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ENCYCLOPEDIA OF MATERIALS:
COMPOSITES
Volume 1
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF MATERIALS:
COMPOSITES
EDITOR IN CHIEF
Dermot Brabazon
I-Form, Advanced Manufacturing Research Centre, and Advanced Processing Technology
Research Centre, School of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering,
Dublin City University, Dublin, Ireland
Volume 1
Section Editors
Section 1: Metal Matrix Composite Materials, Edited by Manoj Gupta
Section 2: Polymer Matrix Composite Materials, Edited by Dermot Brabazon
AMSTERDAM BOSTON HEIDELBERG LONDON NEW YORK OXFORD

PARIS SAN DIEGO SAN FRANCISCO SINGAPORE SYDNEY TOKYO
Elsevier
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CONTENTS OF VOLUME 1
Contents of Volume 1 v
List of Contributors for Volume 1 xi
Editorial Board xvii
Preface xix
VOLUME 1
Section 1: Metal Matrix Composite Materials, Edited by Manoj Gupta
Introduction to Metal Matrix Composite Materials: An Introduction

Manoj Gupta 1
Fundamentals of Metal Matrix Composites
Sankaranarayanan Seetharaman and Manoj Gupta 11
An Insight Into Metal Matrix Composites With Micron Size Reinforcement
Arsha Antony Geetha, Madhusoodhanan Geethakumari Akhil, Thazhavilai Ponnu Devaraj Rajan, and
Ballambettu Chandrasekhara Pai 30
An Insight Into Metal Matrix Composites With Nano Size Reinforcement
Massoud Malaki 42
An Insight Into Magnesium Based Metal Matrix Composites With Hybrid Reinforcement
Sankaranarayanan Seetharaman, Subramanian Jayalakshmi, Ramachandra Arvind Singh, and Manoj Gupta 52
Metal Based Composites With Metastable/Amorphous Reinforcements
Penchal Reddy Matli and Manoj Gupta 78
Development and Properties of Amorphous Particles Reinforced Al Matrix Nanocomposites
Adnan Khan, Mattli M Reddy, Penchal Reddy Matli, Rana A Shakoor, and Manoj Gupta 96
Metal Matrix Syntactic Composites
Vyasaraj Manakari, Gururaj Parande, Manoj Gupta, and Mrityunjay Doddamani 109
Insight Into Layered Metal Matrix Composites
Akshay Padnuru Sripathy and Manoj Gupta 121
Eco-friendly Metal Matrix Composites
Gururaj Parande, Vyasaraj Manakari, and Manoj Gupta 140
Liquid Phase Processing of Metal Matrix Composites
Madhusoodhanan Geethakumari Akhil, Kaimanikal Madhurananthan Nair Sree Manu, Thazhavilai Ponnu
Devaraj Rajan, and Ballambettu Chandrasekhara Pai 160
Solid Phase Processing of Metal Matrix Composites
Mingyang Zhou, Lingbao Ren, Gaofeng Quan, and Manoj Gupta 173
Two Phase Processing of Metal Matrix Composites
Penchal Reddy Matli, Tirumalai Srivatsan, and Manoj Gupta 197
v
vi Contents of Volume 1
Additive Manufacturing of Metal Matrix Composites

Sankaranarayanan Seetharaman and Manoj Gupta 209
Severe Plastic Deformation Processing of Metal Matrix Composites
Sankaranarayanan Seetharaman, Ankita Mandal, and Manoj Gupta 230
Friction Stir Processing of Metal Matrix Composites
VK Bupesh Raja and Manoj Gupta 247
An Insight Into Processing Maps of Metal Matrix Composites
Biranchi N Sahoo and Sushanta K Panigrahi 257
Microstructural Aspects of Metal-Matrix Composites
Devadas Bhat Panemangalore and Rajashekhara Shabadi 274
Tensile Characteristics of Metal Matrix Composites
Milli S Kujur, Ved P Dubey, Ashis Mallick, and Manoj Gupta 298
Tensile Response of Al-Based Nanocomposites
Penchal Reddy Matli, Vyasaraj Manakari, Gururaj Parande, and Manoj Gupta 313
Compressive Response of Aluminum Metal Matrix Composites
Ramanathan Arunachalam and Pradeep K Krishnan 325
Fatigue Behavior of Magnesium Matrix Composites
Sravya Tekumalla and Manoj Gupta 344
High-Temperature Properties of Metal Matrix Composites
Oluseyi P Oladijo, Samuel A Awe, Esther T Akinlabi, Resego R Phiri, Lebudi L Collieus, and Rebaone E Phuti 360
Creep Characteristics of Metal Matrix Composites
Hong Yang, Sarkis Gavras, and Hajo Dieringa 375
Tribological Properties of Light Metal Matrix Composites
Jitendra K Katiyar, Jaafar Al Hammad, and Abdul Samad Mohammed 389
Mechanical and Tribological Properties of Aluminum Based Metal Matrix Nanocomposites
Mir Irfan Ul Haq, Sanjay Mohan, Ankush Raina, Subramanian Jayalakshmi, Ramachandra Arvind Singh,
Xizhang Chen, Sergey Konovalov, and Manoj Gupta 402
Damping Characteristics of Metal Matrix Composites
Penchal Reddy Matli and Manoj Gupta 415
Electromagnetic Shielding Capabilities of Metal Matrix Composites
Anisha Chaudhary, Vinay Gupta, Satish Teotia, Subhash Nimanpure, and Dipen K Rajak 428
Corrosion Characteristics of Metal Matrix Composites
Devadas Bhat Panemangalore and Udaya Bhat K 442
Coating Technologies for Metal Matrix Composites
Sumit Pramanik and Kamal K Kar 454
Biocompatibility of Metal Matrix Composites Used for Biomedical Applications
Somasundaram Prasadh, Santhosh Suresh, Vaishnavi Ratheesh, Raymond Wong, and Manoj Gupta 474
Joining of Metal Matrix Composites
VK Bupesh Raja and Manoj Gupta 502
High Performance Machining of Metal Matrix Composites
Keng S Woon 512
Application of Metal Matrix Composites in Engineering Sectors
Dipen K Rajak and Pradeep L Menezes 525
Contents of Volume 1 vii
Metal Matrix Composites for Automotive Components in Depth Case Study: Development
of Automotive Brake Disc
Nanang Fatchurrohman and Shamsuddin Sulaiman 540
Application of Metal Matrix Composites in Non-Structural Applications
Mubarak Ali M, Mohamed Thariq, Vishwesh Dikshit, and Bhudolia S Kumar 557
Section 2: Polymer Matrix Composite Materials, Edited by Dermot Brabazon
Introduction: Polymer Matrix Composite Materials

Dermot Brabazon 563
Particulate Reinforced Polymer Matrix Composites
Overview of Mechanical and Physicochemical Properties of Polymer Matrix Composites

Kai Bin Liew, Choon Fu Goh, Sajid Asghar, and Haroon K Syed 565
Processing of Polymers and Their Composites: A Review
Jaspreet Singh, Kulwinder Singh, JS Saini, and Mohammed SJ Hashmi 577
Tailored Behavior of Polymer Matrix Composite Materials
Yousef Tamsilian, Samira Alvani, Fatemeh Abdolkhani, and Elham Khademi Moghadam 604
Effect of Particle Size and Content of Crumb Rubber on the Dynamic Properties of Passenger Tyre
Tread Using Finite Element Method
Adnan A Alshukri, Faieza A Aziz, Mohd S Salit, Nuraini A Aziz, and Mohammed Al-Maamori 615
Overview of Surface Roughness Effect on Silver Nanoparticle Filled Epoxy Composites
MA Salim, R Hamidi, and AM Saad 628
Polymer Single-Screw Extrusion With Metal Powder Reinforcement
Rupinder Singh, N Singh, P Bedi, and IPS Ahuja 671
Polymer Twin Screw Extrusion With Filler Powder Reinforcement
Rupinder Singh, Sunpreet Singh, and Mohammed SJ Hashmi 691
The Effect of In-Situ-Formed Silver Nanoparticles on the Morphological Properties of Epoxy Resin
Filled Composites
MA Salim, R Hamidi, and AM Saad 706
Toughening Mechanisms of Devulcanized Rubber Modified Epoxy Based Composites Reinforced
With Zirconia
Alaeddin B Irez, Emin Bayraktar, and Ibrahim Miskioglu 713
Polymer Nanocomposite Characterization and Applications
Mahsa Shirazi, Gholamreza Masoudi Rad, and Yousef Tamsilian 725
Fibre Reinforced Polymer Matrix Composites
Effect of Fiber Orientation on the Mechanical Properties of Laminated Polymer Composites

N Ghamarian, Mohamed AA Hanim, P Penjumras, and Dayang LA Majid 746
Tensile Properties of Woven Intra-Ply Carbon/Kevlar Reinforced Epoxy Hybrid Composite at Sub-
Ambient Temperature
Nurain Hashim, Dayang LA Majid, Danish M Baitab, Noorfaizal Yidris, and Rizal Zahari 766
Thermoplastic Composites for Fused Deposition Modeling Filament: Challenges and Applications
Kamaljit S Boparai and Rupinder Singh 774
viii Contents of Volume 1
Biomedical Applications of Polymer Matrix Composites
Hydroxyapatite Based Polymer Composites for Regenerative Medicine Applications

Luis J del Valle and Jordi Puiggalí 785
Biopolymer Matrix Composite for Drug Delivery Applications in Cancer
Ankit Jain, Madhavi Tripathi, Shiv K Prajapati, and Ashok M Raichur 804
Covalent and Electrostatic Protein-Polysaccharide Systems for Encapsulation of Nutraceuticals
Hadis Rostamabadi, Seid Reza Falsafi, and Seid Mahdi Jafari 818
Polymer Matrix Composites Containing Carbon Nanomaterials for Medical Applications
Maryam Ahmadzadeh Tofighy, Soha Habibi, and Toraj Mohammadi 832
Biopolymer Matrix Composites for New Medical Applications
Zahra Shariatinia 842
Poly(methyl methacrylate)-Based Composite Bone Cements With Different Types of Reinforcement
Agents
Sanaz Soleymani Eil Bakhtiari, Hamid Reza Bakhsheshi-Rad, Saeed Karbasi, Ahmad Fauzi Ismail,
Safian Sharif, Alexander Seifalian, Houman Savoji, and Filippo Berto 867
Hydrogel Composite Films for Wound Healing
Ikram U Khan, Huma Mahmood, Yasser Shahzad, Sajid Asghar, and Haroon K Syed 887
Polymer Composites for Organ Reconstruction
Haroon K Syed, Sajid Asghar, Kai Bin Liew, Ikram U Khan, Fizza A Razzaq, and Saba Rafique 905
Overview of Additive Manufacturing Biopolymer Composites
Bankole I Oladapo, S Abolfazl Zahedi, Vincent A Balogun, Sikiru O Ismail, and Yarjan A Samad 915
Marine Polysaccharide-Based Composite Hydrogels
Saad Salman, Syed H Khalid, Ikram U Khan, Sajid Asghar, Fahad H Shah, and Muniba Tariq 929
Other Application Areas for Polymer Matrix Composites
Multifunctional Polymer Matrix Composites

Sajid Asghar, Haroon K Syed, Kai Bin Liew, Ikram U Khan, and Saad Salman 937
Polymer Matrix Composite Materials for Aerospace Applications
Subramani Devaraju and Muthukaruppan Alagar 947
Tribology of Polymer Matrix Composites Within the Automotive Industry
Leonardo I Farfan-Cabrera, Monica Tapia-Gaspar, and José Pérez-González 970
Polymer Matrix Composites Materials for Water and Wastewater Treatment Applications
Maryam Ahmadzadeh Tofighy and Toraj Mohammadi 983
Nanomaterial-Incorporated Polymer Composites for Industrial Effluent: From Synthesis to
Application
Yousef Tamsilian, Mahsa Shirazi, and Gholamreza Masoudi Rad 998
New and Emerging Processing Methods for Polymer Matrix Composites
Additive Manufacturing of Polymer Matrix Composites

Farnoosh Pahlevanzadeh, Hamid Reza Bakhsheshi-Rad, Dermot Brabazon, Mahshid Kharaziha,
Ahmad Fauzi Ismail, Safian Sharif, Mahmood Razzaghi, and Filippo Berto 1013
New Design Consideration of Polymer Matrix Composite Materials
Peng Liu 1029
Contents of Volume 1 ix
Thermal and Morphological Analyses of Polymer Matrix Composites

Subramani Devaraju, Arumugam Hariharan, Krishnasamy Balaji, and Muthukaruppan Alagar 1038
A New Design of Epoxy Based Composites Reinforced With Devulcanized Rubber, Alumina Fiber
and BN
Alaeddin B Irez, Emin Bayraktar, and Ibrahim Miskioglu 1069
Development of Low-Cost Graphene-Polymer Blended In-House Filament for Fused Deposition
Modeling
Rupinder Singh and Ranvijay Kumar 1081
PLA Composite Matrix as Functional Prototypes for Four Dimensional Applications
Sudhir Kumar, Rupinder Singh, Tajinder P Singh, and Ajay Batish 1091
Extrusion-Based Additive Manufacturing Techniques for Biomedical Applications
Ghazal Tadayyon, Daniel J Kelly, and Michael G Monaghan 1101
Preparation and Applications of Synergically Combined Polymer Matrix Composites
Shashank T Mhaske and Arjit Gadgeel 1112
LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS FOR VOLUME 1
Fatemeh Abdolkhani Danish M. Baitab

Shahid Chamran University of Ahvaz, Ahvaz, Iran University Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Selangor Darul
Ehsan, Malaysia
I.P.S. Ahuja
Punjabi University Patiala, Patiala, India Hamid Reza Bakhsheshi-Rad
Advanced Materials Research Center, Department of
Madhusoodhanan Geethakumari Akhil
Materials Engineering, Najafabad Branch, Islamic Azad
Council of Scientific & Industrial Research, National
University, Najafabad, Iran and Faculty of Engineering,
Institute for Interdisciplinary Science and Technology,
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Johor Bahru, Johor,
Trivandrum, Kerala, India and Academy of Scientific
Malaysia
and Innovative Research, Ghaziabad, New Delhi, India
Krishnasamy Balaji
Esther T. Akinlabi
PSG Institute of Technology and Applied Research,
Pan African University for Life and Earth Sciences
Coimbatore, India
Institute, Ibadan, Nigeria
Mohammed Al-Maamori Vincent A. Balogun
University of Babylon-Iraq, Babylon, Iraq Edo University Iyamho, Iyamho, Edo State, Nigeria
Muthukaruppan Alagar Ajay Batish

