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China’s Food
Security
Strategies and
Countermeasures
wa ng hong gua ng
China’s Food Security
 Wang Hongguang

China’s Food Security

Strategies and Countermeasures

CITIC Press Group|Beijing

Wang Hongguang
Peking University
Beijing, China

ISBN 978-981-99-0729-8 ISBN 978-981-99-0730-4 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0730-4

Jointly published with CITIC Press Corporation

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Ensure China’s food security by holding the rice bowl of the Chinese people
firmly in our own hands.
—From the Report of General Secretary Xi Jinping at the 19th CPC
National Congress
 China should protect the livelihoods of the Chinese people and work with
other countries to establish global food security. Food security is a top
priority for national welfare and the livelihoods of the people. Since the
implementation of the 13th Five-Year Plan five years ago, the Chinese
leaders have had a number of inspection tours for food production across
China. On numerous occasions, the leaders have stressed the importance of
ensuring food security.
Based on 30 years of continuous research on food security, the book analyzes
the impacts on food security by the changes of post-pandemic world, takes a
historical review of global food production, consumption, and trade over
the past 60 years, defines the current pattern of global food security, and
forecasts its trend in the next 20 years. Meanwhile, the book identifies nine
issues currently facing China on food security, estimates the potential of
food production, and proposes four major strategies and eight
countermeasures to ensure food security for the next 20 years.
This book is a data-based illustration of history, status quo, and trends of
food security in China. It evidently draws on a complete, systematic,
strategic, and insightful research. It’ll serve as an important literature for
readers to understand the context of “sufficient food and sufficient
nutrition.” It can be used as a reference for governments at various levels
in formulation of agricultural policies, for researchers on food security
issues, or for teachers and students from institutes of higher learning.
 Editorial Board

Wang Hongguang
Li Lijun
Hu Zhiquan
Zhang Yong’en
Chu Qingquan
Wu Yongchang
Wang Zhaohua
Wei Wei
Wang Hongyan
Liu Jinghui
Li Yiping
Wu De’an
You Lei
Zhang Junxiang
Yin Zhixin
Zhu Shu
Ma Guohui
Ma Hongbo
Song Zhirong

vii
 Foreword I

Food security is a major issue faced by many countries worldwide. Nearly

690 million people were suffering from hunger in 2019, up nearly 60
million from 5 years ago. As a result of the COVID-19 pandemic, 130
million additional people are likely to fall into hunger in 2020, as more
than 40 countries experiencing food shortages.
With a huge population, China has always been plagued by the issue of
food security. The people of old China were ravaged by famine-induced
hunger. Over 70 years since the founding of the People’s Republic of
China (PRC), total grain production has increased by 4.9 times, and unit
area yield by 4.5 times. In 2019, China’s total grain output reached 664
million tons, and per capita share of grain exceeded 470 kg, marking the
16th consecutive year of increase in grain production and accounting
for 24.4% of global total. Thus far, 1.4 billion people have been free
from hunger. With only 10% of the world’s land, China feeds 20% of
the world’s population, representing a tremendous achievement for the
world.
Relying on science and technology to increase grain yield is a funda-
mental solution for China. To cite the hybrid rice as an example, the
past 50 years have seen eight stages of yield increase—400 kg/mu,
500 kg/mu, 600 kg/mu, 700 kg/mu, 800 kg/mu, 900 kg/mu, 1000
kg/mu, and 1110 kg/mu (1 acre = 6.07 mu), and dramatic leaps from
low yield to high-yield strain, from ordinary rice to high-quality rice, from
freshwater rice to saline-tolerant rice and the first ever success of growing

ix
x FOREWORD I

desert rice. As of 2019, hybrid rice has been expanded to a total of 1.5
billion mu in China, bringing about an additional rice output of 140
million tons to feed additional 80 million people each year. The mirac-
ulous increase in grain production has generated tremendous social and
economic benefits, and made significant contribution to achieving food
self-sufficiency in China.
I strongly support the major decision by the Chinese government
to “ensure food security,” because it has to be addressed seriously as
improved living standards of the people will spur a rising per capita food
consumption. When the per capita share of food was 400 kg, China faced
difficulty in selling food as people ate less meat. But now, with a per
capita share of 470 kg, we need to import the equivalent of nearly 900
million mu of arable land. In many developed countries, the per capita
food consumption (including edible grains, meat, eggs, milk, etc.) is more
than 800 kg, almost double that in China. That’s the reason why we
should never neglect the issue of food security.
I greatly admire Professor Wang Hongguang’s concern and academic
efforts of more than 30 years on food security. Fifteen years ago, I wrote
the preface of the book Studies on China’s Food Security by Professor
Wang, and today I am very pleased to write the preface for his new book,
China’s Food Security: Strategies and Countermeasures. Through system-
atic research on the history, status quo, challenges, and countermeasures
of food security both in China and globally, Professor Wang Hongguang
has raised some major issues that deserve serious study. I agree with the
judgment in this book that “China has no problem in securing suffi-
cient food, but still needs food imports for sufficient nutrition,” I also
admire the in-depth and systematic research in this book, which draws
our attention to the issues like the need to import the equivalent of
nearly 900 million mu of arable land, an implicit grain self-sufficiency rate
of 70%, increased pressure on arable land protection from urbanization,
farmers’ reluctance to grow and store food, changes in the international
environment, and possible disruptions of the food supply chain, etc.
This book advocates a second green revolution to further increase the
unit area yield of grain. In my opinion, the goal of “800 million tons of
total grain production” is fully achievable with sustained efforts, as the
yield of third-generation hybrid rice is expected to hit 1200 kg or even
1300 kg per mu, and the goal of 18 tons per hectare will be fulfilled soon.
Coupled with further breakthroughs in saline-tolerant rice, hybrid wheat,
hybrid corn, hybrid soybeans, hybrid rapeseed, and other technologies,
 FOREWORD I xi

China is well positioned to ensure its food security. Chinese people’s rice
bowl must be held firmly in our own hands and should be full mainly of
Chinese grain.
This book conducts a systematic study based on a large amount of
data and information collected on food security in China and overseas,
making it a treatise of academic and applicable value in food security
study on China. I sincerely recommend this book to the science and
technology professionals who are concerned with and engaged in food
security subject.

September 2020 Yuan Longping

Recipient of the Medal of the Republic
Recipient of the State Supreme Science
and Technology Award
Winner of the World Food Prize
Academician of the Chinese Academy of Engineering
Honorary Director General of China National Hybrid
Rice Research and Development Center
Changsha, China
 Foreword II

Coinciding with the World Food Day, today, I am very pleased to

preface a new book, China’s Food Security: Strategies and Countermea-
sures, written by Professor Wang Hongguang, who is an old friend of
mine.
The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2020 (SOFI
2020), jointly released by Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of
the United Nations, the International Fund for Agricultural Development
(IFAD), the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF), the World
Food Programme (WFP), and the World Health Organization (WHO),
states that 2019 witnessed nearly 690 million people, or nearly one-tenth
of the global population, suffering from hunger. When populations facing
moderate and severe levels of food insecurity are considered, a total of 2
billion people worldwide have no access to safe, nutritious, and sufficient
food on a regular basis. This trend, if not reversed, will render it difficult
for the world to reach the goal of zero hunger by 2030.
As the COVID-19 pandemic continues, coupled with the impacts of
global climate change and recent pest outbreaks such as the African desert
locust and the American fall armyworm, the global food landscape, which
was already fragile, has taken a huge hit. Many countries and regions are
in danger of broken food supply chains and rising food prices, leading
to a situation where food-importing countries may not be able to buy
enough food and low-income people may not be able to afford the food
price. Countries that have food, land, and technology can barely provide

