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Global Climate Change
and Plant Stress Management
Global Climate Change
and Plant Stress Management
Edited by
Mohammad Wahid Ansari

Zakir Husain Delhi College (Delhi University),
New Delhi, India
Anil Kumar Singh

ICAR-National Institute for Plant Biotechnology
New Delhi, India
Narendra Tuteja
ICGEB,
New Delhi, India
This edition first published 2023
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Ansari, Mohammad Wahid, editor. | Singh, Anil Kumar (Principal
scientist of plant biotechnology), editor. | Tuteja, Narendra, editor.
Title: Global climate change and plant stress management / edited by
Mohammad Wahid Ansari, Anil Kumar Singh, Narendra Tuteja.
Description: Chichester, West Sussex, UK ; Hoboken, New Jersey : Wiley,
2023. | Includes index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2023000299 (print) | LCCN 2023000300 (ebook) | ISBN
9781119858522 (hardback) | ISBN 9781119858539 (adobe pdf) | ISBN
9781119858546 (epub)
Subjects: MESH: Plants–genetics | Plants–metabolism | Stress,
Physiological–genetics | Adaptation, Physiological | Carbon
Dioxide–physiology | Climate Change
Classification: LCC QK981.3 (print) | LCC QK981.3 (ebook) | NLM QK 981.3
| DDC 572.8/2–dc23/eng/20230518
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2023000299
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2023000300
Cover Design: Wiley

Cover Image: © Salvideo/E+/Getty Images
Set in 9.5/12.5pt STIXTwoText by Straive, Pondicherry, India

Prof. Jitendra Paul Khurana
(30 October 1954 to 27 October 2021)
Prof. Jitendra Paul Khurana was an Indian botanist known for his contributions to the fields of plant molecular biology. He
obtained a PhD in Botany from the University of Delhi in 1982 and did postdoctoral work at the prestigious Smithsonian
Institution, Washington, DC (1985–1986) and the Michigan State University, USA (1986–1988). He was a visiting professor
at the USDA, Beltsville, between 1996 and 1998, and at the Waksman Institute of Microbiology, Rutgers University, USA, in
2001. He was a founder faculty member of the Department of Plant Molecular Biology, University of Delhi South Campus.
He was a J.C. Bose National Fellow of SERB at the University of Delhi South Campus. He was the Vice President of the
Indian National Science Academy (INSA) for International Affairs. Prof. Khurana was Pro-Vice Chancellor (Interim),
University of Delhi, and Director, University of Delhi South Campus, for over three years (2016–2019); he also had additional
charge as Dean (Colleges).
Prof. Khurana’s work on Arabidopsis mutants led to the identification of a novel blue light receptor, phytotropin 1, which
primarily controls phototropism and leaf orientation to capture maximal solar energy for photosynthesis. Recently, his group
has demonstrated the role of other blue light receptors, cryptochrome 1 (CRY1), in controlling plant height in mustard and
CRY2 in regulating flowering time in both mustard and rice. He played a key role in sequencing of rice, tomato, and wheat
genomes as part of the International Consortia. Using in-house expertise, they provided evidence for bZIP and F-box protein-
coding genes in regulating light, hormone, and stress signaling leading to panicle and seed development. OsbZIP62 serves as
Flowering Locus D (FD), preferentially expressing in the shoot apical meristem, and interacts with the mobile flowering signal
“florigen” (FT) to regulate the transition to flowering and panicle development in rice. His recent work stressed on the role of
the bZIP and F-box proteins in abiotic stress responses and the interplay of light and environmental stress in plant
development. His work is documented in over 200 publications. Professor Khurana was the elected Fellow of all the National
Science Academies (INSA, IASc, NASI, and NAAS) and the World Academy of Sciences (TWAS), Trieste, Italy. His other
honors and awards include the Tata Innovation Fellowship (2010–2013) by the DBT, “J.C. Bose National Fellowship” by the
DST-SERB (2013 onward), Birbal Sahni Medal by the Indian Botanical Society (2011), “Goyal Prize” in Life Sciences (2017) by
the Goyal Foundation, Shri Om Prakash Bhasin Award in Biotechnology (2017), and Jawaharlal Nehru Birth Centenary
Visiting Fellowship (2019) by INSA, to name a few.
This book is dedicated to the memory of Prof. Jitendra P. Khurana as a token of our appreciation and respect
for him and his achievements.
vii
Contents
List of Contributors xvii

Foreword xxiii
Preface xxv
Author Biographies xxvii
Part 1 Views and Visions 1
1 Boosting Resilience of Global Crop Production Through Sustainable Stress Management 3

Rajeev K. Varshney and Abhishek Bohra
References 5
2 Sustaining Food Security Under Changing Stress Environment 7

Sudhir K. Sopory
References 8
3 Crop Improvement Under Climate Change 9

Shivendra Bajaj and Ratna Kumria
3.1 Crop Diversity to Mitigate Climate Change 10
3.2 Technology to Mitigate Climate Change 10
3.3 Farm Practices to Mitigate Climate Change 11
3.4 Conclusion 11
References 11
4 Reactive Nitrogen in Climate Change, Crop Stress, and Sustainable Agriculture: A Personal Journey 13
Nandula Raghuram
4.1 Introduction 13
4.2 Reactive Nitrogen in Climate Change, Agriculture, and Beyond 13
4.3 Nitrogen, Climate, and Planetary Boundaries of Sustainability 14
4.4 Emerging Global Response and India’s Leadership in It 14
4.5 Regional and Global Partnerships for Effective Interventions 15
4.6 Building Crop NUE Paradigm Amidst Growing Focus on Stress 16
4.7 From NUE Phenotype to Genotype in Rice 17
4.8 Furthering the Research and Policy Agenda 18
References 18
viii Contents
Part 2 Climate Change: Global Impact 23
5 Climate-Resilient Crops for CO2 Rich-Warmer Environment: Opportunities and Challenges 25

Sayanta Kundu, Sudeshna Das, Satish K. Singh, Ratnesh K. Jha, and Rajeev Nayan Bahuguna
5.1 Introduction 25
5.2 Climate Change Trend and Abiotic Stress: Yield Losses Due to Major Climate Change Associated Stresses Heat,
Drought and Their Combination 26
5.3 Update on Crop Improvement Strategies Under Changing Climate 27
5.3.1 Advances in Breeding and Genomics 27
5.3.2 Advances in Phenomics and High Throughput Platforms 28
5.3.3 Non-destructive Phenotyping to Exploit Untapped Potential of Natural Genetic Diversity 28
5.4 Exploiting Climate-Smart Cultivation Practices 29
5.5 CO2-Responsive C3 Crops for Future Environment 30
5.6 Conclusion 31
References 31
6 Potential Push of Climate Change on Crop Production, Crop Adaptation, and Possible Strategies
to Mitigate This 35
Narendra Kumar and SM Paul Khurana
6.1 Introduction 35
6.2 Influence of Climate Change on the Yield of Plants 36
6.3 Crop Adaptation in Mitigating Extreme Climatic Stresses 38
6.4 Factors That Limit Crop Development 39
6.5 Influence of Climate Change on Plants’ Morphobiochemical and Physiological Processes 39
6.6 Responses of Plant Hormones in Abiotic Stresses 40
6.7 Approaches to Combat Climate Changes 41
6.7.1 Cultural Methodologies 41
6.7.2 Conventional Techniques 41
6.7.3 Strategies Concerned with Genetics and Genomics 41
6.7.3.1 Omics-Led Breeding and Marker-Assisted Selection (MAS) 41
6.7.3.2 Genome-Wide Association Studies (GWAS) for Evaluating Stress Tolerance 42
6.7.3.3 Genome Selection (GS) Investigations for Crop Improvement 42
6.7.3.4 Genetic Engineering of Plants in Developing Stress Tolerance 43
6.7.4 Strategies of Genome Editing 43
6.7.5 Involvement of CRISPR/Cas9 43
6.8 Conclusions 44
Conflict of Interest Statement 44
Acknowledgment 44
References 45
7 Agrifood and Climate Change: Impact, Mitigation, and Adaptation Strategies 53

Sudarshna Kumari and Gurdeep Bains
7.1 Introduction 53
7.2 Causes of Climate Change 54
7.2.1 Greenhouse Gases 54
7.2.2 Fossil Fuel Combustion 54
7.2.3 Deforestation 55
7.2.4 Agricultural Expansion 55
7.3 Impact of Climate Change on Agriculture 55
7.3.1 Crop Productivity 56
7.3.2 Disease Development 58
7.3.3 Plant Responses to Climate Change 58
Contents ix
7.3.4 Livestock 59
7.3.5 Agriculture Economy 59
7.4 Mitigation and Adaptation to Climate Change 60
7.4.1 Climate-Smart Cultural Practices 60
7.4.2 Climate-Smart Agriculture Technologies 60
7.4.3 Stress-Tolerant Varieties 61
7.4.4 Precision Management of Nutrients 61
7.4.5 Forestry and Agroforestry 61
7.5 Conclusions and Future Prospects 61
References 62
8 Dynamic Photosynthetic Apparatus in Plants Combats Climate Change 65

