Solution Manual for Principles of Economics 6th Edition Frank

Bernanke Antonovics Heffetz 0078021855 9780078021855

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SOLUTIONS
MANUAL
FOR
Principles of Economics

6th Edition
By Frank
ISBN13-9780078021855
CHAPTER 2 COMPARATIVE ADVANTAGE

Answers to Review Questions

1. An individual has a comparative advantage in the production of a particular good if

she can produce it at a lower opportunity cost than other individuals. An individual has an
absolute advantage in the production of a good if she can produce more of that good than
another individual, using comparable amounts of time, raw materials and effort.

Learning Objective: 02-01

AACSB: Reflective Thinking
Bloom’s: Understand

2. A reduction in the number of hours worked each day will shift all points on the
production possibilities curve inward, toward the origin, as this reduces the maximum
amount that can be produced of either good. The graph below illustrates this situation.

Coffee
(lb/day)

PPC 1

PPC 2

Nuts (lb/day)
Learning Objective: 02-03
AACSB: Reflective Thinking
Bloom’s: Understand

3. Technological innovations that boost labor productivity will shift all points on the
production possibilities curve outward, away from the origin. The graph below illustrates
this situation.

1
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 Coffee
(lb/day)

PPC2

PPC1

Nuts (lb/day)
Learning Objective: 02-03
AACSB: Reflective Thinking
Bloom’s: Understand

4. According to the Principle of Comparative Advantage, people will perform their own
services when the opportunity cost of doing so is low. This implies that performing
services yourself is not a matter of whether you are rich or poor but rather the opportunity
cost of your time. Furthermore, limited specialization will mean less overall production
for a nation, which is usually interpreted as poverty.

Learning Objective: 02-02

AACSB: Reflective Thinking
Bloom’s: Understand

5. The fact that English has become the de facto international language has done much
to stimulate international demand for American-made books, movies and popular music.
The large size of the American market has given the United States an additional
advantage over other English-speaking countries, like England, Canada, and Australia.

Learning Objective: 02-03

AACSB: Reflective Thinking
Bloom’s: Remember

Answers to Problems
1. In the time it takes Ted to wash a car he can wax three cars, which is his
opportunity cost of washing one car. In the time it takes Tom to wash one car, he can wax
two cars, which is his opportunity cost of washing one car.

2
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Alternatively, you can compute how many cars each person can wash or wax in a certain
time period, such as an hour, and then use these quantities to compute their respective
opportunity costs: Ted can wash one car or wax three, so his opportunity cost of washing
one car is 3 (or 3/1) wax jobs. Likewise, Tom can wash two cars or wax four, so his
opportunity cost of washing one car is 2 (or 4/2) wax jobs.

Because Tom’s opportunity cost of washing a car is lower than Ted’s, Tom has a
comparative advantage in washing cars.

Learning Objective: 02-01

AACSB: Analytic
Bloom’s: Apply

2. In the time it takes Nancy to replace a set of brakes she can complete one-half of a
clutch replacement; her opportunity cost of replacing a set of brakes is therefore one-half
of a clutch replacement. In the time it takes Bill to replace a set of brakes, he can
complete one-third of a clutch replacement; his opportunity cost of replacing a set of
brakes is therefore one-third of a clutch replacement.

Alternatively, you can compute how many clutches or brakes each person can replace in
a certain time period, such as 6 hours, and then use these quantities to compute their
respective opportunity cost: Nancy can replace 1.5 clutches or 3 sets of brakes in that
time, so her opportunity cost of replacing one set of brakes is one-half of a clutch
replacement (1.5/3). Likewise, Bill can replace 1 clutch or 3 sets of brakes, so his
opportunity cost of replacing one set of brakes is one-third of a clutch replacement (1/3).

Bill’s opportunity cost of replacing a set of brakes is lower than Nancy’s, so Bill has a
comparative advantage in replacing brakes. This also implies that Nancy has a comparative
advantage in replacing clutches. Finally, Nancy has an absolute advantage over Bill in
replacing clutches since it takes her two hours less than it takes Bill to perform that
job. Since Nancy and Bill take the same amount of time to replace a set of brakes, neither
person has an absolute advantage in that task.

Learning Objective: 02-01

AACSB: Analytic
Bloom’s: Apply

3. a. Helen's production possibilities curve would look like the following:

3
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any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part.
 Dresses
per day

32

Loaves of bread
0 64 per day
b. As the graph shows, 28 dresses per day and 16 loaves of bread per day is outside
the production possibilities curve (PPC) and is therefore an unattainable
combination for Helen. The combination of 16 dresses per day and 32 loaves of
bread per day is both attainable and efficient. Finally, 18 dresses per day and 24
loaves of bread per day is a combination that lies beneath the PPC, which is
attainable but inefficient. Here, Helen could either complete more dresses or
more loaves of bread per day.