xiii
xiv FOREWORD II

strong support to countries that lack food, capital, land, and technology.
I strongly agree with Professor Wang Hongguang’s opinion: “Globally, a
food gap will exist for a long time.”
Over the past 70 years, China has made remarkable achievements in
food security. Going back to 1949, with a population of 450 million,
China faced the threat of hunger. When the population reached 1.25
billion in 1998, the Chinese government announced a new stage of
agriculture, in which the problem of insufficient quantity of food had
been solved, and the hunger plaguing the country for thousands of years
was basically resolved, and the poor quality of food became the main
focus of problem. In 2019, Professor Wang Hongguang concluded in his
book that, “China has no problem in securing sufficient food, but still
need food imports for sufficient nutrition,” as China’s per capita grain
production reached 470 kg, surpassing the food security line of 400 kg
per capita. In view of the current issues facing the world’s food supply
chains, the Chinese government’s proposal to “ensure food security” is
very important and timely.
Undoubtedly, China scored an unparalleled success in solving the
problem of food and poverty. Since the inception of New China in 1949,
the country has successfully lifted more than 1 billion people out of
hunger and poverty, something that no other countries can do in such
a short period of time. Based on my long years of work in international
organizations, I know that if other countries in the world could solve food
and poverty issues as successfully as China, the goals of “zero hunger”
and “poverty eradication” proposed by the UN would be achieved at the
earliest.
China’s success is multifaceted, on which different countries, different
institutions, and different time periods may hold different views and
perspectives. As the Chinese government has made it clear that agricul-
tural development relies on policy, science and technology, and inputs.
In terms of policy, the Chinese government holds annual central rural
work conference and promulgates the “No. 1 Central Document,” which
is uncommon in foreign countries. In terms of science and technology,
China has a great number of agricultural experts such as academician
Yuan Longping, who have won the admiration of the global agricul-
tural science and technology community by constantly raising the unit
area yield of food crops to new heights and improving the efficiency of
livestock production.
 FOREWORD II xv

With over 30 years of research in agricultural policies, especially in

agricultural science and technology policies, Professor Wang Hongguang
has achieved a lot of fruitful results. As the Secretary-General of the
conference, Professor Wang Hongguang organized the 1st session of the
International Conference on Agricultural Science and Technology, where
he first advocated the “second green revolution.” He led the team to
draft the first Outline of Agricultural Science and Technology Develop-
ments in China and participated in the organization of the 2nd session
of the National Conference on Agricultural Science and Technology.
These efforts have contributed to agricultural science and technology
development both in China and overseas.
Following his appointment as a professor at China Agricultural Univer-
sity at the age of 32, Wang Hongguang has conducted extensive research
in agriculture, especially in food security. In 1993, his book titled China’s
Agriculture: Problems, Potential, Paths, and Benefits pointed out that
China’s food security could be featured by “low level, high difficulty, and
insecurity.” Although the per capita share of food did not reach the secu-
rity line of 400 kg at that time, the book had predicted that China could
produce up to 640 million tons of grain. China saw a food production of
664 million tons in 2019, which proved that his prediction was relatively
accurate. The publishing of China’s Food Security: Strategies and Coun-
termeasures is the result of more than 30 years of continuous research
on food security in China and overseas by Professor Hongguang and his
team. With its informative data, broad and deep vision, unique views, and
rigorous logic, this book is highly recommended.
Firstly, this book reviews the history of world food production,
consumption, and trade over the past 60 years, analyzes the impact of the
COVID-19 pandemic on the global food security pattern, and predicts
the trend of food security in the next 20 years. Secondly, this book
summarizes the history and experience of food security in China over
the past 2000 years, envisages the food security problems that China will
face in the next 20 years and puts forward countermeasures. Thirdly, this
book proposes an innovative and practical “six-factor index of food secu-
rity,” which measures food security levels of different provinces, cities,
and regions based on six elements—quantity, quality, technology, ecology,
economy, and society. Fourth, the book makes a basic conclusion that
“China has no problem in securing sufficient food, but still needs food
imports for sufficient nutrition” and puts forward the suggestions of
xvi FOREWORD II

“eight measures to ensure food security and four strategies to solve food
crisis.”
Therefore, it’s with great pleasure that I recommend China’s Food
Security: Strategies and Countermeasures by Professor Wang Hongguang
to all readers, hoping to discuss and study the issue of food security with
you.

October 2020 Wang Ren

Former Assistant Director General,
Food and Agriculture Organization
of the United Nations
Former Secretary-General of Consultative
Group on International Agricultural Research
Shenzhen, China
 Foreword III

Over the past 10 years or so, the increasingly wide recognition and appli-
cation of concepts and technologies such as big data, cloud computing,
blockchain, AI, arithmetic economy, and the IoT have accelerated the
transition and transformation into a digital society. Globally, a digital
economy is maturing in parallel with traditional economy of physical and
material form. This undoubted progress does not dwarf the importance
of the agricultural and industrial economies in their material and physical
forms, which, on the contrary, are the material basis supporting the digital
economy.
The importance of food in the agricultural economy goes without
saying. While digitalization can improve agricultural economy and food
production, it cannot replace them. The reasoning is quite simple—so
far, human life and people’s livelihood have all along depended on food
and food chains. Only under two circumstances can humans change this
inherent behavioral pattern—either humans create a complete replace-
ment for food or humans are transformed into a species that does not
need to “eat” or what is “eaten” is no longer food. Even though robots
need no food, humans are not replaceable by robots in the foreseeable
future.
Coming back to reality, we must re-examine the perception of solving
food problems through agricultural science and technology, as the popu-
lation continues to grow (approaching 8 billion), the per capita area of
cultivated land is decreasing, and the external conditions affecting food

xvii
xviii FOREWORD III

production, including soil, water, and climate, are deteriorating. For now,
we can say with certainty that humanity will continue to face the chal-
lenge of food on a global scale, and that large-scale hunger will remain
in certain regions. The threat of “famine” has never receded. According
to the Global Report on Food Crises (GRFC) released by the World Food
Programme (WFP) on 21 April 2020, 821 million people in the world
go hungry on a daily basis, and another 135 million people are on the
verge of hunger. The onset of the COVID-19 pandemic has forced an
additional 130 million people into the abyss of hunger. According to the
worst-case predictions, there may be more than 30 countries suffering
from famine in the world. Undoubtedly, hunger can only be solved by
improved food supply.
The success of Chinese agriculture lies in meeting the food demand for
1.4 billion people, but we can never claim that China is far from the worry
of food shortage. As a result of my deep experience with hunger and my
involvement in the rural economic reform over 30 years, I have always
paid close attention to the food issues in China. I read an article written
by Professor Wang Hongguang, titled Abandoning Optimism About Food
Security and Paying Attention to Potential Risks, in the summer of 2020,
and I totally agreed with the opinion therein that China is not absolutely
but relatively food secure, since we still need to “import the equivalent of
nearly 900 million mu of arable land” to ensure food security. This means
that our food is sufficient for daily life, but not for a wartime situation.
For this reason, I approached Professor Wang Hongguang and suggested
that he write a book based on these ideas. I recommended this book to be
selected as a key work in the Moganshan Series in 2020. Professor Wang
Hongguang and I agreed that it would take 3 months to write the book.
Later, I learned that Professor Wang Hongguang has over 30 years of
experience, knowledge, and accumulation of information in this field. In
his book titled Chinese Agriculture: Problems, Potential, Paths, and Bene-
fits published in 1993, he raised the problem of food security at that
time—low level, high difficulty, and weak security—and created nine-
level approaches to revising food production potential, predicting that
the grain production could go up to 640 million tons. Based on reli-
able methodology, Professor Wang Hongguang arrived at an accurate
judgment, evidenced by a grain production of 664 million tons in 2019.
Under the leadership of Professor Wang Hongguang, in 2005 his team
completed the Studies on China’s Food Security and 70 Years of China’s
Farming System, suggesting that population control and protection of
 FOREWORD III xix

