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American Government
and Politics Today
2018–2019 Brief Edition
Steffen W. Schmidt
Iowa State University
Mack C. Shelley II
Iowa State University
Barbara A. Bardes
University of Cincinnati
Australia • Brazil • Mexico • Singapore • United Kingdom • United States
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Printed in the United States of America

Print Number: 01 Print Year: 2017
Contents in Brief
PART I: THE AMERICAN SYSTEM

Chapter 1 The Democratic Republic 1
Chapter 2 Forging a New Government: The Constitution 21
Chapter 3 Federalism 44
Chapter 4 Civil Liberties 66
Chapter 5 Civil Rights 92
PART II: THE Politics of American Democracy

Chapter 6 Public Opinion, Political Socialization, and the Media 118
Chapter 7 Interest Groups and Political Parties 146
Chapter 8 Campaigns and Elections 174
PART III: INSTITUTIONS OF AMERICAN GOVERNMENT

Chapter 9 Congress 199
Chapter 10 The President 225
Chapter 11 The Executive Branch 250
Chapter 12 The Courts 271
PART iv: Policymaking

Chapter 13 Domestic and Economic Policy 296
Chapter 14 Foreign Policy 320
Appendix A The Declaration of Independence 345

Appendix B The Constitution of the United States 347
Appendix C Federalist Papers No. 10 and No. 51 367
Appendix D Government Spending and Revenue Charts 375
Glossary 377
Index 389
iii
Contents
PART I: THE AMERICAN SYSTEM
Chapter 1 The Democratic Republic 1

Politics and Government 2
Why Is Government Necessary? 2
Limiting Government Power 2
Authority and Legitimacy 3
Democracy and Other Forms of Government 4
Types of Government 4
Direct Democracy as a Model 4
Justin Sullivan/Getty Images

The Dangers of Direct Democracy 5
A Democratic Republic 5
What Kind of Democracy Do We Have? 6
Democracy for Everyone 7
Democracy for the Few 7
Democracy for Groups 8
Fundamental Values 8
Liberty versus Order 8
Liberty versus Equality 9
The Proper Size of Government 11
At issue: Does Entitlement Spending Corrupt Us? 13
Political Ideologies 13
Conservatism 14
Liberalism 15
The Traditional Political Spectrum 15
Problems with the Traditional Political Spectrum 16
A Four-Cornered Ideological Grid 16
making a difference: Seeing Democracy in Action 18
Key Terms • Chapter Summary • Test Yourself
iv
Contents v
Chapter 2 Forging a New Government: The Constitution 21

The Colonial Background 22
Separatists, the Mayflower, and the Compact 22
More Colonies, More Government 23
at issue: Is America a Christian Nation? 24
British Restrictions and Colonial Grievances 24
The First Continental Congress 25
Nikreates/Alamy Stock Photo

The Second Continental Congress 25
An Independent Confederation 26
The Resolution for Independence 26
July 4, 1776—The Declaration of Independence 26
The Rise of Republicanism 28
The Articles of Confederation: Our First Form of Government 28
The Constitutional Convention 30
Factions among the Delegates 31
Politicking and Compromises 31
Working toward Final Agreement 33
The Final Document 35
The Difficult Road to Ratification 36
The Federalists Push for Ratification 36
The March to the Finish 37
The Bill of Rights 37
Altering the Constitution 38
The Formal Amendment Process 38
Informal Methods of Constitutional Change 39
making a difference: How Can You Affect the
U.S. Constitution? 41
Chapter 3 Federalism 44
Federalism and Its Alternatives 45
A Unitary System 45
A Confederal System 45
A Federal System 46
Why Federalism? 46
vi Contents
At issue: Should Recreational Marijuana Be Legal? 48

Arguments against Federalism 48
The Constitutional Basis for American Federalism 49
Powers of the National Government 49
Powers of the State Governments 50
ZUMA Press Inc / Alamy Stock Photo

At issue: Should We Let Uber and Lyft Pick Up Passengers? 51
Prohibited Powers 51
Concurrent Powers 52
The Supremacy Clause 52
Interstate Relations 53
Defining Constitutional Powers—The Early Years 53
McCulloch v. Maryland (1819) 53
Gibbons v. Ogden (1824) 54
States’ Rights and the Resort to Civil War 55
The Continuing Dispute over the Division of Power 56
Dual Federalism 56
The New Deal and Cooperative Federalism 57
The Politics of Federalism 58
Methods of Implementing Cooperative Federalism 58
Federalism and Today’s Supreme Court 61
A Trend toward States’ Rights? 61
Recent Decisions 61
making a difference: Writing E-mails and Letters to the Editor 63
Chapter 4 Civil Liberties 66

The Constitutional Bases of Our Liberties 67
Protections Listed in the Original Constitution 67
Extending the Bill of Rights to State Governments 68
Incorporation under the Fourteenth Amendment 68
Freedom of Religion 69
Anadolu Agency/Getty Images
The Separation of Church and State—The

Establishment Clause 69
The Free Exercise Clause 72
Freedom of Expression 73
No Prior Restraint 73
Contents vii
The Protection of Symbolic Speech 73

The Protection of Commercial Speech 74
Attempts to Ban Subversive or Advocacy Speech 74
The Eclipse of Obscenity as a Legal Category 75
Unprotected Speech: Slander 76
Student Speech 77
Freedom of the Press 78
The Right to Privacy 79
Privacy Rights and Abortion 79
Privacy Rights and the “Right to Die” 82
The Great Balancing Act: The Rights of the Accused versus the Rights of Society 83
At issue: Do Police Use Excessive Force against Black Men? 84

Rights of the Accused 84
Extending the Rights of the Accused 85
The Exclusionary Rule 86
Civil Liberties versus Security Issues 86
Subsequent Revelations of NSA Activity 87
making a difference: Your Civil Liberties: Searches and Seizures 89
Chapter 5 Civil Rights 92

The African American Experience and the Civil Rights Movement 93
Ending Servitude 93
The Ineffectiveness of the Early Civil Rights Laws 94
Charlotte Observer/Tribune News Service/Getty Images

The End of the Separate-but-Equal Doctrine 96
De Jure and De Facto Segregation 96
The Civil Rights Movement 97
Modern Civil Rights Legislation 97
Civil Rights and the Courts 101
Standards for Judicial Review 101
The Supreme Court Addresses Affirmative Action 102
Experiences of Other Minority Groups 104
Latinos and the Immigration Issue 104
National Security and the Rights of Immigrants 106
At issue: Should We Deport Unauthorized Immigrants? 107
The Agony of the American Indian 107
viii Contents
Women’s Struggle for Equal Rights 108

Early Women’s Political Movements 108
The Modern Women’s Movement 109
Women in Politics Today 110
Gender-Based Discrimination in the Workplace 111
The Rights and Status of Gay Males and Lesbians 112
Growth in the Gay Male and Lesbian Rights Movement 112
State and Local Laws Targeting Gay Men and Lesbians 112
“Don’t Ask, Don’t Tell” 113
Same-Sex Marriage 113
The Rights of Transgender Individuals 114
making a difference: Dealing with Discrimination 115
PART II: THE Politics of American Democracy
Chapter 6 Public Opinion, Political Socialization, and the Media 118

Public Opinion and Political Socialization 119
Consensus and Divided Opinion 119
Forming Public Opinion: Political Socialization 120
Chip Somodevilla/Getty Images News/Getty Images

The Media and Public Opinion 121
Political Events and Public Opinion 122
The Influence of Demographic Factors 123
Educational Achievement 123
Economic Status 123
Religious Denomination 123
Religious Commitment and Beliefs 125
Race and Ethnicity 125
The Hispanic Vote 126
The Gender Gap 126
Geographic Region 127
Measuring Public Opinion 127
The History of Opinion Polls 127
Sampling Techniques 127
The Difficulty of Obtaining Accurate Results 128
Additional Problems with Polls 129
Contents ix
Public Opinion and the Political Process 131

Political Culture and Public Opinion 131
Policymaking and Public Opinion 131
The Media in the United States 132
The Roles of the Media 132
Television versus the New Media 135
Challenges Facing the Media 136
The Media and Political Campaigns 137
Political Advertising 138
Management of News Coverage 138
Going for the Knockout Punch—Presidential Debates 139
Political Campaigns and the Internet 140
Blogosphere Politics 140
Bias in the Media 141
making a difference: Being a Critical Consumer of the News 143
Chapter 7 Interest Groups and Political Parties 146

A Nation of Joiners 147
Thousands of Groups 147
Interest Groups and Social Movements 148
Reasons to Join—or Not Join 148
Types of Interest Groups 148
Pacific Press/LightRocket/Getty Images

Economic Interest Groups 149
Environmental Interest Groups 151
Public-Interest Groups 152
Additional Types of Interest Groups 152
Interest Group Strategies 153
Direct Techniques 153
Indirect Techniques 155
Regulating Lobbyists 155
Political Parties in the United States 157
Functions of Political Parties in the United States 157
The Party Organization 158
The Party-in-the-Electorate 159
The Party-in-Government 160
x Contents
A History of Political Parties in the United States 160

The Formative Years: Federalists and Anti-Federalists 161
Democrats and Whigs 162
The Civil War Crisis 162
The Post–Civil War Period 162
The Progressive Interlude 163
The New Deal Era 163
An Era of Divided Government 164
The Parties Today 164
Why Has the Two-Party System Endured? 165
The Historical Foundations of the Two-Party System 166
Political Socialization and Practical Considerations 166
The Winner-Take-All Electoral System 167
State and Federal Laws Favoring the Two Parties 167
The Role of Minor Parties in U.S. Politics 168
The Rise of the Independents 170
making a difference: You Can Be a Convention Delegate 171
Chapter 8 Campaigns and Elections 174

The Twenty-First-Century Campaign 175
Who Is Eligible? 175
Who Runs? 175
Chip Somodevilla/Getty Images News/Getty Images

Managing the Campaign 176
Financing the Campaign 178
The Evolution of the Campaign Finance System 178
The Current Campaign Finance Environment 180
At issue: Can Money Buy Elections? 182
Running for President: The Longest Campaign 183

Reforming the Presidential Primaries 184
The Invisible Primary 184
Primaries and Caucuses 185
Front-Loading the Primaries 186
On to the National Convention 187
The Electoral College 188
Contents xi
How Are Elections Conducted? 189

Voting by Mail 189
Voting Fraud and Voter ID Laws 189
Turning Out to Vote 191
Legal Restrictions on Voting 192
Is the Franchise Still Too Restrictive? 193
How Do Voters Decide? 194
Party Identification 194
Other Political Factors 194
Demographic Characteristics 195
making a difference: Registering and Voting 196
PART III: INSTITUTIONS OF AMERICAN GOVERNMENT
Chapter 9 Congress 199

The Nature and Functions of Congress 200
Bicameralism 200
The Lawmaking Function 201
The Representation Function 201
Service to Constituents 202
The Oversight Function 202
The Public-Education Function 203
Zach Gibson/Getty Images

The Conflict-Resolution Function 203
The Powers of Congress 203
House-Senate Differences and Congressional Perks 204
Size and Rules 204
Debate and Filibustering 205
at issue: Is It Time to Get Rid of the Filibuster? 206
Congresspersons and the Citizenry: A Comparison 207
Perks and Privileges 207
xii Contents
Congressional Elections and Apportionment 208

Candidates for Congressional Elections 208
Apportionment of the House 209
Gerrymandering 209
“Minority-Majority” Districts 211
How Congress Is Organized 212
The Power of Committees 213
Types of Congressional Committees 213
The Selection of Committee Members 215
Leadership in the House 215
Leadership in the Senate 217
Lawmaking and Budgeting 218
How Much Will the Government Spend? 218
Preparing the Budget 220
Congress Faces the Budget 221
Budget Resolutions and Crises 221
making a difference: Learning About Your Representatives 222
Chapter 10 The President 225

Who Can Become President? 226
Birthplace and Age 226
The Process of Becoming President 226
The Many Roles of the President 227
Head of State 227
At issue: Should We Elect the President by Popular Vote? 228
JStone/Shutterstock.com
Chief Executive 229
Commander in Chief 230
At issue: Should President Trump Send U.S. Ground Forces to Syria? 231
Chief Diplomat 231
Chief Legislator 233
Party Chief and Politician 235
Presidential Powers 236
Emergency Powers 237
Executive Orders 238
Contents xiii
Executive Privilege 238

Signing Statements 239
Abuses of Executive Power and Impeachment 239
The Executive Organization 240
The Cabinet 240
The Executive Office of the President 241
The Vice President 244
The Vice President’s Job 244
Presidential Succession 245
Making a difference: Communicating with the White House 247
Chapter 11 The Executive Branch 250

The Nature and Scope of the Federal Bureaucracy 251
Public and Private Bureaucracies 251
The Size of the Bureaucracy 251
The Federal Budget 252
The Organization of the Executive Branch 253
Cabinet Departments 253
US Food and Drug Administration