Ramwant Gupta and Ravinesh Rohit Prasad
8.1 Introduction 65
8.2 Climate Change and Photosynthetic Apparatus 66
8.3 Engineered Dynamic Photosynthetic Apparatus 66
8.4 Conclusion and Prospects 68
References 68
9 CRISPR/Cas Enables the Remodeling of Crops for Sustainable Climate-Smart Agriculture

and Nutritional Security 71
Tanushri Kaul, Rachana Verma, Sonia Khan Sony, Jyotsna Bharti, Khaled Fathy Abdel Motelb,
Arul Prakash Thangaraj, Rashmi Kaul, Mamta Nehra, and Murugesh Eswaran
9.1 Introduction: CRISPR/Cas Facilitated Remodeling of Crops 71
9.2 Impact of Climate Changes on Agriculture and Food Supply 72
9.3 Nutritionally Secure Climate-Smart Crops 73
9.4 Novel Game Changing Genome-Editing Approaches 74
9.4.1 Knockout-Based Approach 87
9.4.2 Knock-in-Based Approach 87
9.4.3 Activation or Repression-Based Approach 87
9.5 Genome Editing for Crop Enhancement: Ushering Towards Green Revolution 2.0 88
9.5.1 Mitigation of Abiotic Stress 88
9.5.2 Alleviation of Biotic Stress 89
9.5.3 Biofortification 89
9.6 Harnessing the Potential of NGS and ML for Crop Design Target 90
9.7 Does CRISPR/Cas Address the Snag of Genome Editing? 94
9.8 Edited Plant Code: Security Risk Assessment 95
9.9 Conclusion: Food Security on the Verge of Climate change 96
References 96
Part 3 Socioeconomic Aspects of Climate Change 113
10 Perspective of Evolution of the C4 Plants to Develop Climate Designer C4 Rice as a Strategy

for Abiotic Stress Management 115
Shuvobrata Majumder, Karabi Datta, and Swapan K. Datta
10.1 Introduction 115
10.2 How Did Plants Evolve to the C4 System? 117
10.2.1 Gene Amplification and Modification 117
10.2.2 Anatomical Preconditioning 117
10.2.3 Increase in Bundle Sheath Organelles 118
10.2.4 Glycine Shuttles and Photorespiratory CO2 Pumps 118
x Contents
10.2.5 Enhancement of PEPC and PPDK Activity in the Mesophyll Tissue 118
10.2.6 Integration of C3 and C4 Cycles 118
10.3 What Are the Advantages of C4 Plants over C3 Plants? 118
10.4 Molecular Engineering of C4 Enzymes in Rice 119
10.4.1 Green Tissue-Specific Promoters 120
10.4.2 Expressing C4 Enzyme, PEPC in Rice 120
10.4.3 Expressing C4 Enzyme, PPDK in Rice 120
10.4.4 Expressing C4 Enzyme, ME and NADP-ME in Rice 121
10.4.5 Expressing Multiple C4 Enzymes in Rice 121
10.5 Application of CRISPR for Enhanced Photosynthesis 121
10.6 Single-Cell C4 Species 121
10.7 Conclusion 122
Acknowledgments 122
References 122
11 Role of Legume Genetic Resources in Climate Resilience 125

Ruchi Bansal, Swati Priya, and H. K. Dikshit
11.2 Legumes Under Abiotic Stress 126
11.2.1 Legumes Under Drought Stress 126
11.2.2 Legumes Under Waterlogging 126
11.2.3 Legumes Under Salinity Stress 127
11.2.4 Legumes Under Extreme Temperature 127
11.3 Genetic Resources for Legume Improvement 128
11.3.1 Lentil 129
11.3.2 Mungbean 130
11.3.3 Pigeon Pea 131
11.3.4 Chickpea 131
11.4 Conclusion 133
References 134
12 Oxygenic Photosynthesis – a Major Driver of Climate Change and Stress Tolerance 141
Baishnab C. Tripathy
12.2 Evolution of Chlorophyll 141
12.3 The Great Oxygenation Event 142
12.4 Role of Forest in the Regulation of O2 and CO2 Concentrations in the Atmosphere 142
12.5 Evolution of C4 Plants 142
12.6 The Impact of High Temperature 143
12.7 C4 Plants Are Tolerant to Salt Stress 144
12.8 Converting C3 Plants into C4 – A Himalayan Challenge 145
12.9 Carbonic Anhydrase 145
12.10 Phosphoenolpyruvate Carboxylase 146
12.11 Malate Dehydrogenase 147
12.12 Decarboxylating Enzymes 147
12.12.1 NAD/NADP-Malic Enzyme 148
12.12.2 Phosphoenolpyruvate Carboxykinase 149
12.13 Pyruvate Orthophosphate Dikinase 149
12.14 Regulation of C4 Photosynthetic Gene Expression 150
12.15 Use of C3 Orthologs of C4 Enzymes 151
12.16 Conclusions and Future Directions 151
Acknowledgment 152
References 152
Contents xi
13 Expand the Survival Limits of Crop Plants Under Cold Climate Region 161
Bhuvnesh Sareen and Rohit Joshi
13.2 Physiology of Cold Stress Tolerant Plants 162
13.3 Stress Perception and Signaling 163
13.4 Plant Survival Mechanism 164
13.5 Engineering Cold Stress Tolerance 165
13.6 Future Directions 168
Acknowledgment 168
References 168
14 Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi (AMF) and Climate-Smart Agriculture: Prospects and Challenges 175
Sharma Deepika, Vikrant Goswami, and David Kothamasi
14.2 What Is Climate-Smart Agriculture? 176
14.3 AMF as a Tool to Practice Climate-Smart Agriculture 177
14.3.1 AMF in Increasing Productivity of Agricultural Systems 177
14.3.1.1 Plant Nutrition and Growth 177
14.3.1.2 Improved Soil Structure and Fertility 181
14.3.2 AMF-Induced Resilience in Crops to Climate Change 182
14.3.2.1 AMF and Salinity Stress 182
14.3.2.2 AMF and Drought Stress 183
14.3.2.3 AMF and Heat Stress 184
14.3.2.4 AMF and Cold Stress 184
14.3.3 AMF-Mediated Mitigation of Climate Change 186
14.3.4 Agricultural Practices and AMF Symbiosis – Crop Rotations, Tillage, and Agrochemicals 187
14.3.5 AMF Symbiosis and Climate Change 187
14.3.6 Conclusions and Future Perspectives 188
Acknowledgment 189
References 189
Part 4 Plant Stress Under Climate Change: Molecular Insights 201
15 Plant Stress and Climate Change: Molecular Insight 203

Anamika Roy , Mamun Mandal, Ganesh Kumar Agrawal, Randeep Rakwal, and Abhijit Sarkar
15.2 Different Stress Factors and Climate Changes Effects in Plants 206
15.2.1 Water Stress 206
15.2.1.1 Drought 206
15.2.1.2 Flooding or Waterlogging 206
15.2.2 Temperature Stress 207
15.2.2.1 High Temperature Stress 207
15.2.2.2 Low Temperature Stress 207
15.2.3 Salinity Stress 207
15.2.4 Ultraviolet (UV) Radiation Stress 207
15.2.5 Heavy Metal Stress 207
15.2.6 Air Pollution Stress 208
15.2.7 Climate Change 208
15.3 Plant Responses Against Stress 208
15.3.1 Water Stress Responses 208
15.3.1.1 Drought Responses 208
15.3.1.2 Waterlogging Responses 210
xii Contents
15.3.2 Temperature Stress Responses 210

15.3.2.1 High Temperature Stress Responses 210
15.3.2.2 Low Temperature Stress Responses 211
15.3.3 Salinity Stress Responses 212
15.3.3.1 Genomic Responses 212
15.3.3.2 Proteomic Responses 212
15.3.3.3 Transcriptomic Responses 212
15.3.3.4 Metabolomic Responses 213
15.3.4 Ultraviolet (UV) Radiation Stress 213
15.3.5 Heavy Metal Stress Responses 214
15.3.6 Air Pollution Stress Responses 214
15.3.7 Climate Change Responses 215
15.4 Conclusion 216
References 216
16 Developing Stress-Tolerant Plants: Role of Small GTP Binding Proteins (RAB and RAN) 229
Manas K. Tripathy and Sudhir K. Sopory
16.2 A Brief Overview of GTP-Binding Proteins 230
16.3 Small GTP-Binding Proteins 230
16.3.1 RAB 231
16.3.1.1 Role of RAB’s in Plant 231
16.3.2 RAN 234
16.3.2.1 Role of RAN in Plants 234
16.4 Conclusions 236
Acknowledgments 237
References 237
17 Biotechnological Strategies to Generate Climate-Smart Crops: Recent Advances and Way Forward 241
Jyoti Maurya, Roshan Kumar Singh, and Manoj Prasad
17.2 Climate Change and Crop Yield 242
17.3 Effect of Climate Change on Crop Morpho-physiology, and Molecular Level 243
17.4 Plant Responses to Stress Conditions 244
17.5 Strategies to Combat Climate Change 245
17.5.1 Cultural and Conventional Methods 245
17.5.2 Multi-omics Approach 245
Contents xiii
17.5.3 Biotechnological Approaches 248

17.5.3.1 Combating Climate Change Through Overexpression of Candidate Gene(s) 248
17.5.3.2 Small RNA-Mediated Gene Silencing Approach 249
17.5.3.3 Gene Editing Through Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats (CRISPR) Approach 250
17.6 Conclusion and Way Forward 251
Acknowledgments 252
Declaration of Interest Statement 252
References 252
18 Receptor-Like Kinases and ROS Signaling: Critical Arms of Plant Response to Stress 263
Samir Sharma
18.1 Preamble 263
18.2 Climate Change: The Agent of Stress 264
18.3 Abiotic Stress: A Severe Threat by Itself and a Window of Opportunity for Biotic Stress Agents 264
18.4 Plant Receptor-Like Kinases (RLKs) 265
18.5 Receptor-Like Cytosolic Kinases 267
18.6 Why Are Receptor-Like Cytosolic Kinases Needed? 268
18.7 Receptor-Like Cytosolic Kinases in Plant Defense 269
18.8 Receptor-Like Cytosolic Kinases in Plant Development 270
18.9 Reactive Oxygen Species: Dual Role in Plants and Links to Receptor-Like Protein Kinases 272
18.10 Conclusion 273
References 273
19 Phytohormones as a Novel Weapon in Management of Plant Stress Against Biotic Agents 277
Rewaj Subba, Swarnendu Roy, and Piyush Mathur
19.2 Phytohormones and Biotic Stress Management 278
19.2.1 Salicylic Acid 278
19.2.2 Jasmonic Acid (JA) 278
19.2.3 Ethylene (ET) 279
19.2.4 Abscisic Acid (ABA) 279
19.3 Phytohormone Mediated Cross-Talk in Plant Defense Under Biotic Stress 281
References 282
20 Recent Perspectives of Drought Tolerance Traits: Physiology and Biochemistry 287

Priya Yadav, Mohammad Wahid Ansari, Narendra Tuteja, and Moaed Al Meselmani
20.2 Effects and Response During Drought Stress on Physiological and Biochemical Traits of Plants 288
20.3 Recent Advances in Drought Stress Tolerance 289
20.4 Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi (AMF) and Plant Growth-Promoting Rhizobacteria (PGPRs)
in Drought Stress Tolerance 291
20.5 Genomic Level Approach in Drought Stress Tolerance 291
20.6 Conclusion 293
References 293
21 Understanding the Role of Key Transcription Factors in Regulating Salinity Tolerance in Plants 299
Sahana Basu and Gautam Kumar
21.2 Transcription Factors Conferring Salinity Tolerance 299
21.2.1 APETALA2/Ethylene Responsive Factor 299
21.2.1.1 Structure of AP2/ERF Transcription Factors 301
21.2.1.2 Classification of AP2/ERF Transcription Factors 301
21.2.1.3 Role of AP2/ERF Transcription Factors in Salinity Tolerance 302
xiv Contents
21.2.2 WRKY 302