PSG Institute of Technology and Applied Research, Thapar Institute of Engineering and Technology, Patiala,
Coimbatore, India India
Mubarak Ali M Emin Bayraktar

TKM College of Engineering, Kollam, Kerala, India Supmeca-Paris, School of Mechanical and
Manufacturing Engineering, Saint-Ouen, France
Adnan A. Alshukri
University Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia P. Bedi
and State Company for Rubber and Tyres Industry, Guru Nanak Dev Engineering College, Ludhiana, India
Najaf, Iraq Filippo Berto
Samira Alvani Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering,
Shahid Chamran University of Ahvaz, Ahvaz, Iran Norwegian University of Science and Technology,
Trondheim, Norway
Ramanathan Arunachalam
Sultan Qaboos University, Muscat, Oman Udaya Bhat K
Department of Metallurgical and Materials Engineering,
Sajid Asghar National Institute of Technology Karnataka, Surathkal,
Department of Pharmaceutics, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Srinivasnagar, Karnataka, India
Sciences, Government College University Faisalabad,
Faisalabad, Pakistan Devadas Bhat Panemangalore
Department of Metallurgical and Materials Engineering,
Samuel A. Awe National Institute of Technology Karnataka, Surathkal,
Automotive Components Floby AB, Floby, Sweden Srinivasnagar, Karnataka, India
Faieza A. Aziz
Kamaljit S. Boparai
University Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
MRS Punjab Technical University, Bathinda, India
Nuraini A. Aziz
Dermot Brabazon
University Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
I-Form, Advanced Manufacturing Research Centre, and
Jaafar Al Hammad Advanced Processing Technology Research Centre, School
King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals, of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering, Dublin
Dhahran, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia City University, Dublin, Ireland
Mohamed A.A. Hanim Anisha Chaudhary
Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia University of Delhi, New Delhi, India
xi
xii List of Contributors for Volume 1
Xizhang Chen Manoj Gupta

Wenzhou University, Wenzhou, China National University of Singapore, Singapore
Lebudi L. Collieus Vinay Gupta
Botswana International University of Science and University of Delhi, New Delhi, India
Technology, Palapye, Botswana
Soha Habibi
Luis J. del Valle Iran University of Science and Technology, Tehran, Iran
Chemical Engineering Department, Polytechnic
University of Catalonia, Barcelona, Spain R. Hamidi
Technical University of Malaysia Melaka, Durian
Subramani Devaraju Tunggal, Melaka, Malaysia
Vignan’s Foundation for Science, Technology and
Research, Guntur, India Arumugam Hariharan
PSG Institute of Technology and Applied Research,
Hajo Dieringa Coimbatore, India
Helmholtz-Zentrum Geesthacht, Geesthacht, Germany
Nurain Hashim
Vishwesh Dikshit University Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Selangor Darul
Nanyang Technological University, Singapore Ehsan, Malaysia
Mrityunjay Doddamani Mohammed S.J. Hashmi
National Institute of Technology Karnataka, Surathkal, Dublin City University, Dublin, Ireland
Karnataka, India
Alaeddin B. Irez
Ved P. Dubey CentraleSupélec, University Paris-Saclay, Gif-sur-Yvette,
Indian Institute of Technology (Indian School of Mines) France and University Paris-Saclay, Gif-sur-Yvette,
Dhanbad, Dhanbad, India France
Seid Reza Falsafi Sikiru O. Ismail
Gorgan University of Agricultural Sciences and Natural University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield, United Kingdom
Resources, Gorgan, Iran
Seid Mahdi. Jafari
Leonardo I. Farfan-Cabrera Gorgan University of Agricultural Sciences and Natural
Tecnologico de Monterrey, Escuela de Ingeniería y Resources, Gorgan, Iran
Ciencias, Monterrey, México
Ankit Jain
Nanang Fatchurrohman Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, Karnataka, India
Universiti Malaysia Pahang, Pekan, Pahang, Malaysia
Subramanian Jayalakshmi
Ahmad Fauzi Ismail Wenzhou University, Wenzhou, China
Advanced Membrane Technology Research Center
(AMTEC), Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Johor Bahru, Kamal K. Kar
Johor, Malaysia Department of Mechanical Engineering and Materials
Science Programme, Indian Institute of Technology
Arjit Gadgeel
Kanpur, Kanpur, India
Institute of Chemical Technology, Mumbai, India
Saeed Karbasi
Sarkis Gavras
Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering Department, School
Helmholtz-Zentrum Geesthacht, Geesthacht, Germany
of Advanced Technologies in Medicine, Isfahan
Arsha Antony Geetha University of Medical Sciences, Isfahan, Iran
Council of Scientific & Industrial Research–National
Jitendra K. Katiyar
SRM Institute of Science and Technology, Chennai,
Tamil Nadu, India
Daniel J. Kelly
N. Ghamarian
Trinity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland; Advance
Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
Materials and BioEngineering Research(AMBER) Centre
Choon Fu Goh at Trinity College Dublin and the Royal College of
Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang, Malaysia Surgeons in Ireland, Dublin, Ireland; and Centre for
List of Contributors for Volume 1 xiii
Research in Medical Devices (CURAM), National Vyasaraj Manakari

University of Ireland, Galway, Ireland National University of Singapore, Singapore
Syed H. Khalid Ankita Mandal
Department of Pharmaceutics, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi, India
Kaimanikal Madhurananthan Nair Sree Manu
Faisalabad, Pakistan
Council of Scientific & Industrial Research, National
Adnan Khan Institute for Interdisciplinary Science and Technology,
Qatar University, Doha, Qatar Trivandrum, Kerala, India and Brunel University,
London, United Kingdom
Ikram U. Khan
Department of Pharmaceutics, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Pradeep L. Menezes
Sciences, Government College University Faisalabad, University of Nevada, Reno, NV, United States
Shashank T. Mhaske
Mahshid Kharaziha Institute of Chemical Technology, Mumbai, India
Department of Materials Engineering, Isfahan University
Ibrahim Miskioglu
of Technology, Isfahan, Iran
Michigan Technological University ME-EM Department,
Sergey Konovalov Houghton, MI, United States
Samara National Research University, Samara, Russia Elham Khademi Moghadam
Pradeep K. Krishnan Shahid Chamran University of Ahvaz, Ahvaz, Iran
National University of Science and Technology, Muscat, Toraj Mohammadi
Oman Iran University of Science and Technology, Tehran, Iran
Milli S. Kujur Abdul Samad Mohammed
Indian Institute of Technology (Indian School of Mines) King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals,
Dhanbad, Dhanbad, India Dhahran, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
Bhudolia S. Kumar Sanjay Mohan
Nanyang Technological University, Singapore Shri Mata Vaishno Devi University, Katra, Jammu,
Ranvijay Kumar India
Guru Nanak Dev Engineering College, Ludhiana, India Michael G. Monaghan
Sudhir Kumar Trinity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland; Advance
Thapar Institute of Engineering and Technology, Patiala, Materials and BioEngineering Research(AMBER) Centre
India at Trinity College Dublin and the Royal College of
Surgeons in Ireland, Dublin, Ireland; and Centre for
Kai Bin Liew Research in Medical Devices (CURAM), National
University of Cyberjaya, Cyberjaya, Selangor, Malaysia University of Ireland, Galway, Ireland
Peng Liu Subhash Nimanpure
Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, China Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, National
Physical Laboratory, New Delhi, India
Huma Mahmood
Department of Pharmaceutics, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Bankole I. Oladapo
Sciences, Government College University Faisalabad, De Montfort University, Leicester, United Kingdom
Oluseyi P. Oladijo
Dayang L.A. Majid Botswana International University of Science and
University Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Selangor Darul Technology, Palapye, Botswana and University of
Ehsan, Malaysia Johannesburg, Johannesburg, Gauteng, South Africa
Massoud Malaki Akshay Padnuru Sripathy
Isfahan University of Technology, Isfahan, Iran National University of Singapore, Singapore
Ashis Mallick Farnoosh Pahlevanzadeh
Indian Institute of Technology (Indian School of Mines) Department of Materials Engineering, Isfahan University
Dhanbad, Dhanbad, India of Technology, Isfahan, Iran
xiv List of Contributors for Volume 1
Ballambettu Chandrasekhara Pai V.K. Bupesh Raja

Council of Scientific & Industrial Research, National Sathyabama Institute of Science and Technology,
Institute for Interdisciplinary Science and Technology, Chennai, India
Trivandrum, Kerala, India
Dipen K. Rajak
Sushanta K. Panigrahi Sandip Institute of Technology and Research Centre,
Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai, India Nashik, Maharashtra, India
Gururaj Parande Thazhavilai Ponnu Devaraj Rajan
National University of Singapore, Singapore Council of Scientific & Industrial Research, National
P. Penjumras
Universiti Putra Malaysia, Selangor, Malaysia and
Maejo University-Phrae Campus, Phrae, Thailand
José Pérez-González Vaishnavi Ratheesh
Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Escuela Superior deFísica National University Centre for Oral Health, Singapore
y Matemáticas, Ciudad de México, México
Mahmood Razzaghi
Resego R. Phiri Advanced Materials Research Center, Department of
Botswana International University of Science and Materials Engineering, Najafabad Branch, Islamic Azad
Technology, Palapye, Botswana University, Najafabad, Iran
Rebaone E. Phuti Fizza A. Razzaq

Botswana International University of Science and Department of Pharmaceutics, Faculty of Pharmaceutical
Technology, Palapye, Botswana Sciences, Government College University Faisalabad,
Shiv K. Prajapati
Ram-Eesh Institute of Vocational and Technical Mattli M. Reddy
Education, Greater Noida, Uttar Pradesh Qatar University, Doha, Qatar
Sumit Pramanik Penchal Reddy Matli
Department of Mechanical Engineering, SRM Institute National University of Singapore, Singapore
of Science and Technology, Kancheepuram, Tamil Nadu,
India Lingbao Ren
Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an, China
Somasundaram Prasadh
National University Centre for Oral Health, Singapore Hadis Rostamabadi
Gorgan University of Agricultural Sciences and Natural
Jordi Puiggalí Resources, Gorgan, Iran
Chemical Engineering Department, Polytechnic
University of Catalonia, Barcelona, Spain A.M. Saad
Technical University of Malaysia Melaka, Durian
Gaofeng Quan
Tunggal, Melaka, Malaysia
Southwest Jiaotong University, Chengdu, China
Gholamreza Masoudi Rad Biranchi N. Sahoo

Petroleum University of Technology, Ahvaz, Iran Sardar Vallabhbhai National Institute of Technology,
Surat, Gujarat, India
Saba Rafique
Department of Pharmaceutics, Faculty of Pharmaceutical J.S. Saini
Sciences, Government College University, Faisalabad, Thapar Institute of Engineering and Technology, Patiala,
Faisalabad, Pakistan Punjab, India
Ashok M. Raichur M.A. Salim

Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, Karnataka, India Technical University of Malaysia Melaka, Durian
Tunggal, Melaka, Malaysia
Ankush Raina
Shri Mata Vaishno Devi University, Katra, Jammu, Mohd S. Salit
India University Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
List of Contributors for Volume 1 xv
Saad Salman Sunpreet Singh

Department of Pharmaceutics, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Guru Nanak Dev Engineering College, Ludhiana, India
Tajinder P. Singh
Thapar Institute of Engineering and Technology, Patiala,
Yarjan A. Samad India
University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
Sanaz Soleymani Eil Bakhtiari
Houman Savoji Advanced Materials Research Center, Department of
Institute of Biomedical Engineering, Department of Materials Engineering, Najafabad Branch, Islamic Azad
Pharmacology and Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, University, Najafabad, Iran
University of Montreal, CHU Sainte Justine Research
Tirumalai Srivatsan
Center, Montreal TransMedTech Institute, Canada
The University of Akron, Akron, OH, United States
Sankaranarayanan Seetharaman
Shamsuddin Sulaiman
National University of Singapore, Singapore
Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
Alexander Seifalian
Santhosh Suresh
Nanotechnology and Regenerative Medicine
National University Centre for Oral Health, Singapore
Commercialisation Centre (NanoRegMed Ltd), London
BioScience Innovation Centre, London, United Kingdom Haroon K. Syed
Department of Pharmaceutics, Faculty of Pharmaceutical
Rajashekhara Shabadi
Univ. Lille, CNRS, INRAE, Centrale Lille, UMR 8207 -
UMET - Unité Matériaux et Transformations, F-59000
Lille, France Ghazal Tadayyon
Trinity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
Fahad H. Shah
University of Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan Yousef Tamsilian
Shahid Chamran University of Ahvaz, Ahvaz, Iran
Yasser Shahzad
Department of Pharmacy, COMSATS University Monica Tapia-Gaspar
Islamabad, Lahore, Pakistan Tecnologico de Monterrey, Escuela de Ingeniería y
Ciencias, Monterrey, México
Rana A. Shakoor
Qatar University, Doha, Qatar Muniba Tariq
The University of Lahore, Islamabad Campus,
Zahra Shariatinia
Islamabad, Pakistan
Amirkabir University of Technology, Tehran, Iran
Sravya Tekumalla
Safian Sharif
Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia,
Johor Bahru, Johor, Malaysia Satish Teotia
Khalifa University of Science & Technology, Abu Dhabi,
Mahsa Shirazi
United Arab Emirates
Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran
Mohamed Thariq
Jaspreet Singh
University Putra Malaysia, Seri Kembangan, Malaysia
Thapar Institute of Engineering and Technology, Patiala,
Punjab, India Maryam Ahmadzadeh Tofighy
Iran University of Science and Technology, Tehran, Iran
Kulwinder Singh
Thapar Institute of Engineering and Technology, Patiala, Madhavi Tripathi
Punjab, India Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, Karnataka, India
N. Singh Mir Irfan Ul Haq
Guru Nanak Dev Engineering College, Ludhiana, India Shri Mata Vaishno Devi University, Katra, Jammu, India
Ramachandra Arvind Singh Raymond Wong
Wenzhou University, Wenzhou, China National University Centre for Oral Health, Singapore
Rupinder Singh Keng S. Woon
Guru Nanak Dev Engineering College, Ludhiana, India National University of Singapore, Singapore
xvi List of Contributors for Volume 1
Hong Yang S. Abolfazl Zahedi