arable land are the only ways to ensure food security. Judging from
the current situation, these measures proposed by him are completely
accurate.
Three months after talking with Professor Wang Hongguang, I was
excited to receive a copy of China’s Food Security: Strategies and Counter-
measures, written by Professor Wang Hongguang and his team. Focusing
on in-depth thinking and academic methods, using data as a basis and
food production of agricultural economy as the main line, combining
historical perspectives and realistic policy, this book provides a full range
of interpretations and explanations on food security faced by China.
I highly appreciate the following aspects of this book: (1) an assessment
of the agricultural history of the new China—the complete farewell to
the history of hunger that lasted for thousands of years, the termination
of the thousand-year history of farmers “paying grain to the emperor,”
the forthcoming elimination of “absolute poverty” mainly characterized
by not having enough food; (2) a basic judgment of the current food
security in China—low level, high difficulty, tight balance, and weak
security. The author points out nine major problems in food security,
especially the “implicit food self-sufficiency rate of only 70%,” and actively
advises the central government on these issues. The author has the sense
of responsibility, level of spiritual pursuit, and academic feelings that I
think a scholar should possess; (3) Construction of the “six-factor index
system” for food security. The author uses 48 indicators to measure
the food security levels of 31 provinces (municipalities and regions) and
proposes specific, pertinent, and insightful countermeasures of “increasing
food production by technology, maintaining hidden production on arable
land, producing food from sea, producing food on mountains, increasing
production through reform, storing food through friendly cooperation,
reducing wastage in food use, and guaranteeing food security in the form
of a community.”
From ancient times till now, the issue of food has always affected the
survival and health of human beings, as well as the peace and stability of
the world. As we are entering the third decade of the twenty-first century,
food is still a fundamental and strategic product for economic and social
activities. The status of food will not change unless and until humans
completely solve the problem of food consumption.
Therefore, in addition to its significance to China’s food policies, this
book is also of considerable reference value to other countries—one of the
characteristics of the food issue is the inherent internationality. Among
xx FOREWORD III

the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) published by the UN in

2015, “ending hunger, achieving food security and improved nutrition,
and promoting sustainable agriculture” are listed as SDG2. Despite my
acquaintance of only one year with Professor Wang Hongguang, I am
prefacing his book for the second time. Writing the preface of this kind
of book has been a great learning experience for me. Given our intel-
lectual and spiritual compatibility, I was lucky and happy to make a new
friend like Professor Wang Hongguang.

October 2020 Zhu Jiaming

Famous Economist
Visiting Professor, China University
of Political Science and Law
Beijing, Hengqin, China
 Foreword IV

As China launched a reform that began with agriculture over 40 years ago,
the then-central leadership gave the Technical and Economic Research
Center of the State Council a task—to study and picture China’s economy
in the year 2000, or in other words, to forecast what the economy
would look like by the year 2000. Supposedly, this assignment was
declined previously by intended ministries and universities due to lack
of methodologies. After determinedly accepting this task, Zhu Jiaming
and I calculated the data for 20 years into the future using the simplest
mathematical linear equations based on the data of the previous years
since the founding of New China, and finally submitted a thick book of
indicators for various industries. Among all the conclusions, one alarming
conclusion was that the country would see a widening grain gap by the
year 2000, and even worse, lack the port handling capacity for imported
grain even if resorting to imports for food security, not to mention self-
sufficiency in food. China, therefore, launched the rural reform in seeking
to address the projection of long-term food shortage, which put an end to
the old model of food imports and reinforced the government’s commit-
ment to rural work. Since then, the No. 1 Central Document unveiled
by the government every year has been focused on rural work, and
agriculture and food production has been atop the agenda of all local
governments across the country.
Thanks to China’s reform and industrialization plus the generally
peaceful global setting, the increasingly wealthier country with rising

xxi
xxii FOREWORD IV

foreign exchange reserve allows for supplementary food from interna-

tional market. The Chinese people are not only sufficiently fed but
provided for with a variety of food choices. Accompanying the avail-
ability of adequate and nutritious food, China’s dependence on imports
and international markets is becoming increasingly severe. According
to Professor Wang Hongguang’s research, about one-third of the food
consumed in China has to be imported. In other words, China needs
another nearly 900 million mu of grain production. The market economy
has made people accustomed to thinking in monetary terms rather than in
survival or security terms. Two years ago, when we visited some regions
to study and exchange views with the local officials on the second rural
reform, we heard one of the leaders saying that “an increase in grain
production by 10 or 20 percentage points will not make much difference
in the local economic growth.” The masterstroke of importing food has
masked a great number of serious problems concerning China’s agricul-
ture, rural areas, and farmers, impeding the second rural reform that is
due to take place.
Today, as the economy moves up the value chain from mid-range to
the high-end, China begins to occupy a share of the high-end industrial
market of the United States and even of the Western developed world.
This is the reason why Western countries believe that China is changing
the landscape of the world economy. The success of China in overcoming
the middle-income trap and marching up into the high-end industries
depends on furtherance of reforms, a system to concentrate nationwide
strengths, and institutional advantages.
Given that a high percentage of our food imports is from Western
countries, Professor Wang Hongguang talked early about the possibility
of the West using food as a weapon against China. From the economic
perspective, if the West imposes a food embargo on China and forces
China out of high-end industries, the benefits retained by the West are
enormous and long-term. However, China will never give up its economic
development toward the high end, never give up its continuous reforms,
and never give up its institutional advantages. Therefore, China must be
prepared for the Worst-Case Scenario of a food war, and meanwhile boost
economic defense and ensure food security.
We should also recognize that the global food insecurity has not been
addressed and the COVID-19 pandemic has exacerbated the global food
problem. According to the State of Food Security and Nutrition in the
World 2020 (SOFI 2020) released on July 13, 2020, nearly 690 million
 FOREWORD IV xxiii

people worldwide suffered from hunger in 2019, representing an increase

of 10 million compared to 2018 and nearly 60 million compared to 5
years ago. Following decades of steady decline, the global number of
people suffering from chronic hunger has been slowly rising again since
2014 and this trend is continuing. By the end of 2020, the COVID-
19 pandemic may add more than 130 million people to the number of
chronically hungry people. As David Beasley, Executive Director of the
World Food Programme (WFP), has warned, the world needs to act, or
this will become a humanitarian and food crisis disaster.
As a nation of 1.4 billion people, China must rely primarily on herself
for food supply, instead of depending on the uncertain world market.
Looking back at history, our country has been using land intensively
in recent centuries. In particular, the peaceful environment and economic
development over the last half century have led to continuous popula-
tion growth and lessening of arable land in China. We have resorted to a
range of predatory industrial means, such as fertilizers and pesticides, to
satisfy the growing demand for agricultural products. However, without
an essential solution to the practice of predatory land management, our
agricultural land would collapse in the coming decades. By then, no
industrial means would prevent food production from declining, and in
the end, we would have nothing to rely on to ensure food security. We
must look at China’s agricultural problems, current food strategies, and
land strategies with a hundred-year vision and a hundred-year mindset.
The proposition we need to bear in mind is that “food is always the
primary need of human beings.”
From a strategic perspective, the book written by Professor Wang
Hongguang proposes eight systematic countermeasures to solve our
food problem—“increasing food production by technology, maintaining
hidden production on arable land, producing food from sea, producing
food in mountains, increasing production through reform, storing food
through friendly cooperation, reducing wastage in food use, and guaran-
teeing food security in the form of a community,” and accordingly seven
safeguards. These insightful opinions and suggestions provide highly
meaningful guidelines for the study and formulation of measures for food
security in China.
Academically, what is noteworthy about this book is that Professor
Wang Hongguang has constructed a “six-factor index system” for food
security based on his intensive research and reflection on China’s food
security and his mastery and use of China’s food security data. Using
xxiv FOREWORD IV

48 indicators, the system measures the food security indexes of 31

provinces (cities and regions), marking the first study of food security
at a meso-level. The implications of this innovation are self-evident.
China is our great motherland, so we look forward to more and better
research results from Professor Wang Hongguang and from other teams
doing research in this field as well.