Dresses
per day
32
a
28

18 c b
16

0 16 24 32 64 Loaves of bread
per day
Learning Objective: 02-03
AACSB: Analytic
Bloom’s: Apply

4. a. As shown below, the new machine doubles the value of the vertical intercept of
Helen’s PPC.

4
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 Dresses
per day
64

32

Loaves of bread
0 64 per day

b. Since Helen can sew twice as many dresses per hour as before, she can now sew
any given number of dresses in half as much time as before. With the time saved,
she can bake additional loaves of bread.

c. The upward rotation of Helen’s PPC means that she is now able for the first time
to produce at any of the points in the shaded region of the graph above. Note that
her menu of opportunity increased with respect to dresses and with respect to
bread as well. For example, she can now produce 32 dresses and 32 loaves of
bread instead of 32 dresses and no loaves.

Learning Objective: 02-03

AACSB: Analytic
Bloom’s: Apply

5. a. Their maximum possible coffee output is 36 pounds per day (12 from Tom and 24
from Susan).

b. Their maximum possible output of nuts is also 36 pounds per day (12 from
Susan and 24 from Tom).

c. Tom should be sent to gather nuts, since his opportunity cost (half a pound of
coffee per pound of nuts) is lower than Susan’s (2 pounds of coffee per pound of
nuts). Since it would take Tom only one hour to gather four pounds of nuts, he

5
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 can still pick 10 pounds of coffee in his 5 working hours that remain. Added to
Susan’s 24 pounds, they will have a total of 34 pounds of coffee per day.

d. Susan should be sent to pick coffee, since her opportunity cost (half a pound of
nuts per pound of coffee) is lower than Tom’s (2 pounds of nuts per pound of
coffee). It will take Susan 2 hours to pick 8 pounds of coffee, which means that
she can still gather 8 pounds of nuts. So they will have a total of 32 pounds per
day of nuts.

e. To gather 26 pounds of nuts per day, Tom should work full time gathering nuts
(24 pounds per day) and Susan should spend one hour per day gathering nuts (2
pounds per day). Susan would still have 5 hours available to devote to picking
coffee, so she can pick 20 pounds of coffee per day.

f. The point 30 pounds of coffee per day and 12 pounds of nuts per day can be
produced by having Susan work full time picking coffee (24 pounds of coffee
per day) while Tom spends 3 hours picking coffee (6 pounds of coffee) and 3
hours gathering nuts (12 pounds of nuts).

g. The point 24 pounds of coffee per day and 24 pounds of nuts per day can be
achieved if each works full time at his or her activity of comparative
advantage. Both points are attainable and efficient.

h. The points and the straight lines connecting them are shown in the graph below.
The production possibilities curve for the two-person economy consisting of
Susan and Tom shows the maximum possible amount of coffee production on the
vertical axis for any given quantity of daily nut production on the horizontal axis.

6
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Learning Objective: 02-03
AACSB: Analytic
Bloom’s: Apply

6. a.By specializing completely, they can produce 24 pounds of coffee per day and
24 pounds of nuts (the point at which the kink occurs in the PPC in the
diagram). If they sell this output in the world market at the stated prices,
they will receive a total of $96 per day.

b. With $96 per day to spend, the maximum amount of coffee they could buy
is 48 pounds per day, or they could buy 48 pounds of nuts per day.

The combination of 40 pounds of coffee and 8 pounds of nuts would be

unattainable for Susan and Tom if they were not able to buy and sell in
the world market, as the maximum amount of coffee that can be picked is
36 pounds per day. However, if they buy and sell in the world market, 40
pounds of coffee would cost $80, and 8 pounds of coffee would cost $16,
so they would have just enough money ($96 per day) to buy this
combination of goods.

7
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 c. The points and the straight lines connecting them are shown in the
diagram below. The resulting line is the production possibilities curve for
the two-person economy consisting of Susan and Tom.