21.2.2.1 Structure of WRKY Transcription Factors 302
21.2.2.2 Classification of WRKY Transcription Factors 302
21.2.2.3 Role of WRKY Transcription Factors in Salinity Tolerance 306
21.2.3 Basic Helix-Loop-Helix 307
21.2.3.1 Structure of bHLH Transcription Factors 307
21.2.3.2 Classification of bHLH Transcription Factors 307
21.2.3.3 Role of bHLH Transcription Factors in Salinity Tolerance 307
21.2.4 v-Myb Myeloblastosis Viral Oncogene Homolog 308
21.2.4.1 Structure of MYB Transcription Factors 308
21.2.4.2 Classification of MYB Transcription Factors 308
21.2.4.3 Role of MYB Transcription Factors in Salinity Tolerance 309
21.2.5 NAM (for no apical meristem), ATAF1 and −2, and CUC2 (for cup-shaped cotyledon) 309
21.2.5.1 Structure of NAC Transcription Factors 309
21.2.5.2 Classification of NAC Transcription Factors 309
21.2.5.3 Role of NAC Transcription Factors in Salinity Tolerance 310
21.2.6 Nuclear Factor-Y 310
21.2.6.1 Structure of NF-Y Transcription Factors 310
21.2.6.2 Classification of NF-Y Transcription Factors 310
21.2.6.3 Role of NF-Y Transcription Factors in Salinity Tolerance 311
21.2.7 Basic Leucine Zipper 311
21.2.7.1 Structure of bZIP Transcription Factors 311
21.2.7.2 Classification of bZIP Transcription Factors 312
21.2.7.3 Role of bZIP Transcription Factors in Salinity Tolerance 312
21.3 Conclusion 312
References 312
Part 5 Stress Management Strategies for Sustainable Agriculture 317
22 Seed Quality Assessment and Improvement Between Advancing Agriculture

and Changing Environments 319
Andrea Pagano, Paola Pagano, Conrado Dueñas, Adriano Griffo, Shraddha Shridhar Gaonkar,
Francesca Messina, Alma Balestrazzi, and Anca Macovei
22.1 Introduction: A Seed’s Viewpoint on Climate Change 319
22.2 Assessing Seed Quality: Invasive and Non-invasive Techniques for Grain Testing 321
22.3 Improving Seed Quality: Optimizing Priming Techniques to Face the Challenges of Climate Changes 324
22.4 Understanding Seed Quality: Molecular Hallmarks and Experimental Models for Future Perspectives
in Seed Technology 327
22.5 Conclusive Remarks 329
References 329
23 CRISPR/Cas9 Genome Editing and Plant Stress Management 335

Isorchand Chongtham and Priya Yadav
23.2 CRISPR/Cas9 336
23.2.1 CRISPR Cas System 336
23.2.2 CRISPR Cas9 337
23.2.3 CRISPR/Cas9 Mechanism 338
23.2.4 CRISPR/Cas9 Types of Gene Editing 339
23.3 Construct of the CRISPR/Cas9 341
23.3.1 The gRNA 341
Contents xv
23.3.2 The Choice of Gene Regulatory Elements (GREs) 341

23.3.3 Multiplex CRISPR 341
23.4 Plant Genome Editing 343
23.4.1 Procedure 343
23.4.2 Plant Improvement Strategies Based on Genome Editing 344
23.5 Plant Stress 344
23.5.1 Plant Stress and Their Types 344
23.5.2 Plant Remedial Measures Toward Stress 345
23.6 Genome Editing for Plant Stress 346
23.6.1 Biotic Stress 348
23.6.1.1 Bacterium 348
23.6.1.2 Virus 348
23.6.1.3 Fungus 348
23.6.1.4 Insect 349
23.6.2 Abiotic Stress 349
23.6.2.1 Chemicals 349
23.6.2.2 Environmental 349
23.7 Elimination of CRISPR/Cas from the System After Genetic Editing 350
23.8 Prospects and Limitations 350
References 351
24 Ethylene Mediates Plant-Beneficial Fungi Interaction That Leads to Increased Nutrient Uptake,
Improved Physiological Attributes, and Enhanced Plant Tolerance Under
Salinity Stress 361
Priya Yadav, Mohammad Wahid Ansari, Narendra Tuteja, and Ratnum K. Wattal
24.2 Plant Response Towards Salinity Stress 361
24.3 Plant–Fungal Interaction and the Mechanism of Plant Growth Promotion by Fungi 362
24.3.1 Nutrient Acquisition and Phytohormones Production 362
24.3.2 Activation of Systemic Resistance 364
24.3.3 Production of Siderophores 364
24.3.4 Production of Antibiotics and Secondary Metabolites 365
24.3.5 Protection to Biotic and Abiotic Stress 365
24.4 Fungi and Ethylene Production and Its Effects 365
24.5 Role and Mechanism of Ethylene in Salinity Stress Tolerance 366
24.6 Conclusion 367
References 367
25 Role of Chemical Additives in Plant Salinity Stress Mitigation 371

Priya Yadav, Mohammad Wahid Ansari, and Narendra Tuteja
25.2 Types of Chemical Additives and Their Source 372
25.3 Application and Mechanism of Action 373
25.4 NO (Nitric Oxide) in Salt Stress Tolerance 374
25.5 Melatonin in Salt Stress Tolerance 374
25.6 Polyamines in Salt Stress Tolerance 374
25.7 Salicylic Acid (SA) in Salt Stress Tolerance 375
25.8 Ethylene in Salinity Stress Tolerance 376
25.9 Trehalose in Salinity Stress Tolerance 377
25.10 Kresoxim-Methyl (KM) in Salinity Stress Tolerance 377
25.11 Conclusion 377
References 377
xvi Contents
26 Role of Secondary Metabolites in Stress Management Under Changing Climate Conditions 383
Priya Yadav and Zahid Hameed Siddiqui
26.1.1 Types of Plant Secondary Metabolites 383
26.1.1.1 Phenolics 384
26.1.1.2 Terpenoids 384
26.1.1.3 Nitrogen-Containing Secondary Metabolites 384
26.2 Biosynthesis of Plant Secondary Metabolites 385
26.2.1 Role of Secondary Metabolites in Mitigating Abiotic Stress 388
26.2.2 Secondary Metabolites in Drought Stress Mitigation 389
26.2.2.1 Phenolic compounds and drought stress 389
26.2.2.2 Terpenoids in drought stress tolerance 389
26.2.3 Secondary Metabolites in Mitigating Salinity Stress 390
26.2.4 Secondary Metabolites as UV Scavengers 390
26.3 Heavy Metal Stress and Secondary Metabolites 390
26.3.1.1 Phenolic compounds and metal stress 391
26.3.2 Role of Secondary Metabolites in Biotic Stress Mitigation 392
26.3.2.1 Terpenoids and Biotic Stress 392
26.3.2.2 Phenolic Compounds and Biotic Stress 392
26.3.2.3 Nitrogen-Containing Compound and Biotic Stress 393
26.4 Counteradaptation of Insects Against Secondary Metabolites 393
26.5 Sustainable Crop Protection and Secondary Metabolites 393
26.6 Conclusion 393
References 394
27 Osmolytes: Efficient Oxidative Stress-Busters in Plants 399

Naser A. Anjum, Palaniswamy Thangavel, Faisal Rasheed, Asim Masood, Hadi Pirasteh-Anosheh,
and Nafees A. Khan
27.1.1 Plant Health, Stress Factors, and Oxidative Stress and Its Markers 399
27.1.2 Modulators of Oxidative Stress Markers and Antioxidant Metabolism 399
27.2 Osmolytes – An Overview 400
27.2.1 Role of Major Osmolytes in Protection of Plants Against Oxidative Stress 401
27.2.1.1 Betaines and Related Compounds 401
27.2.1.2 Proline 401
27.2.1.3 γ-Aminobutyric Acid (Gamma Amino Butyric Acid) 402
27.2.1.4 Polyols 402
27.2.1.5 Sugars 403
27.3 Conclusion and Perspectives 404
References 404
Index 411
xvii
List of Contributors
Ganesh Kumar Agrawal Alma Balestrazzi

Department of Education, Global Research Arch Department of Biology and Biotechnology
for Developing Education (GRADE) University of Pavia
Academy Pvt. Ltd. Pavia, Italy
Birgunj, Nepal
Ruchi Bansal
Department of Biotechnology, Research Laboratory
Division of Plant Physiology
for Biotechnology and Biochemistry (RLABB)
ICAR-Indian Agricultural Research Institute
Kathmandu, Nepal
New Delhi, India
Naser A. Anjum
Sahana Basu
Department of Botany
Department of Life Science
Aligarh Muslim University
Central University of South Bihar
Aligarh, India
Gaya, Bihar, India
Mohammad Wahid Ansari
Jyotsna Bharti
Plant Biology and Biotechnology
Zakir Husain Delhi College
Nutritional Improvement of Crops Group
University of Delhi
International Centre for Genetic Engineering
New Delhi, India
and Biotechnology (ICGEB)
New Delhi, India
Rajeev Nayan Bahuguna
Center for Advanced Studies on Climate Change
Abhishek Bohra
Dr. Rajendra Prasad Central Agricultural University
Centre for Crop & Food Innovation
Samastipur, Bihar, India
State Agricultural Biotechnology Centre
Agriculture Biotechnology Food Futures Institute
National Agri-Food Biotechnology Institute Murdoch University, Murdoch
Sector 81, SAS Nagar Western Australia, Australia
Mohali, India
Isorchand Chongtham
Gurdeep Bains Department of Molecular Biotechnology
Department of Plant Physiology and Health Sciences
Govind Ballabh Pant University of Molecular Biotechnology Center
Agriculture & Technology University of Turin, Turin, Italy
Pantnagar, Uttarakhand, India
Sudeshna Das
Shivendra Bajaj Center for Advanced Studies on Climate Change
Federation of Seed Industry of India Dr. Rajendra Prasad Central Agricultural University
New Delhi, India Samastipur, Bihar, India
xviii List of Contributors
Karabi Datta Ramwant Gupta