September 2020 Huang Jiangnan

Famous Economist
Adjunct Professor, China University
of Political Science and Law
Beijing, China
Adjunct Professor, Southern University
of Science and Technology
Shenzhen, China
 Contents

1 Introduction 1
1 Despite the 10,000-Year History of Farming, There
Still Are People Going Hungry! 1
2 A Food Shortage Caused by the COVID-19 Pandemic
is Unfolding! 2
3 Looking Ahead, Can Getting Sufficient Food Be More
Difficult Than Landing on the Moon? 2
4 Having Enough to Eat is the Most Basic Human Right! 2
5 What Are the Solutions to Food Security? 3
6 History: The Chinese Nation Has Led the Agricultural
Civilization 4
7 Achievements: New China Said Goodbye to Four
Histories in 70 Years 5
8 Problems: Import of the Equivalent of 900 Million Mu
of Arable Land is a Serious Constraint on Food Security 6
9 Countermeasures: Eight Measures Need to Be
Implemented to Ensure Food Security 8
10 Food Security is an Ongoing Issue that Precedes
the Population Peak 12

xxv
xxvi CONTENTS

Part I A New Concept of Food Security

2 Post-pandemic Changes in World Pattern and Food
Security 15
1 Politics: Accelerated Formation of a New Pluralistic
Pattern 15
2 Economy: Embracing Changes Never Seen in a Century 17
3 Technology: Early Arrival of the New Revolution
in Science and Technology 18
4 Culture: Major Trends of Exchange, Diversity,
Inclusiveness, and Fusion 20
5 Military: Nuclear Dominance May Turn
into Biological Dominance 20
6 US-China Competition: Intolerance to Be Overtaken
Versus Unremitting Efforts for Development 21
7 Food Security: The Worst Upcoming Crisis in 50+ years 24
3 A New Concept of Food Security for Today’s World 27
1 Concept and Connotations of Food Security 27
2 Definitions of Food Safety: Access to Safe Food 32
3 Food Security Index: Hunger Risk Assessment 33
4 Possible Recurrence of Food Crisis and Food Wars 37
1 Food Crisis that Plagues Human Survival
and Development 37
2 Sharp Rise in Risk of Food War Due to COVID-19
Outbreak 41
5 Difficulties on the Road to Eradicating Hunger 43
1 Why is Eating Enough More Difficult Than Landing
on the Moon? 43
2 How to Feed the Additional 2.3 Billion People
in the Future? 44
3 How Many People Can Earth Feed? 45
4 What Are the Reliable Technologies to Increase Food
Production in the Future 48
5 Decreased Food Production Due to Global Warming 49
6 Adequate Food—The Most Basic Human Right 50
7 Bridging the Food Gap Through Civilization 51
 CONTENTS xxvii

Part II Global Food Security

6 Food Production: A 60-Year Review and 20-Year
Outlook 55
1 Grain Production Increased by 2.67 Times in the Past
60 Years 56
2 Unit Area Yield of Grain Increased by 1.89 Times
in the Last 60 Years 65
3 Cultivated Grain Area Increased by 27% in the Last
60 Years 70
4 Key Countries and Technologies Boosting Food Growth 72
5 Total Grain Production of 4.1 Billion Tons in 2040 77
7 Grain Consumption: A 60-Year Review and 20-Year
Outlook 81
1 Low Growth in Direct Food Consumption Over
the Past 60 years 82
2 Rapid Growth in Indirect Food Consumption Over
the Past 60 years 90
3 A 60-Year Review: Constant Optimization of Food
Consumption Structure 97
4 A 20-Year Outlook: Food Consumption is Expected
to Reach 4.1 Billion Tons 100
8 Grain Trade: A 60-Year Review and 20-Year Outlook 101
1 Grain Trade: A 60-Year Review and 20-Year Outlook 102
2 Major Grain Exporters and Export Volume 113
3 Major Grain Importers and Import Volume 120
4 Ratio of Soybean Trade to Its Production Nearly
Doubled 131
9 Production of the Livestock Sector: A 60-Year Review
and Outlook 135
1 A 60-Year Review of Meat Production 135
2 A 60-Year Review of Egg Production 151
3 A 60-Year Review of Milk Production 154
4 Structural Optimization and Future Trend
of Livestock Industry 157
xxviii CONTENTS

10 Trade in Livestock Products: A 60-Year Review

and 20-Year Outlook 165
1 Trade in Livestock Products Grows Faster Than
the Production 165
2 Estimates of the Potential of Global Livestock Products 167
3 Trade in Livestock Products Is Expected to Increase
by About 23% 172
11 Basic Conclusions on Global Food Security 175
1 Overall Global Food Insecurity, and Coexistence
of Obesity and Hunger 175
2 Basic Patterns of Global Food Security 180
3 Balance Between Supply and Demand of Grain
and Food 184
4 Trends and Patterns of Global Food Security 185

Part III China’s Food Security: History and Experience

12 Remarkable History of China’s Agriculture and Food
Security 195
1 China’s Remarkable History of Grain Cultivation
for 10,000+ years 195
2 Four Stages of Food Security Over the Past 2000 years 196
3 Main Experiences in Ensuring Food Security Through
the Ages 200
13 Milestones of Agriculture and Food Security in New
China 205
1 Four Milestones in the History of Chinese Agriculture
in 70 years 205
2 Population Growth of Nearly 900 Million Making
China the Most Populous Country 210
3 The Average Life Expectancy of Chinese People
Increased by 42 Years, the Largest Increase Among
Large Countries 211
4 China’s Total Grain Production Increased by 486%,
Making It the Top Grain-Producer 213
5 Over 300 Million Mu of Arable Land Worth About
RMB 45 Trillion Used to Support Urbanization 215
 CONTENTS xxix

14 Grain Production: 486% Increase in 70 Years 217

1 486% Increase in Total Grain Production 217
2 461% Increase in Unit Area Yield of Grain 218
3 5.5% Increase in Sown Area 219
4 Key Factors for Production Increase 220
15 Grain Trade: 88-Fold Increase in 70 Years 225
1 88-Fold Increase in Grain Trade Volume 225
2 Importing the Equivalent of Nearly 900 Million mu
of Cultivated Land 226
3 Main Varieties Traded: Soybeans Accounting for 83% 226
4 Major Trading Countries: The United States
and Brazil Having a Combined Share of 84% 228
5 Major Issues: High Concentration and Rising Risks 229
16 Grain Consumption: 577% Increase in 70 Years 231
1 577% Increase in Total Grain Consumption 232
2 95% Drop in Direct Consumption and Over 380%
Rise in Indirect Consumption 232
3 Population Growth Contributed 50% to the Growth
of Total Grain Consumption 234
4 Income Growth Contributed 50% to the Growth
of Total Grain Consumption 235
5 Outlook on China’s Grain Consumption 236

Part IV Food Security in China: Current Situation and

Problems
17 Efficiency and Cost of Grain Production 241
1 Input and Cost Required for Each 100-Million Ton
Increase in Total Grain Production 242
2 Input and Cost for Each 1000 kg/ha Increase in Unit
Area Yield 252
18 Food Security in Various
Provinces/Municipalities/Regions 259
1 Concept, Indicators, and Algorithm of Food Security
Index 260
2 Six-Factor Index of Food Security
by Province/Municipality/Region 265
3 Food Security Zoning in China 282
xxx CONTENTS

19 Security Index of Major Crops 291

1 Food Imports Exceeded 100 Million Tons or 65 kg Per
Capita 291
2 Combined Self-Sufficiency Rate of Edible Grains
Stabilized at Over 98% 292
3 Complete Self-Sufficiency in Rice Making Exports
Possible (与事实不符 Achieved, and Imports
and Exports Coexisted) 293
4 Wheat Self-Sufficiency Rate Stood Above 95.4%,
with Imports Falling 294
5 Corn Self-Sufficiency Rate Has Stabilized at Over
98% in Recent years 295
6 Soybean Self-Sufficiency Rate Dropped from 100%
to Nearly 18% 295
20 Status Quo and Problems of Food Security 299
1 General Conclusion on Food Security 300
2 Nine Major Challenges Confronting China’s Food
Security 306

