
God was the only One who could help me; and I want to remind you of those words of
yours, because maybe He's the only One who can help you too! Why, how dark it's getting
think, miss, we had better go."
She reached for her crutches as she spoke, and swung herself out of the pew into the
aisle. Margaret followed her silently through the west door into the churchyard. It was
nearly dark, for it was September now, and the evenings were shortening fast; but whilst
they lingered at the churchyard gate, the edge of the moon appeared in the eastern
horizon, and slowly sailed upwards into the cloudless sky, illuminating the old grey church,
surrounded with the graves of the quiet dead, and shedding its pale light on the little
village and the broad surface of the peaceful sea.
"How beautiful!" cried Margaret. "It is the harvest moon, so father said last night. But,
Salome, it is late for you to be out alone. Shall I walk part of the way home with you?"
"Oh, no, thank you, miss! I shall be perfectly safe. Besides, it's quite light now the moon
has risen. Good night, miss."
"Good night, Salome."
Margaret went back to Greystone in a very thoughtful frame of mind. She considered that
her friend was not half so depressed as she herself would have been under similar
circumstances, not reflecting that Salome's trouble had come upon her by slow degrees. It
had taken five years to change Josiah Petherick from a sober, God-fearing man into the
desperate drunkard who had turned his only child out-doors last night.
Meanwhile, Salome, as she swung herself down the hill, wondered what could be amiss
with Miss Margaret. She had grown deeply attached to the pretty, fair-haired girl, who had,
from the first time they had met, treated her with the greatest kindness and consideration.
She had given her several lessons in the art of knitting, and the lessons had given pleasure
to teacher and pupil alike; and both were much interested in the progression of the sock
which Margaret was rather laboriously making under the other's instructions.
The "Crab and Cockle" was lit up brightly as Salome passed by, and she sighed as she
heard the hoarse murmur of voices within, for she imagined her father to be there; but
great was her surprise on reaching home, to find him in the little yard at the back of the
cottage bathing his face at the pump. When he came into the kitchen, she noticed not only
that he was intoxicated, but that he had a cut on his cheek, and one eye was turning
black. She asked no questions, however, for she saw he was in one of his worst moods; so
she lit the lamp in silence, and proceeded to set the supper on the table. Presently, he
remarked that he had quarrelled with someone, and they had come to blows.
"'Twas Silas Moyle—" he was beginning, when, in her surprise, she interrupted him.
"Silas Moyle!" she echoed, for the baker was a steady, peace-loving man.
"Yes," he nodded; "the canting humbug!" He looked at her sullenly, even resentfully, she
thought; and she trembled with fear as she noticed his shaking hands and quivering lips.
Then he burst forth into a volley of oaths, and she gleaned that he was angry with her for
having sought refuge with the Moyles on the preceding night. He stormed against her,
against Silas and his wife, against everyone, in short, who had remonstrated with him that
day. Apparently, his neighbours had been telling him some plain home truths which had
not been pleasant hearing.
"Oh, father, don't say any more!" Salome pleaded in great distress. "Oh, please don't
swear so frightfully! What could I do? You turned me out of my home, and I did not know
where to go, except to Mrs. Moyle's. Oh, don't speak of her like that! It was out of pure
kindness she took me in. You would not have had me spend the night out of doors in that
lashing rain, would you? Oh, father, you are cruel indeed!"
The reproach in her sorrowful eyes enraged him beyond measure.
"You dare stand up for those who insult your father!" he shouted in a fury; and clutching
her by the shoulder, he shook her savagely, then flung her from him with some violence.
Losing her hold of her crutches, they fell to the ground; and staggering forward with a
frightened cry, she knocked her forehead against a corner of the mantelpiece, and the next
moment, lay white and unconscious at her father's feet.
CHAPTER XII.
A Brief Repentance.
IT was about half-past nine o'clock that same night, that the Vicar of Yelton opened the
Pethericks' garden gate, and stepping determinedly up the path, rapped at the door of the
cottage.
Returning from an evening's fishing an hour previously, he had been stopped in the village,
on his way home, by Silas Moyle, who had poured into his ears an excited tale about
Josiah, whom Silas had taken upon himself to remonstrate with upon his cruel conduct to
his daughter on the previous night, with the result that Josiah, inflamed with drink, had
struck him, and had received in return a black eye and an injured cheek.
"You know, sir, I'm a man of peace, and don't hold with brawling," Silas had said; "but I
own I lost my temper to-night. Josiah's a regular blackguard when he's drunk."
"It was foolish to remonstrate with a drunken man," Mr. Amyatt had answered. "Had you
spoken to him in his sober moments, your words might have had a very different effect.