Helmholtz-Zentrum Geesthacht, Geesthacht, Germany De Montfort University, Leicester, United Kingdom
Noorfaizal Yidris
University Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Selangor Darul
Ehsan, Malaysia Mingyang Zhou
Science and Technology on Reactor System Design
Rizal Zahari Technology Laboratory, Nuclear Power Institute of
University Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Selangor Darul China, Chengdu, China
Ehsan, Malaysia
EDITORIAL BOARD
Editor in Chief
Dermot Brabazon
I-Form, Advanced Manufacturing Research Centre, and Advanced Processing Technology Research Centre, School of Mechanical and
Manufacturing Engineering, Dublin City University, Dublin, Ireland
Section Editors
Manoj Gupta, Section 1: Metal Matrix Composite Materials
Department of Mechanical Engineering, NUS, Singapore
Dermot Brabazon, Section 2: Polymer Matrix Composite Materials

Fatima Zivic, Section 3: Ceramics Matrix Composites
Faculty of Engineering, University of Kragujevac, Kragujevac, Serbia
Eva Pellicer, Section 4: Smart Composite Materials
Departament de Física, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Campus de la UAB, Barcelona, Spain
Dermot Brabazon, Section 5: Processing of Composite Materials and Physical Characteristics
Robertt Valente, Section 6: Design Methods for Composite Materials

Center for Mechanical Technology and Automation, Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Aveiro, Portugal
Mohamed El Mansori, Section 7: Nature Based and Inspired Composite Materials

Arts et Metiers Institute of Technology, Mechanics Surfaces and Materials Processing, HESAM Université, Châlons-en-Champagne, France
Texas A& M Engineering Experiment Station, Institute for Manufacturing Systems, College Station, Texas, United States
Lorna Fitzsimons, Section 8: Life Cycle Analysis and Sustainability of Composite Materials
Advanced Processing Technology Research Centre, School of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering and the Water Institute, Dublin City
University, Dublin, Ireland
Antonello Astarita, Section 9: Joining of Composite Materials

Department of Chemical, Materials and Industrial Production Engineering, University of Naples Federico II, Naples, Italy
xvii
PREFACE
This is the first Encyclopedia of Materials: Composites published by Elsevier which presents a vast and widely encompassing content in
the area of composite materials science and engineering. Composite materials have become even more important and ubiquitous
over the recent decades due to the many advantages that they can provide over single monolithic materials. This includes
improvements in the properties such as the physical, electrical, chemical, optical and magnetic properties which can be achieved by
combining two or more materials.
The two main types of composites, Metal and Polymer matrix based, are presented in detail within Sections 1 and 2 respectively
while Ceramic matrix composites are presented in Section 3. Smart composites which is an area that is growing fast with increasing
industrial relevance is covered in Section 4. Assessing the properties of composite materials thereby enabling their application is a
crucial aspect of composite materials development and usage. As such, Section 5 presents the testing methods used and property
results from the testing of composite materials. The design of composite materials is covered in Section 6. The recyclability and
sustainability of materials used in products is an ever more important topic. There are some challenges to achieve well the
recyclability of composite constructs. The Encyclopedia presented two Sections covering this one (Section 7) covering nature based
composites and another covering the life cycle analysis of composite materials (Section 8). In the last section of the Encyclopedia,
Section 9 covers how to join composite materials together and with more conventional monolithic materials.
As an Encyclopedia, these sections were prepared to be the primary central source of background knowledge for undergraduate,
postgraduate and researchers studying or working with composites. The audience of this work covers both academic and industrial
researchers. In todays’ composite materials market, engineers, architects, and even policy makers, need reference literature where to
find definitions, concepts and state-of-the-art knowledge. As such this Encyclopedia will be an invaluable reference for engineers,
architects, scientists, and policy makers.
Each section contains articles written by world experts in their area. As well as providing the latest background information, the
state of the art in the niche areas is presented in the individual articles. A particular concern in preparing these articles by the
authors and Section editors was to make the content as accessible as possible to the reader. This is important given the multi-
disciplinary nature of people working on the development and implementation of composite materials.
I take this opportunity to thank the 337 authors from across the world who have contributed the 171 articles to this
Encyclopedia. It has been enjoyable to work with you are encouraging to see your expertise, interest and desire to help others from
your contribution. With the many co-authored articles, there has been extensive collaboration which has resulted in a more
informed and well-presented Encyclopedia content for the reader.
I am indebted also to the members of the Editorial team who have worked many long hours over the last couple of years to provide
feedback and iterate on articles with the authors. The Editorial team have collectively many years of expertise working in their research
areas. This team was formed via a variety networking events including conferences such as ESAFORM and Global Conference on
Nanomaterial Forming (Manoj Gupta, Robertt Valente, Antonella Astarita), EU research projects and COST Actions (Fatima Zivic and
Eva Maria Pellicer), and via other Dublin City University and sustainable engineering networking events (Mohamed El Mansori and
Lorna Fitzsimons). I thank the Elsevier Major Reference Works team who supported in a professional manner the compiling of this
work. In particular, I thank Laura Jackson, Sajana P K, and Ruth Rhodes for their direction and support throughout the preparation of
this Encyclopedia.
Dermot Brabazon
May 2021
xix
Introduction to Metal Matrix Composite Materials: An Introduction
Manoj Gupta, National University of Singapore, Singapore
r 2021 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
Introducing Composites
Composite refers to a material that is an outcome of unification of two different class of materials (Fig. 1) (Ceschini et al., 2016;
Gupta and Sharon, 2011). To note that composites were used in making bricks in prehistoric times and more importantly by
nature in providing functionality to both plants and animals including humans. The keen observations made by humans led to
development of modern composites including MMCs.
Composites can traditionally be classified using two approaches:
(1) Matrix based.
(2) Reinforcement based.
Schematics of these approaches to classify composites are shown in Figs. 2 and 3, respectively. For matrix-based classifications,
there may be other matrices such as Carbon matrix but they are more specialized types and do not come under mainstream
composites.
Based on reinforcements, the composites can be classified as (see Fig. 4):
(1) Continuously reinforced composites.

(2) Discontinuously reinforced composites.
Continuously reinforced composites display anisotropic properties while discontinuously reinforced composites exhibit iso-
tropic properties.
Based on length scale of reinforcements, the composites can further be classified as shown in Fig. 5. Each of these types of
composites have their unique advantages and limitations and their selection for industrial applications depends largely on the
properties requirements of the end applications.
Selection of metallic matrix for a composite is based on the combination of chemical, physical, thermal and mechanical
properties and cost factor depending on the requirements of end applications (Fig. 6) (Lloyd, 1994; Ibrahim et al., 1991).
Similarly, the selection of reinforcement is based on similar factors including the directionality of properties (isotropic or
anisotropic) and compatibility with matrix (see Fig. 7).
Metal Matrix Composites – Matrix and Reinforcements
Metal matrix composites (MMCs) represent conscious unification of metallic matrix and at least one reinforcement. The rein-
forcement can be (Ceschini et al., 2016; Gupta and Sharon, 2011; Lloyd, 1994; Ibrahim et al., 1991; Jayalakshmi and Gupta, 2015):
(1) Metallic.
(2) Ceramic (oxides, carbides, nitrides, borides).
(3) Intermetallic.
(4) Carbon based (CNT, graphene, buckyball, graphene oxide).
(5) Hollow (cenospheres, metal or ceramic based).
(6) Hybrid (combination of above and combination of length scales).
(7) Amorphous.
(8) Multicomponent alloys.
Most commonly used metallic matrices include but not limited to the following:
(1) Aluminum and its alloys.

(2) Magnesium and its alloys.
(3) Iron and its alloys.
(4) Nickel and its alloys.
(5) Copper and its alloys.
(6) Tin and its alloys.
(7) Titanium and its alloys.
Major factors that govern the properties of MMCs are based on: (a) Processing and (b) Constituents and (c) Microstructure
(see Fig. 8) (Lloyd, 1994; Ibrahim et al., 1991).
The capability of primary processing type on the microstructure and properties realization is expressed in Fig. 9.
Encyclopedia of Materials: Composites, Volume 1 doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-819724-0.00044-6 1

2 Introduction to Metal Matrix Composite Materials: An Introduction
Fig. 1 Definition of composite.
Fig. 2 Matrix based classification of composites.
Parcle
Reinforced
Composites
Layered Reinforcement Fiber reinforced

Composites Composites
Interconnected
Reinforcement
Based
Composites
Fig. 3 Reinforcement based classification of composites.

Introduction to Metal Matrix Composite Materials: An Introduction 3
Fig. 4 Continuously (left) and discontinuously (right) reinforced composites.
Fig. 5 Classification of composites based on length scale of reinforcement.
Fig. 6 Factors related to selection of matrix.
The major (not limited to) matrix and reinforcement related factors that govern the end properties of MMCs are shown in
Figs. 10 and 11, respectively (Ceschini et al., 2016; Gupta and Sharon, 2011; Lloyd, 1994; Ibrahim et al., 1991).
Metal Matrix Composites – Processing
As indicated in Fig. 9, MMCs can primary processed using following economically viable routes (Lloyd, 1994; Ibrahim et al., 1991):
(1) Liquid phase methods.
(2) Solid phase methods.
(3) Two phase methods.
There are other methods that are being researched but those methods are still in the developmental stages for scalable and/or
economical production. The liquid, solid and two-phase methods are listed in Figs. 12–14.
Among the liquid phase methods, the one including ultrasonic probes/transmitters are relatively new developments that have
shown promising results.
Fig. 7 Factors controlling selection of reinforcement.
Fig. 8 Major factors governing the properties of MMCs.
Fig. 9 Processing type effects on microstructure and properties of MMCs.

Fig. 10 Matrix related factors governing the properties of MMCs.
Fig. 11 Reinforcement related factors governing the properties of MMCs.
Liquid Phase
Processing
In-situ Ultrasonic Liquid metal

Sr Casng Die Casng
Processing Processing Infiltraon
Fig. 12 Most commonly used/researched methods to synthesize MMCs using liquid phase processing.
Among powder metallurgy methods, use of microwave sintering (Gupta and Leong, 2007), spark plasma sintering (Azarniya
et al., 2017), flake powder metallurgy (Xu et al., 2017), molecular level mixing (Bakshi et al., 2010) and friction stir processing
(Eskandari et al., 2016) are relatively new processes with significant potential.
Two phase methods probably were most exciting from metallurgical point of view, however, their utility in industrial
processing is limited. Disintegrated melt deposition technique is the latest process in this category with potential of scalability at a
very low equipment and infrastructural costs.
Solid Phase
Processing
Powder Semi-powder Flake Powder Molecular Level In-situ Fricon sr

Metallurgy Metallurgy Metallurgy Mixing Process synthesis Processing
Fig. 13 Most commonly used/researched methods to synthesize MMCs using solid phase processing.
Two Phase
Processing
Spray
Disintegrated
Rheocasng Atomizaon and Osprey Process
Melt Deposion
Deposion
Fig. 14 Most commonly used/researched methods to synthesize MMCs using two phase processing.
Secondary
Processing
Techniques
Severe Plasc
Rolling Forging Extrusion
Deformaon
Fig. 15 Most commonly used/researched secondary processing methods.
Severe Plasc
Deformaon
Techniques
Equal Channel Cyclic Extrusion

High Pressure Accumulave Mul-direconal
Angular and
Torsion Roll Bonding Forging
Processing Compression
Fig. 16 Most commonly used/researched severe plastic deformation methods.
The selection of the process in each category depends largely on the:

(1) Size of the part.
(2) Geometry of the part.
(3) Number of parts to be produced.
(4) Microstructural characteristics expected in parts.
(5) Level of properties expected from the end part.
(6) Price tag of the final part.
Depending on the end application, at times the MMC billets are also secondary processed to further enhance their micro-
structural characteristics and properties. Common secondary processing techniques are indicated in Fig. 15.
In more recent times, efforts are continuously made to significantly enhance the properties of MMCs using severe plastic defor-
mation methods. Some of the promising methods sever plastic deformation processes used on bulk materials are listed in Fig. 16.
Metal Matrix Composites – Properties
Like other structural materials, MMCs are used where certain enhanced functionalities from metallic materials is expected in end
applications due to the more demanding nature of emerging end applications. Most commonly investigated properties where
enhancement is expected include (Ceschini et al., 2016; Gupta and Sharon, 2011; Lloyd, 1994; Ibrahim et al., 1991):
Joining Methods
Fusion Welding Fricon Sr Welding Explosive Welding Diffusion Bonding Brazing Soldering
Low Heat Intensity High Heat Intensity Vibraon Assisted

Fusion Welding Fusion Welding
Gas Tungsten Arc Laser Beam Welding

Electromagnec Field
Welding and Gas and Electron Beam
Aided
Metal Arc Welding Welding
Vacuum Brazing
Ultrasonic Assisted
Fig. 17 Commonly used/researched joining methods for MMCs.
(1) Coefficient of thermal expansion: For dimensional stability of parts.