Part V China’s Food Security: Strategies and

Countermeasures
21 Grain Production and Demand Forecast 323
1 Possible Population Peak of Around 1.44 Billion 324
2 Expected Total Grain Production at 959 Million Tons 328
3 Possible Grain Consumption at 800 Million–1 Billion
Tons 332
4 Grain Imports Remained at About 100 Million Tons 336
22 Strategies and Countermeasures for Food Security 339
1 Current Food Security Status and Tasks in China 339
2 Strategic Goals for Food Security 342
3 Strategies for Food Security 346
4 Measures for Food Security 348
23 Potential and Solutions to Food Security 357
1 Grain Production Potential of Over 1 Billion Tons 357
2 Total Grain Production Fluctuations to Be Kept
Below 5% 364
 CONTENTS xxxi

3 Practical Implementation of the “800-Million-Ton

Food Security Project” 366
4 Implementation of the “Imported Soybean
Replacement Project” 374
24 Production Potential and Solutions for Major
Grain-Producing Provinces 383
1 Shandong Province is Expected to Increase Grain
Production by 20% 383
2 Hunan Province Has the Potential to Increase Grain
Production by 20% 391
25 Resolute to Win the Food War 407
1 Food Wars—Artificially Created Food Crises 407
2 Endless Food Wars Throughout the Ages, Both
in China and Abroad 409
3 Ongoing Soybean War Between the United States
and China 411
4 Increased Likelihood of China Being Embroiled
in a Food War 413
5 Strategies and Tactics for Winning the Food War 414

Afterword 419
Index 423
 List of Figures

Chapter 3
Fig. 1 Changes in grain self-sufficiency in China (Data Source
Compiled from the relevant information from the National
Bureau of Statistics) 31
Fig. 2 Implicit self-sufficiency of grain in China, 2014–2019
(Data Source Compiled from the China Statistical Yearbook) 32

Chapter 6
Fig. 1 Changes in global grain production and total population,
1961–2018 (Note Data for all figures and tables in this
chapter were obtained from the Food and Agriculture
Organization [unless otherwise indicated]) 58
Fig. 2 Changes in global soybean production and increments
between 1961 and 2018 63
Fig. 3 Changes in global unit area yield and increment of grain,
1961–2018 66
Fig. 4 Changes in the global unit area yield and increment
of soybean, 1961–2018 68

Chapter 7
Fig. 1 Changes in the global direct consumption of wheat,
1960–2020 (Note Data in all figures and tables in this
chapter are compiled from USDA data) 83

xxxiii
xxxiv LIST OF FIGURES

Fig. 2 Changes in the global consumption of rice, 1960–2020 85

Fig. 3 Changes in the global direct consumption of corn,
1960–2020 87
Fig. 4 Changes in the global consumption of soybeans as food,
1965–2020 89
Fig. 5 Changes in the global indirect consumption of wheat,
1961–2020 91
Fig. 6 Changes in the global indirect consumption of corn,
1961–2020 93
Fig. 7 Changes in the global consumption of soybean for crushing,
1965–2020 96

Chapter 8
Fig. 1 Incremental changes in world wheat trade 1960–2020
(Data source Compiled and analyzed by the author based
on USDA data) 105
Fig. 2 Changes in global exports of corn and its increment
(Data source Compiled and analyzed by the author based
on USDA data) 108
Fig. 3 Changes in the global exports of soybeans and their
increment (Data source Compiled and analyzed
by the author based on USDA data) 110
Fig. 4 Changes in global grain exports (Data source Calculated
and analyzed by the author based on USDA data) 113
Fig. 5 Changes in wheat exports of major countries, 1961–2017
(Data source Compiled and analyzed by the author based
on UN FAO data) 115
Fig. 6 Changes in the rice exports of major countries, 1961–2017
(Data source Compiled and analyzed by the author based
on UN FAO data) 117
Fig. 7 Changes in the corn exports of major countries, 1961–2017
(Data source Compiled and analyzed by the author based
on UN FAO data) 118
Fig. 8 Changes in the soybean exports of major countries,
1961–2017 (Data source Compiled and analyzed
by the author based on UN FAO data) 120
Fig. 9 Changes in global grain imports, 1961–2018 (Data source
Compiled based on USDA data) 121
Fig. 10 Changes in the share of global trade in major grains,
1961–2018 (Data source Compiled by the author based
on UN FAO data) 133
 LIST OF FIGURES xxxv

Chapter 9
Fig. 1 Trends in global meat production and annual growth rate
from 1961 to 2018 (Data Source Compiled from UN
FAO data) 137
Fig. 2 Production trends of major meat-producing countries
worldwide, 1961–2018 (Data Source Compiled as per UN
FAO data) 140
Fig. 3 Production trends in major pork-producing countries
worldwide, 1961–2018 (Data Source Compiled as per UN
FAO data) 142
Fig. 4 Production trends of major poultry producing countries,
1961–2018 (Data Source Compiled as per UN FAO data) 145
Fig. 5 Production trends of major beef producing countries,
1961–2018 (Data Source Compiled as per UN FAO data) 149
Fig. 6 Changes in the global mutton production, growth rate
and slaughter rate, 1961–2018 (Data Source Compiled
as per UN FAO data) 152
Fig. 7 Production trends of major egg-producing countries,
1961–2018 (Data Source Compiled as per UN FAO data) 154
Fig. 8 Production trend of major global milk-producing countries,
1961–2018 (Data Source Compiled as per UN FAO data) 156
Fig. 9 Trends in global meat structure, 1961–2018 (Data Source
Compiled as per UN FAO data) 157
Fig. 10 Changes in global per capita GDP and meat consumption,
1961–2013 (Data Source Compiled as per UN FAO data) 162

Chapter 10
Fig. 1 Changes in the imports of major meat-importing countries,
1961–2017 (Source Compiled according to the UN FAO
data) 167
Fig. 2 Changes in the exports of major meat-exporting countries,
1961–2017 (Source Compiled according to the UN FAO
data) 168
Fig. 3 Estimate of global meat production, 2020–2040 169
Fig. 4 Forecast of global egg production, 2020–2040 170
Fig. 5 Forecast of global milk production, 2020–2040 170
Fig. 6 Forecast of global meat trade volume, 2020–2040 173
xxxvi LIST OF FIGURES

Chapter 13
Fig. 1 Changes in GDP per capita and grain per capita,
1980–2019 (Source Compiled from the China Statistical
Yearbook. The information contained in the figures of this
chapter is compiled based on the China Statistical Yearbook) 206
Fig. 2 Total population change in China at the end of each year,
1949–2019 212
Fig. 3 Average life expectancy of Chinese people after the founding
of New China 213
Fig. 4 Changes in total grain production in China, 1949–2018 214

Chapter 14
Fig. 1 Production of major grain crops in China, 1949–2019
(Data Source Compiled based on the China Statistical
Yearbook) 218
Fig. 2 Changes in unit area yields of major grain crops in China,
1950–2018 (Data Source Compiled based on the China
Statistical Yearbook) 219
Fig. 3 Sown areas of major grain crops in China, 1949–2019
(Data Source Compiled based on the China Statistical
Yearbook) 220

Chapter 15
Fig. 1 China’s major soybean importers and their percentages
in 2019 (Source Compiled based on data from FAO
and China Statistical Yearbook) 229