Department of Botany Department of Biology
University of Calcutta University of Guyana
Kolkata, India Georgetown, South America
Swapan K. Datta Present Address: Department of Botany

Department of Botany Deen Dayal Upadhyaya Gorakhpur University
University of Calcutta Gorakhpur, UP, India
Kolkata, India
Ratnesh K. Jha
Sharma Deepika Center for Advanced Studies on Climate Change
Department of Botany Dr. Rajendra Prasad Central Agricultural University
Zakir Husain Delhi College Samastipur, Bihar, India
University of Delhi
New Delhi, India Rohit Joshi
Division of Biotechnology
Laboratory of Soil Biology and Microbial Ecology
CSIR-Institute of Himalayan Bioresource Technology
Department of Environmental studies
Palampur, Himachal Pradesh, India
University of Delhi
New Delhi, India Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR)
CSIR-HRDC Campus
H. K. Dikshit Ghaziabad, Uttar Pradesh, India
Department of Genetics
ICAR-Indian Agricultural Research Institute
Rashmi Kaul
New Delhi, India
Conrado Dueñas
Department of Biology and Biotechnology
University of Pavia
New Delhi, India
Pavia, Italy
Tanushri Kaul
Murugesh Eswaran
Plant Biology and Biotechnology, Nutritional
Improvement of Crops Group
New Delhi, India
New Delhi, India
Nafees A. Khan
Shraddha Shridhar Gaonkar
Aligarh Muslim University
University of Pavia
Aligarh, India
Pavia, Italy
Vikrant Goswami SM Paul Khurana

Laboratory of Soil Biology and Microbial Ecology Amity Institute of Biotechnology
Department of Environmental studies Amity University Haryana
University of Delhi Gurugram, Haryana, India
New Delhi, India
Adriano Griffo
University of Pavia
Pavia, Italy
List of Contributors xix
David Kothamasi Asim Masood

Laboratory of Soil Biology and Microbial Ecology Department of Botany
Department of Environmental studies Aligarh Muslim University
University of Delhi Aligarh, India
New Delhi, India
Strathclyde Centre for Environmental Law Piyush Mathur
and Governance Department of Botany
University of Strathclyde Glasgow Microbiology Laboratory
United Kingdom University of North Bengal
Darjeeling, West Bengal, India
Gautam Kumar
Department of Life Science Jyoti Maurya
Central University of South Bihar National Institute of Plant Genome Research (NIPGR)
Gaya, Bihar, India Jawaharlal Nehru University
New Delhi, India
Narendra Kumar
Department of Botany Moaed Al Meselmani
Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya School of Biosciences
a Central University Grantham Centre
Bilaspur-495009(C. G.), India The University of Sheffield
Sheffield, England
Sudarshna Kumari
Department of Plant Physiology Francesca Messina
Govind Ballabh Pant University of Department of Biology and Biotechnology
Agriculture & Technology University of Pavia
Pantnagar, Uttarakhand, India Pavia, Italy
Ratna Kumria Khaled Fathy Abdel Motelb

Federation of Seed Industry of India Plant Biology and Biotechnology
New Delhi, India Nutritional Improvement of Crops Group
Sayanta Kundu and Biotechnology (ICGEB)
Center for Advanced Studies on Climate Change New Delhi, India
Samastipur, Bihar, India Mamta Nehra
Anca Macovei Nutritional Improvement of Crops Group
Department of Biology and Biotechnology International Centre for Genetic Engineering
University of Pavia and Biotechnology (ICGEB)
Pavia, Italy New Delhi, India
Shuvobrata Majumder Andrea Pagano

Department of Botany Department of Biology and Biotechnology
University of Calcutta University of Pavia
Kolkata, India Pavia, Italy
Mamun Mandal Paola Pagano

Laboratory of Applied Stress Biology Department of Biology and Biotechnology
Department of Botany University of Pavia
University of Gour Banga Pavia, Italy
Malda, West Bengal, India
xx List of Contributors
Hadi Pirasteh-Anosheh Swarnendu Roy

Department of Agronomy Research Department of Botany
National Salinity Research Center Plant Biochemistry Laboratory
Agricultural Research University of North Bengal
Education and Extension Organization (AREEO) Darjeeling, West Bengal, India
Yazd, Iran
Natural Resources Department Bhuvnesh Sareen
Fars Agricultural and Natural Resources Research Division of Biotechnology
and Education Center CSIR-Institute of Himalayan Bioresource Technology
AREEO, Shiraz, Iran Palampur, Himachal Pradesh, India
Manoj Prasad
Abhijit Sarkar
National Institute of Plant Genome Research (NIPGR)
Laboratory of Applied Stress Biology
Jawaharlal Nehru University
New Delhi, India
University of Gour Banga
Ravinesh Rohit Prasad Malda, West Bengal, India
Department of Geography
Fiji National University Samir Sharma
Lautoka, Fiji Islands Department of Biochemistry
University of Lucknow
Swati Priya Lucknow, India
Kurukshetra University
Kurukshetra, Haryana, India Zahid Hameed Siddiqui
Department of Biology
Nandula Raghuram Faculty of Science, University of Tabuk
Centre for Sustainable Nitrogen and Nutrient Management Tabuk, Saudi Arabia
University School of Biotechnology
Genomic and Biotechnology Unit
Guru Gobind Singh Indraprastha University
Department of Biology
New Delhi, India
Faculty of Science, University of Tabuk
Tabuk, Saudi Arabia
Randeep Rakwal
Department of Education, Global Research Arch
for Developing Education (GRADE) Roshan Kumar Singh
Academy Pvt. Ltd. National Institute of Plant Genome Research (NIPGR)
Birgunj, Nepal Jawaharlal Nehru University
New Delhi, India
Department of Biotechnology, Research Laboratory
for Biotechnology and Biochemistry (RLABB)
Kathmandu, Nepal Satish K. Singh
Department of Plant Breeding and Genetics
Department of Health and Sport Science, Faculty of
Health and Sport Sciences
Samastipur, Bihar, India
University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba, Japan
Faisal Rasheed Sonia Khan Sony

Department of Botany Plant Biology and Biotechnology
Aligarh Muslim University Nutritional Improvement of Crops Group
Aligarh, India International Centre for Genetic Engineering
Anamika Roy New Delhi, India
Laboratory of Applied Stress Biology
University of Gour Banga
Malda, West Bengal, India
List of Contributors xxi
Sudhir K. Sopory Narendra Tuteja

Department of Plant Molecular Biology Plant Molecular Biology Group
International Centre for Genetic Engineering and International Centre for Genetic Engineering
Biotechnology and Biotechnology
New Delhi, India New Delhi, India
Rewaj Subba Rajeev K. Varshney