At issue: Should We Simplify the Income Tax System? 254
Independent Executive Agencies 254
Independent Regulatory Agencies 255
Government and Government-Controlled Corporations 258
Staffing the Bureaucracy 259
Political Appointees 259
History of the Federal Civil Service 260
Modern Attempts at Bureaucratic Reform 262
Sunshine Laws before and after 9/11 262
Privatization, or Contracting Out 263
The Issue of Whistleblowers 263
Bureaucrats as Politicians and Policymakers 265
The Rulemaking Environment 265
Negotiated Rulemaking 266
Bureaucrats as Policymakers 266
Congressional Control of the Bureaucracy 267
xiv Contents
making a difference: What the Government Knows about You 268

Chapter 12 The Courts 271

Sources of American Law 272
The Common Law Tradition 272
Constitutions 273
Statutes and Administrative Regulations 273
Case Law 273
The Federal Court System 273
Rena Schild/Shutterstock.com
Basic Judicial Requirements 274
Parties to Lawsuits 274
Procedural Rules 274
Types of Federal Courts 275
Federal Courts and the War on Terrorism 277
The Supreme Court at Work 279
Which Cases Reach the Supreme Court? 280
Court Procedures 280
Decisions and Opinions 281
The Selection of Federal Judges 282
Judicial Appointments 282
At issue: Should State Judges Be Elected? 283
Partisanship and Judicial Appointments 284
The Senate’s Role 285
Policymaking and the Courts 286
Judicial Review 286
Judicial Activism and Judicial Restraint 287
The Roberts Court 288
What Checks Our Courts? 289
making a difference: Changing the Legal System 292
Contents xv
PART iv: Policymaking
Chapter 13 Domestic and Economic Policy 296

At issue: Should States Raise the Minimum Wage? 297
The Policymaking Process: Health Care as an Example 298

Health Care: Agenda Building 298
Health Care: Policy Formulation 300
Health Care: Policy Adoption 300
Health Care: Policy Implementation 301
Health Care: Policy Evaluation 302
Bloomberg/Getty Images
Immigration 303
The Issue of Unauthorized Immigration 304
The Immigration Debate 304
Energy and the Environment 306
Energy Independence—A Strategic Issue 306
Climate Change 307
The Politics of Economic Decision Making 308
Good Times, Bad Times 309
Fiscal Policy 310
The Public Debt and Deficit Spending 311
Monetary Policy 313
The Politics of Taxation 315
Federal Income Tax Rates 315
Income Tax Loopholes and Other Types of Taxes 316
making a difference: Learning about Entitlement Reform 317
Chapter 14 Foreign Policy 320

Facing the World: Foreign and Defense Policies 321
Aspects of Foreign Policy 321
Idealism versus Realism in Foreign Policy 321
xvi Contents
Terrorism and Warfare 323

The Emergence of Terrorism 323
Pool/ABACA/Newscom/Abaca Press/TAORMINA/Italy
Wars in Iraq 324
Afghanistan 325
The Civil War in Syria and the Rise of ISIS 326
U.S. Diplomatic Efforts 327
Nuclear Weapons 327
Israel and the Palestinians 329
The New Power: China 330
Economic Troubles in Europe 331
Who Makes Foreign Policy? 333
Constitutional Powers of the President 333
The Executive Branch and Foreign Policymaking 334
Congress Balances the Presidency 335
The Major Foreign Policy Themes 336
The Formative Years: Avoiding Entanglements 336
The Era of Internationalism 337
Superpower Relations 338
at issue: How Dangerous Is Putin’s Russia? 340
making a difference: Working for Human Rights 341

Appendix A The Declaration of Independence 345

Appendix B The Constitution of the United States 347
Appendix C Federalist Papers No. 10 and No. 51 367
Appendix D Government Spending and Revenue Charts 375
Glossary 377
Index 389
Preface
I
n November 2016, Republican presidential candidate Donald Trump triumphed over
Democratic candidate Hillary Clinton. The Republicans also maintained control of the
U.S. Senate and House of Representatives, although they did suffer minor losses. Trump
certainly has one of the most unusual backgrounds ever for a president, with no experi-
ence in elected or appointed public office. One consequence of his victory has been an
explosion of interest in political news. Online news sites, including that of the New York
Times, have experienced large increases in viewership. The same goes for cable news net-
works such as Fox News and MSNBC. For many people, American politics and government
have never been more interesting.
Trump won the presidency by carrying the vote in the electoral college, even though
Clinton’s popular vote was more than 2 percentage points greater than his. Many have won-
dered how a candidate could become president while losing the popular vote, and that is
one of many things that students will learn in this text. Now more than ever, it is important
to understand America’s complex and fascinating political system.
One thing was and continues to be certain: American politics today will never be with-
out tension, drama, and conflict. Throughout this Brief Edition of American Government
and Politics Today, you will read about how our government has responded to past issues
and how it is responding to current conflicts.
This edition is basically a condensed and updated version of the larger editions of
American Government and Politics Today. It has been created specifically for those of you
who want a text that presents the fundamental components of the American political sys-
tem while retaining the quality and readability of the larger editions. You will find that this
edition is up to date in every respect. The text, figures, tables, and all pedagogical features
reflect the latest available data. We have also included coverage of all recently issued laws,
regulations, and court decisions that have—or will have—a significant impact on American
society and our political system.
Like the larger editions, this volume places a major emphasis on political participation
and involvement. This brief, fourteen-chapter text has been heralded by reviewers as the
best essentials text for its affordability, conciseness, clarity, and readability.
New to This Edition

Of course, every chapter has been thoroughly revised and updated. But there is more.
Now in Full Color Throughout
A major objective of the Brief Edition has always been to provide students with an afford-
able textbook. To that end, previous editions have been limited to using a single color for
contrast in most of the text. With this edition, however, we have been able—for the first
time—to produce a text in full color and still keep it affordable. The use of color not only
makes the chapters more attractive, but it also adds to the impact of the various charts and
graphs that appear throughout.
xvii
xviii Preface
Major Topical Updates

By far the most important change in American politics and government since the last Brief
Edition has been the rise of Donald Trump. We give ample space to Trump’s populist cam-
paign and his use of the media, including Twitter. In Chapter 1 The Democratic Republic
and Chapter 6 Public Opinion, Political Socialization, and the Media, we describe Trump’s
supporters and the problems facing the white working class. We describe the alleged scan-
dals faced both by Trump and by Democratic presidential candidate Hillary Clinton, in par-
ticular concerning questions about Russian involvement in the 2016 elections. Chapter 11
The Executive Branch explains Trump’s firing of FBI director James Comey. Other major
new topics include:
•• In Chapter 3 Federalism, the limits on what the national government can do to
coerce the states.
•• In Chapter 4 Civil Liberties, political correctness and government surveillance.
•• In Chapter 5 Civil Rights, how black men are treated by the police. We also have a
major new section on transgender individuals.
•• In Chapter 7 Interest Groups and Political Parties, the growth in party polarization
and the changing bases of the major parties.
•• In Chapter 8 Campaigns and Elections, the limits of the “invisible primary,” the
role of superdelegates, and restrictions on the right to vote.
•• In Chapter 9 Congress, the House Freedom Caucus and the conflict around replac-
ing the late Supreme Court justice Antonin Scalia.
•• Chapter 11 The Executive Branch, has been more appropriately renamed The
Executive Branch. We focus on whistleblowers and those who leak national secu-
rity information.
•• Chapter 13 Domestic and Economic Policy describes the Republican struggle to
replace the Affordable Care Act.
•• Finally, Chapter 14 Foreign Policy highlights Trump’s transactional foreign policy
and trade issues with China and Europe.
Key to High Student Interest—

Topical Debate-Style Features
Every At Issue feature focuses on a controversial topic and concludes with a For Critical
Analysis question to invite critical thinking. Most of these features are new:
•• Chapter 1: Does Entitlement Spending Corrupt Us?
•• Chapter 2: Is America a Christian Nation?
•• Chapter 3: Should Recreational Marijuana Be Legal?
•• Chapter 3: Should We Let Uber and Lyft Pick Up Passengers?
•• Chapter 4: Do Police Use Excessive Force against Black Men?
Preface xix
•• Chapter 5: Should We Deport Unauthorized Immigrants?

•• Chapter 8: Can Money Buy Elections?
•• Chapter 9: Is It Time to Get Rid of the Filibuster?
•• Chapter 10: Should We Elect the President by Popular Vote?
•• Chapter 10: Should President Trump Send U.S. Ground Forces to Syria?
•• Chapter 11: Should We Simplify the Income Tax System?
•• Chapter 12: Should State Judges Be Elected?
•• Chapter 13: Should States Raise the Minimum Wage?
•• Chapter 14: How Dangerous Is Putin’s Russia?
Making a Difference Features

At the end of every chapter, a feature entitled Making a Difference enhances our empha-
sis on student participation. These features provide newly updated, useful information for
active citizenship. We offer tips on how to find information on issues, how to learn about
your elected representatives, how to join and participate in advocacy organizations, how to
protect your civil rights and liberties, and more.
Other Special Pedagogical Aids

