Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Edited by
Ayodeji Olukoju
Daniel Castillo Hidalgo
Series Editors
Hercules Haralambides
Erasmus School of Economics
Erasmus University Rotterdam
Rotterdam, The Netherlands
Elias Karakitsos
EN Aviation & Shipping Research Ltd
London, UK
Stig Tenold
Department of Economics
NHH – Norwegian School of Economics
Bergen, Norway
Palgrave Studies in Maritime Economics is a new, original and timely
interdisciplinary series that seeks to be pivotal in nature and improve our
understanding of the role of the maritime sector within port econom-
ics and global supply chain management, shipping finance, and maritime
business and economic history. The maritime industry plays an increas-
ingly important role in the changing world economy, and this new series
offers an outlet for reviewing trends and developments over time as well
as analysing how such changes are affecting trade, transport, the environ-
ment and financial markets. Each title in the series will communicate key
research findings, shaping new approaches to maritime economics. The
core audience will be academic, as well as policymakers, regulators and
international maritime authorities and organisations. Individual titles will
often be theoretically informed but will always be firmly evidence-based,
seeking to link theory to policy outcomes and changing practices.
African Seaports
and Maritime
Economics
in Historical
Perspective
Editors
Ayodeji Olukoju Daniel Castillo Hidalgo
Department of History Department of History-IATEXT
and Strategic Studies Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Spain
University of Lagos
Lagos, Nigeria
© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer
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This book is especially dedicated to all the anonymous souls that
have been lost in the depths of the sea, in search of a better life.
Preface and Acknowledgments
vii
viii PREFACE AND ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
1 Introduction 1
Ayodeji Olukoju and Daniel Castillo Hidalgo
ix
x CONTENTS
Index 227
Notes on Contributors
xi
xii NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS
spatial analysis, through the looking glass of ports and shipping net-
works, with a special focus on Europe and Asia. He is currently Principal
Investigator of the EU-funded ERC Starting Grant “World Seastems”
(2013–2019) research project analysing the evolution of global shipping
networks since the late nineteenth century, and published two edited
books on Maritime Networks (2015) and Shipping Data Analysis (2017)
in the Routledge Studies in Transport Analysis. He has published more
than 50 articles in peer-reviewed journals and 30 book chapters in the
last 15 years or so.
Darren Fraser is Marketing Executive at the corporate office of
Transnet Port Terminals in South Africa. He holds a Ph.D. from
the University of Antwerp, Belgium. He is also part-time lecturer
of Container Shipping Management and Financial Management in
the Department of Maritime Studies at the Durban University of
Technology, South Africa. Darren’s interest lies in the domain of
Southern African ports and his publications have a focus on port system
development, hinterland dynamics, African port governance and African
port connectivity.
Casiano Manrique-de-Lara-Peñate, Ph.D. in Economics by the
ULPGC and M.A. in Economic Policy by the University of Boston
(Fulbright scholarship) presently teaches Economic Modelling and
Policy Analysis and International Economics at the University of Las
Palmas de GC. His research topics are mainly concentrated in Economic
Modelling (IO and applied general equilibrium) and in liner container
ship deployment optimization models. He has recently participated in
various projects related to Maritime Transport and Port Economics with
international organizations like the Inter-American Development Bank
and the World Bank.
Theo E. Notteboom is professor in port and maritime economics
and management. He is Director and Research Professor at Centre for
Eurasian Maritime and Inland Logistics (CEMIL) of China Institute
of FTZ Supply Chain of Shanghai Maritime University in China. He is
Chair Professor “North Sea Port” at the Maritime Institute of Ghent
University. He also is part-time Professor at University of Antwerp
and the Antwerp Maritime Academy in Belgium. He is co-founder
and co-director of www.porteconomics.eu, an online platform on port
NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS xiii
xv
xvi LIST OF FIGURES
Fig. 7.1 The Southern African container port system and main freight
corridors (Note Authors’ elaboration. Map not drawn to scale,
corridors and ports are approximations for illustrative
purposes) 172
Fig. 7.2 Position of the Southern African port system in the world
and Africa (based on TEU) (Source Authors’ elaboration
based on UNCTAD dataset) 173
Fig. 7.3 Liner shipping connectivity index, annual (Index, maximum
2006 = 100) (Note The top ten countries in 2019 were China
(LSCI of 151.9), Singapore (108.1), South Korea (105.1),
Malaysia (93.8), United States (90.0), Belgium (88.4),
the Netherlands (88.0), the UK (84.9) and Spain (84.2).