Department of Botany Centre for Crop & Food Innovation
Microbiology Laboratory State Agricultural Biotechnology Centre
University of North Bengal Food Futures Institute
Darjeeling, West Bengal, India Murdoch University
Murdoch, Western Australia, Australia
Arul Prakash Thangaraj
Plant Biology and Biotechnology Rachana Verma
Nutritional Improvement of Crops Group Plant Biology and Biotechnology
International Centre for Genetic Engineering Nutritional Improvement of Crops Group
and Biotechnology (ICGEB) International Centre for Genetic Engineering
New Delhi, India and Biotechnology (ICGEB)
New Delhi, India
Palaniswamy Thangavel
Department of Environmental Science Ratnum K. Wattal
Periyar University Department of Botany
Salem, India Zakir Husain Delhi College
University of Delhi
Baishnab C. Tripathy New Delhi, India
Department of Biotechnology
Sharda University Priya Yadav
Greater Noida, India Department of Botany
Zakir Husain Delhi College
Manas K. Tripathy University of Delhi
Division of Plant and Microbial Biotechnology New Delhi, India
Institute of Life Sciences
Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India
xxiii
Foreword
I am overjoyed to write about this book, Global Climate Change and Plant Stress Management, which symbolizes
a comprehensive and current exchange on the newest insights into the improvement of crops under climate change and
plant stress management. At the present time, the global climate change (see, e.g. The Discovery of Global Warming by
Spencer R, Weart, 2008, Harvard University Press) and the population increase are two important restrictions before us,
and dealing with these crucial issues is of paramount importance in the field of agriculture. This book deals with a subject
of enormous significance not only for plant scientists but also for farmers worldwide. Research on exploring diverse aspects
of an easy, money-making, and ecologically oriented practice of pre-soaking seeds in salt solutions (what one calls “halo
priming”) seems desirable, as it might aid in sustaining agricultural production in our changing environment. The recent
trend in climate change involving high salinity, increased temperature, draught, and heavy metal toxicity, as well as nega-
tive effects of bacterial, viral, and fungal diseases and insect infestation have gloomy effects on agriculture productivity. To
add to this, predicted increase in CO2, with ocean acidification, is expected to cause a drastic decline in global agriculture
productivity. All of this will have a considerable harmful impact on our ecosystem. Thus, this particular volume, which
deals with various aspects of plant stress physiology, together with plant stress responses, and physiological and molecular
mechanism of plant tolerance to environmental stresses, is particularly welcome. It goes a long way toward finding ways to
overcome the gloomy predictions before us.
On a positive note, the potential function of several important genes and, thus, the proteins that they code for, as well
as a range of signaling molecules, such as plant hormones, that regulate plant growth and developmental processes, is
now available. The above was possible because of detailed studies on responses of tolerant and susceptible agricultur-
ally important crops to climate change from both physiological and biotechnological points of view. On the other hand,
developing climate-smart varieties through mutation breeding involving modification of a single gene rather than
altering the whole genome is an attractive goal. Recent development in science relies on ‘Omics’ tools, such as genom-
ics, transcriptomics, epigenomics, proteomics, metabolomics, and phenomics, and this is indeed being actively pur-
sued at many institutions around the world. In addition, CRISPR/Cas techniques provide precision and rapidity to
breeding programs to develop smart and nutrition crops in changing environment, which might be a key solution for
ensuring food security.
The compilation of a comprehensive volume on this very important and challenging topic has been achieved in the cur-
rent book entitled Global Climate Change and Plant Stress Management, edited by Mohammad Wahid Ansari, Anil Kumar Singh,
and Narendra Tuteja; it is both commanding and timely. This book also emphasizes the effect of climate change studies on
plant metabolism and adaptive characteristics; it is an up-to-date compilation for the benefit of researchers and academi-
cians. In this book, authors introduce and classify climate change conditions as well as various stress components and then
present a detailed discussion related to their effects on plant development, controlling factors of their biome, as well as the
behavior of plants under climate change conditions and the associated adverse effects. This book also covers the new
emerging technical concepts of stress management, which is an advanced concept to sustain agricultural productivity
under recent climatic scenarios. Further, this book provides instant access to comprehensive, cutting-edge data, making it
possible for plant scientists and others to utilize this ever-growing wealth of information. I strongly believe that this book
provides a great deal of global implications not only for food security but also for the socioeconomic condition of communi-
ties affected by climate change worldwide. In addition, the knowledge presented in this book is expected to be of great
benefit to the farmers, who can understand and exploit the useful crops as per the nature of the climate and benefit from it
xxiv Foreword
for public and private investment. The current insightful book is expected to provide key information, in an excellent
manner, to students, postdoctoral fellows, plant scientists, and policymakers on what actions to take on plant stress man-
agement under the expected climate change. I am quite confident that this book will be read, understood, and exploited
extensively.
I heartily appreciate the efforts of all the contributing 80 authors from 12 different countries – Australia, England, Fiji
Island, Italy, India, Iran, Japan, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, Nepal, South America, and the United Kingdom, and all the
outstanding editors for this well-timed and enlightening publication on the important topic of the effects of global climate
change on plants and what to do to alleviate its negative impact.
Govindjee Govindjee
(E-mail: gov@illinois.edu)
Professor Emeritus Plant Biology, Biochemistry and Biophysics,
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
Urbana, IL, USA
15 November 2022
xxv
Preface
The existence of living organisms depends on the food synthesized by mainly green plants by capturing energy from sunlight
through the process of photosynthesis. At present, a global challenge is to sustain crop productivity in a changing environ-
ment to meet the demand of increasing population. However, the current reports of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change have made clear that the urgency to take action on global climate change and agrifood production is not well under-
stood so far. There is an urgent need for agrifood systems to be more versatile to the existing and upcoming impacts of global
climate change, which could be achieved through learning from superior practices, encouraging transformative adjustment
strategies, plans, and its subsequent actions. A growing tendency toward climate change for the past few decades has badly
hit global crop production on the large scale. It imposes environmental variations that include high salinity, very high and
low temperatures, draughts, heavy metal toxicity and nutrient loss, the growth of bacteria, viruses, fungi, different pests, and
parasites, harmful insect invasions, and increased CO2 and ocean acidification. This will have a considerably harmful impact
on beneficial microbes, plant productivity, restoration efforts, and ecosystem health. Global warming is expected to elicit
harsh weather trends, long-lasting droughts, floods and waterlogging, storms, and increased disease incidence, which cause
altered growth, impaired photosynthesis, and reduced physiological responses in plants that limit agrifood production.
Global sustainable farming systems are at risk owing to rising and co-occurring temperatures, droughts, and salinity
stresses. According to a new report from the World Meteorological Organization (WMO), the impact of water stress and
drought hazards, including withering droughts and overwhelming floods, is thrashing African communities and ecosys-
tems. The strategies to deal with increased CO2 concentrations and global warming and enhance plant tolerance to abiotic
and biotic stresses are important targets for sustainable agricultural production. Recent advances in science, such as
CRISPR-associated (Cas) protein-based genome editing (CRISPR-Cas) and “Omics” tools such as genomics, transcriptom-
ics, epigenomics, proteomics, metabolomics, and phenomics, have enhanced precision and rapidity in the progress of plant
molecular breeding programs to develop nutrient-enriched and stress-tolerant plant variety, which might be the key players
in ensuring food security. Additionally, it will contribute a significant amount of potential for developing more resilient and
climate-smart crops to respond to the rising threat of climate change and its undesirable effects on agrifood.
In the present book, Global Climate Change and Plant Stress Management, we present a collection of 27 chapters by 80 experts
from 12 different countries – Australia, England, Fiji Island, Italy, India, Iran, Japan, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, Nepal,
South America, and the United Kingdom. This book offers a current overview of recent developments in sustainable agricul-
ture production in a changing environment. This book aims to accentuate issues of global climate change and food insecurity
for billions of people, assuming they will face drastic hunger in the upcoming period. It emphasizes all concerns about carbon
and nutrient cycles, global warming, and environmental stresses originating under a scenario of global climate change and
thereby badly affecting basic agriculture production, on which the common world’s poor depend. This book also presents the potential
ways of exploring, investigating, and adopting novel techniques and tools, methodologies, and scientific inventions to realize
climate’s outcomes on food security. The knowledge convened herein might be inspiring to farmers who may respond to beneficial
crops as per the foretold climate. This perceptive will result in good dealings for both scientists indicted for predicting global
climate threats and policymakers responsible for influential decisions in the field. The present book is specifically appropriate
for environmental and biological science students engaged in interdisciplinary research, research scholars, young scientists,
and faculty members. We thank the late Prof. R.C. Pant and Dr. Alok Shukla who helped us during the initial phase of this work.
Editors
Mohammad Wahid Ansari, ZHDC, University of Delhi, India
Anil Kumar Singh, ICAR-NIPB, IARI, Pusa, New Delhi, India
Narendra Tuteja (Superannuated), PMB, ICGEB, New Delhi, India
xxvii
Author Biographies
Dr. Mohammad Wahid Ansari is currently an Assistant Professor in the

Department of Botany, Zakir Husain Delhi College (University of Delhi), India.
He has an extensive research and educational background in the field of plant
molecular physiology. His special interest lies in plant hormone homeostasis
and cross-talk to improve abiotic stress tolerance in plants. Dr. Ansari has pub-
lished over 75 scientific papers in peer-reviewed international journals with an
overall Impact Factor above 234 and citations more than 3401, h-index of 26,
and i-10 index of 50. He has contributed 17 book chapters and has edited four
books. As a PI, he has completed research project(s), DST/SERB Government
of India, and guided PhD student(s). He is a recipient of Young Scientist
Fellow-DST (ICGEB), Post-Doctoral Fellow-DBT (ICGEB), Post-Doctoral
Fellow-DST (GBPUAT), and Senior Research Fellow-UPCAR (GBPUAT). He is
awarded with DBT-CTEP Travel Award, Best Teacher Award (ATDS), and Best
research paper award, Government of Uttarakhand. He, as convener/co-convener/
coordinator/organizing secretary, has organized 10 international and national
conferences/webinars and in-house workshops and has presented paper orally
at INPPO, Italy. He has been a member of the Departmental Research
Committee (DRC) of the University of Delhi and the Science-Setu program of NII and DBT, Government of India. He is
an academic editor of PLoS ONE journal and is a member of Plant Signaling and Behaviors journal.
Dr. Anil Kumar Singh is currently the Principal Scientist at the ICAR-
National Institute for Plant Biotechnology, New Delhi, India. He has been
working in the field of plant molecular biology and biotechnology for more
than two decades. His group has characterized genomes and transcriptomes of
several important organisms, including crop plants and commercially impor-
tant microbes, and developed gene resources for crop improvement. Dr Singh
has published more than 80 articles in peer-reviewed international journals
with cumulative Impact Factor >250, >2500 citations, and h-index 28. He has
also authored 15 book chapters and delivered invited/keynote talks at
>35 national and international conferences in India and abroad. He is serving
as editor of various reputed journals, such as Frontiers in Plant Science, PLoS
ONE, BMC Research Notes, Phyton-International Journal of Experimental
Botany, and has guest edited special issues in Antioxidants, Genes, Tree
Physiology, and Physiologia Plantarum. For his excellent publication record and
contribution to plant molecular biology research, he has been conferred membership in the National Academy of Sciences,
India (NASI) and Plant Tissue Culture Association-India.
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
the regulation of the pendulum is performed by adding to, or
diminishing the mercury, in the part where the tube is widest.”
In addition to the foregoing description of the mechanism of this Time-piece,
obligingly furnished to the Writer of these Memoirs by Mr. Voight, he has been
likewise favoured by Robert Patterson, Esq. director of the mint, with the
following account of the same extremely accurate instrument, which will
greatly assist the reader in understanding the principles on which it is
constructed.
“In the Astronomical Clock made by Dr. Rittenhouse, and now in

the Hall of the Philosophical Society, I do not know,” says Mr.
Patterson, “that there is any thing peculiar, which requires
mentioning, except the pendulum; especially the apparatus for
counteracting the effects of change of temperature.
“For this purpose, there is fastened on the pendulum-rod (which is

of iron or steel) a glass tube of about thirty-six inches long; bent in
the middle into two parallel branches, at the distance of about an
inch from each other; the bend being placed downwards,
immediately above the bob of the pendulum. The tube is open at one
end, and close at the other: the arm which is close at top is filled,
within about two inches of the lower end or bend, with alcohol, and
the rest of the tube, within about one half of an inch of the upper
extremity or open end, with mercury; a few inches of the tube, at this
extremity, being about twice the width of the rest of the tube.
“Now, when the heat of the air encreases, it will expand the
pendulum-rod; and would thus lower the centre of oscillation, and
cause the clock to go slower: but this effect is completely
counteracted, by the expansion of the alcohol chiefly, and of the
mercury in part; which equally raises the centre of oscillation; and
thus preserves an equable motion in all the variable temperatures of
the atmosphere.”
Description of an Hygrometer; first contrived and used by Dr.
Rittenhouse, about the year 1782.[A45]
The essential part of this Hygrometer consists of two very thin

strips of wood, about a foot long and half an inch broad, glued
together, in such a manner that the grain or fibres of the one shall be
at right angles with the other; so that when this compound strip was
placed in erect position, the grain of one of the pieces of wood would
have a vertical, and that of the other an horizontal position. One end
of this simply constructed instrument is to be made fast to a wall, or
plane board, with the edge outward, and the other end is to be at
liberty to move.
Then, as moisture has little or no effect on the length of a piece of

wood, or in the direction of its fibres, but a very sensible one on its
breadth, or transverse direction, especially when thin, it follows, that
on any increase of moisture in the air, this Hygrometer becomes bent
into a curve, convex on the side of the transverse fibres; and vice
versâ. The degrees, from the greatest dryness to the greatest
moisture, are to be marked on a curve drawn on the board or wall,
described by the motion of the free end of the Hygrometer; and an
index, attached to the moving end of it, will point out, on this
graduated arch, the existing state of the atmosphere at the moment,
in relation to its condition of moisture or dryness: The relative degree
of either, on the smallest change from the one to the other, will be
indicated with much precision; and probably, with much more
uniformity and truth, in the results of long-continued observations,
than can be attained to by the use of Hygrometers constructed of
metal, or any other substance than wood.[A46]
Astronomical Observations, made in the years 1776, 1777 and 1778,

at Philadelphia, by the Rev. Dr. W. Smith, and David Rittenhouse,
John Lukens, and Owen Biddle, Esquires: copied from a
manuscript account of those Observations, drawn up by Dr. Smith;
never before published.
ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATIONS, 1776.