The 2018–2019 Brief Edition of American Government and Politics Today retains many of
the pedagogical aids and features of the larger editions, including the following:
•• Learning Outcomes—A section-by-section focus on crucial questions that stu-
dents should learn to address.
•• Key Terms—Important terms that are boldfaced and defined in the text when they
are first used. These terms are defined in the text margins, listed at the end of the
chapter with the page numbers on which they appear, and included in the Glossary
at the back of the book.
•• InterAct—A mini-feature that directs students to selected websites and encour-
ages them to take one or more actions when they get there.
•• Chapter Summary—A point-by-point summary of the chapter text.
•• Test Yourself—A quiz and an essay question at the very end of each chapter.
Appendices
The Brief Edition of American Government and Politics Today includes, as appendices, both
the Declaration of Independence (Appendix A) and the U.S. Constitution (Appendix B).
The text of the Constitution has been annotated to help you understand the meaning and
significance of the various provisions in this important document. Appendix C presents
Federalist Papers No. 10 and No. 51. These selections are also annotated to help you grasp
their importance in understanding the American philosophy of government. Appendix D
contains pie charts that explain the expenditures and revenues of the federal government.
xx Preface
MindTap
MindTap is here to simplify your workload as an instructor, organize and immediately grade
your students’ assignments, and allow you to customize your course as you see fit. Through
deep-seated integration with your Learning Management System (LMS), grades are easily
exported and analytics are pulled with just the click of a button. MindTap provides you
with a platform to easily add current events videos and RSS feeds from national or local
news sources. Looking to incorporate more recent and late-breaking news into the course?
Utilize our KnowNow American Government Blog for weekly updated news coverage and
pedagogy.
Instructor Supplements
The Instructor Companion Website (ISBN: 9781337559782) is an all-in-one multimedia
online resource for class preparation, presentation, and testing. Accessible through Cengage
.com/login with your faculty account, you will find the following available for download:
•• Book-specific Microsoft® Powerpoint® slides of lecture outlines, as well as pho-
tos, figures, and tables from the text. These presentations make it easy for you to
assemble lectures for your course.
•• Cognero Test Bank (ISBN: 9781337559775): Multiple-choice and essay ques-
tions, along with their answers and text references, that are compatible with mul-
tiple Learning Management Systems.
•• An Instructor’s Manual that includes learning outcomes, chapter outlines, discus-
sion questions, class activities and project suggestions, tips on integrating media
into your class, suggested readings and Web resources, and a section specially
designed to help teaching assistants and adjunct professors.
Acknowledgments
In preparing American Government and Politics Today: 2018–2019 Brief Edition, we were
the beneficiaries of the expert guidance of a skilled and dedicated team of publishers and
editors. We have benefited greatly from the supervision and encouragement provided by
our project manager, Bradley Potthoff.
We are grateful to our content project manager, Martha Conway, for her ability to make
this project as smooth-running and as perfect as is humanly possible. We are indebted to the
staff at SPi Global. Their ability to generate the pages for this text quickly and accurately
made it possible for us to meet our ambitious printing schedule. We also thank Katy Gabel,
our content developer, for her work on the book’s revision plan and project coordination.
In addition, our gratitude goes to all those who worked on the various supplements offered
with this text. We would also like to thank Valerie Hartman, marketing manager, for her
tremendous efforts in marketing the book.
Many other people helped during the research and editorial stages of this edition.
Gregory Scott coordinated the authors’ efforts and provided editorial and research assis-
tance. Sue Bradley’s copyediting abilities contributed greatly to the book. We also thank
Roxie Lee for her assistance, and Sue Jasin of K&M Consulting for her contributions to
the smooth running of the project. Finally, we are grateful for the proofreading services
provided by Kristi Wiswell.
Preface xxi
We are also very thankful for the constructive comments and advice provided by our
colleagues and peers, especially those whose thoughtful insights helped us shape this new
edition:
Paul Blakelock, Lone Star College–Kingwood
Justin Deplato, Florida State College at Jacksonville
David Goldberg, College of DuPage
Tonya Gray, Central Carolina Community College
Robert L. Hall, Jr., Florida State College at Jacksonville
La Della Levy, College of Southern Nevada, Charleston
Charlotte Meador, Lone Star College–Kingwood
Don Mirjanian, College of Southern Nevada, Charleston
Azubike Kalu-Nwiwu, Erie Community College
Gwyn Sutherland, Elizabethtown Community and Technical College
Any errors, of course, remain our own. We welcome comments from instructors and
students alike. Suggestions that we received on previous editions have helped us to improve
this text and to adapt it to the changing needs of instructors and students.
S.W.S.
M.C.S.
B.A.B.
About the Authors
Steffen W. Schmidt
Steffen W. Schmidt is a professor of political science at Iowa State
University. He grew up in Colombia, South America, and has studied
in Colombia, Switzerland, the United States, and France. He has a
B.A. from Rollins College and obtained his Ph.D. from Columbia
University, in public law and government.
Dr. Schmidt has published 14 books and more than 130 articles
in scholarly journals and major newspapers.
He is the recipient of numerous prestigious teaching prizes,
including the Amoco Award for Lifetime Career Achievement in Teaching and the Teacher
of the Year award.
Schmidt is a pioneer in the use of web-based and real-time video courses and is a
founding member of the American Political Science Association’s section on Computers
and Multimedia.
He is known as “Dr. Politics” for his extensive commentary on U.S. politics and cyber
threats in U.S. and international media. He comments on CNN en Español, Fox, Telemundo,
Univision, and public radio, as well as CTV (Canada Cable TV) and the BBC. He has been
quoted in every major news source in the world including The Economist, the New York
Times, the Washington Times, Kyodo News of Japan, Agence France-Presse, Latin American
news media, and others. He is the guest of two weekly radio shows on KASI Clear Channel
and on Concord, New Hampshire, radio with Deborah “Arnie” Arnesen.
Dr. Schmidt is a founding member of the Department of Defense U.S. Strategic
Command Academic Alliance, which focuses on cybersecurity policy.
He is on Facebook (SteffenWSchmidt) and Twitter (DrPolitics).
Mack C. Shelley II
Mack C. Shelley II is professor of political science and statistics at
Iowa State University. After receiving his bachelor’s degree from
American University in Washington, D.C., he completed graduate
studies at the University of Wisconsin at Madison, where he received
a master’s degree in economics and a Ph.D. in political science. He
taught for two years at Mississippi State University before arriving at
Iowa State in 1979.
Shelley has published numerous articles, books, and monographs
on public policy. From 1993 to 2002, he served as elected coeditor of the Policy Studies
Journal. His published books include The Permanent Majority: The Conservative Coalition
in the United States Congress; Biotechnology and the Research Enterprise (with William
F. Woodman and Brian J. Reichel); American Public Policy: The Contemporary Agenda
(with Steven G. Koven and Bert E. Swanson); Redefining Family Policy: Implications for
xxii
About the Authors xxiii
the 21st Century (with Joyce M. Mercier and Steven Garasky); and Quality Research in
Literacy and Science Education: International Perspectives and Gold Standards (with Larry
Yore and Brian Hand).
His leisure time includes traveling, working with students, and playing with the family
dog and cats.
BARBARA A. BARDES
Barbara A. Bardes is professor emerita of political science and for-
mer dean of Raymond Walters College at the University of Cincin-
nati. She received her B.A. and M.A. from Kent State University.
After completing her Ph.D. at the University of Cincinnati, she held
faculty positions at Mississippi State University and Loyola Univer-
sity in Chicago. She returned to Cincinnati, her hometown, as a col-
lege administrator. She has also worked as a political consultant and
directed polling for a research center.
Bardes has written articles on public opinion and foreign policy, and on women and
politics. She has authored Thinking about Public Policy; Declarations of Independence:
Women and Political Power in Nineteenth-Century American Fiction; and Public Opinion:
Measuring the American Mind (with Robert W. Oldendick).
Bardes’s home is located in a very small hamlet in Kentucky called Rabbit Hash,
famous for its 150-year-old general store. Her hobbies include traveling, gardening, needle-
work, and antique collecting.
1
Justin Sullivan/Getty Images
The Democratic Republic
People celebrating at a campaign rally in Brooklyn, N.Y., in 2016. What do people mean when they wave the U.S. flag?
The five Learning Outcomes (LOs) below are designed to help improve your understanding of this chapter. After reading this
chapter, you should be able to:
LO1 Define the terms politics, government, order, liberty, LO4 Summarize the conflicts that can occur between the
authority, and legitimacy. values of liberty and order, and between those of liberty and
LO2 Distinguish the major features of direct democracy equality.
and representative democracy. LO5 Discuss conservatism, liberalism, and other popular
LO3 Describe majoritarianism, elite theory, and pluralism American ideological positions.
as theories of how democratic systems work. Check your understanding of the material with the Test
Yourself section at the end of the chapter.
P
olitics, for many people, is the “great game,” and it is played for high stakes. After
all, the game involves vast sums and the very security of the nation. In the last few
years, the stakes have grown higher still. In 2016, American voters picked Republican
Donald Trump to be the next president of the United States. Trump’s political values
and personal background were unprecedented among major-party presidential candidates.
True, Democrat Hillary Clinton won more votes than Trump, but as we explain throughout
this text, Americans choose their president through the electoral college, not the popular
vote. Trump’s electoral vote margin was decisive. While the Democrats picked up a few
seats in Congress, Republicans still controlled both the U.S. House and Senate. A new era of
conservative governance appeared certain, to the delight of some and the dismay of others.
1
2 Part one | THE AMERICAN SYSTEM
Politics and Government

LO1: Define the terms politics, government, order, liberty, authority, and legitimacy.
What is politics? Politics can be understood as the process of resolving conflicts and decid-
ing, as political scientist Harold Lasswell put it in his classic definition, “who gets what,
when, and how.”1 More specifically, politics is the struggle over power or influence within
organizations or informal groups that can grant or withold benefits or privileges.
We can identify many such groups and organizations. In every community that makes
decisions through formal or informal rules, politics exists. For example, when a church
decides to construct a new building or hire a new minister, the decision is made politically.
Politics can be found in schools, social groups, and any other organized collection of indi-
viduals. Of all the organizations that are controlled by political activity, however, the most
important is the government.
What is the government? Certainly, it is an institution—that is, an ongoing organization
that performs certain functions for society. An institution has a life separate from the lives
of the individuals who are part of it at any given moment in time. The government can be
defined as an institution within which decisions are made that resolve conflicts and allocate
benefits and privileges. The government is also the preeminent institution within society
because it has the ultimate authority for making these decisions.
Why Is Government Necessary?

Perhaps the best way to assess the need for government is to examine circumstances in
which government, as we normally understand it, does not exist. What happens when mul-
tiple groups compete violently with one another for power within a society? There are
places around the world where such circumstances exist. A current example is the Middle
Politics Eastern nation of Syria, run by the dictator Bashar al-Assad. In 2011, peaceful protesters
The struggle over power were killed, which led to an armed rebellion. The government lost control of much of the
or influence within country, and its forces repeatedly massacred civilians in contested areas. Some rebels, such
organizations or informal
groups that can grant as the so-called Islamic State (ISIS), were extreme Islamists. Others were more moderate.
or withhold benefits or By 2013, rebels were fighting each other as well as the government. In much of Syria, law
privileges. and order had broken down completely. By 2017, almost 500,000 people had been killed,
Institution and about half of the country’s people had been driven from their homes.
An ongoing organization As the example of Syria shows, one of the foundational purposes of government is the
that performs certain
functions for society. maintenance of security, or order. By keeping the peace, a government protects its people
from violence at the hands of private or foreign armies and criminals. If order is not present,
Government
The preeminent it is not possible for the government to provide any of the other benefits that people expect
institution within a from it. Order is a political value to which we will return later in this chapter.
society. Government has
the ultimate authority
to decide how conflicts Limiting Government Power
will be resolved and how A complete collapse of order and security, as seen in Syria, actually is an uncommon event.
benefits and privileges
will be allocated. Much more common is the reverse—too much government control. In January 2017, the
human rights organization Freedom House judged that forty-nine of the world’s countries
Order
A state of peace and were “not free.” These nations contained 36 percent of the world’s population. Such coun-
security. Maintaining tries may be controlled by individual kings or dictators. Saudi Arabia’s king, Salman bin
order by protecting Abdulaziz Al Saud, and North Korea’s Kim Jong-un are obvious examples. Alternatively,
members of society from
violence and criminal
activity is the oldest 1. Harold Lasswell, Politics: Who Gets What, When, and How (Gloucester, Mass.: Peter Smith Publisher,
purpose of government. 1990). Originally published in 1936.
Chapter one | The Democratic Republic 3
a political party, such as the Communist

Party of China, may monopolize all the lev-
els of power. The military may rule, as in
Thailand since 2014.
In all of these examples, the individual
or group running the country cannot be
removed by legal means. Freedom of speech
and the right to a fair trial are typically
absent. Dictatorial governments often torture
or execute their opponents. Such regimes
may also suppress freedom of religion. Revo-
lution, whether violent or nonviolent, is often
the only way to change the government.
TAUSEEF MUSTAFA/Getty Images

In short, protection from the violence
of domestic criminals or foreign armies is
not enough. Citizens also need protection
from abuses of power by their own govern-
ment. To protect the liberties of the people,
it is necessary to limit the powers of the
government. Liberty—the greatest freedom of
the individual consistent with the freedom of U.S. soldiers in Mosul, Iraq. They are assisting Iraqi forces in a
other individuals—is a second major politi- campaign to clear ISIS forces from the city. ISIS terrorists have
become famous for their brutality. What might inspire them to act
cal value, along with order. We discuss this in this way?
value in more detail later in this chapter.
Authority and Legitimacy

Every government must have authority—that is, the right and power to enforce its deci-
sions. Ultimately, the government’s authority rests on its control of the armed forces and
the police. Few people in the United States, however, base their day-to-day activities on
fear of the government’s enforcement powers. Most people, most of the time, obey the law
because this is what they have always done. Also, if they did not obey the law, they would
face the disapproval of friends and family. Consider an example: Do you avoid injuring your
friends or stealing their possessions because you are afraid of the police—or because if you
undertook these actions, you no longer would have friends?
Under normal circumstances, the government’s authority has broad popular sup-
port. People accept the government’s right to establish rules and laws. When authority is
broadly accepted, we say that it has legitimacy. Authority without legitimacy is a recipe Liberty
The greatest freedom
for trouble. of the individual that
Events in several Arab nations since 2011 can serve as an example. The dictators who is consistent with
ruled Egypt, Libya, and Tunisia had been in power for decades. All three dictators had the freedom of other
individuals in the society.
some popular support when they first gained power. None of these nations had a tradition of
democracy, and so it was possible for undemocratic rulers to enjoy a degree of legitimacy. Authority
The right and power of a
After years of oppressive behavior, these regimes slowly lost that legitimacy. The rulers sur- government or other entity
vived only because they were willing to employ violence against any opposition. In Egypt to enforce its decisions
and Tunisia, the end came when soldiers refused to use force against massive demonstra- and compel obedience.
tions. Having lost all legitimacy, the rulers of these two countries then lost their authority Legitimacy
as well. In Libya, the downfall and death of the dictator Muammar Gaddafi came only after Popular acceptance of
the right and power of a
a seven-month civil war. (As it happens, Egypt’s shaky new democracy collapsed in 2013 government or other entity
when the army seized power.) to exercise authority.
Democracy and Other Forms of Government