Where is Josiah now?"
"Gone home, swearing vengeance against me, sir. My great fear is, that he'll do some
harm to poor Salome."
That had been the Vicar's fear, too. So, instead of going straight to the Vicarage as he had
intended, he had retraced his footsteps to the Pethericks' cottage, and now stood waiting
for admittance at the door.
As no one answered his knock, he rapped louder and listened. For a few moments there
was silence; then came the sound of heavy, dragging footsteps, and Josiah opened the
door and demanded hoarsely who was there.
"It is I, Petherick," the Vicar answered, stepping uninvited across the threshold.
"Where is your daughter?" he asked, fixing his eyes upon the fisherman, who stood staring
at him in a dazed fashion.
Receiving no reply, he turned into the kitchen, an exclamation of horror and dismay
breaking from his lips, as he caught sight of the small, slight figure of the lame girl lying
near the fireplace. Very tenderly, he lifted her and placed her in the one easy-chair in the
room, calling to Josiah to bring some water immediately.
"Water!" questioned Josiah stupidly. "What for? She's dead. She's been dead this half-hour
or more; but I haven't dared touch her. Salome, Salome! I've killed you, my poor maid!
Your own father's killed you, Salome;" and flinging himself on his knees at his daughter's
side, Josiah wept like a child.
"Don't be foolish, Petherick," Mr. Amyatt said sternly. He had been feeling Salome's pulse,
and had ascertained that it beat, though feebly. "She's not dead, but she has fainted.
Come, be a man. Pull yourself together, and fetch some water at once."
"Not dead," Josiah cried excitedly. "Are you sure? Then, God be thanked for that!" He rose
from his knees, and went into the yard, returning in a few seconds with a basin of water.
Very gently, the Vicar bathed Salome's white face until her eyelids flickered and a faint
colour stole to her lips. Josiah, sobered by fright, explained what had happened, not
sparing himself, but declaring he would not have injured a hair of his daughter's head, if he
could have helped it, for Mr. Amyatt must know how much he loved her.
"Tush, Petherick!" the Vicar responded impatiently, mingled pity and disgust in his tone.
"Don't talk to me of your love for Salome. A nice way you have of showing it. Last night,
you turned her out of doors in torrents of rain—"
"I was drunk," Josiah interposed hastily. "She riled me, she did, with her tears, and—"
"Having been drunk is no excuse," Mr. Amyatt interrupted in his turn. "Not content with
your scandalous conduct last night, you must continue your unmanly behaviour to-day and
knock Salome down, and—"
"No, no," said a weak voice at this point. It was Salome who spoke. She had regained
consciousness, and was sufficiently herself to understand what was going on. "No, no," she
repeated, "it was an accident. He did not mean to hurt me."
"I shook her, and—and pushed her," Josiah admitted, looking thoroughly ashamed of
himself. "I meant her no harm, sir, but I was rough, and—oh, Salome, can you ever forgive
me?" And the wretched man turned appealingly to the little figure in the easy-chair.
"Yes," was the faint response. "I—I don't think I'm much hurt."
"Are you in pain?" Mr. Amyatt asked gently.
"No, sir; but my forehead is very sore. I must have knocked it in falling."
"Yes, poor child, I see you did; there is a big bruise coming."
"I suppose I fainted?" she inquired, looking wistfully from the Vicar to her father, who was
regarding her in gloomy silence.
"Yes, that was it, you fainted," Mr. Amyatt replied. "But you are much better now; and
after a good night's rest, I have no doubt you will be almost yourself again."
Salome glanced at her crutches, which were lying on the ground. Mr. Amyatt picked them
up and placed them against her chair.
"Thank you, sir," she said gratefully, lifting her brown eyes shyly to his face, which
expressed so plainly his sympathy and concern. "I think I shall be all right now," she
added. "Thank you for being so kind."
"Does that mean you wish me to go?" he queried with a smile. "Well, I don't know that I
can do any good by remaining longer. Good night, my dear."
He took Salome's small, thin hand and pressed it reassuringly, then beckoned to her father
to follow him to the door.
"You must have someone in to see to that poor child to-night, Petherick," he said gravely.
"Can you call upon assistance from one of your neighbours?"
Josiah shook his head doubtfully.
"Then, shall I ask Mrs. Moyle to look in and help get Salome to bed?" the Vicar suggested.
A dull, shamed flush rose to the fisherman's face, and he began to stammer something
about not knowing whether Mrs. Moyle would come inside his doors, seeing he had
quarrelled with her husband only that evening; but the Vicar cut him short.
"I know all about that, Petherick. Silas Moyle told me the tale himself not an hour ago. I
heard it with great regret, for Silas is a sincere well-wisher of yours, and he and his wife
would do anything in the world for your little girl. You had better let me send Mrs. Moyle to
you—that is, if she will come; perhaps she will not. Shall I be the bearer of an apology
from you to Silas?"
"I'm sorry I hit him," Josiah acknowledged truthfully.
"Shall I tell him that?"