Source Authors’ elaboration based on UNCTAD dataset) 174
Fig. 7.4 Container throughput evolution in Southern African ports,
1985–2018, in TEU (left) and market share (right) (Source
Authors’ elaboration based on individual ports statistics) 178
Fig. 7.5 Container throughput evolution in multi-port gateway
regions in Southern Africa, 1985–2018, in TEU (left)
and market shares (right) (Source Authors’ elaboration
based on individual ports statistics) 181
Fig. 8.1 Share of African trade in the world, 1830–2014
(Source Authors’ compilation from CEPII-TRADHIST
[1827–2014]) 205
Fig. 8.2 Composition of African trade: increasing non-European
trade (Source Authors’ compilation from CEPII-TRADHIST
[1827–2014]) 206
Fig. 8.3 Imaginary model of an Africa-Asia shipping route
(Source Authors’ elaboration) 213
Fig. 8.4 Weight and share of Africa-Asia traffic, 1977–2016
(Note Left column represents Space-L [direct calls only]
(a), and Right column represents Space-P [direct
and indirect calls] (b). Source Authors’ elaboration
from Lloyd Connectivity Index) 215
List of Tables
xvii
xviii LIST OF TABLES
Introduction
A. Olukoju (*)
Department of History and Strategic Studies,
University of Lagos, Lagos, Nigeria
e-mail: aolukoju@unilag.edu.ng
D. Castillo Hidalgo
University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria,
Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Spain
e-mail: daniel.castillohidalgo@ulpgc.es
Period World Shipping African Port Inland Transport Overall economic Major institutional
Industry Development Infrastructures factors factors
1880–1913 Transition from sail Construction of Construction of Expansion of cash- Scramble of Africa.
to steam. British mer- modern port infra- railways. Poor road crop productions Colonial occupation
chant fleet hegemony. structures (1880s). systems. Limited and mining sectors. and borders configu-
Increased tonnages. Prevalence of coastal inland waterways Growth of exter- ration. Settlement of
Maritime industry trade. Scattered port nal-related sectors the colonial state
changes system (trade). Extractive
economies
1914–1945 Oil tankers. Enlargement of Railway growth Colonial commodities Establishment of
Introduction of liquid port infrastructures (intermodal connec- price crisis. Urban Protectorates in
fuels. Increased drafts (1920s). Port con- tivity). Beginning of growth and regional former German colo-
centration dynamics. road transport con- metropolization. nies. Development of
Improved facilities currence (late 1930s) Stagnation of GDPpc the colonial institu-
(export of cash-crops tional regime
and ores)
1946–1960 Post-war shipping Port creation (spe- Relative decline of Post-war inflation. Socio-economic
boom. Increased cialized terminals). railways. Increased Demographic and instability and decline
tonnages and drafts. Expansion of seaborne importance of road economic growth of the colonial states.
Scale economies and trade. Congestion of transports. Limited heavily dependent United Nations
1
Super-Tankers (late port infrastructures expansion of paved on seaborne trade. agreements and
1950s). Beginnings of roads Metropolitan invest- political independ-
containerization ments (i.e. FIDES ences. Transfer of
plan) transport-economic
infrastructures
(continued)
INTRODUCTION
5
6
Table 1.1 (continued)
Period World Shipping African Port Inland Transport Overall economic Major institutional
Industry Development Infrastructures factors factors
1961–1972 First global wave of Improvement on port Crisis of railway sys- Massive public invest- New pro-socialist
containerization. terminals. Increased tems. Limited inland ments and nationali- oriented States.
Expansion of bulk port specialization integration. Road sys- zation of productive Nationalism and
trade (crude oil and tem extension. White sectors. Increased regional rivalries.
oil products). Free elephant policies international con- Political instability
registry policies currence on raw and fiscal unbalances.
materials. Economic Cold War
growth
1973–1995 Containerization Financial crises. Increased recurrent Fiscal and trade State crises and
transition and specific Stagnation and costs. Deterioration unbalances. Drop structural adjustment
container vessels. limited development. of roads. Definitive of trade exchanges. plans. Apartheid
Diminution of the Reinforcement of railway crisis External debt crisis in South Africa
A. OLUKOJU AND D. CASTILLO HIDALGO
(continued)
Table 1.1 (continued)
Period World Shipping African Port Inland Transport Overall economic Major institutional
Industry Development Infrastructures factors factors
1996–2010s Second wave of Expansion of Emergence of inland Sustained but Interregional coop-
containerization. container terminals. transport corridors unequal economic eration. Prevalence
Post-Panama vessels Growth of bulk trade (railways and roads). growth dependent of autocratic political
General cargo revolu- and general cargo. Trade facilitation and on the external leaders. OECD
tion. Fall of seaborne PPP initiatives and increased regional trade. Demographic and non OECD
freights and trans- port devolution. integration. Relative growth and urban donors. Increased
action costs. Capital Reinforcement of improvement on overcrowding. presence of Asian
predominance and multimodal connec- road infrastructures. World increased investors (China PR).