(2) Elastic modulus: For stiffness based designs.
(3) Damping: For mitigating vibrations in structures that are prone to it.
(4) Hardness: For erosion, wear and crack initiation resistance.
(5) Strength: Tensile, compressive, flexural, torsional and high temperature.
(6) Fatigue: Cyclic loading is common in many applications.
(7) Creep: To enhance the working temperature limits.
(8) Wear resistance: For sliding parts.
(9) Erosion resistance: Such as in hydro-thermal power plants.
A detailed analysis of these properties can be found elsewhere in this encyclopedia and will not be discussed here.
Metal Matrix Composites – Joining
For industrial applications, joining of MMCs with MMCs or other metallic materials is required. Welding is one of the common
practice for the same. Different joining methods that have evolved and used are indicated in Fig. 17 (Ellis, 1996; Prater, 2011).
More recent development in joining of composites can be referred to in another article in this encyclopedia.
Metal Matrix Composites – Machining
Machining is an important operation before a part is assembled into a device. Machining is done on both the cast and wrought
parts to different extents. Conventional machining processes such as turning, milling, drilling and wire cutting (EDM) are used for
machining MMCs (Lane, 1992; Gururaja et al., 2013). As traditional MMCs are reinforced with ceramic reinforcements which are
typically harder than materials used for making conventional tools (e.g. tool steels), the wear or deterioration of tools increases
faster affecting the surface characteristics of material that is machined. The problem is more severe when the micron and higher
length scale ceramic reinforcements are used as they can be loaded to a higher extent. Similarly, reduction in particle diameter also
assist in reducing tool wear and in that context, it is anticipated that nano-composites will perform better than microcomposites
(Lane, 1992). Diamond coated tools in that respect display better machining performance.
While investigating a machining process, researchers typically focus and optimize on the following parameters (Gururaja et al., 2013):
(1) Workpiece material: Nature of metallic matrix and reinforcement associated variables.
(2) Type of tool used: Polycrystalline diamond tools are most favored.
Surface
Protecon
Methods
Surface
Painng Coang
Treatment
Surface
Spray Electroplang
Hardening
Electroless Anodic
Electrostac
Plang Oxidaon
Powder Vacuum Plang
Chemical
Coang
Hot Dipping
Thermal
Spraying
Metallic
Cementaon
Fig. 18 Commonly used/researched surface protection methods for MMCs.
(3) Use of lubricant.

(4) Cutting speed.
(5) Cutting depth.
It was emphasized by researchers that due to above mentioned factors and complexity of machining processes, detailed
optimization of the parameters is important to ensure minimal tool wear and to realize desirable surface finish. Latest and detailed
information on high performance machining of MMCs can be referred to in another article on machining in this encyclopedia in
the Metal Matrix Composites section.
Metal Matrix Composites – Surface Protection
Surface protection of metallic surfaces is important and MMCs are no exception. The common purposes of providing surface
protection include:
(1) Corrosion protection: Both dry and wet.

(2) Mechanical protection such as against scratches.
(3) Erosion resistance.
(4) Wear resistance.
Surface protection methods primarily include:

(1) Painting: Layers of organic substances such as use of paints containing acrylic/vinyl resins.
(2) Coating: Use of metallic layers or ceramic powders.
(3) Surface treatment: Altering the surface characteristics using processes such as carburizing, laser hardening etc.
Tougher tools Space/Aerospace
Hydroelectric
power
Sports
plants/Power
transmission lines
Transportaon
Consumer (Automobiles,
Electronics trains and
marime)
Defense
Fig. 19 Potential sectors for application of MMCs.
Various types under these categories are shown in Fig. 18 and discussed in details elsewhere in this Encyclopedia.
Metal Matrix Composites – Applications
Metal matrix composites are actively been looked into many structural and non-structural applications and most prominent of
them are indicated in Fig. 19 (Ceschini et al., 2016; Gupta and Sharon, 2011; Lloyd, 1994; Ibrahim et al., 1991). Main physical,
thermal, mechanical and surface properties that are actively looked for these applications are:
(1) Density: For light weighting.

(2) Coefficient of thermal expansion: For dimensional stability.
(3) Thermal conductivity: Heat management in transportation and electronic sectors.
(4) Elastic modulus: For improving stiffness and deflection resistance.
(5) Hardness: For erosion resistance such as in hydroelectric thermal plants.
(6) Wear resistance: For sliding resistance such as in oil and gas and transportation sectors.
Most of the abovementioned properties can be easily tailored and realized using MMC technology. Besides investigators are
looking into the possibility of using MMC technology in many other more specific applications which include and not restricted to
the following:
(1) Infrastructural applications.

(2) Biomedical applications (Gupta and Meenashisundaram, 2015).
(3) Recreational applications.
(4) Home appliances such as CermeTi knives.
(5) Nuclear applications for thermos-neutron shielding.
Challenges With MMC Technology
Active research in MMCs has almost spanned five decades and tremendous lessons are learnt on the fundamental principles
governing their microstructure and properties. Researchers have convincingly established the efficacy of many formulations at lab
scale and certain leading multinational companies have shown the capabilities to convert them into industrial products. However,
the issue of scalability to synthesize MMCs using liquid metallurgy based high volume production routes with microstructural
consistency is still a big issue for many countries for their widespread use. More involvement of industry is required to take these
highly tailorable and property specific materials to the next level.
References
Ceschini, L., Dahle, A., Gupta, M., et al., 2016. Aluminum and Magnesium Metal Matrix Nanocomposites. Springer. (ISBN: 978-981-10-2680-5 (Print) 978-981-10-2681-2
(Online)).
Azarniya, A., Azarniya, A., Sovizi, S., et al., 2017. Physicomechanical properties of spark plasma sintered carbon nanotube-reinforced metal matrix nanocomposites. Progress in
Materials Science 90, 276–324.
Bakshi, S.R., Lahiri, D., Agarwal, A., 2010. Carbon nanotube reinforced metal matrix composites – A review. International Materials Reviews 55 (1), 41–64.
Ellis, M.B.D., 1996. Joining of Al-based metal matrix composites – A review. Materials and Manufacturing Processes 11 (1), 45–66. doi:10.1080/10426919608947460.
Eskandari, H., Taheri, R., Khodabakhshi, F., 2016. Friction-stir processing of an AA8026-TiB2-Al2O3 hybrid nanocomposite: Microstructural developments and mechanical
properties. Materials Science and Engineering A 660 (13), 84–96.
Gupta, M., Meenashisundaram, G.K., 2015. Insight into Designing Biocompatible Magnesium Alloys and Composites. Springer.
Gupta, M., Wong Wai Leong, E., 2007. Microwaves and Metals. Singapore: John Wiley and Sons (Asia) Pte Ltd, (ISBN: 978-0-470-82272-2; ISBN: 978-0-470-49417-2).
Gupta, M., Sharon, N.M.L., 2011. Magnesium, Magnesium Alloys and Magnesium Composites. John Wiley.
Gururaja, S., Ramulu, M., Pedersen, W., 2013. Machining of MMCs: A review. Machining Science and Technology: An International Journal 17 (1), 41–73.
Ibrahim, I., et al., 1991. Particulate reinforced metal matrix composites – A review. Journal of Materials Science 26 (5), 1137–1156.
Jayalakshmi, S., Gupta, M., 2015. Metallic Amorphous Alloy Reinforcements in Light Metal Matrices. Springer.
Lane, C., 1992. Machininability of aluminium composites as a function of matrix alloy and heat treatment. In Proceedings of the Machining of Composite Materials
Symposium. Chicago, IL: ASM Material Week.
Lloyd, D., 1994. Particle reinforced aluminium and magnesium matrix composites. International Materials Reviews 39 (1), 1–23.
Prater, T., 2011. Solid-state joining of metal matrix composites: A survey of challenges and potential solutions. Materials and Manufacturing Processes 26 (4), 636–648.
doi:10.1080/10426914.2010.492055.
Xu, R., Tan, Z.Q., Xiong, D.B., et al., 2017. Balanced strength and ductility in CNT/Al composites achieved by flake powder metallurgy via shift-speed ball milling. Composites
Part A: Applied Science and Manufacturing 96, 57–66.
Fundamentals of Metal Matrix Composites
Sankaranarayanan Seetharaman and Manoj Gupta, National University of Singapore, Singapore
r 2021 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
Introduction
Metal matrix composites (MMCs) comprise of a continuous matrix of metallic alloys together with ceramic reinforcements, or metallic
phases (Clyne and Withers, 1995). They offer a wide range of opportunities in various applications such as automobile, power train,
aerospace, consumer electronics, packaging, and sports due to improved mechanical properties, wear resistance, creep resistance, damping
characteristics, and reduced thermal expansion characteristics (Sijpkes and Vergouwen, 2004; Kainer, 2006; Barrett, 2017) (Fig. 1).
Fig. 2 Shows some of the commonly used matrix materials which include aluminum, copper, magnesium, titanium, nickel,
steel whose properties are listed in Table 1. While MMCs based on aluminum, magnesium, and titanium alloys are the excellent
candidates for lightweight structures in automotive, aerospace, and defense applications (Adebisi et al., 2011; Jayalakshmi and
Gupta, 2015), MMCs based on steel, nickel, and copper alloys are highly recommended for tooling, heavy industries, and
electronic packaging, respectively.
In general, the reinforcement phases are hard and strong, and they are known to exhibit good thermal stability and Young’s
modulus. Hence, the inclusion of reinforcements can improve the performance of matrix material (Ashby, 2005; Callister and
Rethwisch, 2007). Some of the commonly used reinforcements are shown in Figure and their properties are listed in Table 2. Based
on the size and shape, reinforcements can be broadly classified into continuous and discontinuous reinforcement forms (Chawla
and Chawla, 2004). The most common continuous reinforcement are the carbon or ceramic fibers. As these fibers are brittle and
flaw sensitive, they are often provided protective coatings to avoid any unwanted chemical reactions and to improve the bonding/
wetting characteristics. The fiber reinforcements are also known to exhibit size effects (i.e., the strength of these fibers decreases as
the length increases), and they can be further classified into long or short fibers. Similarly, discontinuous reinforcement includes
ceramic and metallic particulates in the size range from few nanometers to few hundred micrometers which are known to develop
MMCs with isotropic properties (Chawla and Chawla, 2004; Kainer, 2006).
Classification of Metal Matrix Composites
Based on the type of reinforcement, MMCs are classified into (1) fiber reinforced MMCs, (2) particle reinforced MMCs, and (3) multi-
layered laminates (Fig. 3). The fiber composites can be further classified as continuous and discontinuous fiber reinforced composites.
Fiber Reinforced MMCs

The fiber reinforced MMCs can be broadly classified into either (i) long, or (ii) short fiber reinforced metal matrix composites.
While the long-fiber reinforced composites consists of a dispersed phase in the form of continuous fibers (length 4100*diameter),
the fiber lengths are often short (o100*diameter) in the case of short fiber reinforced MMCs.
Fig. 1 (a) Turbofan made using MMC and (b) Structural component in F16 Falcon landing gear made using SiC monofibers reinforced Ti MMC.
Courtesy: Barrett, T., 2017. The Future of Metal Is in Matrix Composites. Available at: https://www.machinedesign.com/materials/article/21835569/
the-future-of-metal-is-in-matrix-composites. Sijpkes, T., Vergouwen, P., 2004. Composite materials for structural landing gear components. In: ERF
2004, 38. Available at: https://dspace-erf.nlr.nl/xmlui/bitstream/handle/20.500.11881/282/38_sijpkes.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y.
Encyclopedia of Materials: Composites, Volume 1 doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-819724-0.00001-X 11

12 Fundamentals of Metal Matrix Composites
Fig. 2 Usage of matrix and reinforcement materials in MMCs.
Table 1 Properties of common matrix materials
Base matrix alloy Density (g/cc) Modulus (GPa) Yield strength (MPa) Ductility
Magnesium 1.74–1.95 42–47 70–400 3.5–18

Aluminum 2.5–2.9 68–82 30–500 1–44
Titanium 4.4–4.8 90–120 250–1250 1–40
Steels 7.1–8.0 187–215 240–690 18–31
Nickel 7.75–8.65 150–245 300–1900 0.5–60
Copper 8.93–8.94 112–148 300–500 3–50
Table 2 Properties of common reinforcement materials
Metal Crystal structure Density Melting point Thermal Thermal expansion Mohr Modulus
(g/cm3) (1C) conductivity coefficient hardness (GPa)
Al2O3 Hex. 3.9 2050 25 8.3 6.5 410

AlN Hex. 3.25 2300 10 6 – 350
B4C Rhom. 2.52 2450 29 5–6 9.5 450
BN Hex. 2.2 3000 25 3.8 1–2 90
SiC Hex. 3.21 2300 59 4.7–5 9.7 480
Si3N4 a-trigonal/b-Hex./g-cub 3.29 1900 29 3.3 – 310
TiB2 Hex. 4.5 2900 27 7.4 – 370
TiC Cub. 4.93 3140 29 7.4 – 320
TiN Cub. 5.24 2950 29 9.4 – 600
WC Hex 15.7 2800 110 5.2 9.5 690
Fundamentals of Metal Matrix Composites 13
Fig. 3 Classification of metal matrix composites.
Particulate Composites
Particulate composites consist of a matrix reinforced by particles that are dispersed randomly or with a well-defined orientation.
Nanocomposites
In particulate composites. when one of the dimensions of the particulate reinforcement is less than 100 nm, the resulting
composite is referred to as nanocomposite. Recently, metal matrix composites containing nanoscale reinforcements are receiving
stupendous attention as the low volume dispersion of hard and strong reinforcing phases in nano-length scale contributes
significantly towards the strengthening of the matrix material. Unlike micron and sub-micron length scale reinforcement addition,
the efficient dispersion of nanoscale reinforcement improves the strength of matrix material without adversely affecting the
ductility (Goh et al., 2006b; Casati and Vedani, 2014; Gupta and Wong, 2015).
Carbon nanotubes reinforced MMCs

The outstanding strength properties of carbon nanotubes (11–150 GPa) make them highly suitable for use as particulate rein-
forcements in various metal matrix composites (Popov, 2004; Goh et al., 2006a; Esawi and Farag, 2007; Bakshi et al., 2010;
Neubauer et al., 2010; Bhat et al., 2011; Casati and Vedani, 2014). Although several publications report the exceptional
strengthening promise of multiwalled CNT, defect free processing of CNT reinforced MMCs is challenging. Some of the recent
research works also explored the effects of nanoscale graphene platelets (Saboori et al., 2018) and other advanced engineering
materials such as metallic glass (Jayalakshmi et al., 2018) and shape memory alloys (Ferguson et al., 2014; Rohatgi, 2014) as
discontinuous reinforcement.
Laminate Composites
Composite laminates consist of multiple layers of sheet laminates made of the matrix and reinforcement materials stacked and
cemented in a specific pattern in order to achieve the desired strength. Based on the stacking sequence, the composite laminates are
classified into angle and cross-ply laminates which can be either symmetric, antisymmetric, or balanced. Fig. 4 shows the
construction of a lightweight laminated composite (0.16 kg) developed to replace the aluminum heat sink (0.29 kg) of printed
circuit boards.
Processing of Metal Matrix Composites
A variety of methods can be employed in the fabrication of metal matrix composites and they can be broadly grouped under either
liquid or solid-state processing methods. Similarly, based on the nature of reinforcement addition, the processing methods can be
either ex-situ or in-situ processing.
Fig. 4 Lightweight laminated composite heat sink developed for printed circuit boards. Redrawn from Holz, J.M., Niemeyer, L., Puckett, D., 2000.
Composite-Material Heat Sink for Printed-Circuit Boards, Technical Support Package. GSC-14142. Goddard Space Flight Center. Available at:
https://www.techbriefs.com/component/content/article/tb/techbriefs/materials/6720.
Liquid State Processing