This year exhibiting little else but scenes of confusion and distress
amidst the calamities of an unhappy war, scarce any attention was
paid, by the members of the American Philosophical Society, to
astronomical or any other literary subjects. It was agreed, however,
by Mr. Rittenhouse, Mr. Lukens and myself, to look out whether
Mercury would touch the Sun’s disc the 2d of November this year; as
a very small difference of latitude from what the Tables give, would
have carried the planet clear of the Sun: but, from our observation of
the transit of this planet, in 1769, we had reason to expect it would
pass further on the Sun, than Halley’s Catalogue gives it.
The following were the observations made, viz.
Nov. 2d, 1776. I got ready the two f. reflector with the largest
object-glass, and shortest eye-tube, magnifying about 95 times.
At 4h per clock—No appearance of the planet on the Sun, and did

not expect it until about half an hour past 4; but as Mr. Lukens and
Mr. Rittenhouse had not yet come to me in the college, I sent to
hasten them.
At 4h 5′ per clock—took my eye from the tube to adjust it, and fix
the smoked glass, to give clearer vision, the atmosphere being hazy.
Having fixed the smoked glass in the proper place, so as to prevent
its sliding or falling with its own weight, and before I had applied my
eye to the telescope again, Mr. Rittenhouse came in; and I desired
him to see if the focus and dark glass were all suitable to his eye, as
they were to mine. I had been about 4′ employed in this adjustment.
At 4h 9′, Mr. Rittenhouse having put his eye to the tube,

immediately called out, that he saw the planet on the Sun.
h
At 4 10′ per clock, we judged ☿ had entered one-third of his
diameter on the Sun.
At 4h 17′, we clearly noted the internal contact of the limbs.

At 4h 45′, we judged the least distance of the nearest limbs to be
rather more than one diameter of ☿; or that the distance of the limbs
was 10″. We-did not apply the micrometer to make any measures; as
we presumed that we could judge the distance as accurately by the
eye, as it could be measured; on account of the haziness of the
atmosphere and the small altitude of the Sun. We kept viewing the
planet till sun-set, the distance of the limbs continuing so nearly the
same, that we could scarce perceive any diminution thereof; though
we were sure also, that it did increase above 10″.[A47]
The following were the Observations made for ascertaining the

Going of the Clock, by William Smith.
Equal Altitudes.
dh ′ ″ h ′ \″
Nov. 39 14 9 2 37 12 ☉ on Merid. per clock h ′ ″
15 44 2 35 35 or mean noon 11 55 40
Equat. Correspond. Alt. + 14.4
Correct Noon per Clock 11 55
54.4
49 32 48 20 56 Mean Noon, or ☉ on 11 56 53
34 33 19 13 Merid. per. Clock
36 14 17 31 Equat. of equal + 13.8
37 20 16 23 Altitudes
14 39
40 54 2 12 53 Correct Noon per Clock 11 57 6.8
78 51 9 9 29 Mean 12 0 19
Noon
52 37 80 per Equat Eq. Alt. + 12
Clock
54 1 3 6 37 12 0 19
Cor. 12 0 31
Noon
per Clock
Per Meridian Mark.
d h ′ ″
8 ☉ West Limb on Merid. 12 0 36
East Limb on do. 12 2 52
—-——
Centre 12 1 44
Correct Noon per Clock.
Applied to Going of Clock.

Nov. 3d, at Noon ′ ″
Clock slower than ☉ 4 5.6 Daily gaining of the Clock over
☉ faster than mean time 16 11 mean or equal time.
Clock faster than m. time 12 5.4
4th,
Clock slower than ☉ 2 53.2 ′ ″
☉ faster than mean time 16 9 From 3d to 4th 1 10.4
Clock faster than m. time 13 15.8
7th,
Clock faster than ☉ 0 31
From 4th mean to
☉ faster than mean time 16 00 7 that a mean 1 5.1
Clock faster than m. time 16 31 per day
8th,
Clock faster than ☉ 1 44
☉ faster than mean time 15 56 From 7th to 8th 1 9
Clock faster than m. time 17 40
Thus the Clock gains at a
mean, per day, 1′ 8″.
Whence, Nov. 2d, at noon, the Clock was 10′ 57″ faster than mean
time, gaining 68″ per day; and 4h 17′ gains 12″, wherefore at the
internal contact, the Clock was 11′ 9″ faster than mean time.
Whence the contact was at 4h 5′ 51″ mean time; or 4h 21′ 2″

apparent time.
Eclipse of the Sun, January 9th, 1777.
The Gregorian Reflector, with the magnifying power of 95, was

made use of for this Observation; which, as well as the Observation
of the Transit of Mercury, was made in the College-Library, to which
the Telescope belongs.
While Mr. Rittenhouse was endeavouring to adjust the two-f.

reflector belonging to the Library of the city of Philadelphia, made by
Short, and which had been borrowed on this occasion, I observed
with the greatest certainty the first contact of ☾’s limb with the ☉,
which was shining very bright, and the telescope in the best order,
viz. at 8h 57′ 27″ per clock.
The same was visible, in about 3″ more, to Mr. Lukens, with the
equal altitude instrument, magnifying about 25 times.
Mr. Rittenhouse had not got the other reflector ready to observe
the beginning of the eclipse: but the end was observed by both of us
to the same instant, viz. at 11h 48′ 50″ per clock.
The clock, at noon, was 23″ slower than mean time, whence
Beginning of the Eclipse 8h 49′ 55″

Apparent time.
End of the same 11 41 15
N.B. The clock stopped once during the Observation, owing, it was
supposed, to the cold weather; but was oiled a little, and set a going
again by a stop-watch that beats seconds, and which was set with
the clock at the beginning of the eclipse: so that she lost no time.
She was examined at noon, and found as above by the meridian
mark. But this mark itself, having been lately shaken with the stormy
weather, is to be re-examined, and also equal altitudes taken the
following days.
The annexed micrometer measures were taken for determining

the quantity of the eclipse, chiefly by Mr. Rittenhouse. More would
have been taken, but the Sun was hid under clouds for about an
hour after the middle of the eclipse, and broke out again a little
before the end.
Micrometer Measures.
h ′ ″ inches. tenths. 500ths.
9 15 0 2 2 6
distances of the cusps.
31 0 3 1 ½
10 17 5 1 1 14 enlightened parts
22 0 1 1 23 remaining.
11 37 0 1 7 6
38 46 1 5 21 distances of the cusps.
42 26 1 2 18
Continuation of the Observations for adjusting the Clock.

Jan. 11th. W. limb on Merid. [A48]
☉’s
E. limb on do.
Centre on do.
Whence clock faster than mean time 0 1′ 46″ per merid. mark.
Equal Altitudes.
h ′ ″
20th. 9 37 20 59 49
39 1 58 6 Mean noon per clock 12 18 34
40 41 2 56 26
21st. W. limb on Merid. 12 20 3
E. limb on do. 22 22
Centre on do. 12 21 12.5
Eq. Alt.
22d. 9 14 10 3 31 10 Mean noon per clock 12 23 50
Eclipse of the Sun, June 24, 1778: Observed by D. Rittenhouse,

John Lukens, Owen Biddle, and William Smith, at the College of
Philadelphia.
The morning being very cloudy, the beginning of the eclipse was
not seen.
At 10h 7′ 40″ per clock, the following micrometer-measure of the

enlightened parts was taken, while the Sun appeared for a few
minutes between clouds, viz. 1in. 9-10ths. 13-500ths. = 16′ 23″.
11h 6′ 57″ per clock end of eclipse distinctly seen, the Sun having
shone clearly for several minutes, the clouds now wholly dispersing,
and the remainder of the day continuing clear.
Observations upon the Clock.

h ′ ″
27th. ☉ on meridian per clock 11 54 50
☉’s app. time of passing meridian 12 2 33.5
Clock slow of app. time 0 7 43.5
July 2d. ☉ on meridian per clock 11 54 50.5

☉’s app. time of passing meridian 12 3 33
Clock slow of app. time 0 8 42.5
A versification of “The Zephyrs”—from Gesner’s Idyls;—a fragment:

copied from a loose scrap of paper, containing, in the hand-writing
of the late Dr. Rittenhouse, all but the three last verses; which have
been now added, by a lady.
First Zephyr.
Why, amidst these blooming roses,

Idly fluttering, dost thou stay?
Come with me to yonder valley,
There we’ll spend the cheerful day.
There, in purest crystal fountain,
Sportive, bathe the am’rous maids;
Where tall willows, on the margin,
Form the closest deepest shades.
Second Zephyr.
No, with thee I will not wander;

To the vale alone repair:
Fan the nymphs you so admire;
A sweeter task employs my care.
Here, in the bosom of these roses,
I cool my wings in pearly dew,
As I lightly skim them over,
Gath’ring all their fragrance too.
First Zephyr.
Your wings in dew of roses steep’d

With all their grateful fragrance stor’d;—
Can you find employment sweeter,
Than yonder cheerful nymphs afford?
Second Zephyr.
Yes, in this path, along the mount,

Each rosy morn a maid appears,
To yon lonely cot advancing,
A basket on her arm she bears.
Two tender infants, and their mother,
Are by her constant bounty fed:
A helpless widow, there residing,
From her receives her daily bread.
See! where she comes,—of all the graces,
The youngest and the fairest too;
Her cheeks, with sweetest blushes glowing,
Are moist’ned with the morning dew.
I haste, with fragrant airs, so cooling,
To fan her tender glowing cheek,—
And kiss the pearly drops, while falling
From her blue eyes, so chaste and meek.[A49]
First Zephyr.
Yes! much more pleasing is your task;