Learning Objective: 02-04

AACSB: Analytic
Bloom’s: Apply

8
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 CHAPTER VII
CORRECTION OF SPEECH DEFECTS

In addition to the ordinary faults and failings in speech possessed

by many in common, there are the special and specific defects, such
as stammering, stuttering, lisping, and the like. Every defective is to
be pitied, as many professions and occupations are of such a nature
as practically to bar men and women who cannot speak well. There
are the social and ethical handicaps, also, to be considered, as well
as that of economics. The defective speech of a child renders him
the butt of his playmates’ rude and often brutal jokes. The sensitive
is thus driven away from society. He becomes a solitary and not
infrequently his life is ruined.
Speaking of the stutterer, one who is not afflicted by this disease
(for so authorities have determined it to be), cannot realize what a
terrible life he lives. Dr. Scripture, of Columbia University, New York
City, who is one of the greatest authorities on this subject, says:
“One boy often threw himself on the floor, begging his mother to tell
him how to die. Another boy asked for a letter to his father, telling
him to keep the other children from laughing at him. Many stutterers
become so sensitive that they imagine everybody is constantly
making fun of them. The life of a stutterer is usually so full of sorrow
that it can hardly be said to be worth living.”[3]
The speech delinquent is shy, timid, super-sensitive, constantly
harboring the thought that people are laughing at him. He gradually
shuns society, lives unto himself, and in many instances becomes
morally depraved. He contracts a morbid outlook upon life in general,
and often is driven to criminality. This statement is no exaggeration.
The Board of Education in New York City, after thorough
investigation, found that “one school child in four suffers from speech
defect,” and that “among boy criminals, nine in ten suffer from the
same malady.”
 In the Grand Rapids schools classes for the sole purpose of
correcting speech defects were organized.
The mechanical arrangement was as follows: Twelve classes were
arranged for in five different schools with a half hour a day for each
class. The children were grouped according to age, kind of defect,
etc., and a teacher with special training for the correction of speech
was sent from school to school to give the instruction.
Our plans for this year (1918) are practically the same as for last
excepting that we have more special teachers and will be able to
reach a greater number of schools and give more time to individual
cases.... During the school year of 1916-17, we had under instruction
107 children and obtained the following results:

Almost
Normal Improved Total
Normal
Stuttering 8 10 18 36
Organic Lisping 12 4 3 19
Negligent Lisping 24 5 29
Neurotic Lisping 3 4 5 12
Nasality 3 3
Miscellaneous 3 1 4
Indistinct 2 1 1 4
55 25 27 107

This year we will have under instruction of our special teachers

about 250 children, and in addition to this we hope to work for
correction and prevention of speech-defects in general by giving
instruction in voice culture and corrective phonetics to all of the
children of the primary grades. This work will be done by the grade
teachers under the supervision of the speech department.[4]

The Problem
A person with a slight impediment in his speech, due probably to
some minor organic disorder, could be much helped by the average
teacher, if the latter would give this subject of speech serious
consideration. Of course there are cases where, from birth, the
child’s speech organs have been impaired, and again, disease or
some surgical operation may have caused interference with their
proper functioning. In such cases as these a speech specialist is
needed and often medical aid as well.
We do not presume to suggest with any degree of authority just
what to do and what not to do in such extremities, but rather to
present a few fundamental and tried principles which have proved
successful in many cases. There are two classes whose speech
defects are due to some mental cause—the Stammerers and the
Stutterers.

Characteristics of the Stammerer

The stammerer finds it extremely difficult to begin to make any
audible vocal sound. He stares blankly at you with a very slight, if
any, suggestion that he is trying to speak. For the time being he is a
mute, with no power to speak, and yet with every means of
speaking. This is a pitiful condition in which to be.
The next stage finds the stammerer able, after a snapping of his
fingers, or bending of his knees, or lifting up of a foot, or swinging his
arms, or after some similar bodily action, to speak along smoothly
with no suggestion of an impediment for a considerable period of
time, after which he again lapses into silence. The following
characteristics are common to most stammerers:

1. He is inclined to speak too fast when started.

2. He has no control over his breathing.
3. He often endeavors to speak during inhalation instead of
during exhalation.
4. He is extremely sensitive, always fearing that he is making
a mistake.
 5. His face usually carries an expression of bitter sorrow and
despair.
6. He is usually intensely grateful to any one for a kind word
of help.
7. He tries with the utmost skill to conceal his defect.
8. He is usually weak physically.
9. He is usually of a nervous temperament.
10. He usually possesses splendid courage and high ideals,
which too often are destroyed because he cannot
accomplish them with this weight of halting speech about
his neck.