LO2: Distinguish the major features of direct democracy and representative democracy.
The different types of government can be classified according to which person or group of
people controls society through the government.
Types of Government
At one extreme is a society governed by a totalitarian regime. In such a political system,
Totalitarian Regime
A form of government that a small group of leaders or a single individual—a dictator—makes all decisions for the
controls all aspects of society. Every aspect of political, social, and economic life is controlled by the government.
the political, social, and The power of the ruler is total (thus, the term totalitarianism). Examples of such regimes
economic life of a nation.
include Germany under Adolf Hitler and the former Soviet Union under Joseph Stalin.
Authoritarianism A second type of system is authoritarian government. Authoritarianism differs from
A type of regime in which
only the government itself totalitarianism in that only the government itself is fully controlled by the ruler. Social and
is fully controlled by the economic institutions, such as churches, businesses, and labor unions, exist that are not
ruler. Social and economic
institutions exist that
under the government’s control.
are not under the Many of our terms for describing the distribution of political power are derived from
government’s control. the ancient Greeks, who were the first Western people to study politics systematically. One
Democracy form of rule was known as aristocracy, literally meaning “rule by the best.” In practice,
A system of government this meant rule by wealthy members of ancient families. Another term from the Greeks is
in which political authority
is vested in the people.
theocracy, which literally means “rule by God” (or the gods). In practice, theocracy means
rule by self-appointed religious leaders. Iran is a rare example of a country in which supreme
Direct Democracy
A system of government
power is in the hands of a religious leader, the Grand Ayatollah Ali Khamenei. One of the
in which political most straightforward Greek terms is oligarchy, which simply means “rule by a few.”
decisions are made by The Greek term for rule by the people was democracy. Within the limits of their culture,
the people directly, rather
than by their elected some of the Greek city-states operated as democracies. Today, in much of the world, the
representatives. people will not grant legitimacy to a government unless it is based on democracy.
Legislature
A governmental body
Direct Democracy as a Model
primarily responsible for The Athenian system of government in ancient Greece is usually considered the purest
the making of laws.
model for direct democracy because the citizens of that community debated and voted
Initiative directly on all laws, even those put forward by the ruling council of the city. The most
A procedure by which
voters can petition
important feature of Athenian democracy was that the legislature was composed of all of
to vote on a law the citizens. (Women, resident foreigners, and slaves, however, were excluded because they
or a constitutional were not citizens.) This form of government required a high level of participation from
amendment.
every citizen. That participation was seen as benefiting the individual and the city-state. The
Referendum Athenians believed that although a high level of participation might lead to instability in
An electoral device
whereby legislative
government, citizens, if informed about the issues, could be trusted to make wise decisions.
or constitutional Direct democracy also has been practiced at the local level in S witzerland and, in
measures are referred the United States, in New England town meetings. At these town meetings, important
by the legislature to the
voters for approval or decisions—such as levying taxes, hiring city officials, and deciding local ordinances—are
disapproval. made by majority vote. (In recent years, however, turnout for such meetings has declined.)
Recall Some states p rovide a modern adaptation of direct d emocracy for their citizens. In these
A procedure allowing the states, representative democracy is supplemented by the initiative or the referendum. Both
people to vote to dismiss processes enable the people to vote directly on laws or constitutional amendments. The
an elected official from
office before his or her recall process, which is available in many states, allows the people to vote to remove an
term has expired. official from state office before his or her term has expired.
The Dangers of Direct Democracy

Although they were aware of the Athe-
nian model, the framers of the U.S. Con-
stitution were opposed to such a system.
Democracy was considered to be danger-
ous and a source of instability. But in the
1700s and 1800s, the idea of government
based on the consent of the people gained
increasing popularity. Such a government
was the main aspiration of the American
Revolution in 1775, the French Revolu-
tion in 1789, and many subsequent rev-
olutions. At the time of the American
Revolution, however, the masses were
AP Images/Toby Talbot
still considered to be too uneducated to
govern themselves, too prone to the influ-
ence of demagogues (political leaders
who manipulate popular prejudices), and
too likely to subordinate minority rights
to the tyranny of the majority. These Woodbury, Vermont, residents cast their ballots after a town
meeting to vote on the school budget and sales taxes. What type of
James Madison, while defending political system does the town meeting best represent?
the new scheme of government set forth
in the U.S. Constitution, warned of the
problems inherent in a “pure democracy”:
A common passion or interest will, in almost every case, be felt by a majority of the whole . . .
and there is nothing to check the inducements to sacrifice the weaker party or an obnoxious
individual. Hence it is that such democracies have ever been spectacles of turbulence and con-
tention, and have ever been found incompatible with personal security or the rights of prop-
erty; and have in general been as short in their lives as they have been violent in their deaths.2
Like other politicians of his time, Madison feared that pure, or direct, democracy would
deteriorate into mob rule. What would keep the majority of the people, if given direct
decision-making power, from abusing the rights of those in the minority?
A Democratic Republic
The framers of the U.S. Constitution chose to craft a republic, meaning a government in Republic
which sovereign power rests with the people, rather than with a king or a monarch. A repub- A form of government in
lic is based on popular sovereignty. To Americans of the 1700s, the idea of a republic also which sovereign power
rests with the people,
meant a government based on common beliefs and virtues that would be fostered within rather than with a king or
small communities. a monarch.
The U.S. Constitution created a form of republican government that we now call a Popular Sovereignty
democratic republic. The people hold the ultimate power over the government through the The concept that ultimate
election process, but all national policy decisions are made by elected officials. For the political authority is based
on the will of the people.
founders, even this distance between the people and the government was not sufficient.
The Constitution made sure that the Senate and the president would not be elected by Democratic Republic
A republic in which
representatives elected
2. James Madison, in Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay, The Federalist Papers, No. 10 by the people make and
(New York: Signet, 2003), p. 71. See Appendix C of this book. enforce laws and policies.
a direct vote of the people. Senators were chosen by state legislatures, although a later
constitutional amendment allowed for the direct election of senators. The founders also
established an electoral college to choose the president, in the hope that such a body would
prevent voters from ultimately making the choice.
Despite these limits, the new American system was unique in the amount of power it
granted to the ordinary citizen. Over the course of the following two centuries, democratic
values became more and more popular, at first in Western nations and then throughout the rest
of the world. The spread of democratic principles gave rise to another name for our system
of government—representative democracy. The term representative democracy has almost
the same meaning as democratic republic, with one exception. Recall that in a republic, not
only are the people sovereign, but there is no king. What if a nation develops into a democ-
racy but preserves the monarchy as a largely ceremonial institution? That is exactly what
happened in Britain. The British, who have long cherished their kings and queens, found
the term democratic republic unacceptable. A republic, after all, meant there could be no
monarch. The British therefore described their system as a representative democracy instead.
Principles of Democratic Government. All representative democracies rest on the rule of the
people as expressed through the election of government officials. In the 1790s in the United
States, only free white males were able to vote, and in some states they had to be property
owners as well. Women in many states did not receive the right to vote in national elections
until 1920, and the right to vote was not secured in all states by African Americans until the
1960s. Today, universal suffrage is the rule.
Because everyone’s vote counts equally, the only way to make fair decisions is by
some form of majority will. But to ensure that majority rule does not become oppressive,
modern democracies also provide guarantees of minority rights. If political minorities were
not protected, the majority might violate the fundamental rights of members of certain
groups—especially groups that are unpopular or dissimilar to the majority population, such
as racial minorities.
Representative To guarantee the continued existence of a representative democracy, there must be
Democracy
A form of government in free, competitive elections. Thus, the opposition always has the opportunity to win elective
which representatives office. For such elections to be totally open, freedom of the press and freedom of speech
elected by the people
make and enforce laws
must be preserved so that opposition candidates can present their criticisms of the govern-
and policies, but in ment to the people.
which the monarchy
may be retained in a Constitutional Democracy. Another key feature of Western representative democracy is that
ceremonial role. it is based on the principle of limited government. Not only is the government dependent
Universal Suffrage on popular sovereignty, but the powers of the government are also clearly limited, either
The right of all adults through a written document or through widely shared beliefs. The U.S. Constitution sets
to vote for their
representatives. down the fundamental structure of the government and the limits to its activities. Such limits
are intended to prevent political decisions based on the whims or ambitions of individuals
Majority Rule
A basic principle of in government rather than on constitutional principles.
democracy asserting that
the greatest number of
citizens in any political
unit should select officials
What Kind of Democracy Do We Have?
and determine policies. LO3: Describe majoritarianism, elite theory, and pluralism as theories of how democratic
Limited Government systems work.
A government with
powers that are limited Political scientists have developed a number of theories about American democracy, includ-
either through a written
document or through ing majoritarianism, elite theory, and pluralism. Advocates of these theories use them to
widely shared beliefs. describe American democracy either as it actually is or as they believe it should be.
Some scholars argue that none of these three theories, which we discuss next, fully
describes the workings of American democracy. These experts say that each theory captures
a part of the true reality but that we need all three theories to gain a full understanding of
American politics.
Democracy for Everyone

Many people believe that in a democracy, the government ought to do what the majority
of the people want. This simple proposition is the heart of majoritarian theory. As a theory
of what democracy should be like, majoritarianism is popular among both political scien-
tists and ordinary citizens. Many scholars, however, consider majoritarianism to provide a
surprisingly poor description of how U.S. democracy actually works. Policies adopted by
the U.S. government are often strikingly different from the ones endorsed by the public in
opinion polls. One example is religion in the public schools.
Solid majorities have long advocated a greater role for religion
in the public schools, even to the point of teachers leading
students in prayer. Most elected officials, however, have tried
to uphold the constitutional principle of “separation of church
and state.” Another example: the average voter supports pro-
grams such as Social Security, Medicare—and high taxes on
the rich—far more strongly than do the nation’s leaders. (We
discuss programs such as Social Security and Medicare later
in this chapter.)
Democracy for the Few

If ordinary citizens are not really making policy decisions
with their votes, who is? One theory suggests that elites really
govern the United States. Elite theory holds that society is
Jim West/Alamy
ruled by a small number of people who exercise power to fur-

ther their self-interest. American democracy, in other words,
is a sham democracy. Few people today believe it is a good
idea for the country to be run by a privileged minority. In Members of the United Automobile Workers
the past, however, many people believed that it was appro- marching on Labor Day, 2016. They are
priate for the country to be governed by an elite. Consider encouraging union members to vote. What
kind of democracy are these citizens likely
the words of Alexander Hamilton, one of the framers of the to support?
Constitution:
All communities divide themselves into the few and the many. The first are the rich and
the wellborn, the other the mass of the people. . . . The people are turbulent and changing;
they seldom judge or determine right. Give therefore to the first class a distinct, permanent
share in the government. They will check the unsteadiness of the second, and as they cannot
Majoritarianism
receive any advantage by a change, they therefore will ever maintain good government.3 A political theory holding
that in a democracy, the
Some versions of elite theory assume that there is a small, cohesive elite class that government ought to do
makes almost all the important decisions for the nation,4 whereas others suggest that voters what the majority of the
choose among competing elites. Popular movements of varying political persuasions often people want.
advocate simple versions of elite theory. Elite Theory
The argument that society
is ruled by a small number
3. Alexander Hamilton, “Speech in the Constitutional Convention on a Plan of Government,” in Joanne B. of people who exercise
Freeman, ed., Alexander Hamilton: Writings (New York: Library of America, 2001). power to further their
4. Michael Parenti, Democracy for the Few, 9th ed. (Belmont, Calif.: Wadsworth Publishing, 2011). self-interest.
Democracy for Groups

A different school of thought holds that our form of democracy is based on group interests.
Even if the average citizen cannot keep up with political issues or cast a deciding vote in
any election, the individual’s interests will be protected by groups that represent her or him.
Theorists who subscribe to pluralism see politics as a struggle among groups to gain
benefits for their members. Given the structure of the American political system, group
conflicts tend to be settled by compromise and accommodation. Because there are a mul-
titude of interests, no one group can dominate the political process. Furthermore, because
most individuals have more than one interest, conflict among groups need not divide the
nation into hostile camps.
Many political scientists believe that pluralism works very well as a descriptive theory. As
a theory of how democracy should function, however, pluralism has problems. Poor citizens
are rarely represented by interest groups. At the same time, rich citizens may be overrepre-
sented. (Still, the unorganized poor do receive useful representation from religious and liberal
groups.) There are also serious doubts as to whether group decision making always reflects
the best interests of the nation. Indeed, critics see a danger that groups may grow so powerful
that all policies become compromises crafted to satisfy the interests of the largest groups. The
interests of the public as a whole, then, are not considered. Critics of pluralism have suggested
that a democratic system can be almost paralyzed by the struggle among interest groups.
Fundamental Values
LO4: Summarize the conflicts that can occur between the values of liberty and order, and between
those of liberty and equality.
The writers of the U.S. Constitution believed that the structures they had created would pro-
vide for both popular sovereignty and a stable political system. They also believed that the
nation would be sustained by its political culture—the patterned set of ideas, values, and ways
of thinking about government and politics that characterized its people. Even today, there is
Pluralism
A theory that views considerable consensus among American citizens about certain concepts—including the rights
politics as a conflict to liberty, equality, and property—that are deemed to be basic to the U.S. political system.
among interest groups. Most Americans are descendents of immigrants who came from diverse cultural and
Political decision
making is characterized political backgrounds. You can see how immigration will continue to change the composi-
by bargaining and tion of the nation in future years in Figure 1–1. Given the changing nature of our population,
compromise. now and in the past, how can we account for the broad consensus that exists around basic
Political Culture values? Primarily, it is the result of political socialization—the process by which political
The patterned set of beliefs and values are transmitted to new immigrants and to our children. The two most
ideas, values, and
ways of thinking about important sources of political socialization are the family and the educational system.
government and politics The most fundamental concepts of the American political culture are those of the domi-
that characterizes a nant culture. The term dominant culture refers to the values, customs, and language estab-
people.
lished by the groups that traditionally have controlled politics and government in a society.
Political Socialization The dominant culture in the United States has its roots in Western European civilization.
The process by which
people acquire political From that civilization, American politics inherited a bias in favor of individualism, private
beliefs and values. property, and Judeo-Christian ethics.
Civil Liberties
Those personal freedoms, Liberty versus Order
including freedom of In the United States, our civil liberties include religious freedom—both the right to practice
religion and of speech,
that are protected for all whatever religion we choose and the right to be free from any state-imposed religion. Our
individuals in a society. civil liberties also include freedom of speech—the right to express our opinions freely
on all matters, including government Figure 1–1 Projected Changes in U.S. Ethnic Distribution
actions. Freedom of speech is per-
haps one of our most prized liberties, What political changes could result when non-Hispanic whites are no
longer a majority of the U.S. population?
because a democracy could not endure
without it. These and many other basic Other Black Asian Hispanic White
guarantees of liberty are found in the 100
Bill of Rights, the first ten amendments 3.0 3.2 3.7 4.3 5.0
to the Constitution. 90 12.2 12.4 12.6 12.7 12.8