Global Shipping Lines tivity (high priority Projects funded by Importance for Political revolutions
“main streets”) international donors mining commodities (Northern Africa)
(copper and chrome). and democracy
Cooperation poli- consolidation
cies. Slow recovery
of public sectors
(health-education)
Sources Authors’ elaboration building on Castillo and Ducruet (2018, p. 400) and Oliete and Magrinyà (2018, p. 4)
1
INTRODUCTION
7
8 A. OLUKOJU AND D. CASTILLO HIDALGO
schedule, where major seaports handled the lion’s share of the colony’s
seaborne trade. Those maritime nexuses were aligned with the inland
transport system (railways and roads) and it permitted the connection of
the productive regions (i.e. cash crops and minerals) to the coastal evac-
uation centres.
In addition to their gateway functions, seaports in Africa have played
an essential role as agents of “development”. Building on the orthodox
economic thought, the ports were conceived as generators of external
economies which should promote economic clustering processes. Then,
the positive spin-off effects of trade would yield increasing returns and
promoting investments and job creation. In fact, United Nations fig-
ures on urbanization and migratory flows reveal the impressive growth
of port cities in Africa during the second half of the twentieth century.
Consequently, the major urban agglomerations on the continent are
mainly located in the coastal zones. However, the acknowledged sym-
biotic relationship between ports and port cities is complex and multi-
faceted. This has led to studies of the social and urban challenges of port
cities. For example, it has been demonstrated that the African port city
exhibits specific segregationist features related to differential access to
basic services, a situation that has remained unchanged from the colo-
nial times (Freund 2012, pp. 242–244). Besides all, the waterfront space
evolved and interacted with the urban environment from initial setting to
the late stages of specialization as articulated by James Bird. Moreover,
port expansion in the vicinity of the city entails occupying new land and
the displacement of human settlements, which could create social unrest.
Furthermore, the port centralization policies reinforced the major role
played by dominant seaports throughout the decades. Consequently,
the concentration of cargo on those ports tended to overwhelm the
infrastructures, necessitating institutional reforms as well as the emer-
gence of specialized terminals. Those terminals concentrated specific
functions as export terminals: oil terminals in the Gulf of Guinea, gas
and oil terminals in Algeria or Libya, ore terminals in South Africa or
Mozambique, timber terminals in the Cote d´Ivoire or Angola, or even
petrochemical industrial complexes along the Moroccan Atlantic coast.
In addition, the general cargo revolution also fostered the emergence
of specialized container terminals. From the semi-automated Egyptian
terminals of Damietta or El Dekhla, and the emergent regional hubs
such as Durban to the extraordinary rising of Tangiers-Med, these infra-
structures have promoted a major insertion of the continent into the
10 A. OLUKOJU AND D. CASTILLO HIDALGO
its alignment with the inland transport systems, especially the water-
ways, and the changes that accompanied the suppression of the trade.
Saupin demonstrates how the trade and its abolition affected the port
cities involved in it. In the second half of the century, especially from the
1860s, two major dynamics intervened: steam shipping and the onset of
various European colonial regimes. African ports on the strategic mari-
time edges of the continent in Egypt, South Africa and the Cape Verde
Islands (on the Atlantic shipping routes) attracted important investments
in acknowledgement of their rising profile in the expanding global steam
shipping industry. While Saupin had focused entirely on the nineteenth
century, Daniel Castillo and César Ducruet extended the discussion from
the 1880s to recent times. Their contribution is particularly significant
for delineating the phases or epochs of regional seaport development
across the continent. This longitudinal approach presents trends in port
evolution, the main political, economic and social drivers of change in
port hierarchies and the structure of maritime networks on the conti-
nent. The two scholars adopted two major interconnected indicators in
their analysis: commercial throughput and shipping traffic. On the one
hand, analysis of the former, including the specific nature of the cargo),
unveils the continent’s economic specialization by region, as well as eco-
nomic change in the long run. On the other hand, analysis of call of
vessels building on data collected from Lloyd Register affords the obser-
vation of regional port hierarchies throughout the period covered. The
chapter thus explores the local and global endowments in the configura-
tion of port systems on the continent in the long duree from the onset of
steamship to the age of containerization.
The intrusion of European colonial powers from the late was a water-
shed in the history of African seaports, not least because of differences
in their colonial administrative practices. This subject is addressed in
the next chapter by Miguel Suárez Bosa, which compares the differen-
tial port development policies and practices of the French and Spanish in
their respective enclaves in the Protectorate of Morocco, following the
Algeciras Conference of 1906, which partitioned the territory. This chap-
ter presents an illuminating case study of the relevance of path creation
to port development and the way maritime networks are conditioned
by past institutional choices. Thus, the emergence of Casablanca in the
French enclave heavily conditioned port development in the south of the
country. In contrast, there was less impressive port development in the
northern part of the protectorate, attributable to financial issues and the
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