The Stutterer
The stutterer, unlike the stammerer, is able to make an audible
sound at will. His difficulty lies in his inability to say more than one
sound until he has repeated the initial sound from six to fifteen times.
It seems that he must get up a certain amount of speech momentum:
“B-b-b-bring me th-th-th-that b-b-b-book.” Or, “W-w-w-well, I think it is
a v-v-v-very fine day.”
In a large measure the causes of stuttering and stammering are
identical. Stammering is stuttering in the superlative degree. What is
true of the stammerer is also true of the stutterer, with the exception
that the stutterer is less melancholy, and less conscious of his
defect.
For both, or either, practice in simple exercises is very necessary,
but before specific training is given, the defective should be
interviewed concerning his health. If a boy or girl is not given
sufficient food and proper food (and such is often the case), there is
small chance for speech improvement. Oftentimes it is found that
these speech delinquents are playing too hard and wasting the
nervous energy which should be utilized in mastering their vocal
impediment.
 The most successful way of handling these problems is to have
the defectives placed in separate classes according to their
particular needs and ages. Then get a physician’s diagnosis of each
individual case. This diagnosis generally gives the special teacher
the knowledge necessary for intelligent correction. The teacher must
be patient, gentle, sympathetic and yet determined. She herself must
possess ease and real enjoyment in speaking.

Practice Exercises
1. Speech defectives must first learn how to relax. They should
spend at least ten minutes daily at home lying flat on their backs
concentrating the mind on separate parts until the whole body is
completely relaxed. This relaxation exercise can and should be
carried on daily. At school, a similar though modified exercise should
be attempted.
2. They must master diaphragmatic breathing. This exercise
should follow the relaxation exercise, for the best results are
obtained while lying on the back; the next best while sitting erect.

(a) Inhale slowly, filling lower lobes of lungs first, and then
the upper part of chest. While doing this count ten mentally;
exhale, counting ten mentally. Repeat five times.
(b) Inhale ten counts again, hold breath five counts, exhale
ten counts. Repeat five times.
(c) Inhale slightly, then purse lips to impede the air as it
passes out; now give one short puff with spasmodic
contraction of abdomen. Repeat five times, inhaling slightly
before each puff.
(d) Inhale deeply, then give one long puff with continuous
contraction of the abdomen. Repeat five times, inhaling
deeply before each puff.

3. Tone production should follow breathing exercises.

 (a) Count orally 1-1-1-1-1 with spasmodic abdominal
contraction. Repeat five times. Be sure that breath is taken in
after each count.
(b) Count orally 1-1-1-1-1 with continuous abdominal
contraction. Repeat five times.
(c) Inhale deeply and count orally 1 to 10, stressing every
other count. Some students cannot do this unless the teacher
keeps time with ruler as a baton, striking some object. Others
can only do this by walking slowly, repeating a count on every
other footfall. Repeat five times.
(d) Select a lyric with marked rhythm and read in concert in
sing-song style. Repeat each stanza five times, giving marked
pulsation to each accented syllable. Tennyson’s “Song of the
Brook” is especially good for this purpose.
(e) Take a simple prose selection and mark it off in thought
groups, and then read slowly and measuredly in concert,
giving a fairly long pause between each group. Hamlet’s
“Instructions to the Players,” and Lincoln’s “Gettysburg
Address” are splendid for such work.