Liberty, however, is not the only 4.7 5.8 6.7
80 7.6
value widely held by Americans. A 8.4
substantial portion of the American 70 16.3

19.0
21.6
electorate believes that certain kinds 24.1
60 26.5
of liberty threaten the traditional
Percent
social order. The right to privacy is 50
a particularly controversial liberty.
40
The United States Supreme Court
has held that the right to privacy can 63.7
30 59.6
55.5
be derived from other rights that are 51.3
47.3
20
explicitly stated in the Bill of Rights.
The Supreme Court has also held that 10
under the right to privacy, the gov-
ernment cannot ban either abortion 0
2010 2020 2030 2040 2050
or private homosexual behavior by Year
consenting adults.5 Some Americans Data for 2010 from the 2010 census. Data for 2020 through 2050 are Census Bureau projections.
believe that such rights threaten the Hispanics (Latinos) may be of any race. The chart categories White, Black, Asian, and Other are
sanctity of the family and the general limited to non-Hispanics. Other consists of the following non-Hispanic groups: American Indian,
Native Alaskan, Native Hawaiian, Other Pacific Islander, and two or more races.
cultural commitment to moral behav-
Sources: U.S. Bureau of the Census and author’s calculations.
ior. Of course, others disagree with
this point of view.
Security is another issue that follows from the principle of order. When Americans
have felt particularly fearful or vulnerable, the government has emphasized national secu-
rity over civil liberties. Such was the case after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor in
1941, which led to the U.S. entry into World War II. Thousands of Japanese Americans
were held in internment camps, based on the assumption that their loyalty to this country
was in question. More recently, the terrorist attacks on the Pentagon and the World Trade
Center on September 11, 2001, renewed calls for greater security at the expense of some
civil liberties.
Liberty versus Equality

The Declaration of Independence states, “All men are created equal.” The proper meaning of
equality, however, has been disputed by Americans since the Revolution. Much of American
history—and indeed, world history—is the story of how the value of e quality, the idea that
all people are of equal worth, has been extended and elaborated.
First, the right to vote was granted to all adult white males, regardless of whether they Bill of Rights
owned property. The Civil War resulted in the end of slavery and established that, in prin- The first ten amendments
to the U.S. Constitution.
ciple at least, all citizens were equal before the law. The civil rights movement of the 1950s
and 1960s sought to make that promise of equality a reality for African Americans. Other Equality
As a political value, the
idea that all people are of
5. Roe v. Wade, 410 U.S. 113 (1973) and Lawrence v. Texas, 539 U.S. 558 (2003). equal worth.
movements have sought equality for additional

racial and ethnic groups, for women, for persons
with disabilities, and for gay men and lesbians.
Although many people believe that we have a
way to go yet in obtaining full equality for all of
these groups, we clearly have come a long way
already. No American in the nineteenth century
could have imagined that the 2008 Democratic
presidential primary elections would be closely
fought contests between an African American man
(Illinois senator Barack Obama) and a white woman
Bettmann/Getty Images
(New York senator Hillary Rodham Clinton). The
idea that same-sex marriage could even be open to
debate would have been mind-boggling as well.
Promoting equality often requires limit-
African Americans line up to register to vote in Selma, ing the right to treat people unequally. In this
Alabama, following passage of the 1965 Voting Rights Act. sense, equality and liberty can be conflicting
Why is voting so important for democracy? values. Today, the right to deny equal treatment
to the members of a particular race has very few
defenders. Yet as recently as sixty years ago, this right was a cultural norm.
It can also be argued that liberty and equality are complementary. For example, people
or groups cannot really enjoy liberty if they do not have equal rights under the law.
Economic Equality. Equal treatment regardless of race, religion, gender, or other charac-
teristics is a popular value today. Equal opportunity for individuals to develop their talents
and skills is also a value with substantial support. Equality of economic status, however, is
a controversial value.
For much of history, the idea that the government could do anything about the division
of society between rich and poor was not something about which people even thought. Most
people assumed that such an effort was either impossible or undesirable. This assumption
began to lose its force in the 1800s. As a result of the growing wealth of the Western world
and a visible increase in the ability of government to take on large projects, some people began
to advocate the value of universal equality, or egalitarianism. Some radicals dreamed of a
revolutionary transformation of society that would establish an egalitarian system—that is, a
system in which wealth and power were redistributed more equally.
Many others rejected this vision but still came to endorse the values of eliminating pov-
erty and at least reducing the degree of economic inequality in society. Antipoverty advocates
believed then and believe now that such a program could prevent much suffering. In addition,
they believed that reducing economic inequality would promote fairness and enhance the
moral tone of society generally.
Property Property Rights and Capitalism. The value of reducing economic inequality is in conflict
Anything that is or may be
subject to ownership. with the right to property. This is because reducing economic inequality typically involves
the transfer of property (usually in the form of tax dollars) from some people to others. For
Capitalism
An economic system many people, liberty and property are closely entwined. Our capitalist system is based on
characterized by the private property rights. Under capitalism, property consists not only of personal possessions
private ownership of but also of wealth-creating assets such as farms and factories. Capitalism is also typically
wealth-creating assets,
free markets, and freedom characterized by considerable freedom to make binding contracts and by relatively uncon-
of contract. strained markets for goods, services, and investments.
Property—especially wealth-creating property—can be seen as giving its owner politi-

cal power and the liberty to do whatever he or she wants. At the same time, the ownership
of property immediately creates inequality in society. The desire to own property, however,
is so widespread among all classes of Americans that radical egalitarian movements have
had a difficult time securing a wide following in this country.
The Proper Size of Government