"If you please, sir. I admit, I deserved what he gave me. Oh, sir, I've had a fine fright this
night! I thought I'd killed Salome."
"You might have done so."
"Then I should have been a murderer," Josiah groaned. "I'm a bad lot, sir, that's what I
am."
He seemed perfectly sober now, so Mr. Amyatt spoke a few solemn words to him, imploring
him, for the sake of his little daughter, to give up the drink, and take the pledge. Josiah
declared he would think seriously about doing so, and went back to Salome, whilst the
Vicar hurried in search of Mrs. Moyle.
At first, that good woman, kind-hearted and fond of the lame girl though she was, said
nothing would make her enter the doors of one who had so insulted her husband as had
Josiah. But, on Silas adding his entreaties to the Vicar's, she gave in and betook herself to
the Pethericks' cottage, where, after having assisted Salome upstairs, and put her to bed,
she declared her intention of remaining for the night. She was not going to leave "that
poor motherless lamb," as she called Salome, "in the house alone with a maniac."
Josiah Petherick did not look much like a maniac, however, as he sat in the kitchen
listening to Mrs. Moyle's scathing remarks as she put away the supper things. He was in a
wonderfully subdued and repentant frame of mind, and sat with his elbows on the table
and his aching head resting in his hands. At last, he could bear his companion's home
thrusts no longer, and exclaimed, "Good gracious, woman, do you imagine I don't know
what a beast I am?"
"Well, if you do know it, why don't you turn over a new leaf?" she inquired. "I mind what a
steady young fellow you used to be. You're too easily led, that's what you are. Make up
your mind to give up the drink."
"I can't—not entirely; it's got too strong a hold on me," he confessed.
"That's the way of it. Well, you'll have to choose between drink and Salome—that's my
opinion—for you're killing her by slow degrees."
Josiah started; but Mrs. Moyle did not pursue the subject further. She told him he had
better go to bed, and make no noise to disturb his daughter. Accordingly, he took off his
boots and crept upstairs in his stockinged feet, whilst Mrs. Moyle, having put out the lamp,
and ascertained that the door of the cottage was securely fastened, returned to Salome,
whom she found sleeping peacefully.
The next day, Josiah put himself in the way of Silas Moyle, and actually apologised to him
for having struck. And Silas was magnanimous and forgave him, though it must be
admitted, he regarded the other's black eye and swelled cheek with a sense of satisfaction.
They were marks that would remain to remind Josiah of his ill conduct for some days to
come.
Salome was poorly for nearly a week, and the first occasion on which she showed herself
in the village, she was met on all sides by commiserating looks and words which showed
her plainly that everyone was quite aware that her father had been the cause of her
accident. The sympathy thus evinced towards her, though kindly offered, cut her to the
heart, and she returned home utterly miserable.
During the days which followed, Mr. Amyatt made several ineffectual attempts to induce
Josiah to take the pledge. No, Josiah said, there was no need for him to do that; but he
had made up his mind to turn over a new leaf, nevertheless, and the Vicar would see that
he could take his glass of beer like other men and be none the worse for it. The Vicar
shook his head at that, but Josiah was not to be moved, so the matter was, perforce,
dropped.
Margaret was the first of the inmates of Greystone to hear of Salome's accident. Mrs.
Moyle gave her full particulars of it one morning when she had an errand at the shop. And
before going home, she went to inquire for her lame friend, whom she found sitting in the
porch of the cottage with such a bright, hopeful expression on her pale countenance, that
she was surprised, and remarked upon it.
"Oh, I am ever so much better!" Salome assured her with a smile.
"Are you really?" Margaret asked anxiously. "You have a nasty bruise on your forehead."
"Oh, that's nothing, indeed, miss! Have you heard how it happened? They haven't made
you believe father did it on purpose, have they? He wouldn't hurt me for anything, if he
could help it. Oh, Miss Margaret, I do believe father means to be steadier for the future!"
"Is he going to be a teetotaler, then?" Margaret inquired eagerly.
"No—o," was the dubious reply, "I'm afraid not; but he says he won't take more beer than
is good for him. Oh, I know he has said that lots of times before, but I believe he really
means it now. Indeed, he has been quite different these last few days—more like what he
used to be when dear mother was alive."
This was quite true. Mrs. Moyle's words that he would have to choose between drink and
Salome had made a strong impression upon Josiah, and had caused him to notice how
much thinner and paler his little daughter had become of late. His conscience reproached
him on her account, for he knew that she was not very strong, and that she worked hard,
besides which, his unsteady habits were a constant trouble to her. In his repentance, he
felt capable of denying himself anything for her sake—except drink, and that, he solemnly
vowed he would take sparingly.
Seeing that Salome was so hopeful that her father meant to live a sober life for the future,
Margaret had not the heart to express the doubts which occupied her mind; but on her
return to Greystone, she saw, by Mr. Fowler's grave face when she explained the situation
to him, that he did not believe Josiah's repentance would be lasting, and trembled for the
safety and happiness of her little lame friend.
"Don't you think he means to keep his word, and not get intoxicated again?" she
questioned.
"Oh, yes!" Mr. Fowler replied, "I think he means all he says. But I feel sure, if he does not
give up drink altogether, it will soon have the mastery over him again. I believe he loves
Salome very dearly, but he loves drink even better than his little daughter, or he would be
willing to give it up for her sake. Poor Salome! I greatly fear she has more trouble in store
for her with that father of hers."
This proved to be the case. For before a fortnight had quite elapsed since Salome's
accident, Josiah was drinking heavily again, and spending his evenings at the "Crab and
Cockle," as he had done of old. His repentance had been of brief duration; and the lame
girl's face grew pinched, and her dark brown eyes larger and sadder, as her father
squandered more and more of his earnings at the village inn; whilst Silas Moyle grumbled