Liquid state processing generally involves the preparation of a composite slurry through the dispersion of reinforcement materials
into a molten matrix which is then followed by the solidification into required shape. Here, the reinforcement dispersion can be
performed using multiple ways such as: (1) melt infiltration, (2) stir casting or compo-casting, and (3) melt deposition.
Melt infiltration
Melt infiltration involves either spontaneous or forced infiltration of a liquid metal alloy into a porous preform containing fibers/
whiskers reinforcements upto 70 vol% (Kainer, 2006). The spontaneous infiltration is also known as pressure less infiltration in
which no external pressure or force is used to process MMCs based on Al–Si, Al–Mg, and Al–Zn alloys with better flowability.
However, the poor wettability between the matrix and the reinforcing phase slows down the fabrication process resulting in
undesirable reaction products at the interface. Several studies have reported an improvement in the wettability through activators
or processing in nitrogen atmosphere. In forced infiltration process, the infiltration of molten metal into the porous reinforcement
is achieved through the application of external pressure or by using mechanical force as shown below to overcome the issues
associated with poor wetting and adhesion characteristics.
Pressure die infiltration:

In pressure die infiltration, the molten composite slurry is force injected into the mold using an injection barrel (Cook and Werner,
1991; Altinkok et al., 2003). The key advantages of this methods are its low cost and the high precision capability (Figs. 5 and 6).
Gas pressure infiltration:

In this process, the reinforcement preforms are infiltrated using pressurized inert gas in which the gas pressure can be applied in two
ways: (1) application of gas pressure to the melt surface after dipping the preform into the melt for infiltration, (2) the applied gas first
presses the molten bath into the preform and then infiltrates the bath (Daoud, 2004). Generally, the gas pressure is applied in
combination with vacuum at the other end of preform to avoid air entrapment to help easy penetration at lower pressures. Since
reaction times are relatively short, fibers are subjected to less damage (compared to other processes) and the reactive materials can be
processed without difficulty. Also, this method can be used for large-scale production of the composite materials.
Ultrasonic infiltration:
In this process, the pressure waves generated by ultrasonic vibrations assists in the acoustic cavitation and the collapse of bubbles
originating close to the molten metal helps in the penetration of molten metal into the reinforcement preform (Matsunaga et al.,
2007). Fig. 7 shows the ultrasonic infiltration experimental setup used to fabricated carbon fiber reinforced Al composite wires.
Fig. 5 Pressure die infiltration process. Redrawn from Garg, P., et al., 2019. Advance research progresses in aluminium matrixcomposites:
Manufacturing & applications. Journal of Materials Research and Technology. 8 (5), 4924-4939. doi:10.1016/j.jmrt.2019.06.028.
Fig. 6 Gas pressure infiltration. Redrawn from Garg, P., et al., 2019. Advance research progresses in aluminium matrixcomposites:
Manufacturing & applications. Journal of Materials Research and Technology. 8 (5), 4924-4939. doi:10.1016/j.jmrt.2019.06.028.
Fig. 7 Ultrasonic infiltration furnace set up. Reproduced from Matsunaga, T., et al., 2007. Fabrication of continuous carbon fiber-reinforced
aluminum-magnesium alloy composite wires using ultrasonic infiltration method. Composites Part A: Applied Science and Manufacturing. 38 (8),
1902-1911. doi:10.1016/j.compositesa.2007.03.007.
Fig. 8 Centrifugal infiltration setup and principle. From Sánchez, M., Rams, J., Ureña, A., 2010. Fabrication of aluminium composites reinforced with
carbon fibres by a centrifugal infiltration process. Composites Part A: Applied Science and Manufacturing. 41 (11), 1605-1611. doi:10.1016/j.compo-
sitesa.2010.07.014. Sánchez-Martínez, A., et al., 2016. Main process parameters for manufacturing open-cell Zn-22Al-2Cu foams by the centrifugal
infiltration route and mechanical properties. Materials and Design. 108, 494-500. doi:10.1016/j.matdes.2016.07.032.
Centrifugal infiltration:
In this process, the reinforcement is positioned inside a mold with long runners filled with molten metal which infiltrates the
preform under large rotational velocities or centrifugal forces which is given by:
1 2 2
Pc ¼ ro L ð1Þ
2
where, Pc ¼ pressure generated at the preform top surface during the rotation in centrifugal casting, p ¼ density of the molten
metal, o ¼ 2 pO/60 where O is rotational speed (rpm), L ¼ molten metal level from the rotational axis (Sánchez et al., 2010;
Sánchez-Martínez et al., 2016) (Fig. 8)
Lorentz force infiltration:

It is an infiltration technique in which a high frequency electromagnetic pulse is used to immerse the reinforcement into the
molten metal and the interaction of magnetic pulse with eddy current generates Lorentz force to force the liquid metal to enter in
reinforcement phase at a very high speed (Andrews and Mortensen, 1991) (Fig. 9).
Squeeze casting:
Squeeze casting infiltration process is one of the widely used fabrication techniques for producing net shape MMCs with control
over shapes, chemistry, volume fraction and distribution of reinforcement (Uozumi et al., 2008). In squeeze casting, the molten
metal is forced into the preform and a pressure is applied until the solidification is complete. This method can be applied for both
the fibers and particles reinforced composites as the prefabricated fiber or particle preforms can be melt infiltrated and solidified
under pressure. To avoid damage to the preforms, the melt is first pressed into the preform at low pressure and then the pressure is
increased for solidification. Since the melt solidifies under very high pressure, the squeeze cast composites are free from the
common casting defects such as porosity and shrinkage cavities. As the duration of the infiltration is relatively short, the squeeze
casting method can be applied for reactive materials like magnesium (Jayalakshmi et al., 2006) (Fig. 10).
Based on the mode of pressure application, squeeze casting can be classified into direct and indirect squeeze casting. In direct
squeeze casting method, pressure for the infiltration of preforms is applied directly to the melt. However, in indirect squeeze
casting, the melt is pressed into the preform through a gate system. Although the tooling is relatively simple for direct squeeze
casting, the absence of gate system necessitates accurate determination of the melt volume. Another disadvantage is the presence of
oxide residue in the composite which are normally restricted by the gate in the indirect squeeze casting.
Fig. 9 Lorentz force infiltration setup. Reproduced from Andrews, R.M., Mortensen, A., 1991. Lorentz force infiltration of fibrous preforms.
Metallurgical Transactions A.22, 2903–2915. doi:10.1007/BF02650251.
Fig. 10 Squeeze casting. Redrawn from Garg, P., et al., 2019. Advance research progresses in aluminium matrixcomposites: Manufacturing &
applications. Journal of Materials Research and Technology. 8 (5), 4924–4939. doi:10.1016/j.jmrt.2019.06.028.
Stir casting
Stir casting or compo-casting is the most common and cost-effective method of producing composite materials (Kainer, 2006;
Tzamtzis et al., 2009). In this method, the reinforcement phase (fiber or particles) is mixed with the molten matrix metal by means
of mechanical or ultrasonic stirring. The molten composite slurry is then cast by conventional casting methods. The properties of
the MMCs produced using stir casting methods will depend on the processing parameters such as temperature of melt, stirring
speed, stirring duration, geometry of the stirrer and size of crucible which will affect the distribution of the reinforcements in the
matrix. The dispersed phases are also often coated with proper wetting agents to achieve better interfacial bonding with the matrix
material and to avoid any unwanted reaction and the dissolution of reinforcement at high temperatures. In case of particulate
reinforcement, careful attention must be paid to the dispersion of the particles as they tend to form agglomerates. In general, the
Fig. 11 Schematic of (a) mechanical stir casting and (b) ultrasonic stir casting.
proper selection of processing parameters such as melt temperature, stirring speed, duration, and stirrer geometry, etc., allows
the effective dispersion of particles (in the size range 5–100 mm) up to 30% by volume (Fig. 11).
Melt deposition
There are several deposition techniques available to produce metal matrix composites. While deposition methods like immersion
and electroplating, chemical vapor deposition (CVD), physical vapor deposition (PVD) are only used for fiber reinforced MMcs,
the spray and disintegrated melt deposition methods can be used for both the particle reinforced metal matrix composites
(Harrigan, 1998).
Immersion plating:
This method is applicable for continuous fiber reinforcement which are passed through baths of molten metal, slurry, sol, or
organometallic precursors.
Electroplating or electrodeposition:
In this method, the matrix metal coating is produced from a solution containing the ion of the desired material in the presence of
an electric current. As this process is carried out at moderate temperatures, this method offers less/no damage to the reinforcement
fibers. However, processing defects such as poor bonding and porosity are common for MMcs produced using this method. Also,
only limited alloy matrices can be processed using this method.
Chemical vapor deposition:

It involves chemical reaction or decomposition of a vaporized component on to the substrate to form a coating. Using this
method, amorphous and crystalline (single and polycrystals) coatings of oxide, carbide, nitride, or pure metals can be made. When
this method is used to deposit the matrix material on the reinforced preforms, it is called chemical vapor infiltration.
Physical vapor deposition:

This method is highly suitable for producing fiber reinforced metal matrix composites in which the vapors of matrix metal were
condensed to create coatings on the reinforcement fibers. The coated fibers are then consolidated by hot pressing or hot isostatic
pressing. Based on the vapor generation techniques, the PVD processes can be classified into: (1) evaporation based, (2) sputtering,
and (3) ion-plating. While the evaporation PVD methods include techniques based on electron beam/arc evaporation, radiation
heating, laser ablation and resistive heating, the sputtering techniques involve vaporization of the coating material from an ionized
argon gas molecule via momentum transfer. Similarly, ion plating involves passing the vaporized component through an argon
gas glow discharge around the substrate which ionizes and subsequently deposit the vapor onto the substrate.
The primary advantage of PVD is the versatility in the compositions of the coating produced and the superior bonding with the
substrate. In addition, there are no chemical reaction by products in these methods. However, the PVD methods are relatively
complex and expensive.
Spray deposition:
In spray deposition, reinforcements in the form of particles/whiskers are injected into the spray of molten metal, creating a
deposition layer on the substrate (Wood, 1997). The depositions are then densified by suitable post-processing techniques.
Similarly, for continuous fiber reinforcements, the molten matrix metal is sprayed onto the fibers with preferred orientation. In this
method, fiber alignment can be easily controlled and a relatively faster solidification rates can be achieved.
Fig. 12 Spray deposition. Redrawn from Garg, P., et al., 2019. Advance research progresses in aluminium matrixcomposites: Manufacturing &
applications. Journal of Materials Research and Technology. 8 (5), 4924–4939. doi:10.1016/j.jmrt.2019.06.028.
It is a promising method for producing particle reinforced MMCs. It involves spray techniques which are used to develop
monolithic alloys. Fig. 12 shows an example of the spray forming process in which a spray gun is used to atomize the molten
matrix metal into which the reinforcement particles are injected. The resulting metal matrix composite (about 97% dense) is then
subjected to scalping, consolidation, and secondary finishing processes to produce wrought composites. To facilitate the efficient
transfer of particle reinforcement, an optimum particle size and shape must be maintained.
Disintegrated melt deposition:

Disintegrated melt deposition (DMD) is a unique liquid processing technique which combines the advantages of stir casting and
spray processing methods (Gupta et al., 1995) (Fig 13). It involves the vortex mixing of reinforcements and the deposition of
molten slurry onto a metallic substrate after disintegration by jets of inert gases. Unlike spray deposition, DMD employs lower
impinging velocity to achieve a bulk composite. Hence, it offers the features of (1) fine grain structure and low segregation of
reinforcements of spray process and (2) simplicity and cost effectiveness of conventional stir cast foundry process.
Solid State Processing

Some of the widely used solid-state processing methods include (1) powder mixing, (2) mechanical alloying, (3) diffusion
bonding, and (4) deformation processing.
Powder consolidation
In this method, the required amounts of matrix alloy and reinforcement powders are mixed to prepare a composite blend which is
then cold or hot compacted into a billet. The prepared green billet is then canned, degassed and sintered at temperature closer to
the solidus temperature of the matrix alloy (Sankaranarayanan and Gupta, 2015) (Fig. 14).
While this method can be effectively used for particle reinforced aluminum or magnesium composites, cold-pressing and sintering are
not preferred in case of long fiber reinforcement which are often damaged under the high pressure. Hence, for long continuous fibers, the
fiber tows are first infiltrated by dry matrix powder which is then followed by hot isostatic pressing (Gupta and Sharon, 2010).
Mechanical alloying
Mechanical alloying involves repeated cold welding, fracturing, and re-welding of powder particles in a high energy ball mill
(Suryanarayana, 2001). In this process, the frictional heat developed at the particle interface results in the local melting
and consolidation of powder particles. The composite powder mixture obtained from ball-milling is then densified using cold or
hot-pressing techniques (Sankaranarayanan and Gupta, 2015) (Fig. 15).
Due to the nature of high dislocation densities generated in this method and the homogenous distribution of reinforcing
constituents, this method can be effectively applied to develop a range of equilibrium/non-equilibrium alloys and composites
with excellent set of properties.
Post-processing (or) sintering of powder compact