Opposition to “big government” has been a constant theme in American politics. Indeed,
the belief that government is overreaching dates back to the years before the American
Revolution. Tensions over the size and scope of government have plagued Americans ever
since. Citizens often express contradictory opinions on the size of government and the role
that it should play in their lives. Those who complain about the amount of taxes that they
pay each year may also worry about the lack of funds for more teachers in the local schools.
Americans tend to oppose “big government” in principle, even as they endorse its benefits.
Indeed, American politics in the twenty-first century can be described largely in terms of
ambivalence about big government.
Big Government and the Great Recession. In September 2008, a financial meltdown threat-
ened the world economy. The impact of the Great Recession was so strong that even by
2016, the share of Americans with jobs was not yet back to the 2007 level, as you can
see in Figure 1–2. In November 2008, the voters handed Democrat Barack Obama a solid
victory in the presidential elections, and Democrats increased their hold on the U.S. House
and Senate. Voters demanded government action to save the economy, yet major spending
Figure 1–2 Employment Rates for U.S. Persons Aged 25–54, 1977–2015
The growing number of working women from 1977 to 2000 reflects the movement to women’s
equality. Note also that despite recent economic growth, the job losses of the Great Recession
have not been fully reversed. What problems can result if large numbers of adults leave the
workforce?
95
90
85
80
Percent
75
70
65
60
Males All persons Females
55
50
1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015
Year
Source: Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, Main Economic Indicators database dx.doi.org/10.1787/
data-00052-en. © 2016 OECD, reprinted with permission.
programs aimed at accomplishing that goal were highly unpopular. In 2010, Congress and
President Obama also approved a major health-care initiative that had no direct connection
to fighting the recession. For many, this act completed the picture of big government out
of control.
In November 2010, voters swung heavily to the Republicans, granting them control
of the House. By 2012, however, a fear that Republicans would cut valued social programs
may have balanced concern over Democratic affection for government. President Obama
was reelected in November 2012, but the Republicans kept the House. The 2014 elections
again favored the Republicans, who gained control of the Senate. One cause was low voter
turnout by Democrats—turnout was lower than in any general election since World War II
(1939–1945).
Who Benefits from Big Government? The 2016 elections provided new information on pop-
ular attitudes toward the size of government. Donald Trump quickly established himself as
the front-runner in the Republican presidential primaries. It soon became clear that neither
Trump nor his followers were particularly enamored of the traditional small-government
conservatism supported by most Republican officeholders. This attitude had also been com-
mon among supporters of the Tea Party, a conservative movement organized after Obama
became president.6 Most Tea Party supporters had no problems with programs such as Medi-
care and Social Security that benefited older voters, many of whom were white. They did
oppose programs such as Obama’s health-care plan that were seen as primarily benefiting
poorer Americans in general and minority group members in particular. (Of course, other
groups have had different issues with Obamacare.)
The question, in other words, was not so much the size of government but who benefits
from big government. Trump’s most ardent supporters largely shared this “who benefits”
viewpoint. For more on programs such as Social Security and Medicare, see this chapter’s
At Issue feature.
Trump’s Supporters. Trump won in the November general elections in part because loyal
Republicans rallied to his campaign. Still, a new block of voters—many of whom had not
voted in previous elections—put him over the top. Trump’s strongest support came from
white voters without a college education. This group is commonly called the white working
class. (Earlier definitions of working class were based more on occupation than education.)
By 2016, it was clear that in many rural areas, the white working class was experiencing a
social crisis marked by falling life expectancies, high rates of drug abuse, and a bleak view
of the future. In fact, county by county, poor health was as much an indicator of Trump
support as low levels of education.7
New support for Trump was not based in the most troubled parts of the white working
class. Such people were likely not to vote at all. Trump voters, rather, were often somewhat
better off, but saw their communities unraveling around them. Stagnant incomes and closing
factories were part of the story. A belief that immigrants and minority group members were
“cutting in line” ahead of whites was clearly another.8 It was also no secret that as a result
of population growth among minority groups, the United States was on its way to becoming
Working Class a minority-majority nation by 2050, as you can see in Figure 1–1.
Currently, those with
no college education.
Traditionally, individuals 6. Theda Skocpol and Vanessa Williamson, The Tea Party and the Remaking of Republican Conservatism
or families in which the (New York: Oxford University Press, 2012).
head of household was 7. “Illness as Indicator,” The Economist (London), November 19, 2016, p. 25.
employed in manual or 8. Arlie Russell Hochschild, Strangers in Their Own Land: Anger and Mourning on the American Right
unskilled labor. (New York: The New Press, 2016).
At Issue
Does Entitlement Spending Corrupt Us?
Certain federal benefits are called entitlements because you are who are work fewer hours per year. Since 2000, the labor force
entitled to receive them if you meet specific requirements. If you participation rate has fallen continuously, even during boom
meet certain age and previous earnings requirements, you can times. Many believe that increased entitlement benefits have
receive a monthly Social Security check. If you lose your job, you reduced people’s desire to join the labor force. In other words,
may be entitled to unemployment benefits for a certain number entitlements corrupt.
of weeks. If your family income is below a certain level, you are
typically entitled to benefits from the Supplemental Nutrition Entitlements Are a Needed Part of the Social Contract
Assistance Program (SNAP, formerly called food stamps). While the statistics just presented are accurate, political progres-
In recent years, federal entitlement spending has bal- sives do not accept the conclusions drawn. With an aging society,
looned. Indeed, big government has gotten bigger in large part we should expect to pay more for Social Security. The same is
because Americans are receiving more entitlement payments true for government-financed health care. Health-care expenses
every year. At all levels combined, government spending now are driven up not only by larger numbers of the elderly, but also
has a value equivalent to about 36 percent of GDP. Some have by increasingly expensive (and effective) medical procedures.
argued that large-scale entitlement spending is corrupting us. Contrary to what some have argued, Americans are not
divided between “makers” and “takers.” At various times in
The More You Give People, the Less They’ll Work our lives, we are all takers, and almost all of us are makers. As
Conservatives point out that entitlement transfers—adjusted President Obama said in his second inaugural address, “The
for rising prices and population growth—are now more than commitments we make to each other—through Medicare, and
seven times what they were in 1960. (In part, this is because Medicaid, and Social Security—these things do not sap our
major programs such as Medicare and Medicaid were created initiative; they strengthen us. . . . they free us to take the risks
in the 1960s.) Currently, almost half of Americans live in a that make this country great.”
household that receives at least one government benefit. If you Americans believe in hard work as much as they always
count tax deductions, almost every household receives benefits. have. The Pew Economic Mobility Project sampled Americans
Consider SNAP benefits. In 2007, 26 million Americans on what is essential for getting ahead. More than 90 percent
received them. By 2017, about 46 million Americans received responded “hard work,” and almost 90 percent answered
them. The same story applies to Social Security disability pay- “ambition.” That doesn’t sound like corruption.
ments. Four million people received disability checks in 1988.
Today, disability checks are distributed to almost 11 million For Critical Analysis
people. Fewer people are now in the labor force, and those Who ultimately pays for entitlement programs?
Political Ideologies
LO5: Discuss conservatism, liberalism, and other popular American ideological positions.
A political ideology is a closely linked set of beliefs about politics. The concept of ideology is
often misunderstood. Many people think that only individuals whose beliefs lie well out on
one or the other end of the political spectrum have an ideology. Actually, almost everyone who
has political opinions can be said to have an ideology. Some people may have difficulty in
explaining the principles that underlie their opinions, but the principles are there nonetheless.
Political ideologies offer people well-organized theories that propose goals for society Political Ideology
and the means by which those goals can be achieved. At the core of every political ideology A comprehensive set of
beliefs about the nature
is a set of guiding values. The two ideologies most commonly referred to in discussions of of politics and the role of
American politics are conservatism and liberalism. government.
Cheryl Casey/Shutterstock.com
These members of the Tea Party movement in Florida assembled to voice their opposition to
“big government.” What are some of the things paid for by our taxes?
Conservatism
Traditionally, those who favor the ideology of conservatism have sought to conserve tra-
ditional practices and institutions. In that sense, conservatism is as old as politics itself. In
America, limited government is a key tradition. For much of our history, limited government
has included major restrictions on government’s ability to interfere with business. In the
past, enterprises were largely free to act as they pleased in the marketplace and in manag-
ing their employees. Government regulation of business increased greatly in the 1930s,
as Democratic president Franklin D. Roosevelt (1933–1945) initiated a series of massive
interventions in the economy in an attempt to counter the effects of the Great Depression.
Many conservatives consider the Roosevelt administration to be a time when America took
a wrong turn.
Modern Conservatism. It was in the 1950s, however, that American conservatism took its
modern shape. The conservative movement that arose in that decade provided the age-old
conservative impulse with a fully worked-out ideology. The new movement first demon-
Conservatism strated its strength in 1964, when Senator Barry Goldwater of Arizona was nominated as the
A set of beliefs that Republican presidential candidate. Goldwater lost badly to Democrat Lyndon B. Johnson,
includes advocacy of
a limited role for the but from that time forward movement conservatives have occupied a crucial position in the
national government Republican Party.
in helping individuals,
support for traditional Conservative Values. American conservatives generally place a high value on the prin-
values and lifestyles, and
a cautious response to ciple of order. This includes support for patriotism and traditional ideals. As a result, con-
change. servatives typically oppose such social innovations as same-sex marriage. Conservatives
Conservative Movement strongly endorse liberty, but they generally define it as freedom from government support
An American movement of nontraditional ideals such as gay rights or as freedom from government interference in
launched in the 1950s that business. Conservatives believe that the private sector probably can outperform the govern-
provides a comprehensive
ideological framework for ment in almost any activity. Therefore, they usually oppose initiatives that would increase
conservative politics. the role of the government in the economy, such as President Obama’s health-care reforms.
Conservatives place a relatively low value on equality. Believing that individuals and fami-
lies are primarily responsible for their own well-being, they typically oppose high levels
of antipoverty spending and government expenditures to stimulate the economy, favor-
ing tax-rate cuts instead. Trump supporters, with their anti-immigrant, nationalist views,
emphasized different aspects of the conservative tradition than those championed by the
conservative movement. Still, Trump’s followers were clearly conservative in a broad sense.
Liberalism
The term liberalism stems from the word liberty and originally Interact
meant “free from prejudice in favor of traditional opinions and
The Pew Research Center asks,
established institutions.” Liberals have always been skeptical of
“Are you a Solid Liberal? A Stead-
the influence of religion in politics, but in the nineteenth cen-
fast Conservative? Or somewhere
tury they were skeptical of government as well. From the time
in between?” You may have a good
of Democratic presidents Woodrow Wilson (1913–1921) and
sense of your personal political ide-
Franklin D
.R oosevelt, however, American liberals increasingly
ology. Then again, you may not. Pew
sought to use the power of government for nontraditional ends.
has a “Political Typology Quiz” that
Their goals included support for organized labor and for the poor.
you can locate by searching for that
New programs instituted by the Roosevelt administration included
term in your browser. Take the quiz
Social Security and unemployment insurance.
to find out how Pew classifies your
Modern Liberalism. American liberalism took its modern form in the politics. Alternatively, your instruc-
1960s. Liberals rallied to the civil rights movement, which sought to tor can set it up so that your entire
obtain equal rights for African Americans. As the feminist movement class can take the quiz together
grew in importance, liberals supported it as well. Liberals won new (click on “start a new community
federal health-care programs such as Medicare and Medicaid, and group”). If your class takes the test,
the promotion of such programs became a key component of liberal responses of individual students are
politics. Finally, liberals reacted more negatively to U.S. participation anonymous.
in the Vietnam War (1965–1975) than did other Americans, and for
years thereafter liberalism was associated with skepticism about the
use of U.S. military forces abroad.
Liberal Values. Those who favor liberalism place a high value on social and economic
equality. As we have seen, liberals champion the rights of minority group members and
favor substantial antipoverty spending. In the recent health-care policy debates, liberals
strongly endorsed the principle that all citizens should have greater access to insurance. In Liberalism
contrast to conservatives, liberals often support government intervention in the economy. A set of beliefs that
They believe that capitalism works best when the government curbs capitalism’s excesses includes advocacy of
positive government
through regulation. Like conservatives, liberals place a high value on liberty, but they tend action to improve the
to view it as the freedom to live one’s life according to one’s own values. Liberals, therefore, welfare of individuals,
usually support gay rights, including the right to same-sex marriage. support for civil rights,
and tolerance for political
and social change.
The Traditional Political Spectrum
Socialism
A traditional method of comparing political ideologies is to arrange them on a continuum A political ideology
from left to right, based primarily on how much power the government should exercise to based on strong support
for economic and social
promote economic equality. Table 1–1 shows how ideologies can be arrayed on a traditional equality. Socialists
political spectrum. In addition to liberalism and conservatism, this example includes the traditionally envisioned
ideologies of socialism and libertarianism. a society in which major
businesses were taken
Socialism falls on the left side of the spectrum. Socialist parties and movements have over by the government or
been important in other countries around the world, but socialists have usually played a by employee cooperatives.
Table 1–1 The Traditional Political Spectrum

What issues are not addressed by this spectrum?
Socialism Liberalism Conservatism Libertarianism

How much power should Active government Positive government Positive government Almost no regulation
the government have over control of major action in the economy. action to support of the economy.
the economy? economic sectors. capitalism.
What should the Economic equality, Economic security, Economic liberty, Total economic and
government promote? community. equal opportunity, morality, social order. social liberty.
social liberty.
minor role in the American political arena. An obvious exception was senator and 2016 pres-
idential candidate Bernie Sanders (D., Vt.), a self-proclaimed “democratic socialist.” In the
past, socialists typically advocated replacing investor ownership of major businesses with
either government ownership or ownership by employee cooperatives. Socialists believed
that such steps would break the power of the very rich and lead to an egalitarian society. In
more recent times, socialists in western countries have advocated more limited programs
that redistribute income.
On the right side of the spectrum is libertarianism, a philosophy of skepticism toward
most government activities. Libertarians strongly support property rights and typically
oppose regulation of the economy and redistribution of income. Libertarians support laissez-
faire capitalism. (Laissez faire is French for “let it be.”) Libertarians also tend to oppose
government attempts to regulate personal behavior and promote moral values. We might
expect, therefore, that a consistent libertarian would support same-sex marriage. Many
libertarians are also skeptical about U.S. military interventions abroad.
Problems with the Traditional Political Spectrum

Many political scientists believe that the traditional left-to-right spectrum is not sufficiently
complete. Take the example of libertarians. In Table 1–1, libertarians are placed to the right
of conservatives. If the only question is how much power the government should have over
the economy, this is where they belong. Libertarians, however, strongly advocate freedom
in social matters. They oppose government action to promote traditional moral values,
although such action is often favored by other groups on the political right. Their strong
support for cultural freedoms seems to align them more closely with modern liberals than
with conservatives.
Liberalism is often described as an ideology that supports “big government.” If the
objective is to promote equality, the description has some validity. In the moral sphere, how-
ever, conservatives tend to support more government regulation of social values and moral
decisions than do liberals. Thus, conservatives tend to oppose gay rights legislation and
propose stronger curbs on pornography. Liberals usually show greater tolerance for alterna-
tive life choices and oppose government attempts to regulate personal behavior and morals.
Libertarianism A Four-Cornered Ideological Grid

A political ideology For a more sophisticated breakdown of recent American popular ideologies, many scholars
based on skepticism or
opposition toward most use a four-cornered grid, as shown in Figure 1–3. The grid includes four possible ideolo-
government activities. gies. Each quadrant contains a substantial portion of the American electorate. Individual
voters may fall anywhere on the grid, depending on Figure 1–3 A Four-Cornered Ideological Grid
the strength of their beliefs about economic and cul-
tural issues. Can you name some celebrities or politicians who fall into
each of these four categories? If so, who are they?
Economic Liberals, Cultural Conservatives. Note Economic equality Economic liberty
that there is no generally accepted term for persons
Cultural liberty
in the lower-left position, which we have labeled LIBERALS LIBERTARIANS
“economic liberals, cultural conservatives.” Some
scholars have used terms such as populist to describe
this point of view, but these terms can be misleading.
Populism more accurately refers to a hostility toward
political, economic, or cultural elites, and it can be
combined with a variety of political positions. In the
The
2016 presidential primary elections, both Donald
Political
Trump and Bernie Sanders made appeals that could Center
be called populist, though their positions on the
issues were radically different.
Cultural order
Individuals who are economic liberals and
cultural conservatives tend to support government
ECONOMIC
action both to promote the values of economic equal-
LIBERALS,
ity and fairness and to defend traditional values, such CULTURAL
as the family and marriage. These individuals may CONSERVATIVES CONSERVATIVES
describe themselves as conservative or moderate.
They may vote for a Republican candidate based on
their conservative values. More often, they may be Democrats due to their support for eco-
nomic liberalism. Many of these Democrats are African Americans or members of other
minority groups.
Libertarians. As a position on the four-cornered grid, libertarian does not refer to the small
Libertarian Party, which has only a minor role in the American political arena. Rather, lib-
ertarians more typically support the Republican Party. Economically successful individuals
are more likely than members of other groups to hold libertarian opinions.
The Liberal and Conservative Labels. Even though all four ideologies are popular, the vari-
ous labels we have used in the four-cornered grid are not equally favored. Voters are much
more likely to describe themselves as conservative than as liberal. In the political battles of
the last several decades, the conservative movement has consistently made liberal a term
of derision, and they have succeeded in devaluing the term among much of the public.
Indeed, few politicians today willingly describe themselves as liberal, and many liberals
prefer to describe themselves as progressive instead. This term dates back to the years
before World War I (1914–1918), when it referred to advocates of reform in both of
Progressive
the major political parties. Public opinion polls suggest that progressive is a relatively A popular alternative to
popular label. the term liberal.
making a difference
Seeing Democracy in Action
One way to understand the American political system is to meeting of the state legislature instead. In many communities,
observe a legislative body in action. By “legislative body,” city council meetings and county board meetings can be seen
we don’t mean only the U.S. Congress and the various state on public-access TV channels.
legislatures—there are thousands of elected legislatures While attending a business session of the legislature,
in the United States at all levels of government. You might keep in mind the theory of representative democracy. The com-
choose to visit the meeting of a city council or a county missioners or council members are elected to represent their
commission. constituents (those who voted them into office). Observe how
often the members refer to their constituents or to the special
Why Should You Care? Local legislative bodies can have a
needs of their district. Listen for sources of conflict within a
direct impact on your life. City councils or county commissions
community. If there is a debate, for example, over a zoning pro-
typically oversee the police or the sheriff ’s department, and the
posal that involves an issue of land use, try to figure out why
behavior of the police is a matter of interest even if you live on
some members oppose the proposal.
campus. If you live off campus, local authorities are responsible
To follow up on your visit, try to get a brief interview with
for an even greater number of issues that affect you directly.
one of the members of the council or board. In general, legisla-
Are there items that the sanitation department refuses to pick
tors are very willing to talk to students, particularly students
up, for example? You might be able to change its policies by
who also are voters. Ask the member how he or she sees the
lobbying your councilperson.
job of representative. How can the wishes of the constituents
What Can You Do? To find out when and where local be identified? How does the representative balance the needs
legislative bodies meet, call the clerk of the council or of the particular ward or district that she or he represents with
commission. If you live in a state capital, you can view a the good of the entire community?
Bill Clark/CQ-Roll Call Group/Getty Images
Young students meet with Nancy Pelosi at the U.S. Capitol