I would imbrue my wings in dew,
And bear the fragrance of these flow’rs,
Melinda to refresh, like you.
But see! she breaks through yonder grove,
Refulgent as a summer’s morn;
Her step is grace—her lip of rose
The smiles of modest worth adorn.
Like you, transported, let me fan her;
Like you, admire the bounteous maid:
For, sure, a fairer face I never
Spread forth my cooling wings to aid.
Diploma.
Praeses et Professores Collegii, seu Universitatis, Gulielmi et

Mariæ, omnibus at quos præsentes literæ pervenerint, Salutem.—
Cum eum in finem gradus academici majoribus nostris prudenter
instituti fuerint, ut viri optimé meriti, seu in gremio nostræ matris
educati, seu aliundi bonarum artium disciplinis eruditi, istis insignibus
a literatorum vulgo secernerentur; sciatis, quod nos, ea sola quæ
possumus viâ, gradu Artium Magistri libenter studioséque concesso,
testamur quanti facimus Davidem Rittenhouse Philosophorum
Principem, qui ingenio nativo Machinam celeberrimam, motus et
phænomena cœlestium manifestius exhibentem, commentus est:—
Idcirco, in solenni convocatione, tricessimo die decembris, Anno
Domini millesimo septingentesimo octogesimo quarto, habito,
conspirantibus omnium suffragiis, eundem virum egregium, Davidem
Rittenhouse, Artium Magistrum creavimus et constituimus.—In
cujus rei testimonium, sigillum Universitatis, quo in hac parte utimur,
præsentibus apponi fecimus. Datum in domo nostræ convocationis,
anno domini, die et mense, prædictis.
J. Madison, Præses, et prof. Ma. and Nat. Phil. G. Wythe, Leg. et

Polit. Prof. Robertus Andrews, Math. Prof. Carolus Bellini,
Neot. Ling. Prof.
Diploma.
Præses et Curatores Collegii Neo-Cæsariensis, omnibus has

Literas lecturis, plurimam Satutem.
Quandoquidem æquum sit et ratione prorsus, consentaneum, ut ii

qui labore et studio bonas didicerunt artes præmia suis meritis digna
referant ut et ipsis benè sit, et aliorum provoceter industria.
Quando etiam huc potissimum spectant amplissima illa jura nostro

Collegio publico Diplomate collata. Quumque clarissimus vir David
Rittenhouse sit non tantum Moribus inculpatus et Ingenio insignis,
sed et sibi tantam in Artibus liberalibus cognitionem Industria
laudabili acquisivit, ut summos Honores Academicos probe
mereatur.
Idcirco notum sit omnibus, quod nos, Senatus-consulto Academico

nec non Facultatis Artium decreto, supradictum Davidem
Rittenhouse Titulo Graduque Doctoris in Legibus adornandum,
et dehinc pro Adepto et Doctore habendum volumus; cujus, hæc
Membrana, Sigillo nostri Collegii rata et Chirographis nostris munita,
Testimonio sit.
Datum Aulæ Nassovicæ, Pridie Calendas Octobris Anno
MDCCLXXXIX.
Joannes Witherspoon, Præses. Joannes Rodgers, Joannes

Bayard, Joannes Woodhull, Guls. Paterson, Isaacus Snowden,
Jacobus Boyd, Joannes Beatty, Guliel. M. Tennent, Andreas Hunter,
Curatores.
An English Obituary Notice of Dr. Rittenhouse: Extracted from the

European Magazine, for July, 1796.
In the sixty-fourth year of his age, died David Rittenhouse, The

American Philosopher. His history is curious, from the admiration in
which his character was held.
Rittenhouse was a native of America; and, in the early part of his

life, he mingled the pursuits of science with the active employments
of a farmer and watch-maker.[A50] In 1769, he was invited by the
American Philosophical Society to join a number of gentlemen who
were then occupied in making some astronomical observations,
when he particularly distinguished himself by the accuracy of his
calculations and the comprehension of his mind. He afterwards
constructed an observatory,[A51] which he superintended in person,
and which was the source of many important discoveries, as well as
greatly tending to the diffusion of knowledge in the western world.
During the American war, he was an active assertor of the cause of
independence. Since the establishment of the peace, he
successively filled the offices of Treasurer of the State of
Pennsylvania and Director of the National Mint; in both of which
capacities, he was alike distinguished for strength of judgment and
integrity of heart. He succeeded the illustrious Franklin in the office
of President of the Philosophical Society; a situation which the bent
of his mind and the course of his studies had rendered him eminently
qualified to fill: and towards the close of his days, he retired from
public life to the enjoyment of domestic happiness; when he formed
a circle of private friends, who will continue to admire his Virtues as a
Man, while the world will applaud his Talents as a Philosopher.
Letter from the Rev. Mr. Cathcart, to the Writer of these Memoirs.
York, 13th. Nov, 1812.
Dear Sir,
The following is a statement of the conversation which took place

between Drs. Sproat and Rittenhouse, mentioned by me to Bishop
White.
At a time when Dr. Rittenhouse was confined by sickness to his

room, or perhaps to his bed,[A52] he sent for the Rev. Dr. Sproat to
visit him. The Doctor was somewhat surprised, on receiving the
message: but as he had made it an uniform rule to visit all who sent
for him, he expressed his surprise at being sent for; observing, that
he could offer no comfort or consolation to any person, who was not
a Believer in the Christian Religion. On hearing this declaration, Dr.
Rittenhouse immediately asked, if Dr. Sproat considered him among
the number of such? To which the Doctor answered; that the world
had generally classed him with them. Dr. Rittenhouse on hearing
this, with great mildness and a smile on his countenance, replied,
that the opinion of the world was sometimes wrong; and, as it
respected himself, he could with truth declare, that ever since he had
examined Christianity and thought upon the subject, he was a firm
believer in it; and, that he expected salvation only in the way and
manner, as proposed in the Gospel.
The above is the substance of what Dr. Sproat mentioned to

myself; and I might add, that when the good old man told it, his eyes
overflowed with tears of joy. It gives me pleasure to be able to
furnish you with this satisfactory proof of Dr. Rittenhouse’s faith; and
which I once introduced into a sermon preached in the city, as justice
due to the character of the deceased, and who had been
triumphantly claimed by the Infidels. I am happy to find that you are
engaged in the laudable business of writing the Life of that worthy
Man. Yours, respectfully,
Robert Cathcart.
William Barton, Esquire.
Character of Dr. Rittenhouse:
Communicated to the Author of the Memoirs of his Life, in a letter

from Andrew Ellicott, Esq.
Lancaster, December 30th, 1812.
Dear Sir,
I felt no small degree of pleasure and satisfaction, on

understanding that you are about publishing Memoirs of the Life of
Dr. Rittenhouse; knowing, from your connexion, and intimacy with
him for many years, you have it in your power to delineate, and
transmit his true character and a knowledge of his rare virtues to
posterity, with as much, if not more accuracy than any other person.
As I also have had the pleasure and advantage of Dr. Rittenhouse’s
acquaintance and friendship, I request you to accept of the following
short sketch of his character, as a small testimony of my esteem for
him when living, and of my veneration for his memory, now he is no
more. I am, dear Sir, your sincere friend,
Andrew Ellicott.
William Barton, Esq.
I became acquainted with the late Dr. Rittenhouse, in the sixteenth

year of my age, being first introduced to him, after he removed to the
city of Philadelphia, by the late Joseph Galloway, Esq. and my
Father; both of whom were sincerely attached to him, not only on
account of his scientific talents and acquirements, but for his public
and private virtues. From that period, to the end of his life, we
enjoyed an uninterrupted friendship.
In my scientific pursuits, I was frequently aided by him; particularly,

in that part which relates to Astronomy, with which he was better
acquainted, both in theory and practice, than any other person in this
country; and when he ceased to calculate the Almanacks for the
middle states, at his request I continued them several years.
In the years 1784 and 1785, Dr. Rittenhouse and myself were
engaged in determining the boundaries between this commonwealth
and the state of Virginia; and in the year 1786, in determining the
boundary between this commonwealth and the state of New-York. In
those arduous employments, I had many opportunities of witnessing
his address in overcoming the numerous difficulties we necessarily
had to encounter, in the then wilderness, in which our operations
were performed.
As a gentleman of general science, Dr. Rittenhouse would have

held a respectable rank in any country; but as a Mechanist and
Astronomer, he has had but few equals. It has been frequently
asked,—why he has not left more evidences of his talents, for the
use of posterity? In answer to this question, it is to be observed, that
almost from his childhood, he had a complaint in his breast; which
increased so much with his age, that for the last fifteen years of his
life,—and in which he had the most leisure for composition,—it was
painful for him to support the position a person must occupy, when
writing. This circumstance I have frequently heard him lament, in a
feeling manner; as it prevented him from answering letters with
promptitude, and writing to his friends as often as he wished.
Though Dr. Rittenhouse had not the advantage of a liberal

education, he wrote not only correctly but with ease: he made
himself master of the German language, to which he was partial: and
of the French, so far as to read the scientific works in that tongue,
with facility.
As an Husband, and a Father, he might be taken as an example
and a pattern, in the most virtuous community that ever existed. He
was a good Citizen,—and warm and sincere in his friendships; and
though reserved in large mixed companies, he was cheerful and
communicative, when in a small circle of his friends. His mind
appeared formed for contemplation, and therefore not calculated for
the noisy and busy scenes of this world: from this placid turn of mind,
he had a singular antipathy to all mobs and riots; and I recollect to
have heard him speak of the riots of the Paxton-boys, (as they were
called,) with greater acrimony than on any other occasion,—more
than twenty years after they happened. Being a philanthropist by
nature, he wished the happiness and welfare of the whole human
race; and viewed slavery, in all its forms, with feelings of horrour:
from this attachment to the happiness, the rights, and the liberty of
his fellow-creatures, he was led to take an active and useful part in
favour of our revolution, which separated the colonies (now the
United States,) from the mother-country.
His contemplative mind naturally carried him to piety; but his

liberality was so great, that he did not appear to give a very decided
preference to any one of the sects into which Christianity is divided:
he practised the morality of a sincere Christian, without troubling
himself about the dogmas of the different churches.
His manners were plain and unassuming, though not without a

sufficient share of dignity; and, from a consciousness of his own
talents, he did not envy those of others.
It has too frequently happened, for the honour of science and