Chapter 16
Fig. 1 China’s per capita share of grain, 1949–2019 (Data Source
Compiled from the China Statistical Yearbook) 233
Fig. 2 Direct grain consumption by Chinese residents, 1978–2018
(Data Source Compiled from the China Statistical Yearbook) 233
Fig. 3 Changes in population size and structure in China,
1950–2019 (Data Source Compiled from the China
Statistical Yearbook) 235
Fig. 4 Disposable income per capita in China, 1957–2018 (Data
Source Compiled from the China Statistical Yearbook) 236
 LIST OF FIGURES xxxvii

Fig. 5 Engel coefficient of urban and rural residents in China,

1980–2019 (Data Source Compiled from the China
Statistical Yearbook) 237

Chapter 17
Fig. 1 Changes in the total grain production and area of improved
seeds in China. Note Unless otherwise noted, the data
in the figures and tables of this chapter are derived
from the China Statistical Yearbook 246
Fig. 2 Changes in grain production and effective irrigated area
in China 248
Fig. 3 Changes in grain production and total power of agricultural
machinery in China 250
Fig. 4 Changes in grain production and fertilizer use in China 251
Fig. 5 Changes in grain production and pesticide use in China 253
Fig. 6 Changes in unit area yield of grain and fertilizer use in China 255
Fig. 7 Changes in grain unit area yield and pesticide use in China 256
Fig. 8 Changes in unit grain yield and effective irrigated area
in China 257

Chapter 18
Fig. 1 Zoning for quantitative security of food 269
Fig. 2 Food quality and safety distribution map 271
Fig. 3 Zoning for ecological security of food 274
Fig. 4 Zoning for technological security of food 276
Fig. 5 Zoning for economic security of food 278
Fig. 6 Zoning for social security of food 281
Fig. 7 Food security zoning in China 283
Fig. 8 Radar map of high food security zones 284
Fig. 9 Radar map of medium–high food security zones 286
Fig. 10 Radar map of medium food security zones 287
Fig. 11 Radar map of low food security zones 289

Chapter 19
Fig. 1 Rice production and self-sufficiency rate, 1985–2018 (Note
Unless otherwise mentioned, the data in this chapter are
compiled from the China Statistical Yearbook) 293
Fig. 2 Wheat production and selfsufficiency rate, 1985–2018 294
Fig. 3 Corn production and self-sufficiency, 1985–2018 295
Fig. 4 Soybean production and self-sufficiency, 1985–2018 296
xxxviii LIST OF FIGURES

Chapter 20
Fig. 1 Total grain production and per capita share of grain
in China, 1978–2018 (Data Source Compiled based
on the information from the National Bureau of Statistics) 301
Fig. 2 Per capita disposable income of Chinese residents
and Engel coefficient of Chinese households (Data Source
Compiled based on the information from the National
Bureau of Statistics) 302
Fig. 3 Total production and unit area yield of grain
in China, 1998–2018 (Data Source Compiled based
on the information from the National Bureau of Statistics) 306
Fig. 4 Self-sufficiency rates for grain, cereal grain, and edible
grain in China, 1998–2018 (Data Source Compiled based
on the information from the National Bureau of Statistics
and import data from national customs) 308
Fig. 5 Total soybean production and imports in China, 1992–2018
(Data Source Compiled based on the information
from the National Bureau of Statistics and import data
from national customs) 309
Fig. 6 Percentages of imported soybean processing products,
1996–2018 (Source Compiled based on the information
from the National Bureau of Statistics and the Ministry
of Agriculture and Rural Affairs of the PRC) 310
Fig. 7 Multiple cropping index in China, 2004–2018 (Data Source
Compiled based on the information from the National
Bureau of Statistics) 313
Fig. 8 Grain production, fertilizer use, and pesticide use in China,
1978–2018 (Data Source Statistics from the National
Bureau of Statistics) 314
Fig. 9 Grain prices and costs in China, 1991–2018 (Data Source
Compiled based on the information from the National
Bureau of Statistics and the Ministry of Agriculture
and Rural Affairs of the PRC) 315
Fig. 10 Average cost of wheat, rice, and corn, 2003–2017
(Data Source Compiled based on the information
from the National Bureau of Statistics and the Ministry
of Agriculture and Rural Affairs of the PRC) 316
 LIST OF FIGURES xxxix

Chapter 21
Fig. 1 Total population in China, 1950–2050 (Data Source The
World Population Prospects 2019 published by the United
Nations) 325
Fig. 2 China’s urban and rural population, 1985–2050 326
Fig. 3 Production of major grains in China, 2018–2050 331
Fig. 4 Animal products consumption of urban and rural residents,
2000–2050 334

Chapter 22
Fig. 1 Progress in grain production technology, from 1949
(Data Source Based on a combination of relevant data
from the National Bureau of Statistics) 351
Fig. 2 Timeline of agricultural and grain-related policies
since the establishment of New China 352

Chapter 23
Fig. 1 Highlights of China’s agricultural policies since the reform
and opening-up 373
 List of Tables

Chapter 3
Table 1 Evolution and features of the concept of food security 29

Chapter 6
Table 1 Fluctuations and changes in global grain production 59
Table 2 Fluctuations and changes in global grain and population
growth 60
Table 3 Steps of global grain production increase (200 million
tons) 61
Table 4 Fluctuations and changes in global per capita share of grain 62
Table 5 Changes in global soybean production by stage 64
Table 6 Changes in global soybean production growth by stage
(50 million tons) 64
Table 7 Changes in the global unit area yield of grain by stage 66
Table 8 Change in the global unit area yield of grain by steps
(750 kg/ha) 67
Table 9 Changes in the global unit area yield of soybean by stage 69
Table 10 Increase in the global unit area yield of soybean by steps
(375 kg/ha) 69
Table 11 Top 10 countries with the largest increases in food
production 73
Table 12 Increase of key crops production by stage (10,000 tons) 76
Table 13 Growth rate of global grain acreage by stage 79

xli
xlii LIST OF TABLES

Chapter 7
Table 1 Changes in the increment of global direct consumption
of wheat (1960–2020) 84
Table 2 Changes in the increment of global direct consumption
of rice (1960–2020) 86
Table 3 Changes in the increment of global direct consumption
of corn (1960–2020) 88
Table 4 Increment of global direct consumption of soybeans
(1964–2020) 90
Table 5 Increment of global indirect consumption of wheat
(1960–2020) 92
Table 6 Increment of global indirect consumption of corn
(1960–2020) 94
Table 7 Increment of global consumption of soybean as animal
feed (1964–2020) 95
Table 8 Changes in the increment of global consumption
of soybean for crushing (1964–2020) 97
Table 9 Changes in the structure of global wheat consumption 98
Table 10 Changes in the structure of global consumption of corn 99
Table 11 Changes in the structure of global consumption of soybean 99

Chapter 8
Table 1 Changes in the increment of global trade in wheat
(1960–2020) 103
Table 2 Changes in the increment of global trade in rice
(1960–2020) 106
Table 3 Changes in the increment of global trade in corn
(1960–2020) 109
Table 4 Changes in the increment of global trade in soybeans
(1960–2020) 111
Table 5 Changes in the imports of the top 10 global wheat
importers (10,000 tons) 123
Table 6 Change in the imports of the top 10 global rice-importing
countries/regions (10,000 tons) 125
Table 7 Changes in the imports of the world’s top 10
corn-importing countries/regions (10,000 tons) 128
Table 8 Change in the imports of the top 10 global
bean-importing countries/regions (10,000 tons) 130
Table 9 Changes in the share of global trade volume of major
grains 132
 LIST OF TABLES xliii

Chapter 9
Table 1 Trends in global meat production 138
Table 2 Trends of global pork production 141
Table 3 Contribution of key factors to global growth of pork
production 143
Table 4 Trends in global poultry production 144
Table 5 Contribution of key factors in global poultry growth 147
Table 6 Trends in global beef production 148
Table 7 Contribution of key factors in global beef growth 150
Table 8 Trends in global mutton production 152
Table 9 Trends in global egg production 153
Table 10 Global trends in the production of milk products 155
Table 11 Conversion efficiency of animal feed, protein, and energy 158
Table 12 Comparison of labor hours in the US farming
and breeding industries 160