Building. Pelosi is the Democratic leader in the U.S. House of
Representatives. Why might elected officials be willing to meet
with students?
Key Terms
authoritarianism 4 elite theory 7 majoritarianism 7 recall 4
authority 3 equality 9 majority rule 6 referendum 4
Bill of Rights 9 government 2 order 2 representative
capitalism 10 initiative 4 pluralism 8 democracy 6
civil liberties 8 institution 2 political culture 8 republic 5
conservatism 14 legislature 4 political ideology 13 socialism 15
conservative legitimacy 3 political socialization 8 totalitarian regime 4
movement 14 liberalism 15 politics 2 universal suffrage 6
democracy 4 libertarianism 16 popular sovereignty 5 working class 12
democratic republic 5 liberty 3 progressive 17
direct democracy 4 limited government 6 property 10
Chapter Summary
LO1 Politics is the process by which people representative democracy—in which the people elect
decide which members of society receive certain representatives to make the decisions.
benefits or privileges and which members do not. LO3 Theories of American democracy
It is the struggle over power or influence within include majoritarianism, elite theory, and
institutions or organizations that can grant benefits pluralism. In majoritarianism, the government
or privileges. Government is an institution within does what the majority wants. Under elite theory,
which decisions are made that resolve conflicts and the real power lies with one or more elites.
allocate benefits and privileges. It is the predominant Pluralism means that organized interest groups
institution within society because it has the ultimate contend for power.
decision-making authority. LO4 Fundamental American values include
Two fundamental political values are order, liberty, order, equality, and property. Not all of these
which includes security against violence, and liberty, values are fully compatible. The value of order often
the greatest freedom of the individual consistent with competes with civil liberties, and economic equality
the freedom of other individuals. To be effective, competes with property rights, which represent
government authority—the right and power to liberty to many people.
enforce its decisions—must be backed by legitimacy. LO5 Conservatives advocate for a limited role
LO2 Many of our terms for describing for government, support traditional values, and are
forms of government came from the ancient cautious about change. Liberals support government
Greeks. In a direct democracy, such as that of action to improve individual welfare, civil rights,
ancient Athens, the people themselves make and political and social change. Economic liberalism
the important political decisions. The United and conservatism can be analyzed separately from
States is a democratic republic—also called a cultural liberalism and conservatism.
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= 135,763 lbs.
The factor safety is 1⁄8. Therefore the safe load will be 16,970 lbs.
The strength of cylindrical pillars is to square ones as 10 is to 17.
Braces and Ties subject to a Tensional Strain.—The weight

that will produce fracture in a beam strained in the direction of its
length, is in proportion to the area of the cross section of the beam
multiplied by the weight that would fracture a unit of that area.
The formula is as follows:
B.W. = E S
where E = the cohesive force in lbs. per unit of 1 square inch, as in Table III.
S = the sectional area of the beam in square inches.
Example.—Find the B.W. of a rectangular elm brace 9 in. by 3 in.

under a tensional strain.
The value of E (Table III.) is 4,480.
B.W. = 4,480 × 9 × 3 = 120,960 lbs.
One-fifth of this should be taken as a safe load,
= 24,192 lbs.
= 10 tons 16 cwt.
which is the safe load required.
To find the sectional area of a cylindrical beam square its diameter
and multiply by ·7854.
The effect of fracture of a member of a scaffold depends upon its
cause and upon the importance of the member destroyed.
If the fracture is caused by a live load, say a heavy stone being
suddenly placed over a putlog, it is probable that the suspending
rope, if still attached, would prevent more damage being done. If the
fracture arose from an increasing dead load, say a stack of bricks
being gradually built up by labourers, the mass would probably tear
its way through all obstructions. Nevertheless, the entire scaffold, if
well braced and strutted, should not come down, the damage
remaining local.
The result of fracture of a standard under direct crushing would be
somewhat different, as, providing that the scaffold is rigid, the greater
strain thrown upon the ledgers, due to the increased distance
between supports, would probably cause them to fracture. In this
case the damage would probably still remain local. If, owing to the
fracture, the effect of the bracing were lost, the whole scaffold would
probably fail, as shown in the chapter on Stability.
It should be noted that the ledgers, together with the putlogs when
fixed at both ends, apart from carrying the loads, have an important
effect upon the standards, as, when securely connected, they divide
the uprights into a series of short posts, thus dispelling any likelihood
of failing by flexure.
CHAPTER X
THE PREVENTION OF ACCIDENTS

The safety of workmen depends not altogether upon the stability and
strength of a scaffold, but also upon the use of certain precautions
which, while not requisite for the progress of the work, are most
necessary for the prevention of accidents.
Fig. 138
Put briefly, the principal of these precautions are:
Ladders should rise at least 6 feet 6 inches above the top platform
they serve.
If the ladder is too short for this height to be allowed, a T piece as
fig. 138 should be fixed across the top of the ladder to give warning
to the workman that he has no higher hand hold.
Ladders above 25 feet in length between foot and rest should be
stayed in the centre to prevent sagging. The stay should be a
wooden shaft with an iron clip. By clipping the rung as shown in fig.
139 they do not meet the workman’s hands and feet when climbing.
The same effect is gained when the top of the ladder rises
considerably above the point of rest, by staying as shown on fig.
140.
Fig. 139
Fig. 140
Ladders should have a level footing and be firmly tied to the point
of rest.
Working platforms should be fitted with guard rails along the
outside and at the ends, at a height of 3 feet 6 inches from the
platform. They may be temporarily removed for the landing of the
workmen and material, although it is not always necessary to do so
in the latter case.
Fig. 141
If a well is left in the working platform through which to hoist
material, the opening should be guarded with rails as for the outside
and ends.
A well hole, if likely to be of permanent use, should be fitted with a
hinged flap door, that can be shut down as required.
Boards on edge should be fitted on the outside and ends of
working platforms, and should rise above the platform at least 7
inches. This will allow of a 9-inch board being used standing on the
putlogs. They should not be fixed near ladders where the workmen
land. Additional boards should be placed at the back of any stack of
bricks or other material in order to prevent it falling off the scaffold.
Fig. 142
Edge boards are usually nailed to the standards. On exposed
situations it is better to tie them, as the wind, continually acting on
their surface, will in time draw the nails.
Platform boards, when lapping, frequently lose their place, being
kicked by the workmen during their progress about the scaffold.
When this happens the boards assume the position shown on fig.
141, and what is known as a trap is formed. The danger of a trap is
shown on fig. 142.
Fig. 143
Platform boards to be safe from tilting, should not project more
than 6 inches beyond the putlogs. At this distance the weight of the
workman is most over the putlog, and even if he stood on the
extreme edge, experiments have shown that his weight is more than
counterbalanced by the weight and length of an ordinary board.
Where scaffold boards are used as a means of communication
between one part of the scaffold and another they should be laid in
pairs, so as to form ‘runs’ at least 18 inches wide. To prevent
unequal sagging they should be strapped on the under side. It would
be better to have properly constructed gangways and most decidedly
safer.
‘Bridging runs’ for barrows are usually three boards wide. Five
boards wide is better, and, as previously shown, they should be
joined to prevent unequal sagging.
Centering should be carried on supports which rise from a solid
foundation (fig. 143). The practice of trusting the supports to keep
their position under pressure from the stay a (fig. 144), or by being
spiked to the new work, is to be regretted, as the only reason for its
use is to effect a very slight saving of timber.
Fig. 144
Fig. 145
The various knots, tyings, marryings, &c., should be carefully
watched, as, if used in a damp condition, the cordage relaxes
considerably when drying. The scaffolder should have instructions to
examine carefully all cordage in use and tighten the same as
required.
The use of sound plant should be insisted upon. Defective plant
should be at once marked, so that its use cannot be unknowingly
continued.
Only the scaffolder or his assistant should be allowed to erect,
alter or adapt the scaffolding for its different purposes. Many
accidents, again, occur owing to the scaffolding having been altered
during a temporary absence of the mechanic, and the reconstruction
not having been made safe by his return. This most frequently
happens when the scaffolding is not under the charge of one
responsible person.
No working platform should be used by the mechanic until its
construction is complete. Sufficient plant should be on the job to
enable this to be done without disturbing the platform already in use.
Scaffolds should not be heavily loaded. Apart from the risk of the
timbers failing, the weight, in the case of the bricklayers’ scaffold,
has a bad effect upon the new work.
Fan guards, as shown on fig. 145, are usually erected in urban
districts to safeguard the public from falling material. There is no
reason why, for the safety of the workmen, they should not be
always fixed.
Due care should be exercised by the workmen themselves, and
observance made to the unwritten rules of experience.
The following instance is given as an illustration of what is meant.
Fig. 146
A scaffolder requiring a pole carried it from point a on fig. 146 to
point b. He carelessly carried it upon his right shoulder, and in
turning the corner the pole hit against the standard c, the recoil
knocking him off the scaffold. If he had carried the pole on his left
shoulder he would have fallen inwardly on the boards, and his life
would not have been lost.
CHAPTER XI
LEGAL MATTERS AFFECTING SCAFFOLDING.

LOCAL BYE-LAWS
Regulations governing the erection of scaffolding have been made
by many of the principal Local Authorities in the Kingdom. Their
purpose is to safeguard the public using the thoroughfares near
which the structures are built. Those issued by the City Corporation
of London are summarised as follows:—
CORPORATION OF LONDON
REGULATIONS FOR SCAFFOLDS
APPLICATIONS
Each application for a scaffold is to be entered in a book, with

headings for the following information:—
Name of street or place, and number of house.
Nature of work to be executed. Area of ground level of new
premises to be built, or old premises largely altered.
Number of storeys, including ground floor, if new premises are to
be built or old premises altered.
Length of scaffolding needed.
Time for which license is requested.
Name and address of Owner.
Name and address of Architect.
Name and address of Builder.
Date of Application.
Signature of Applicant.
REGULATIONS
The Inspector of Pavements is to report in the application book the
time he thinks needful for the scaffold to be licensed; the license is
then to be made out, and the conditions entered in the book by the
Engineer’s Clerk.
If there is disagreement between the applicant and the Inspector,
as to the time needed, the Engineer will decide.
No scaffold is to project beyond the foot-way pavement where it is
narrow, nor more than 6 feet where it is wide enough to admit of
such projection; any deviation on account of special reasons is to be
stated upon the license.
No scaffold is to be enclosed so as to prevent passengers passing
under it.
The lower stages of scaffolds are to be close or doubly planked;
each stage to have fan and edge boards, and such other precautions
to be taken as the Inspector of Pavements requires, to prevent dirt or
wet falling upon the public, or for the public safety.
No materials are to be deposited below any scaffold.
Where practicable or needed, a boarded platform, 4 feet wide, and
as much wider as may be necessary for the traffic, with stout post
rails, and wheel kerbs on the outside of it, are to be constructed
outside the scaffold, as the Inspector may direct.
Where it is necessary in the public interest, applicants shall form a
gantry, stage, or bridge over the public-way, if required, so as to
allow the foot passengers to pass beneath it. The gantry is to be
double planked, and so constructed as to prevent dust, rubbish, or
water falling upon the foot passengers, and the licensee shall keep
the public-way beneath it clean to the satisfaction of the Inspector.
Scaffolds are to be watched and lighted at night.
All fire hydrants must be left unenclosed in recesses formed of
such size and in such manner as may enable the hydrant to be
easily got at and used.
Public lamps are not to be enclosed without the permission of the
Engineer. When such enclosure is permitted, the applicant shall put
a lamp or lamps temporarily outside the scaffold, so that the public-
way may be properly lighted.
The licensee shall undertake to employ and pay the Contractors to
the Corporation to make good the pavements, lamps, and all works
disturbed, to the satisfaction of the Engineer.
Licenses are not allowed to be transferred.
Other cities have similar regulations, but are not generally so
complete in detail.
Scaffoldings.—The Burgh Police (Scotland) Act of 1903 (3 Edw.