literature, that men of great and commanding talents, have been
obstinately dogmatical, and impatient of contradiction;—of those
blemishes, Dr. Rittenhouse had not the least tincture.
To conclude,—if Dr. Rittenhouse was not the greatest man, of the

age, his character has fewer blemishes in it; and, if his talents were
not of that kind which are usually considered the most brilliant, they
were—like those of Washington—of the most solid and useful
order.
Some particulars concerning the Residence, the Tomb, &c. of
Copernicus: communicated to the late Dr. Rittenhouse, Pres. A. P.
S. by the Earl of Buchan.
“In the year 1777,” says his Lordship, “my learned friend John
Bernouilli, of Berlin, on one of his tours having happened to meet
with the Bishop of Warmia,[A53] in the Abbey of Oliva, near Dantzic,
was informed by that prelate, that he had the pleasure to discover, in
the Cathedral of Frauenburg, the Tomb of Copernicus, so long
fruitlessly sought for.
“In the year 1778, Mr. Bernouilli having occasion to pass through
Frauenburg, on his road to St. Petersburg, did not fail to visit the
Cathedral, and explore the Monument of Copernicus. Acquainted
with no one in the place, he was yet lucky enough to meet with a
Canon, in the street, whose countenance invited him to accost him
on this subject, and who proved very attentive to his researches. He
informed him, that as for the Ashes of Copernicus, they were
mingled in the charnel-house with the bones of the fraternity of the
Canons; but that, for the Tombstone of the Philosopher, it was no
more than a tablet of marble, simple, as the mode was of his days,
and had no other inscription than these words—Nic. Copernicus,
Thor:—-That this tablet had remained hidden for some time, in
rubbish; and when recovered, was placed in the chapter-house, till a
more suitable place should be destined for it. Mr. Bernouilli
expresses his regret to me, that he had not urged the Canon to
indulge him with a sight of this Stone; and to look for a further
inscription, to support the assertion of Gassendi, who mentions
(page 325), That the Bishop Martin Cromer, an eminent Polish
historian, caused a mural marble monument to be inscribed and
erected to the memory of Copernicus, with the following inscription:
D. O. M.
R. D. NICOLAO COPERNICO,
Torunensi, Artium et
Medicinæ Doctori,
Canonico Warmiensi,
Præsenti Astrologo, et
Ejus Disciplinæ
Instauratori;
Martinus Cromerus,
Episcopus Warmiensis,
Honoris, et ad Posteritatem
Memoriæ, Causâ, posuit;
M. D. L. X. X. X. I.
“Gassendi adds, that this Monument was not erected until thirty-six
years after the death of Copernicus, which does not agree with this
date of 1581.
“The good Canon informed Bernouilli, that he was lodged in the

apartment of Copernicus, of which he was very proud; and invited
the Prussian Philosopher to visit him in that place, which he
accordingly did; and was shewn by the Canon another place, above
the Dormitories, which had been used by Copernicus as his study
and observatory, in which the Canon had a portrait of that eminent
man, concerning the original of which he would not say. This little
Observatory had an extensive view; but when Copernicus had
occasion for one more extensive, he was wont to observe on the
gallery of the steeple, which communicates with this place.
“Charmed with these classic footsteps, Bernouilli forgot to look at

the Monument on the chapter-house, above mentioned. In a
repository adjoining to the Cathedral, the Canon shewed Bernouilli
the remains of a hydraulic machine said to have been invented and
used by Copernicus. The construction seemed interesting, but in
great disrepair; and Bernouilli had not leisure to examine it
particularly. The use of the machine was to force and convey water
into the most elevated apartments of the house of the Canons, who
are now under the necessity of having it fetched from a distance,
from the lower Town.”
“I remember to have seen (says Bernouilli), in some old German

Journal, that the Library of the ancient town of Konigsberg contained
some books, chiefly mathematical, which were part of the Library of
Copernicus; and also his Portrait, which had been purchased at
Thorn, where the remains of his family still possessed the house in
which he was born, as late as the year 1720. In P. Freher’s Theatrum
Virorum eruditorum, there is a Chronostick on the year of
Copernicus’s death, 1543. p. 1447.
eX hoC eXCessIt trIstI CopernICVs eVo,

IngenIo astronVM et CognItIone potens.
“In the above mentioned book, p. 1442, there is a neat little Print of
Copernicus. In Hartknoch’s Alter und newes Preusen, here is a print
of Copernicus, from a picture on wood which hangs in what they call
his Cenotaph, at Thorn; and which represents him kneeling, in his
canonicals, before a Crucifix;—and below this portrait are these
sapphic verses:
Non parem Pauli gratiam requiro,

Veniam Petri neque posco; sed quam
In Crucis ligno dederas sationi,
Sedulus oro.
(a little lower)
Nicolao Copernico, Thoruniensi, absolutæ subtilitatis

mathematico, ne tanti viri apud exteros celeb. in sua patria periret
memoria, hoc monumentum positum.
Mort. Varmiæ, in suo Canonicatu, Anno 1543—

die 4 + ætatis LXXIII.
(lastly, lowest.)
Nicolaus Copernicus, Thoruniensis, Mathematicus celeberrimus.
“This Monument of Copernicus was erected by Melchior
Pyrnesius, M. D., who died in 1589.
“On the same altar-piece, or picture, is represented the portrait of

John D’Albert, with the following inscription.
Illustris Princeps Dn. Joh. Albertus, Polo. Rex, apoplexiâ hic

Thoru. mortuus, Anno 1501, die 17 Maii, ætat. 41; cujus viscera hic
sepulta, Corpore Craco translato; Reg. Ann. VIII.
“Upon the whole,” concludes Lord Buchan, “it appears the likeness
I send, of Copernicus, is most to be depended on; and, as such, I
flatter myself it will be an Heir-loom to infant America! Concerning
Napier, it is needless for me to enlarge; the learned Dr. Minto having
enabled me to do justice to his memory.”
Although the following particulars respecting Dr. Rittenhouse were

not communicated by the writer, Professor Barton, until it was too
late to give them a place in the body of the work, the Author
nevertheless is glad to have an opportunity of presenting to the
public, even at the close of his book, the interesting circumstances
this communication contains.
As Optics were one of his favourite studies, so he at one time

contemplated a course of public, and I think popular, lectures on this
beautiful and important branch of physics. On this subject he
mentioned to me his intention in the winter of 1785-1786. The
enthusiasm, indeed, with which he developed his design, and I may
add the warmth of zeal with which his manner at the time inspired
me, I can never forget. And, indeed, I cannot but regret, that our
excellent friend never made his appearance in publick, as a
LECTURER. As such, he would, unquestionably, have greatly
advanced the love and the knowledge of natural philosophy in the
United-States. He may, perhaps, have wanted some of the

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Global Climate Change and Plant Stress

Management Mohammad Wahid Ansari

Mohammad Wahid Ansari

Anil Kumar Singh

Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty

Library of Congress Cataloging-­in-­Publication Data

Cover Design: Wiley

Set in 9.5/12.5pt STIXTwoText by Straive, Pondicherry, India

List of Contributors xvii

Part 1 Views and Visions 1

1 Boosting Resilience of Global Crop Production Through Sustainable Stress Management 3

2 Sustaining Food Security Under Changing Stress Environment 7

3 Crop Improvement Under Climate Change 9

Part 2 Climate Change: Global Impact 23

5 Climate-Resilient Crops for CO2 Rich-Warmer Environment: Opportunities and Challenges 25

7 Agrifood and Climate Change: Impact, Mitigation, and Adaptation Strategies 53

8 Dynamic Photosynthetic Apparatus in Plants Combats Climate Change 65

9 CRISPR/Cas Enables the Remodeling of Crops for Sustainable Climate-Smart Agriculture

Part 3 Socioeconomic Aspects of Climate Change 113

10 Perspective of Evolution of the C4 Plants to Develop Climate Designer C4 Rice as a Strategy

11 Role of Legume Genetic Resources in Climate Resilience 125

Part 4 Plant Stress Under Climate Change: Molecular Insights 201

15 Plant Stress and Climate Change: Molecular Insight 203

15.3.2 Temperature Stress Responses 210

17.5.3 Biotechnological Approaches 248

20 Recent Perspectives of Drought Tolerance Traits: Physiology and Biochemistry 287

21.2.2 WRKY 302

Part 5 Stress Management Strategies for Sustainable Agriculture 317

22 Seed Quality Assessment and Improvement Between Advancing Agriculture

23 CRISPR/Cas9 Genome Editing and Plant Stress Management 335

23.3.2 The Choice of Gene Regulatory Elements (GREs) 341

25 Role of Chemical Additives in Plant Salinity Stress Mitigation 371

27 Osmolytes: Efficient Oxidative Stress-Busters in Plants 399

Ganesh Kumar Agrawal Alma Balestrazzi

Karabi Datta Ramwant Gupta

Swapan K. Datta Present Address: Department of Botany

Vikrant Goswami SM Paul Khurana

David Kothamasi Asim Masood

Ratna Kumria Khaled Fathy Abdel Motelb

Shuvobrata Majumder Andrea Pagano

Mamun Mandal Paola Pagano

Hadi Pirasteh-­Anosheh Swarnendu Roy

Faisal Rasheed Sonia Khan Sony

Sudhir K. Sopory Narendra Tuteja

Rewaj Subba Rajeev K. Varshney

Dr. Mohammad Wahid Ansari is currently an Assistant Professor in the

“In the Astronomical Clock made by Dr. Rittenhouse, and now in

“For this purpose, there is fastened on the pendulum-rod (which is

The essential part of this Hygrometer consists of two very thin

Then, as moisture has little or no effect on the length of a piece of

Astronomical Observations, made in the years 1776, 1777 and 1778,

ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATIONS, 1776.

The following were the observations made, viz.

At 4h per clock—No appearance of the planet on the Sun, and did

At 4h 9′, Mr. Rittenhouse having put his eye to the tube,

At 4h 17′, we clearly noted the internal contact of the limbs.

The following were the Observations made for ascertaining the

Applied to Going of Clock.

Whence the contact was at 4h 5′ 51″ mean time; or 4h 21′ 2″

Eclipse of the Sun, January 9th, 1777.

The Gregorian Reflector, with the magnifying power of 95, was

While Mr. Rittenhouse was endeavouring to adjust the two-f.

Beginning of the Eclipse 8h 49′ 55″

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Hadi Pirasteh-Anosheh Swarnendu Roy