When the defective has learned to speak fluently memorized work,

then he should be taught confidence in simple conversational
exercises. This work should be, so far as possible, voluntary on the
part of the pupil. Let the class form a circle, each one sitting with a
sense of ease and relaxation and then, as they are inclined, take
part in conversing on some simple, interesting topic. Some will have
to be urged to participate while others find great delight in such work.
In regard to training in enunciation, this work has been found to be
more successful when given late in the development of the defective.
After he has gained confidence in speech ability and cultivated, to
some degree, real enjoyment in voice production, he is better
prepared to consider this more or less purely technical training. In
very extreme cases, however, it will be found necessary to begin
speech instruction with him as you would teach a child. Such
students must be taught the proper control of lips, tongue and jaw,
as though they had never learned speech at all.
Experts who have devoted a lifetime to the study of speech evils
and their remedy find a large variety of causes for them, as well as
immense diversity in manifestation. One may seem to be born with a
tendency to stammering, stuttering or lisping; another can trace the
habit to a fright, to imitation, to some exhaustive disease, to nervous
timidity, to self-consciousness. But whatever the cause, or however
the evil manifests itself, it is a living nightmare, a dreadful, ever-
present burden to its victim. Hence parents and teachers should
seriously endeavor to correct the habit as speedily as it is
discovered. For if it be long-continued it is almost sure to produce
shyness, timidity, lack of necessary self-reliance, even moroseness,
sullenness and other consequences of perpetual unhappiness.
At the outset let it be understood clearly that all harshness,
unkindness, or severity of treatment in word or deed, adds to the evil
and renders it more difficult of eradication. The victim of the habit is
to be sympathized with, and lovingly encouraged. Yet promptness,
firmness and persistency are essential in the production of a cure.
The following suggestions should be put into practice, but seldom or
never in the presence of strangers, or at any time when they would
heighten the sufferer’s embarrassment. They must also be followed
with happy cheerfulness.
1. When a victim of one of these habits begins to stammer or
stutter, stop him immediately, and say pleasantly but firmly and
crisply, “Stop!” Then command: “Take a deep breath! Now hold it!
Now think of what you want to say—each word!” Then allow the
stutterer to let out his breath; then inhale again deeply, and begin his
speech. If he fails, see that he begins again. Practice this as often as
you can. Exercises can also be made up, following the same
procedure, that will be of incalculable benefit, as, for instance, taking
a deep breath, then repeating as much of the alphabet as is possible
before breathing again.
2. Cultivate slowness of speech. Insist upon words being spoken
slowly, with great distinctness and clearness of articulation. The
moment stuttering begins, issue the commands: “Stop! Deep breath;
think; breathe out, breathe in; now!” Let the teacher say his words
very slowly and constantly encourage the pupil to do the same.
3. Cultivate the habit of rapid thinking. This can be done by a
series of exercises played as games if necessary. For instance: “The
Game of Names.” The teacher says, “Flower!” The pupil replies,
“Rose.” If the teacher has a list ready he can call out his names as
quickly as possible, such as, Animal, Tree, Water, Bird, Dog, etc.,
while the pupil responds, Horse, Oak, River, Sparrow, Bulldog, etc.
The interest can be increased by repeating a generic term, requiring
a different species for answer. Flower, Animal, Tree, Water, etc., can
have a score or more of different answers.
Another exercise in prompt thinking is that of “Association of
Ideas.” The teacher gives out a name—whatever occurs to him—as,
for instance, “Tree.” The pupil immediately responds, “Leaves.” Then
the teacher may add, “Autumn,” and the pupil, “Poetry,” and so on.
Or the associations may all be required from the pupil. The words
used as starters should be carefully chosen, of course, to meet the
mental condition of the pupil; such words as Baby, Doll, Mamma,
Bed, House, etc., being good for children of tender years.
Another excellent exercise is that of “Contrasts or Differences,”
where the teacher says, “Boy,” and the pupil responds, “Girl.” “Black”
calls forth “white,” “heavy” is responded to by “light,” etc.
Equally good is “Finishing Quotations” or “lines”—provided, of
course, the pupil is old enough for such a mental exercise. For
instance, the teacher says, “Everything is not gold,” while the pupil
should respond, “That glitters.” “My country,” would bring out “’Tis of
thee,” or “Right or wrong.”
Anything that quickens the intellect and demands ready response
is of material help, but the teacher must not forget that, in this
mental-promptness exercise, slow and deliberate speech also are
essential on his part and that of the pupil.
4. Whenever it is found that a pupil stammers or stutters over a
word beginning with a consonant, as, for instance, “bread,” require
him to drop out the initial letter and say “read,” or even “ead.” Such
words as pie, Tommy, tub, butter, top, bank, tumble, tell, nut, lap, can
be used. Let him say, “ie,” “ommy,” “ub,” etc. Then when he is sure of
this part of the word, let him, after taking a deep breath, try the full
word, saying it again, but always slowly and distinctly.
5. Teach the pupil to sing his sentences. Begin with some simple
salutation, as, “Where are you going?” and let it be sung to the
notes:
Listen | MusicXML

Where are you going? I’m go-ing home.

Then let a response be sung reversing the music, “I’m going

home.” “How do you do?” “Where are your father and your mother?”
“How far is it to the market?” are sentences that can be sung. The
teacher should invent his own music and words, but insist upon slow,
deliberate utterances of tone and word. This is a wonderful help in
certain kinds of cases.
6. There are certain simple exercises or calisthenics that materially
aid in strengthening the muscles of the head, neck, throat, jaw, etc.
The teacher can utilize these according to his best judgment. Any
book of calisthenic or physical exercises will suggest those most
useful.
7. But above all, in seeking a cure of these distressing evils, use
the psychical or spiritual remedy. Give the pupil confidence that God
never intended him to be cursed by a stammering, stuttering, or
lisping tongue. He is the child of an Infinite and Loving Father. All
good is his, if he will learn how to take it. Urge him to restful, trustful
reliance upon the tender help of the Great Power outside of himself,
in conjunction with the efforts you and he together are making to
effect a cure.
 To the teacher who needs thorough preparation upon this subject
we can commend heartily Dr. E. W. Scripture’s book “Stuttering and
Lisping,” published by the Macmillan Company, New York.
 CHAPTER VIII
ENUNCIATION AND PRONUNCIATION