Chapter 10
Table 1 Forecast of meat production under different scenarios 171
Table 2 Forecast of egg production under different scenarios 172
Table 3 Forecast of milk production under different scenarios 172
Table 4 Forecast of meat trade under different scenarios 174

Chapter 11
Table 1 Exportable grain in major grain-exporting countries
worldwide 182
Table 2 Major countries with balanced supply and demand
of grain worldwide 183
Table 3 Global balance between supply and demand of grain
and food 186
Table 4 Projections of the future population in different regions
of the world 188
Table 5 Decline in cultivated land in different countries
and regions over time 190

Chapter 12
Table 1 Grain production and per capita grain share in China
by dynasty 198
xliv LIST OF TABLES

Chapter 15
Table 1 China’s grain imports and exports, 1960–2019 (Unit:
10,000 tons) 227
Table 2 Changes in China’s soybean imports and exports,
1985–2019 228
Table 3 Main source countries and crop varieties of China’s grain
imports 230

Chapter 17
Table 1 Change in sown area for each 100-million-ton increase
in total grain production 243
Table 2 Average costs for each 100-million-ton step in total grain
production 245
Table 3 Inputs required to increase the grain yield per unit area
by 1000 kg/ha 254

Chapter 18
Table 1 Indicator system of the 6-factor index of grain and food
security 261
Table 2 Food security index and zoning
by province/municipality/region 267

Chapter 20
Table 1 Arable land equivalent to China’s food imports, 2019 303
Table 2 Comparison of per capita food consumption and nutrient
intake in China, 2018 304
Table 3 Average selling price of major grain crops in China,
1978–2018 (RMB/50 kg) 315
Table 4 Prices of major grain crops in China and the United
States, 2011–2016 (USD/ton) 316

Chapter 21
Table 1 Potential for China’s economic growth, 2025–2035 327
Table 2 Predicted production of China’s major grains, 2021–2050
(Unit: 10,000 tons) 330
 LIST OF TABLES xlv

Table 3 Total supply and demand of main varieties of grain,

2018–2050 (Unit: 10,000 tons) 337
Table 4 Per capita supply and demand of major varieties of grain,
2018–2050 (Unit: kg) 338

Chapter 23
Table 1 Measures of implementing the “800-million-ton food
security project” 368
Table 2 Evolution of unit area yield of super rice in China 369
Table 3 Evolution of unit area yields in wheat pilot fields 370
Table 4 Soybean production and its share in grain production 376
Table 5 Changes in soybean cultivated area as a share of grain
cultivated area 376
Table 6 Changes in soybean yield per unit area, 1999–2018 377
Table 7 Comparison of cultivated areas and production of corn
and soybeans 378

Chapter 24
Table 1 Rice sown area and rice production in Hunan Province,
2010–2019 393
Table 2 Pattern of rice cultivation in Hunan Province, 2010–2019 395
Table 3 High-yield records for hybrid rice in China 399
 CHAPTER 1

Introduction

1 Despite the 10,000-Year History of Farming,

There Still Are People Going Hungry!
Our planet was formed about 4.5 billion years ago, while human beings
evolved 2 or 3 million years ago, and the history of growing grain
began more than 10,000 years ago. Following the agricultural and indus-
trial civilizations, we are currently in the age of information civilization.
Humans have landed on the moon, soared freely in space, but yet to get
rid of hunger!
Human history has witnessed several wars over food and land. Many
nations prospered because of food, but many regimes perished because
of food shortages. Being a primary human need, food has always been
an influential factor for the survival and health of human beings, and a
prerequisite for peace and stability of the world. Based on our history
and experience, food is essential to human beings, to economic devel-
opment, to social stability, and to national autonomy. Food is also a
bargaining chip for diplomatic negotiations and a tool for international
competition.

© CITIC Press Corporation 2023 1

W. Hongguang, China’s Food Security,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0730-4_1
2 W. HONGGUANG

2 A Food Shortage Caused

by the COVID-19 Pandemic is Unfolding!
In today’s world, food security remains a constraint on human survival
and health, and peace and development. While many people are unable
to get enough food, many more do not eat nutritiously or healthy. Glob-
ally, 700 million people are malnourished, and nearly 700 million become
obese due to over-nutrition. Over 40 countries endure hunger due to
lack of food and purchasing power, and over 20 major food-exporting
countries have made great contributions to guarantee global food secu-
rity. However, there are countries who use food as a diplomatic tool to
interfere with the economic development, social stability, and even regime
change of other countries. The COVID-19 pandemic starting in 2020 is
triggering a new food crisis. Some experts predict that the number of
hungry people may increase by another 100 million or more.

3 Looking Ahead, Can Getting Sufficient Food

Be More Difficult Than Landing on the Moon?
Humans have successfully landed on the Moon and are exploring
Mars, but achieving zero hunger may be more difficult than landing
on the Moon. Food surplus countries or regions have abundant land,
water resources, technology, capital, and other factors of production. In
contrast, food-deficit countries or regions lack land, water resources, tech-
nology, and capital. Considering that land, technology, and other factors
cannot move across borders cheaply and efficiently from the former to
the latter, a food gap will surely continue to exist for quite some time in
the future. When and how will humanity say goodbye to hunger?

4 Having Enough to Eat is

the Most Basic Human Right!
The agricultural resources on Earth, such as light, heat, water, land,
technology, and fertilizers, can feed and nourish not only the current
population of the world but also the future population—according to the
State of World Population 2020 published by the United Nations Popu-
lation Fund (UNFPA), the world’s population will exceed 9 billion by
2050! We wish to see a great leap forward in human civilization, where
all governments shall regard “the right to food” as the most fundamental
 1 INTRODUCTION 3

and see that everyone enjoys the right to live and eat, where countries and
organizations that uphold human rights shall take the lead in supporting
countries or regions that do not have enough to eat, where food surplus
countries or regions shall provide selfless assistance to countries or regions
that lack food and money, where rich people shall help the poor with
enough food, and where the government shall provide low-cost or free
food to those who do not have enough to eat. Only then would the
problem of food security be solved, and human beings be able to enjoy
genuine human rights! However, this is obviously unattainable in today’s
world, where the law of the jungle prevails!

5 What Are the Solutions to Food Security?

Will the COVID-19 pandemic spark new hunger in the future? Who is
in need, what is required, and how much is lacking? When and how
can humans say goodbye to hunger? Ensuring global food security and
allowing everyone to enjoy the most fundamental right is a challenge that
must be addressed. This is not only relevant to human health, survival,
and development, but also to the sustainability of human civilization!
We have been thinking about and exploring ways to ensure food secu-
rity for many years. In the book China’s Agriculture: Problems, Potential,
Paths and Benefits published in 1993, our basic conclusion on food secu-
rity was “low level, high difficulty, and lack of security,” as China’s per
capita share of grain at that time did not reach the security line of
400 kg. In that book, we proposed a nine-level approach to revising grain
production potential. In other words, we projected that China’s grain
production should go up to 640 million tons based on light, temper-
ature, water resources, irrigation conditions, soil, fertilizer, as well as
technical, economic, and social factors. The year 2019 witnessed China’s
grain production reaching 664 million tons, proving the relative accuracy
of our forecast.
In 2005, we summarized the experience and rules of agricultural devel-
opment over the past 40 years since the founding of New China in two
books, Studies on China’s Food Security and 70 Years of China’s Farming
System. We predicted the following development trends in agriculture for
the next 20 years: (a) The global food insecurity will lead to a long-term
food gap, and the problem of food security will precede the arrival of
China’s population peak; (b) the grain production pattern in China will be
4 W. HONGGUANG

significantly altered from supplying grain to north from south to north-

to-south allocation. The main grain-producing areas will gradually move
northward, while the number of provinces and regions capable of grain
transfer will decrease year by year; (c) in terms of food security, the vulner-
able areas will be large cities and coastal provinces, the vulnerable varieties
will be corn and soybeans, the vulnerable period will be the spring after
a disaster year, and the vulnerable population will be the 50 million low-
income people; (d) the three measures to ensure food security will be
urbanization of the rural population, industrialization of agriculture, and
education of farmers. Specifically, China must keep the population under
1.6 billion, the reduction of arable land to 7 million hectares at maximum,
and the per capita food consumption at about 400 kg.
By writing the book China’s Food Security: Strategies and Countermea-
sures 15 years later, we intend to provide a clear, thorough, and practical
narration of the history, achievements, problems, and measures pertaining
to food security.