VII., ch. 33) contains among its general clauses the following:—
Sec. 32.—The dean of guild court shall on the application of the

burgh surveyor have power to prohibit and stop the erection, use, or
employment, and to order the alteration or removal of any crane,
scaffolding, staging, or shoring in or connected with the construction
and erection, or the demolition, alteration, repair, or securing of any
new or existing building, or in or connected with any excavation for
the purpose of any work authorised by the dean of guild court, where
such crane, scaffolding, staging or shoring is, or is likely to be, in the
judgment of the burgh surveyor, a source of danger.
Sec. 103.—‘Dean of guild court’ shall, in this Act, as regards

burghs where there is no dean of guild court, mean the town council.
The above Act applies to Scotland only, and the section mentioned
first is carried out only so far as it affects the safety of the public at
large.
FACTORY AND WORKSHOP ACT, 1901

Section 105 of the above Act, so far as it relates to buildings,
reads as follows:—
BUILDINGS
105.—(1). The provisions of this Act with respect to—

(1) power to make orders as to dangerous machines (section 17);
(2) accidents (sections 19-22);
(3) regulations for dangerous trades (sections 79-86);
(4) powers of inspection (section 119); and
(5) fines in case of death or injury (section 136)
shall have effect as if any premises on which machinery worked by
steam, water, or other mechanical power, is temporarily used for the
purpose of the construction of a building or any structural work in
connection with a building were included in the word ‘factory,’ and
the purpose for which the machinery is used were a manufacturing
process, and as if the person who, by himself, his agents, or
workmen, temporarily uses any such machinery for the before-
mentioned purpose were the occupier of the said premises; and for
the purpose of the enforcement of those provisions the person so
using any such machinery shall be deemed to be the occupier of a
factory.
(2). The provisions of this Act with respect to notice of accidents,
and the formal investigation of accidents, shall have effect as if any
building which exceeds 30 feet in height, and which is being
constructed or repaired by means of a scaffolding ... were included in
the word ‘factory,’ and as if ... the employer of the persons engaged
in the construction or repair ... were the occupier of a factory.
It will be noticed that the provisions of the Act are more stringent
for buildings which are being constructed or repaired by machinery,
and that these buildings come within the provisions of the Act
whether or not they exceed the limit of 30 feet.
The provisions of the Act as mentioned in the beginning of this
section have been embodied in the following abstract, issued from
the Home Office, January 1902.
Form 57.6
January 1902.
FACTORY AND WORKSHOP ACT, 1901
Abstract of the provisions of the Act as to
BUILDINGS IN COURSE OF CONSTRUCTION OR

REPAIR
H.M. Inspector of Factories,
To whom Communications and
Notices should be addressed
Superintending
Inspector of Factories
H.M. Chief Inspector of ARTHUR
WHITELEGGE,
Factories Esq., M.D.,
Home Office, London, S. W.
Certifying Surgeon
Certain provisions of the Factory and Workshop Act, including
those which are stated below, apply as if any premises on which
machinery worked by mechanical power is temporarily used in the
construction of a building, or in structural work in connection with a
building, were a factory, and as if the purpose for which the
machinery is used were a manufacturing process. For the purpose of
the enforcement of those provisions, the person so using (by himself,
his agents, or workmen) any such machinery is deemed to be the
occupier of a factory.
In the case of buildings over 30 feet in height, which are being
constructed or repaired by means of scaffolding, paragraphs 4 and 6
apply in like manner, whether machinery be used or not; and for the
purpose of their enforcement the employer of the persons engaged
in the construction or repair is deemed to be the occupier of a
factory.
The provisions stated below apply also to any private line or siding
used in connection with a building in course of construction or repair
as above.
Dangerous 1.—If any part of the ways, works, machinery, or plant
Machinery (including a steam boiler) is in such condition that it
or Plant. cannot be used without danger to life or limb, a Court of
Summary Jurisdiction may, on complaint of an
Inspector, make an order prohibiting it from being used,
absolutely or until it is duly repaired or altered.
Dangerous 2.—If any machinery, plant, process, or description of
Processes. manual labour is dangerous or injurious to health, or
dangerous to life or limb, regulations may be made by
the Secretary of State.
Steam 3.—Every steam boiler must (a) be maintained in
Boilers. proper condition, and (b) have a proper safety-valve,
steam-gauge, and water-gauge, all maintained in
proper condition, and (c) be thoroughly examined by a
competent person every 14 months. A signed report of
the result of the examination must be entered within 14
days in a Register to be kept for the purpose in the
premises (Form 737).
Accidents. 7)4.—When there occurs in the premises any accident
which causes to a person employed therein such injury
as to prevent him on any one of the three working days
next after the occurrence of the accident from being
employed for five hours on his ordinary work, written
Notice (Form 437) must be sent forthwith to H.M.
Inspector for the district.
5.—Every such accident must also be entered in a
Register to be kept for the purpose in the premises
(Form 737).
6.—If the accident is fatal, or is produced by machinery
moved by power, or by a vat or pan containing hot
liquid, or by explosion, or by escape of gas or steam,
written Notice (Form 437) must also be sent forthwith to
the Certifying Surgeon for the district.
Returns. 7.—If so required by the Secretary of State, a return of
the persons employed must be sent to H.M. Chief
Inspector of Factories at such times and with such
particulars as may be directed.
Powers of 8.—H.M. Inspectors have power to inspect every part of
Inspectors. the premises by day or by night. They may require the
production of registers, certificates, and other papers.
They may examine any person found in the premises
either alone or in the presence of any other person as
they think fit, and may require him to sign a declaration
of the truth of the matters about which he is examined.
They may also exercise such other powers as may be
necessary for carrying the Act into effect. Every person
obstructing an Inspector, or refusing to answer his
questions, is liable to a penalty.
The limiting height of 30 feet has been inserted for the reason,
apparently, that it was not considered desirable to bring those minor
accidents which might reasonably be expected to occur on the
smaller buildings into notice.
NOTICE OF ACCIDENTS ACT, 1906

Certain provisions of the Factory and Workshop Act, 1901, have
recently been repealed, viz. Sec. 19, which deals with the notification
of accidents. The repealing Act, and which contains clauses
replacing the section, is known as Notice of Accidents Act, 1906,
which came into operation on the first day of January 1907. The
fourth section, which applies to buildings, reads as follows:—
Sec. 4.—(1) Where any accident occurs in a factory or workshop

which is either—
(a) an accident causing loss of life to a person employed in the
factory or workshop; or
(b) an accident due to any machinery moved by mechanical power,
or to molten metal, hot liquid explosion, escape of gas or steam, or
to electricity, and so disabling any person employed in the factory
or workshop as to cause him to be absent throughout at least one
whole day from his ordinary work; or
(c) an accident due to any other special cause which the Secretary
of State may specify by order, and causing such disablement as
aforesaid; or
(d) an accident disabling for more than seven days a person
employed in the factory or workshop from working at his ordinary
work,
written notice of the accident, in such form and accompanied by

such particulars as the Secretary of State prescribes, shall forthwith
be sent to the inspector of the district and also in the case of the
accidents mentioned in paragraphs (a) and (b) of this subsection,
and (if the order of the Secretary of State specifying the special
cause so requires) of accidents mentioned in paragraph (c), to the
certifying surgeon of the district.
(2) If any accident causing disablement is notified under this
section, and after notification thereof results in the death of the
person disabled, notice in writing of the death shall be sent to the
inspector as soon as the death comes to the knowledge of the
occupier of the factory or workshop.
(3) If any notice with respect to an accident in a factory or
workshop required to be sent by this section is not sent as so
required, the occupier of the factory or workshop shall be liable to a
fine not exceeding ten pounds.
(4) If any accident to which this section applies occurs to a person
employed in a factory or workshop the occupier of which is not the
actual employer of the person killed or injured, the actual employer
shall immediately report the same to the occupier, and in default
shall be liable to a fine not exceeding five pounds.
(5) The foregoing provisions of this section shall be substituted for
section nineteen of the Factory and Workshop Act, 1901.8
This amendment, as before stated, renders Part 4 of the Abstract

inoperative.
The Notice of Accidents Act also imposes new duties upon
employers. Section 5 reads as follows:—
Sec. 5.—(1) If the Secretary of State considers that, by reason of
the risk of serious injury to persons employed, it is expedient that
notice should be given under this Act in every case of any special
class of explosion, fire, collapse of buildings, accidents to machinery
or plant, or other occurrences in a mine or quarry, or in a factory or
workshop, including any place which for the purpose of the
provisions of the Factory and Workshop Act, 1901, with respect to
accidents is a factory or workshop, or is included in the word ‘factory’
or ‘workshop,’ or is part of a factory or workshop, the Secretary of
State may by order extend the provisions of this Act requiring notice
of accidents to be given to an inspector to any class of occurrences,
whether personal injury or disablement is caused or not, and, where
any such order is made, the provisions of this Act shall have effect
as extended by the order.
(2) The Secretary of State may by any such order allow the
required notice of any occurrence to which the order relates, instead
of being sent forthwith, to be sent within the time limited by the order.
The Secretary of State, acting under this section, issued an order

in December 1906 which stipulates that such an occurrence as the
breaking of a rope, chain, or other appliance used for raising or
lowering persons or goods by means of mechanical power should be
forthwith notified on Form 43 by the occupier of the factory to the
Inspector for the district.
REPORT BY AN INSPECTOR OF THE HOME

OFFICE ON BUILDING ACCIDENTS
Under Sections 79-85 of the Factory and Workshop Act the
Secretary of State is empowered to make regulations for any
description of manual labour that is dangerous or injurious to health,
or dangerous to life or limb. No regulations for the building trade
have as yet been made, but in the Chief Inspector of Factories’
Annual Report for 1905 a number of suggestions made by a member
of the factory department were printed for the guidance of those
engaged in building operations. They are as follows:—
1. All working platforms from which it is possible for a workman or
material, tools, and plant to fall a distance of more than 8 feet
should, before employment takes place thereon, be provided
throughout their entire length both on the inside and outside, and
at the ends—
(a) with a guard-rail fixed at a height of 3 feet 6 inches above the
scaffold boards;
(b) with boards fixed so that their bottom edges rest on or abut to the
scaffold boards. The boards so fixed shall rise above the working
platform not less than 7 inches.
Always providing—
(i) that where the working platform is fixed within a distance of 12
inches from the buildings, the guard-rail and boards need not be
supplied to the inward side;
(ii) that where it is necessary to deposit upon the working platform
material which could not be deposited thereon if the guard-rail and
boards were fixed, the guard-rail and boards may be removed for
this purpose;
(iii) that the guard-rail and boards need not be fixed within a
reasonable distance of each side of any ladder which provides a
means of access to the working platform;
(iv) that the guard-rail and boards may be removed between any two
standards between which material is being landed;
(v) that the guard-rail may be considered unnecessary where
additional boards on edge are fixed to a height of 3 feet 6 inches.
The reason for the limit of 8 feet is as follows:—

The first platform is generally 5 to 6 feet above the ground and the
material required on that platform can be placed upon it from the
ground level. If this is done safeguards are in the way. But on the
second platform about 10 feet high this would not hold good, and
from that point safeguards should be provided.
Guard-rails should be rigid, and not movable as would be the case if
a rope or chain were fixed. Workmen are used to rigidity in their
surroundings, and their sense of safety is increased by the use of

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PART I: THE AMERICAN SYSTEM

PART II: THE Politics of American Democracy

PART III: INSTITUTIONS OF AMERICAN GOVERNMENT

PART iv: Policymaking

Appendix A The Declaration of Independence 345

PART I: THE AMERICAN SYSTEM

Chapter 1 The Democratic Republic 1

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Chapter 2 Forging a New Government: The Constitution 21

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At issue: Should Recreational Marijuana Be Legal? 48

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Chapter 4 Civil Liberties 66

The Separation of Church and State—The

The Protection of Symbolic Speech 73

At issue: Do Police Use Excessive Force against Black Men? 84

Chapter 5 Civil Rights 92

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Women’s Struggle for Equal Rights 108

PART II: THE Politics of American Democracy

Chapter 6 Public Opinion, Political Socialization, and the Media 118

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Public Opinion and the Political Process 131

Chapter 7 Interest Groups and Political Parties 146

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A History of Political Parties in the United States 160

Chapter 8 Campaigns and Elections 174

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Running for President: The Longest Campaign 183

How Are Elections Conducted? 189

PART III: INSTITUTIONS OF AMERICAN GOVERNMENT

Chapter 9 Congress 199

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Congressional Elections and Apportionment 208

Chapter 10 The President 225

Executive Privilege 238

Chapter 11 The Executive Branch 250

US Food and Drug Administration

making a difference: What the Government Knows about You 268

Chapter 12 The Courts 271

PART iv: Policymaking

Chapter 13 Domestic and Economic Policy 296

The Policymaking Process: Health Care as an Example 298

Chapter 14 Foreign Policy 320

Terrorism and Warfare 323

making a difference: Working for Human Rights 341

Appendix A The Declaration of Independence 345

New to This Edition

Major Topical Updates

Key to High Student Interest—

•• Chapter 5: Should We Deport Unauthorized Immigrants?

Making a Difference Features

Other Special Pedagogical Aids

The Democratic Republic