Cold compacted billets from the powder mixing and mechanical alloying methods are often heat treated or sintered for better
densification and strengthening. It involves heating of the green compact to a temperature closer to the solidus line of the matrix
Fig. 13 Disintegrated melt deposition. Reproduced from Gupta, M., Wong, W.L.E., 2015. Magnesium-based nanocomposites: Lightweight
materials of the future. Materials Characterization.105, 30-46. doi:10.1016/j.matchar.2015.04.015.
Fig. 14 Powder consolidation.
alloy for a certain period in order to allow atomic diffusion and inter-particle bonding (Padmavathi et al., 2011; Slotwinski et al.,
2014). In most cases, the sintering of green powder compact also facilitates the microstructural recrystallization for strengthening
alongside densification and removal of residual lubricant (Fig. 16).
Fig. 15 Schematic showing mechanical alloying.
Fig. 16 Stages in sintering: Stage I: Particle bonding in green compact, Stage II: Growth of contact points into ‘necks’ and Stage III: final
microstructure showing grains and pores.
Microwave assisted rapid sintering

Microwave sintering has recently emerged as an energy efficient technique to consolidate powder materials (Wong and Gupta, 2007;
Gupta and Eugene, 2011; Padmavathi et al., 2011). While the microwave processing has been largely limited to ceramic materials in
the past, recent literatures confirm that the metallic materials can also be densified using the microwaves. However, it should be
noted that the microwave heating is fundamentally different compared to conventional heating. In conventional heating, the transfer
of heat from the surface to the interior of material takes place by conduction, convection and radiation. However, microwave heating
involves the self-heating of material core due to dielectric and magnetic losses resulting from the interaction between the electric and
magnetic fields (Fig. 17). Since microwaves exhibit an inverse temperature distribution, the heating by microwaves happens rapidly
from the core to the surface and cause a substantial reduction in the processing time by more than 80%. Hybrid microwave sintering
utilizing susceptors in recent year has emerged to minimize temperature and microstructural variations across the thickness of
samples.
Diffusion bonding
Diffusion bonding is a solid-state technique used to process a wide variety of fiber reinforced MMCs. It involves the interdiffusion
of atoms at the mating surface between the matrix and reinforcement to cause chemical/mechanical bonding under the influence
of temperature and pressure (Fig. 18). Although the fiber orientation and volume fraction can be effectively controlled, the
processing time and cost are relatively high thus limiting its extended application.
Deformation processing
Fabrication methods based on mechanical deformation are highly applicable for metal-metal or layered metal composites. Fig. 19
illustrates the methodology of roll bonding process used to produce sheet metal composite laminates. Here, a two-phase alloy
Fig. 17 Schematic of microwave sintering and heat transfer principle. Modified from Penchal Reddy, M., et al., 2016. Microwave rapid sintering of al-
metal matrix composites: A review on the effect of reinforcements, microstructure and mechanical properties. Metals. doi:10.3390/met6070143.
Fig. 18 Schematic showing diffusion bonding process. Redrawn from Garg, P., et al., 2019. Advance research progresses in aluminium
matrixcomposites: Manufacturing & applications. Journal of Materials Research and Technology. 8 (5), 4924–4939. doi:10.1016/j.jmrt.2019.06.028.
material is subjected to mechanical deformation causing the minor phase to elongate and become fibrous within the matrix
(major phase). However, it should be noted that this method is limited to ductile two-phase materials in which the two phases
exhibit similar flow stresses pattern for co-deformation. Further, the deformation processed materials also require post-processing
heat treatments to reduce mechanical anisotropy.
In-Situ Processes
In-situ methods include processes based on liquid–gas, liquid–solid, liquid–liquid, and mixed salt reactions in which the chemical
reaction between reacting constituents leads to in-situ formation of reinforcement (Harrigan, 1998; Thein et al., 2009; Ghosh et al., 2010;
Fig. 19 Roll bonding process for making a laminated MMC. Reproduced from Khaledi, K., et al., 2018. Modeling of joining by plastic
deformation using a bonding interface finite element. International Journal of Solids and Structures. doi:10.1016/j.ijsolstr.2018.10.014.
Fig. 20 Self-propagating high temperature synthesis of MMCs. Redrawn from Garg, P., et al., 2019. Advance research progresses in aluminium
matrixcomposites: Manufacturing & applications. Journal of Materials Research and Technology. 8 (5), 4924–4939. doi:10.1016/j.jmrt.2019.06.028.
Jayalakshmi et al., 2013). Hence, a good understanding of reaction kinetics and thermodynamics is essential in order to obtain the
desirable end-products. Generally, the in-situ developed composites exhibit very fine and well dispersed reinforcement phases which
are stable and free from surface contaminants and has a coherent interface assisting in stronger bond between the reinforcement and the
matrix material.
One of the well-known examples of in-situ methods is the unidirectional solidification of eutectic alloy resulting in the
formation and distribution of fibers like phases in the matrix alloy (Livingston, 1974). Sometimes, it is also referred to as self-
propagating high temperature synthesis (SHS) when the reinforcing phases are produced by exothermic reaction between the
matrix constituents (Subrahmanyam and Vijayakumar, 1992; Mossino, 2004; Xiao et al., 2004) (Fig. 20). In these methods, the
characteristics of the reinforcing phases, especially the interfacial compatibility are controlled by the solidification rate which is
generally limited to B1–5 cm/h to maintain the temperature gradient for a stable growth front.
Additive Manufacturing
Laser-based additive manufacturing techniques such as selective laser melting and laser deposition were also used to fabricate
metal matrix composites based on Al, Ti, and Ni based matrix materials (Gu et al., 2012; Manfredi et al., 2014; Pouzet et al., 2016;
Fig. 21 Schematic of selective laser melting and laser deposition methods. Courtesy Benedyk, J.C., 2018. Additive manufacturing of aluminum
alloys: Augmenting or competing with traditional manufacturing? Light Metal Age.
Aboulkhair et al., 2019; Behera et al., 2019). These methods involved a high energy laser source to melt and deposit the powder
raw materials in a layer-by-layer fashion (Fig. 21). In most cases, the reinforcement phases are often developed in-situ due to the
chemical reaction between the powder raw materials (Banerjee et al., 2005; Attar et al., 2014a). On the other hand, the laser
processing of ex-situ prepared composite powder mixture was also investigated and it was found that the composite powder
preparation plays an important role in determining the end properties of the bulk composite (AlMangour et al., 2016, 2017a,b;
Famodimu, 2016).
Properties of MMCs
The end properties of composite materials are controlled by many variables including reinforcement form, volume fraction,
geometry, distribution, matrix/reinforcement interface, void content, and manufacturing process. The presence, amount, and
distribution of reinforcement influence the dislocation behavior and hence the physical and mechanical properties of the com-
posites. In addition to physical and mechanical properties, the reinforcement also influences other material properties such as the
wear resistance and damping capacity. The mechanical properties of MMCs are not only affected by the properties of matrix and
reinforcing materials, but also by the interfacial characteristics and it is well established that the week bonding between them
generally worsen the properties of MMCs. The following section will provide an overview of the properties of metal matrix
composites.
Volume and Weight Fractions

Based on the rule of mixtures, the properties of a composite material are the volume weighed average of the phases (matrix and
dispersed phase) properties. Hence, to estimate the mechanical properties of a composite material, it is important to know the
relative proportions of matrix and reinforcement. The proportion can be expressed in terms of volume fraction of weight (or mass)
fraction. Weight fractions are commonly used as it is easy to weigh the relative proportions of matrix and reinforcement using an
analytical balance. The volume fraction is used in the computation of the properties of the composite, therefore knowing the
conversion between weight and volume fraction is essential.
The relationships between the volume fractions and weight fractions can be expressed as:
rm r
Wm ¼ Vm and WR ¼ r Vr ð2Þ
rc rc
where,
Wm and Wr - weight fraction of matrix and reinforcement materials, respectively,

Vm and Vr - volume fractions of matrix and reinforcement materials, respectively
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Nice, where we arrived on the 2nd of November, having been absent
a little more than seventeen months. In mentioning the name of
Mademoiselle Longchamps for the last time, I must, even at the risk
of offending her extreme delicacy, bear testimony to her amiable
cheerfulness of character under all our difficulties, to her rare
conversational powers, her exemplary but unobtrusive piety, and
those numberless good qualities, which a close acquaintance under
trying circumstances gave us such peculiar opportunities of
discovering.
After my arrival at Nice, I received letters from Lady Hester about
once a month, up to the time of her death. The first was dated
September 30, 1838.
Dear Doctor,
I cannot answer to-night the letters I have just received
from you (from Cyprus), but must say two words to clear up
what, to anybody but yourself, would appear but too
extraordinary. The messenger, sent by Monsieur Jorelle,
arrived at the moment my dinner was set before me: I looked
at the direction of the letters, and gave them to Zezefôon to
put by in the same room until I had dined. When I wanted
them, one of yours was not to be found; and she turned the
room upside down, always with her usual impudence asking if
she ate letters, &c.;—you know what beasts they all are. It
cannot be lost; but where she has stuffed it God knows!
Yesterday she lost a piece of fine cloth in the same way,
which is not yet found:—to-morrow something else. You know
them but too well, and also their impudent conduct, when they
find they are in the wrong.
The prince is gone to Europe. I hope soon to hear of your
safe arrival in France, and I shall write to you by the next
Vapour.[38]
Yours sincerely,
H. L. Stanhope.
Lady Hester Stanhope to Dr. M.
Jôon, October 22, 1838.
Dear Doctor,
I hope soon to hear of your safe arrival at Marseilles, and
take the first opportunity of repaying you the 2,000 piasters,
for the loan of which I am very much obliged to you. I enclose
a bill on Coutts for £50—twenty for you and thirty for
commissions.
What I immediately want (and, supposing you are at Nice,
if procured by your friend, Captain Pardoe, will be better, as
he understands these things), is—
Some dried cherries and Burgundy apricots, simply dried
like raisins, if such are to be had at Marseilles, eight or ten
pounds of each;
Small covered pans for milk;
Three wire blinds for the milk-room, fine, that flies cannot
enter, each three spans square, or about half an ell;
Some wire covers for the milk-pans;
Pots and jugs of different sizes;
A supply of yellow and red earthenware.
I forgot to ask you, when you were here, if there were
kettles in iron like tin ones, and coffee-pots: for they would be
of great use, as tin is destroyed in a day, and a large boiler
would stand better on the fire than a tin kettle—for always, I
mean—and better for my kitchen: better also for the milkboy,
to wash up his pots and pans. I want too some iron spoons,
and some wooden ladles and skimmers.
I should like to have Miss Pardoe’s book on
Constantinople, if it is come out, for strangers; for, I fear, I
never could get through with it myself, no more than the
others you have sent me; but I must trust to chance. This just
puts me in mind that one of the books I should like to have
would be Graham’s Domestic Medicine—a good Red Book
(Peerage, I mean)—and the book about the Prince of Wales,
George the Fourth.
I have found out a person who can occasionally read
French to me: so, if there was any very pleasing French book,
you might send it—but no Bonapartes, &c., or “present
times”—and a little brochure or two upon baking, pastry,
gardening, &c.:—some haricot seeds, and also dahlias of
different colours.
Are there no iron candlesticks for lamps, for the servants to
work by at night? for my new people shall work like other
servants: besides, in out-of-door rooms, there are no lamps to
see by, and those thick glass globes, with two or three
burners, would be useful. Add, also, some inkstands of thick
glass, with a tray of tin or japan, like a coffee-tray.
I should think it right of you to send a line of certificate to
Lord H., in case he should want it, just saying, “I have had a
letter from Lady Hester Stanhope, in which she requests me
to give your lordship, in writing, my opinion of her health,” &c.;
then the essence of the said certificate to be (if you think so)
“that, having known Lady Hester nearly thirty years, I can
safely say that I never have yet seen such a constitution; that
the most severe illnesses often have not appeared to attack
or impair the stamina of it; that,” &c. &c.
I have had a very kind letter from the Prince [Pückler
Muskau]; he is gone to Europe, or, at least, is on his way: his
slaves, &c., went by Leghorn. He says, there were difficulties
respecting the Queen’s letter in Germany; but he has another
plan. He desires to be kindly remembered to you.
If I inquire about your health, or that of your family, it will be
in my own way, with interest, and perhaps giving some
opinion, which, as usual, may be taken ill: so I shall say
nothing, either now or hereafter, on that subject. I strained my
eyes to write a long letter, now before me, about your
complaint on the chest; but I shall burn it. Everybody is laid up
here; Logmagi with a bad fever, as also Mustafa and the
cowboy; Mohammed with a fit of the gout, unable to walk or
stir: Fatôom, half with whims, always under the coverlet;
Zezefôon ill, but keeping to her work. The early rain has
caused illness everywhere.
Arriàn’s troops being so diminished, and his resources
failing, owing to want of assistance from the other Druzes,
who hung back after Ibrahim Pasha’s declaration that he
would burn all Druze property in the mountain, he has
surrendered, they say severely wounded by the Arabs of his
party for being a traitor in their eyes. Affairs are, therefore, a
little quiet in that quarter for the present; but, towards Aleppo,
the Kûrds and Turkmans are very troublesome, and every one
seems alarmed. Corn has risen to a terrible price, and barley
there is none: though some, they say, has been brought to
Beyrout.
Twenty-five thousand purses have been found with the
cheating Yazjees,[39] who are in a sad position. Four or five
hundred families will be implicated in this business, and
ruined by their want of honesty. The mountain is in a very
disturbed state; but my habitation is well walled in, and the
weight of all on poor me; for Logmagi is at Sayda. No letters
from England.
So far till to-day; afterwards I shall not be able to give you
any account of myself, as I suffer so by writing. The
spectacles always cause me such a vast pain, that I cannot
stand it: and, besides, it lasts all day, or next day. I was going
to say, pray save your eyes, and do not read so much useless
trash: but I forgot—I will never give you any more advice.
Mr. M., whom you did not see at Cyprus, has offered to
serve me as secretary and to arrange my servants, he living
at his own expense at Jôon or some other village; but, as he
refused all salary, I could not do otherwise than refuse his
offer.
This is my last long letter.
Yours sincerely,
H. L. S.
PS.—The steamer is expected in two days—perhaps it
may bring news.