The study of the subject of enunciation should come comparatively

late in the development of the pupil, say, beginning with the fifth
grade. There are other fundamentals that the pupil should be well
grounded in before any definite concentration of effort should be put
upon enunciation.
The majority of children and adults are backward in mastering the
art of correct speaking, therefore, if the teacher begins by expecting
the pupil to be accurate in enunciation, which is really one of the
finishing touches, he is in danger of deadening forever the desire for
self-expression and enjoyment in speaking.
Pronunciation should precede any drill in enunciation. The pupil is
quick to grasp correctness in right pronunciation, and desires it fully,
but he cares little for enunciation. Most pupils will shy just a little
when you tell them that the proper way to pronounce, or rather to
enunciate the word education is ed-u-ca-tion and not ed-ji-ca-tion.
Or, take the vowel (a) as in ask, which should be pronounced (ạ).
Invariably the untutored will give the vowel the extreme flat sound of
(ă) as in hăt, and will think that he is affected if he give it the proper
soft, broad sound. He will likely think this even if you compromise
with the sounds.
So our policy has been to forego acute criticism in enunciation
until the student has acquired considerable momentum in speech-
desire. In other words, we are more interested, during his early
studies, that he develop and cultivate the desire and will to express,
than that he express himself accurately. Then, later, we gradually call
his attention to his slovenly speech. Above all things let us beware of
quenching the sacred fire of spontaneity, for without that all speech
loses its charm and power. Is it not better that the student be
stimulated to speech action, even though it be imperfect in some—
even in many—respects, than that he be conscious of all his defects
and never speak at all?
Clearness and precision in enunciation and pronunciation mark
the genuineness and strength of one’s character. Even the brightest
person, if he mispronounce his words, is accused of mediocrity and
is suspected of being unaccustomed to the society of refined and
cultured people. There should be daily systematic drill in childhood
when correct speech habits are most quickly and firmly established.
Another great advantage of early training is that this is the period
when the student is least self-conscious.
There are three essentials for clear and exact enunciation and
pronunciation: First, an acute ear; second, diligent practice; and
third, constant vigilance. These three essentials should be kept
constantly in mind in carrying out the following exercises. We should
first see that the student’s ear can detect the correct, pure
resonances, and then pursue vigorous practice in them. At first this
kind of exercise is tedious and irksome, but with accomplishment
comes keen pleasure.
Let us begin with the vowel sounds. For the word exercises we
shall take words often mispronounced as well as poorly enunciated.
Thus we shall be doing two important things: cultivating the ear, and
improving word production.

Exercise One
The vowels are either long, short, or diphthongal. The resonances
of the long vowels begin at the back, passing through the middle, to
the front of the mouth. Thus:

The above represents the approximate and relative openings of

the mouth in long vowels.
 You notice the mouth aperture is narrow at the back, wide in the
middle and narrow again at the front. For practice AW and AH and
OO are the most valuable because the two chief difficulties of the
student are; first, to open his mouth wide enough, and second, to
keep his speech forward on the lips. Usually his speech is throaty.
Practice the following in concert and individually in order to secure
freedom in controlling the mouth:

1. Repeat E A AW AH O OO consecutively on the same pitch.

2. Change the pitch and repeat on each note of the scale.
3. Give a decided rising inflection to each vowel sound.
4. Give a decided falling inflection to each vowel sound.
5. Give a decided circumflex inflection to each vowel sound.
6. Blend them altogether by the straight inflection in a singing
tone.
7. Laugh them He He He He, Ha Ha Ha Ha, Haw Haw Haw
Haw, Hah Hah Hah Hah, Ho Ho Ho Ho, Hoo Hoo Hoo
Hoo.