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Encyclopedia of Materials: Composites:

Composites. Volume 1 1st Edition

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Copyright r 2021 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved

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Publisher: Oliver Walter

List of Contributors for Volume 1 xi

Editorial Board xvii

Section 1: Metal Matrix Composite Materials, Edited by Manoj Gupta

Introduction to Metal Matrix Composite Materials: An Introduction

Additive Manufacturing of Metal Matrix Composites

Section 2: Polymer Matrix Composite Materials, Edited by Dermot Brabazon

Introduction: Polymer Matrix Composite Materials

Particulate Reinforced Polymer Matrix Composites

Overview of Mechanical and Physicochemical Properties of Polymer Matrix Composites

Fibre Reinforced Polymer Matrix Composites

Effect of Fiber Orientation on the Mechanical Properties of Laminated Polymer Composites

Biomedical Applications of Polymer Matrix Composites

Hydroxyapatite Based Polymer Composites for Regenerative Medicine Applications

Other Application Areas for Polymer Matrix Composites

Multifunctional Polymer Matrix Composites

New and Emerging Processing Methods for Polymer Matrix Composites

Additive Manufacturing of Polymer Matrix Composites

Thermal and Morphological Analyses of Polymer Matrix Composites

Fatemeh Abdolkhani Danish M. Baitab

Muthukaruppan Alagar Ajay Batish

Mubarak Ali M Emin Bayraktar

Xizhang Chen Manoj Gupta

Research in Medical Devices (CURAM), National Vyasaraj Manakari

Ballambettu Chandrasekhara Pai V.K. Bupesh Raja

Rebaone E. Phuti Fizza A. Razzaq

Gholamreza Masoudi Rad Biranchi N. Sahoo

Ashok M. Raichur M.A. Salim

Saad Salman Sunpreet Singh

Hong Yang S. Abolfazl Zahedi

Dermot Brabazon, Section 2: Polymer Matrix Composite Materials

Robertt Valente, Section 6: Design Methods for Composite Materials

Mohamed El Mansori, Section 7: Nature Based and Inspired Composite Materials

Antonello Astarita, Section 9: Joining of Composite Materials

(1) Continuously reinforced composites.

Metal Matrix Composites – Matrix and Reinforcements

(1) Aluminum and its alloys.

Encyclopedia of Materials: Composites, Volume 1 doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-819724-0.00044-6 1

Fig. 1 Deﬁnition of composite.

Fig. 2 Matrix based classiﬁcation of composites.

Layered Reinforcement Fiber reinforced

Fig. 3 Reinforcement based classiﬁcation of composites.

Fig. 4 Continuously (left) and discontinuously (right) reinforced composites.

Fig. 5 Classiﬁcation of composites based on length scale of reinforcement.

Fig. 6 Factors related to selection of matrix.

Metal Matrix Composites – Processing

Fig. 7 Factors controlling selection of reinforcement.

Fig. 8 Major factors governing the properties of MMCs.

Fig. 9 Processing type effects on microstructure and properties of MMCs.

Fig. 10 Matrix related factors governing the properties of MMCs.

Fig. 11 Reinforcement related factors governing the properties of MMCs.

In-situ Ultrasonic Liquid metal

Powder Semi-powder Flake Powder Molecular Level In-situ Fricon sr

Fig. 15 Most commonly used/researched secondary processing methods.

Equal Channel Cyclic Extrusion

Fig. 16 Most commonly used/researched severe plastic deformation methods.

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