Jôon, February 9, 1839.
You need not tremble this time, my dear doctor, for I am
not displeased with you. The “Sir William Knighton”[40] is not
worth looking into, and “Love” is not amongst them. The book
of medicine is clear and well written.
I have to thank you for a vast deal of trouble you have
given yourself: all in the end will turn out well, I hope. I have
written a few lines in answer to the “Morning Chronicle,” which
you will afterwards see in “Galignani,” without doubt.
What a simpleton you are sometimes! Leave my systems

to me, and adopt those of your own; but don’t blame mine, as
you have done, without knowing the reason of them.
Miss Pardoe’s book I have not yet looked into. The one[41]
you sent me is interesting only to those who were acquainted
with the persons named:—all mock taste, mock feeling, &c.;
but that is the fashion. “I am this—I am that:” who ever talked
such empty stuff formerly? I was never named by a well-bred
person.
There has been a vast deal of rain this year; but not very
cold: the house nearly as usual. My cough continues—my
spirits the same.
A hyena came into the garden the other day, and Ibrahim
Beytàr killed it with only a bludgeon, and brought me the skin:
it is the first wild beast of the kind that has been so daring this
winter. The dogs frightened the animal so much on the
outside that it scaled the wall.
Let me hear when you leave Nice. I should think England
would be a very unpleasant séjour in the present state of
affairs; Switzerland, perhaps, more healthy, cheaper, and
more agreeable, until you see distinctly the turn things take
and my affairs settled. You do not mention your health;
therefore, I hope it is not to be complained of at this moment.
Shut up, as I am, I can have no news:—advice you take ill,
and call it scolding. I am too much obliged to Captain Pardoe
for having undertaken my commissions. I have safely
received the stockings you had the attention to send me. * * *
*
You must promise to state to me fairly the impression my
affairs make with the English, and what sort, what class of
English.
Arriàn has been bribed, and is now raising a regiment of
two thousand for Ibrahim Pasha. There will be hard work here
ere long. It appears the kurkuby [uproar] about money was
certainly the disgusting examination into the private affairs of
officers in the navy at the Admiralty, and of the army at the
Horse Guards: it has disgusted every one, and roused a
feeling about me.
[Not signed.]

Jôon, March 11, 1839.
I send you something to get put into a newspaper: I think it
is not bad. Some day, I shall write a manifesto, which will be
superb, and open people’s eyes in all directions. * * * * *
I would have sent you Sir William Knighton’s work; but I
suppose you can get it where you are, and it would not amuse
you: it speaks of nothing but common-place things. He has
kept only—or, at least, they have published only—formal
letters, and which throw little light on anything.
Miss Pardoe is very excellent upon many subjects; only

there is too much of what the English like—stars, winds, black
shades, soft sounds, &c. The Arabic story you ask me for, I
have already dictated to the prince. I know many others; but
they are too long. Are you going to write a book?
I believe your eyes and ears will be opened too late. You
will then see, to your cost, that admonitions (called scoldings)
were the highest compliment I could pay a man in your
situation, by endeavouring to raise his mind to the altitude
necessary to exist (one may say) in a wreck of worlds. If you
were so uneasy at Jôon, how will your nerves bear what you
will be doomed to see? but, when this time comes, no more
advice from me to you or any one: let all pick their way, and
abide by the consequences. Words are nothing: the hearts of
men must be cleansed of all the vain idle stuff they now
cherish as a sort of safeguard or escape-boat to evils of all
kind. If the naked savage, who has the feelings of a man, is
not in high favour with the Almighty, and placed in a higher
situation (if he continues to do his duty) than the educated
mylord, the pedant, the gentleman, as it is called, without
either conscience, talent, or money, I know nothing; and you
may reproach me hereafter in the harshest possible terms.
It is a very mean spirit which fears obligation: we are under
obligations of the most serious nature every day to the horse,
the ass, the cow, &c. All the stuff persons now call spirit are
the vulgar ideas of the lowest and least philosophical of
human beings. What should I think of my deserted self, were I
to constantly talk to Logmagi of obligation? I am proud to
acknowledge all I owe to his zeal and obedience.
I am contented with the violence of my own character: it

draws a line for me between friends and enemies.
There is at this moment a great kirkuby [uproar or

disturbance,]—seizing recruits for the nizàm, and entering by
force into all sorts of houses to seek for arms.
Will you see that I receive a dozen pair of spectacles like

those you wear, six or seven of fine quality, and the others
common black ones but with clear glasses: and a dozen like
what I wear—not expensive.
Always employ me if I can be useful to you here. I expect
to hear from you. When do you think of leaving Nice? My
affair will not finish quickly, I am afraid. Your friend U. will get
on: he is all information, energy, and talent; but the times are
gone by for people to go the beaten track, and all is too late.
In less than a year, it is more than probable that all the world
will be at war.
The Prophet [General Loustaunau] is most comfortable in
his new habitation: I have planted shrubs for him round the
windows, divided the room in two, and made all new with an
excellent sofa.
I must tell you a story about Logmagi. He was reproaching
one of the mukers [muleteers] about some neglect of his duty
—only abusing him, never touching him—when the fellow ran
and fetched his pistol, which he presented at Logmagi to
shoot him. Logmagi, with a wonderful presence of mind,
vulgar perhaps, (but every one in his way—the muker was a
vulgar man), turned into his face not his own face, and said
—“No honest man would meet a blackguard face to face—
that was his khurge” [match]. The bystanders roared with
laughter, and the man ran away.
Quickly, by the steamer, the spectacles. Seven pair of
white ones, long; five others, long too, but like those you
wear, black and light.
[No signature.]

Jôon, May 6, 1839.
The Vapour is expected in a few days. I am much better,
but not yet well enough to make a little drawing, necessary to
explain something I want you to get done for me. * * * * *
Thank God for my nerves:—would you sleep alone in a

room with this girl [Zezefoon]? And, besides she told me, the
other day, that she had only teeth for those who displeased
her, and therefore you see she is not ashamed of herself: but
I think no more of her than of a little babe, and sleep on
quietly. All in the house have made wry faces after this affair
—even Logmagi, who would not like to be bitten a second
time.
I did not write to you before I had answered the “Morning
Chronicle;” for I feared that perhaps my letter to you might be
read, and so spoil all.
As yet, all things remain as before: what strange people!
No answer from any one. Not one Englishman has set his foot
in Syria since this business.
Some one—I suppose you—sent me the “Life of Lord
Edward Fitzgerald.” It is I who could give a true and most
extraordinary history of all those transactions. The book is all
stuff. The duchess (Lord Edward’s mother) was my particular
friend, as was also his aunt: I was intimate with all the family,
and knew that noted Pamela. All the books I see make me
sick—only catch-penny nonsense.
A thousand thanks for the promise of my grandfather’s
letters; but the book will be all spoilt, by being edited by young
men. First, they are totally ignorant of the politics of my
grandfather’s age; secondly, of the style of the language used
at that period; and absolutely ignorant of his secret reasons
and intentions, and the real, or apparent footing he was upon
with many people, friends and foes. I know all that from my
grandmother, who was his secretary, and, Coutts used to say,
the cleverest man of her time, in politics, business, &c. Even
the late Lord Chatham, his son, had but an imperfect idea of
all that took place; for he was either absent, or, when not so,
taken up by dissipation; for no man was ever more admired or
sought after. Pringle’s father, I suppose, is dead, and this is
the son—Harriet Elliott’s son. At twenty, she married an
officer, nearly fifty, I should think * * but who was, I believe, a
very honourable, respectable man.
Do not keep reproaching yourself about leaving me; it did
not depend on you to stay: also, do not put into your head that
you have the seeds of the malady you named to me. * * * * I
hope to hear that you are better.
H. L. S.
I have written a sad, stupid letter, but I have no news—shut
up.
This was the last letter I ever received from her ladyship. She died
in June following, Ἄταφος, ἄκλαυτος, ἄφιλος, ἀνυμεναιος[42]
everybody being in ignorance of her approaching end, except the
servants immediately about her. She had no Frank or European near
her, and Lunardi, who was coming out to her from Leghorn, reached
Beyrout unfortunately too late. “The news[43] of her death was
conveyed to Beyrout in a few hours, and the English consul, Mr.
Moore, and the Rev. Mr. Thomson, an American missionary, went to
Jôon, to bury her. Her emaciated corpse was interred in the same
grave where the body of Captain Loustaunau had been placed,
some years before, in her own garden: this was according to her
desire, expressed to Logmagi before her death.” Reports were
spread that her furniture, plate, and other valuables, had been
plundered, and much stress was laid on the circumstance that not
even her watch was found: but she had no watch, and only a dozen
and a half of silver spoons and forks. Fatôom, it is said, died two
days before her mistress.
I have now brought this melancholy, but, I hope, not uninteresting,