Exercise Two
In pronunciation there is a right and a wrong way. Some people
are so desirous of appearing exact in this matter that they often
introduce superfluous sounds. For example, such persons
pronounce evil—ē´vĭl, instead of ē´vl; towards—tō-wŏrdz´ instead of
tō´-erdz.
This habit of introducing an extra sound that is unnecessary
reflects upon the learning of the individual quite as much as the
neglecting of a sound that is necessary. Let us not attempt to foster
extravagant niceties of speech, but let us cultivate in ourselves and
our pupils an appreciation of, and a desire for, pure, substantial, and
impressively spoken English, showing them that the real beauty of
our language lies in its simplicity and its inherent, convincing power.
 Exercises in Enunciation and Pronunciation
Take up the exercises below in the following manner: First,
discover the correct position of tongue, lips and jaw for producing the
particular sound under consideration. Second, repeat the sound
many times. See that you use your organs of speech properly in
regard to the positions indicated at the beginning of each vowel
exercise. After the repetition of each sound, let lips, tongue and jaw
relax to normal position. Third, in repeating the words be sure the
ictus or vocal stroke is properly and decidedly placed.
The main purpose is to develop pure vowel resonance, but
inflectional freedom may be cultivated at the same time, if great care
is taken not to interfere with the correct vocal positions of tongue,
lips and jaw. Beware of a tendency in this direction. (See discussion
of Inflection in another part of this book.)

Key to Pronunciation
In showing the correct pronunciation of words in the following
exercises, the simplest method has been adopted. The words are
rewritten with a set of letters which have invariably the same sound
and are familiar to everyone.
Webster’s New International Dictionary and Phyfe’s Words Often
Mispronounced are the principal authorities consulted. The authors
are greatly indebted to these works for help in determining correct
pronunciation. The following table gives the diacritical marks used in
the following pages:

ā fāde
ä fär
å åsk
a̤ ha̤ ll
â hâre
ă hăt
[.=a] pref[.=a]ce
a (no mark) final
 ē ēve
[.=e] d[.=e]pend
ĕ bĕt
ẽ hẽr
e recent
ī glīde
[.=i] [.=i]dea
ĭ ĭt
ō gō
[.=o] [.=o]bey
ô absôrb
ŏ hŏt
ū blūe
[.=u] [.=u]nite
û sûrge
ŭ bŭt
o̅ o̅ o̅ o̅ ze
o͝ o bo͝ ok

Transcriber’s Note: [.=a] etc were printed as the letter with a macron above and a dot
above that. These particular diacriticals are not used on any of the following pages, so the
decision was taken not to attempt to represent them in any other way, because there are
no corresponding precomposed characters in Unicode and font support for combining
marks is often poor.

The Vowel Sound as in “Awe”

Note: Tongue sags low and should not move; contact[5] is just a
little over half way back of the middle of the mouth; mouth wide; lips
well rounded.

alder—a̤ l´der, not ăl´der.

almost—a̤ l´most, not a̤ l´must.
also—a̤ l´so, not ŏl´so.
 always—a̤ l´wāz, not a̤ l´wuz.
auction—a̤ k´shun, not ŏk´shun.
audience—a̤ ´dĭ-ens, not ŏ´jens.
cauliflower—ka̤ ´li-flow-er, not kŏ´li-flour.
caldron—ka̤ l´drun, not kŏ´drun.
Chaucer—Cha̤ u´ser, not Chŏw´ser.
Chicago—Shi-ca̤ ´gō, not Shi-kŏ´gō.
cornet—kôr´net, not kôr-net´.
exorbitant—egz-ôr´bi-tant.
falcon—fô´kn, not fŏl´kun.
for—fôr, not fur.
ordeal—ôr´dēl, not ôr-dēl´.
ordinary—ôr´dĭn-ā-rĭ.

The Vowel Sound as in “Star”

Note: Tongue sags and is widened; contact is low and in center;
mouth open wide; lips relaxed almost normally.

arctic—ärk´tĭk, not är´tĭk.

arduous—är´dū-ŭs.
armistice—är´mĭs-tĭs, not är-mĭs´tĭs.
bazar—ba-zär´.
encore—än-kor´, not ĕn´kor.
en route—än ro̅ o̅ t´, not ĕn rout.
far—fär, not fŭr.
father—fä´thẽr.
soprano—sō-prä´nō, not sō-prăn´ŏ.
 staunch—stänch, not stănch.
taunt—tänt, not tănt.
tzar—zär.
tarlatan—tär´la-tan, not tarl´tan.
Parsifal—pär´sif-äl.
partisan—pär´ti-zăn.
particularly—pär-tik´yū-lẽr-lĭ.

The Vowel Sound as in “Ask”

Note: Tongue sags and is a trifle narrower than the above
resonance in ä; mouth open wide; lips relaxed.

asked—åskt, not ăskt, nor ăst.

aversion—å-vẽr´shun, not a-ver´zhun.
bass (fish)—bås, not băs.
bath—båth, not băth.
chant—chånt, not chănt.
contrast (vb.)—kon-tråst´, not kon´trăst.
draft—dråft, not drăft.
draught—dråft, not drăft.
glass—glås, not glăs.
grant—grånt, not grănt.
grasp—gråsp, not grăsp.
mast—måst, not măst.
isinglass—ī´zĭng-glåss, not ī-zŭn´glăs.
pianist—pi-ån´ĭst, not pe´a-nist.
aft—åft, not ăft.
 casket—kås´ket, not kăs´ket.

The Vowel Sound as in “Can”

Note: Tongue sags and widens; contact is front; mouth open
moderately wide.

accept—ăk-sĕpt´, not ĕk-sept´.

accurate—ăk´kū-rat, not ăk´kẽr-ĭt.
algebra—ăl´je-bra, not ăl´je-brā.
ally—ăl-li´, not ăl´li (n) and (vb).
and—ănd, not ŭn, nor änd.
bade—băd, not bāde.
calcium—kăl´sĭ-ŭm, not kăl´shĭ-ŭm.
camera—kăm´e-ra.
canyon—kăn´yun.
catchup—kăch´up, not kĕch´up.
chasm—kăz´m, not kăz´um.
exact—egz-ăkt´, not eks-ăkt´.
flannel—flăn´nĕl, not flăn´nĕn.
harass—hăr´ăs, not har-răs´.
maritime—măr´ĭ-tĭm, not mâr´ĭ-tĭm.
olfactory—ŏl-făk´tō-rĭ, not ŏl-făk´trĭ.

The Vowel Sound as in “Fade”

Note: This is a diphthongal or double sound beginning on arch of
tongue in middle of mouth and moving forward to just back of upper
front teeth; mouth is open wide for first resonance but narrows for
second.
 aeronaut—ā´ẽr-ō-na̤ t.
amiable—ā´mĭ-a-bl.
apparatus—ăp-pa-rā´tŭs, not ăp-pa-ră´tus.
apricot—ā´prĭ-cŏt, not ă´prĭ-cŏt.
chaos—kā´ōs.
Danish—dā´nĭsh, not dă´nĭsh.
data—dā´ta, not dă´ta.
disgrace—dĭs-grās´.
heinous—hā´nŭs, not hē´nŭs.
naked—nā´kĕd, not nĕ´kĕd.
acorn—ā´kŭrn, not ā´kŏrn.
patriotic—pā´trĭ-ŏt-ĭk, not păt´rĭ-ŏt-ĭk.
plague—plāg, not plĕg.
slake—slāk, not slăk.
wary—wā´rĭ, not wâ´ri.
ignoramus—ĭg-nō-rā´mŭs, not ĭg-nō-ră´mŭs.

The Vowel Sound as in “Led”

Note: Tongue arched; contact at top of arch; mouth moderately
open; lips relaxed.

access—ăk´sĕs, or ăk-sĕs´.
address—(n) and (vb) ad-drĕs´.
cemetery—sĕm´ē-tĕr-ĭ, not sĕmĭ-trĭ.
centennial—sĕn-tĕn´nĭ-al.
equipage—ĕk´wĭ-pāj, not ĕ-kwĭp´ĕj.
equitable—ĕk´wĭ-ta-bl, no ĕ-kwĭ´ta-bl.
 every—ĕv´ẽr-ĭ, not ĕv´rĭ.
evident—ĕv´ĭ-dĕnt, not ĕv´ĭ-dŭnt.
excellent—ĕk´sĕl-ĕnt, not ĕk´slŭnt.
preface—(n) and (vb) prĕf´ās.
legislature—lĕj´ĭs-lāt-yŭr.
exit—ĕks´it, not ĕgz´it.
exist—ĕgz-ĭst´, not ĕks´ĭst.
irreparable—ĭr-rĕp´a-ra-ble, not ĭr-rē-păr´a-bl.
generally—jĕn´ẽr-al-ĭ.
instead—ĭn-stĕd´, not ĭn-stĭd´.

The Vowel Sound as in “We”

Note: Tongue arched to upper forward position; mouth aperture
narrow. This is a single vowel resonance.

adhesive—ăd-hē´sĭv, not ăd-hē´zĭv.

aerial—ā-ē´rĭ-al.
appreciate—ap-prē´shĭ-āt, not ap-prē´sĭ-āt.
esprit—es-prē´.
evil—ē´vl, not ē´vĭl.
fealty—fē´al-tĭ.
fetish—fē´tish.
genii—jē´nĭ-ī.
grievous—grē´vŭs, not grē´vĭ-ŭs.
guarantee—găr-ăn-tē´.
ideal—ī-dē´al, not ī´dēl.
immediately—im-mē´dĭ-at-lĭ.