narrative to a conclusion. Upon a review of the incidents detailed in
these pages—the vicissitudes of an extraordinary life, beginning in
pomp and power, and closing in pecuniary difficulties and neglect—
the reader can scarcely fail to be touched with profound sympathy at
the altered fortunes of a remarkable woman, even if nothing else in
the history of Lady Hester Stanhope should awaken his emotions.
No lady of her age and station ever underwent such afflicting
changes.
In early life she enjoyed the entire confidence of her uncle, Mr.
Pitt; and many of the secret functions of government, most of the
important measures of his administration, much of the patronage
vested in the office which he filled, and the complete control of his
domestic establishment, either passed through her hands or was
directly influenced by her counsels. During this eventful period, her
clear insight into human nature enabled her frequently to thwart the
intrigues and expose the designs of interested men, who swarmed
about the avenues of the court and the cabinet. But it was not
possible for one, endued with a courageous spirit and integrity like
hers, to engage in such conspicuous scenes without exciting the
bitterest animosities; and accordingly we find that, while she was
openly hostile to some and maintained a less evident but
persevering resistance to others, dealing out affronts where she
thought them likely to tell with effect, or foiling subtile machinations
on the one hand by counterplots artfully combined on the other, she
raised up a host of enemies for herself, who only waited a fit
opportunity to take their full revenge. In the assertion of that fearless
rectitude which despises personal consequences, she overlooked
the dangers which were growing up around her. Forgetting, as is
usual, in the delirium of power, the uncertainty of all human
greatness, the wheel of fortune went round, and, by the premature
death of Mr. Pitt, she was precipitated, at once and irrecoverably,
from the pinnacle of ambition into comparative obscurity, and was
destined to wear out her existence in solitude and exile.
But her virtues were sterling, and gave a sort of lustre to her fall.
She carried with her into exile and in adversity the same stern
consistency and the same high principles which had all along
regulated her conduct. Incapable of abasing herself by meanness,
she was sustained in her reverses by the fortitude which she derived
from a clear conscience. If in her exaltation she had been bold,
proud, and uncompromising, she had likewise shown herself
disinterested and generous, firm in her convictions, insensible to the
allurements of flattery or wealth, just, self-devoted, an open foe, a
grateful friend, and a kind and most affectionate relative:—qualities
which ennoble even where nobility is not. Caressed by royalty,
surrounded by sycophants, a theme for the illustrations of poetry and
painting, she resisted all those blandishments so alluring and so
difficult to withstand, and has not left behind her one single memorial
of any of the weaknesses incidental to human vanity under
circumstances of such powerful temptation. No prince led her in his
train; no mercenary laureat succeeded in bribing her by his praises;
and no portrait of her person, attractive as it might have been in the
bloom of her youth and beauty, is, as far as I have means of
knowing, in existence. The good old king extolled her, Mr. Pitt
confided in her, the aristocratic party toadied her, republicans
admired her, and ladies envied her. Never was an elevation so
dazzling, or a fall so clouded by the gloom of disappointment and
neglect.
But there is yet a moral to be drawn from her life which is
pregnant with serious reflections. That she was more unhappy in her
solitude than, in her unbending nature, she would stoop to avow, this
diary of the last years of her existence but too plainly demonstrates.
Although she derived consolation in retirement from the retrospect of
the part she had played in her prosperity, yet her mind was
embittered by some undefined but acute sense of past errors; and,
although her buoyant spirits usually bore her up against the weight
by which she was oppressed, still there were moments of poignant
grief when all efforts at resistance were vain, and her very soul
groaned within her. She was ambitious, and her ambition had been
foiled; she loved irresponsible command, but the time had come
when those over whom she had ruled defied her; she was dictatorial
and exacting, but she had lost the talisman[44] of that influence which
alone makes people tolerate control, when it interferes with the
freedom of thought and action. She had neglected to secure wealth
while she had it in her power; but the feelings which prompted her
princely munificence were as warm as ever, now that the means
were gone which enabled her to gratify them. Her mind was in a
perpetual struggle between delusive schemes and incompetent
resources. She incurred debts, and she was doomed to feel the
degradation consequent on them. She entertained visionary projects
of aggrandizement, and was met by the derision of the world. She
spurned the conventional rules of that society in which she had been
bred, and perhaps violated propriety in the realization of a singularity
in which she gloried. There was the rock on which she was finally
wrecked: for, as Madame de Staël somewhere says, a man may
brave the censures of society, but a woman must accommodate
herself to them. She was thought to defy her own nation, and they
hurled the defiance back upon her. She held in contempt the gentler
qualities of her own sex, who, in return, were not slow to resent the
masculine characteristics on which she presumed to maintain her
assumed position. She carried with her from England the disposition
to conciliate, by kindness and forbearance, the fidelity and
obedience of her domestics: but she was eventually led into undue
harshness towards them, which became more and more
exaggerated in her by the idleness, the ignorance, and irritating vices
of her Eastern household.
Another important lesson may be gleaned from her life. We have
a favourable opportunity of observing, in her example, how far the
human understanding may, by its own natural powers unassisted by
books, work its way to celebrity. Her intellects were so acute that she
had little difficulty in comprehending all the moral and political
questions discussed in her presence, and she consequently
gathered information from very superior sources, as she enjoyed the
intimacy of first-rate men. Still she had but narrow views of general
policy, of the rights of mankind, in fine, of politics and ethics in the
abstract; inasmuch as the discussions, which were carried on before
her, were the debates of parties and sects, having immediate
reference merely to certain men and certain questions, rather than
presenting enlightened and comprehensive considerations grounded
on philosophical principles. But it was here that her profound
knowledge of mankind came into play; and this it was which
impressed on her sayings and counsels the stamp of pre-eminent
sagacity. Intercourse with the world, however, or even with cabinet
ministers, although it may render us accomplished diplomatists,
cannot make us statesmen, in the true acceptation of the word—
least of all can it make us teachers and philosophers. We cannot
solve a problem in mathematics, unless we have previously traced
the steps which lead to it one by one; nor can we ever arrive at
precision on any subject until we have mastered its elements and
made ourselves acquainted with the results of antecedent
investigations. In this, therefore, lay the grand defect of Lady
Hester’s education. She was not only wanting, as almost all women
are, in the philosophical power of generalization, but her reading was
literally so circumscribed, that her deficiency in what may be called
book-learning often amounted to absolute ignorance. She said she
despised books; but it was simply because she was never made
aware how much valuable information they contain. She trusted
everything to intuitive perception. Her constant denial of the utility of
study, founded on the conviction that education does not alter men’s
characters or change their innate disposition, is wholly independent
of that other proposition, which recognizes knowledge as an edifice
seated on a height, to which we must climb step by step, taking care
that each fundamental truth, in the ascent, shall be laid down with
certainty, in order to secure the solidity of the superincumbent
materials. She disowned alike the benefits of learning and the
necessity of the progressive acquisition of knowledge. Her ladyship
jumped to conclusions in perfect ignorance of the researches and
discoveries of previous inquirers.
Lady Hester possessed none of the more graceful
accomplishments of her sex:—not from inability to acquire them, for
her remarks on music, painting, and other fine arts, were always
striking and apposite; but because she preferred occupying her mind
on matters more congenial to her peculiar tastes. It cannot be
doubted that she had all the opportunities usually afforded to the
children of the nobility for the culture of the mind in liberal pursuits
and attainments; but she took no delight in such things, and only
spoke of them slightly and incidentally.
Popular opinion has ascribed the eccentricities of Lady Hester
Stanhope to a crazed brain:[45] it is not for me to venture upon a
question of so delicate a nature. Lucius Junius Brutus was supposed
to be insane, and played the part of an idiot until the proper time
arrived for casting away the mask. Hamlet enacts madness for a
purpose: and some writers go so far as to assert that Mahomet was
insane, and that no enthusiast of a high order can achieve his ends
and gain over proselytes to his views without a tincture of insanity.
The dream of Lady Hester’s life was sway and dominion—how to
obtain the one or the other was the difficulty; for she was born a
subject, and excluded by her sex from vice-royalties and
governments: with the genius of a hero, she could neither take the
command of fleets or armies, nor preside in the councils of state.
How far then she may have contemplated the possibility of acquiring
power by endeavouring to establish a superstitious belief amongst
those around her, and, through them, over a wider range, that she
possessed supernatural gifts; how far she may have tried to help out
this design by professing implicit faith in strange and absurd legends
and traditions, visions, and tales; and how far the delusion, originally
taken up for a purpose, may have ultimately re-acted upon her own
mind—these are speculations which I leave to others; but, whilst I
decline, from motives of delicacy, and in deference to the public,
from whose award the decree must finally come, to pronounce any
opinion on Lady Hester Stanhope’s perfect sanity, I do not feel
myself precluded from calling the reader’s attention to one striking
point of evidence in favour of it, which extends, like a vein of pure
ore, through the whole course of her varied career.
I have depicted, somewhat minutely, and without ostentation or
disguise, her ladyship’s habitual deportment and language towards
her visitors, her household, and myself. I have introduced all those,
who have patiently followed me in these pages, into her sanctuary;
have let them join in her conversations; have, as I hope, induced
them to listen to her improbable stories of witchcraft and astrology;
and have shared their incredulity in her supernatural mission: but I
would now invite them to weigh against these seeming hallucinations
the remarkable fact, that, in all her epistolary correspondence, down
to the close of her life, not one aberration of intellect occurs. It is as if
she had said to herself—“Those who come to glean ridicule from my
words, and presume to fathom my purposes, will I make fools of and
confound: they shall go away loaded with a cargo of their own
choosing, and shall retail countless absurdities in their books to
amuse the world for awhile: but, when the time shall be
accomplished, these absurdities shall rebound on themselves; for I
will challenge the most diligent research to gather any from my
writings, and then, who will believe that I uttered them, except to
make the unworthy hearers ridiculous?” The fact is, she may have
spoken a great many strange things, but she has written none. I am
in possession of a letter of hers, drawn up with attention on a very
serious subject in the very plenitude of her mental powers; but I
declare that it presents no superiority, either in style or composition,
over the productions of her later years: neither do her familiar letters,
from first to last, leave an opening for the most critical caviller to say
that, down to the day of her death, she manifested any decline of
reason, or disclosed one jot less of that sound sense or those
discriminating powers which had made her the admiration of some of
the leading characters of her times. Her letter to the Duke Maximilian
of Bavaria breathes as much delicacy of sentiment as if it had issued
from her boudoir in Downing Street: her condolence with the Beyrout
merchant is more profound in reasoning, though less epigrammatic,
than that of Servius Sulpicius to Cicero on the death of his daughter
Tullia; and her appeal to the good feeling of her countrymen against
the uncalled-for interference of the Foreign Office in her private
affairs is inferior to no production of our ablest combatants against
the abuses of authority.
One point more remains to be touched upon. Lady Hester
Stanhope, the advocate of the divine right of sovereigns, the stickler
for the exclusive privileges of the aristocracy, she, who treated with
ineffable ridicule and disdain the presumption of people, who,
belonging to the class of commoners, set up claims of equality with
the noble born, was herself weak enough to betray irritation, and
even resentment, towards that still higher power in the state to which
our allegiance is ever due. Of our beloved Queen, to whose sacred
majesty she did homage in the abstract, she could not forbear
speaking irreverently on many occasions. The letter which she wrote
to her Majesty, in reference to the sequestration of her pension, was
as unpardonable in diction as it was unjustifiable in substance. But
great allowances are to be made for her; and they alone, who know
the trying circumstances in which she was placed, can feel the full
force of the plea that might be alleged in mitigation of her offence.
My task is done:—it has been one of no ordinary difficulty. I have
had to undeceive the world respecting the real life of a distinguished
woman, who, in her day, occupied a large share of its attention, and
whose ill-defined celebrity was based chiefly on the accounts of
travellers, written no doubt in good faith, but in grievous ignorance of
the truth. I have had to remove the veil which shrouded her
existence, to disperse the imaginary attributes with which the fancy
of most readers had invested her, to dissipate the splendour thrown
over her retirement, and to substitute unpleasant facts for Eastern
fables. Let it not be suspected that, in doing this, I have overstepped
the bounds of professional confidence or violated the sacred
intimacies of domestic life.
My object has been to vindicate the fame of a persecuted lady,
whose memory I honour, and most of whose actions have been
misrepresented; and, in pursuing this object with frankness and
integrity, I have only fulfilled a plain duty, imposed upon me by her
constant denunciations of the injustice which the English had done to
the purity of her motives—a duty distinctly enjoined by her frequent
appeals to me that I should make public some circumstances of her
life, which might set them right, and correct their judgment
concerning her conduct. Using as much as possible her own words
(indeed I may say entirely), I have unavoidably introduced the names
of many individuals yet alive, and of others but lately removed from
the scene of ambition, envy, and political strife. The utmost delicacy
consistent with the utmost candour has been observed in a task
which presented such a dilemma of difficulties; and, if any persons
should feel hurt at any of the disclosures in this work, I can assure
them that, due regard being had to the state of mental irritation to
which wounded feelings had brought Lady Hester Stanhope, they
will do no wrong in considering all the acrimonious passages they
may detect in these pages merely as a scene out of “Timon of
Athens”—a burst of spleen against mankind, produced by a long
series of mortifications, wrongs, and disappointments.
FOOTNOTES:
[34] See “Robinson’s Three Years in the East,” note xviii., page
125, vol. Palestine.
[35] This letter, and the letter to Lord Brougham, were intended by
Lady Hester Stanhope for publication in the newspapers
conjointly with the correspondence about her debts: but the
space, which so much matter would have occupied, rendered it
necessary to leave them out.
[36] The adoption of the words “Sir Baron, Sir Count,” at the
beginning of letters, may appear to the reader quaint and
ridiculous; but these expressions are only verbal translations of
“Monsieur le Baron,” “Monsieur le Comte,” and less abrupt than
plain “Baron,” “Count.” Abroad, the prefix “Dear” is not so lightly
attached to a name as it is in England. I recollect, some years
ago, an Italian gentleman, Signor Guiseppe Celi, proprietor of a
marine villa on the Island of Palmaria, in the Gulf of Spezzia, to
have shown me a letter he had received from an English
gentleman, who had tenanted his house for some months, and
between whom and himself, as it appeared, there existed a
tolerable degree of intimacy, and his asking me what I thought of
Mr. B.’s addressing him Caro Signore. The wary Italian seemed to
imagine it was a term of friendship, to which he was not entitled,
and fancied he was about to be wheedled out of something; he
could not imagine it proceeded from the writer’s good nature.
Chi vi carezza più che non suole,
O vi ha ingannato, o ingannarvi vuole.
[37] Lady Hester Stanhope was deceived in her prediction. Shibly
el Arriàn went over to the Pasha, and, by a letter received from
Lady Hester, dated March, 1839, she informed me he was
employed in raising troops among his dependants and friends
against his former allies.
[38] A Gallicism, meaning by the next steamer.
[39] The yazjees, or government secretaries, are men of the
same presumed respectability in Syrian towns as bankers,
solicitors, or professional men are with us; yet, in cases of
malversation of the public money, often, indeed, on mere
suspicion of peculation, they are punished with the lash, or by
bastinado. Woe to an exchequer defaulter under Ibrahim Pasha!
[40] Memoirs of Sir W. K. by Lady Knighton. Who shall say what
Lady Hester meant by “Love is not amongst them?”
[41] Diary of the Times of George IV.
[42] Soph. Antig., l. 888.
[43] The lines with inverted commas I have copied from the
newspapers, not having been able to obtain more authentic
information; but I much doubt if Lady Hester ever expressed any
desire to be interred in Loustaunau’s grave.
[44]
Quis enim virtutem amplectitur ipsam,
Præmia si tollas?
[45] “A group of Bedouins were disputing respecting the sanity of
Lady Hester Stanhope; one party strenuously maintaining that it
was impossible a lady so charitable, so munificent, could be
otherwise than in full possession of her faculties; their opponents
alleging that her assimilating herself to the Virgin Mary, her
anticipated entry with our Saviour into Jerusalem, and other
vagaries attributed to her, were proofs to the contrary. An old man
with a white beard called for silence (a call from the aged amidst
the Arabs seldom made in vain.) ‘She is mad,’ said he; and,
lowering his voice to a whisper, as if fearing lest such an outrage
against established custom should spread beyond his circle, he
added, ‘for she puts sugar in her coffee.’”—Travels in Arabia, by
Lieutenant Welsted, F.A.S. v. ii. p. 69.
THE END.

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List of Contributors for Volume 1 xi

Editorial Board xvii

Section 1: Metal Matrix Composite Materials, Edited by Manoj Gupta

Introduction to Metal Matrix Composite Materials: An Introduction

Additive Manufacturing of Metal Matrix Composites

Section 2: Polymer Matrix Composite Materials, Edited by Dermot Brabazon

Introduction: Polymer Matrix Composite Materials

Particulate Reinforced Polymer Matrix Composites

Overview of Mechanical and Physicochemical Properties of Polymer Matrix Composites

Fibre Reinforced Polymer Matrix Composites

Effect of Fiber Orientation on the Mechanical Properties of Laminated Polymer Composites

Biomedical Applications of Polymer Matrix Composites

Hydroxyapatite Based Polymer Composites for Regenerative Medicine Applications

Other Application Areas for Polymer Matrix Composites

Multifunctional Polymer Matrix Composites

New and Emerging Processing Methods for Polymer Matrix Composites

Additive Manufacturing of Polymer Matrix Composites

Thermal and Morphological Analyses of Polymer Matrix Composites

Fatemeh Abdolkhani Danish M. Baitab

Muthukaruppan Alagar Ajay Batish

Mubarak Ali M Emin Bayraktar

Xizhang Chen Manoj Gupta

Research in Medical Devices (CURAM), National Vyasaraj Manakari

Ballambettu Chandrasekhara Pai V.K. Bupesh Raja

Rebaone E. Phuti Fizza A. Razzaq

Gholamreza Masoudi Rad Biranchi N. Sahoo

Ashok M. Raichur M.A. Salim

Saad Salman Sunpreet Singh

Hong Yang S. Abolfazl Zahedi

Dermot Brabazon, Section 2: Polymer Matrix Composite Materials

Robertt Valente, Section 6: Design Methods for Composite Materials

Mohamed El Mansori, Section 7: Nature Based and Inspired Composite Materials

Antonello Astarita, Section 9: Joining of Composite Materials

(1) Continuously reinforced composites.

Metal Matrix Composites – Matrix and Reinforcements

(1) Aluminum and its alloys.

Encyclopedia of Materials: Composites, Volume 1 doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-819724-0.00044-6 1

Fig. 1 Deﬁnition of composite.

Fig. 2 Matrix based classiﬁcation of composites.

Layered Reinforcement Fiber reinforced

Fig. 3 Reinforcement based classiﬁcation of composites.

Fig. 4 Continuously (left) and discontinuously (right) reinforced composites.

Fig. 5 Classiﬁcation of composites based on length scale of reinforcement.

Fig. 6 Factors related to selection of matrix.

Metal Matrix Composites – Processing

Fig. 7 Factors controlling selection of reinforcement.

Fig. 8 Major factors governing the properties of MMCs.

Fig. 9 Processing type effects on microstructure and properties of MMCs.

Fig. 10 Matrix related factors governing the properties of MMCs.

Fig. 11 Reinforcement related factors governing the properties of MMCs.

In-situ Ultrasonic Liquid metal

Powder Semi-powder Flake Powder Molecular Level In-situ Fricon sr

Fig. 15 Most commonly used/researched secondary processing methods.

Equal Channel Cyclic Extrusion

Fig. 16 Most commonly used/researched severe plastic deformation methods.

AMSTERDAM BOSTON HEIDELBERG LONDON NEW YORK OXFORD