6 History: The Chinese Nation Has

Led the Agricultural Civilization
During the 2000-plus years of human history, China has remained the
world’s biggest economy for more than 1,700 years and is the only
country with an unbroken civilization. The agricultural civilization was
led by China, the industrial civilization was led by Europe, and the
information civilization was led by the United States.
Grain cultivation in China began more than 10,000 years ago. In
the 2,000 years between the mid- to the late Warring States period
(about 300 BCE) and the 18th year in the reign of Emperor Qian-
long of the Qing dynasty (1753 CE), grain supply was generally secure
with the per capita share of grain remaining at 382–628 kg, except for
a number of food shortage occurrences triggering peasant revolts and
dynastic changes. Whereas after the 18th year of Emperor Qianlong’s
reign, China suffered from frequent food shortages due to increasing
population, decreasing per capita arable land, and slow scientific and tech-
nological progress. This seriously hindered the survival and development
of the nation. We have gone through four stages of “food security, insecu-
rity, less security, and weak security”—in these 2000 years. Many dynasties
waned from prosperity because of food shortages, many emperors began
their reigns by “balancing the rich and the poor,” and numerous families
were separated due to hunger.
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four inches long. The joint at the angle is strengthened with wild
bees’ wax.
A fishing line, made of vegetable fibre twine, is looped once
around the hook, and made secure by tying with another piece of
string, the union being covered with bees’ wax. The line is held either
in the hand or is attached to a long rod. The hook is baited with
grubs. It is by this means that the Barramundi is caught in large
numbers in most of the northern rivers.
 PLATE XVII

Female wood-carriers, Aluridja tribe.

“The women ... are required to collect sufficient to keep the fire going, during the
day for cooking purposes and during the night for warming and lighting
purposes.”
 A turtle hunt is conducted in King Sound after the following style:
The game is sighted, floating upon the surface of the sea, either from
the mainland or from a craft. Instantly a gesticulative appeal is made
to all to keep quiet. “Hai! Kurdemilla!” (Look out, a turtle!) “Sh! Sh!
Sh!” comes the voice of the person who has made the discovery,
and others repeat it in an undertone. Everybody who has noticed the
turtle bends his body to escape detection, and beckons to all others
to do likewise. A number of the men then creep to the water’s edge
and cautiously board a craft (i.e. if the observation was not made
from a craft), in which they carefully paddle towards the prey. As the
boat draws near, the keen eyes of the hunters endeavour to satisfy
their curiosity upon the point as to whether the object ahead is just
one turtle resting upon the surface in the warmth of a tropical sun, or
whether, indeed, there might be a pair, coupled in the water. The
female turtle is much preferred by the natives on account of the
possible nutritious contents of the ovaries, whose appearance is
much like that of a cluster of yellowish dates. When within
reasonable distance of the prey, two men glide inaudibly over the
side of the craft and disappear from view. Upon a signal, two or three
others jump into the water, apparently disregardless of splash and
noise, and swim towards the now startled game, which lifts its long
neck and looks in the direction of the disturbance. Having perceived
the imminent danger, the turtle at once endeavours to escape from
the peril by ducking under water. But, at the same moment, it finds
its head clasped by one of the men below to be thrust back above
the surface of the water. One of the swimmers has now reached the
turtle, whose shell he promptly seizes by the collar-like rim at the
back of the neck, and pulls it backwards at the same time as the
head is being thrust upwards from beneath the water. The turtle
works its paddles in a frantic endeavour to escape, but, being held in
the sloping position mentioned, the more its exerts itself, the more
persistently it remains upon the surface, because its paddles are
driving it there. If it be a large turtle, the man who is pulling from
behind lifts his body on to the shell, upon which he sits astride. His
weight tends to further ensure the inclined position of the turtle,
which involuntarily acts as his carrier. The prey is then speedily
dispatched by a blow over the head with a tomahawk or waddy.
There is no doubt the much-criticized De Rougemont must have
witnessed such a scene as here described, and embodied the
inspiration in his narration.
During the season that turtles come ashore, moonlight parties are
arranged which overtake the amphibians as they are clumsily
working their way over the sandy beach. The creatures are
overturned and either slain immediately or are left in their helpless
position over night to be killed in the morning.
Crocodiles (C. porosus et Johnstoni) and dugongs (Halicore
Australis) are located below the surface of water by watching for
bubbles of air, which might rise, or for any little swirls and
disturbances in the water due to the movements of the creatures
below. In the case of the dugong, also known as the sea-cow, its
presence might be betrayed by small nibbled pieces of sea-weed,
which come to the surface when it is feeding. Both crocodile and
dugong are speared or harpooned from the bow of a raft or canoe. A
native often ventures into a water-lily pool or billabong, known to
contain crocodile, prodding the mud with his spear, as he advances,
to feel for the horny skin of the hidden prey. When one has been
located, a large hunting party wade in a line through the water
splashing it vigorously and shouting loudly to drive the terrified
crocodile from the pool. Once it appears on dry ground, it is chased
and pelted with heavy spears. Natives do not appear to be the least
concerned about their safety when they wade into water containing
crocodiles; in fact, there are few cases known of natives having been
attacked by the reptiles, although occasionally one finds an
individual partially incapacitated or scarred in consequence of an
encounter with a crocodile. The scaly monsters seem loth to attack a
coloured man, but for a white man to take the risk a native does
would mean courting certain death.
Young crocodiles are caught by hand from the bow of a canoe
whilst cautiously drifting upon them as they are floating upon or near
the surface of the water. The natives explain that the teeth of the
young reptiles have not hardened sufficiently to do any harm.
 Along the north coast, and on the adjacent islands, a regular
watch is kept for the dugong. This peculiar marine mammal lives in
the deep sea, but comes near to the shore to feed. It might often be
observed, especially at high tide, in small, calm bays and inlets,
frolicking at the surface. Full-grown animals attain a length of twelve
feet or more, and weigh up to 1,500 pounds; they are entirely
vegetarian, browsing for the most part on salt-water algae. At
intervals it is necessary for the animal to rise to the surface to
breathe. The drawing in of the air can be heard a great distance off,
and is generally, though erroneously, referred to as the “blowing.”
The man on the look-out watches for the dugong to show itself upon
the surface, and his keen eye can usually detect it, even upon a
slightly rippled water, at some considerable distance out. The most
favourable times are at dusk and on moonlight nights.
When the signal has been given that a dugong is in sight, the
hunters set out in a canoe and cautiously paddle towards the place
at which it was last seen. It may be that long before the crew reach
the particular spot indicated the animal has moved away, but the
trained eye of the observer, who now stands at the bow of the canoe,
is able to follow the movements of the dugong, even though it be
some depth below the surface. At night the prey is observed on the
reflected beam of the moon. When the game comes up again to take
breath, it may be the canoe is still too far off for action, but the
strictest caution is observed not in any way to cause a disturbance.
All men in the boat remain rigid, and the paddles are held stationary;
the man at the bow, holding his harpoon, poised in readiness above
his head, stands like a statue. The moment the dugong goes below
again, he indicates to the oarsmen with his hand how to steer. Thus
the unsuspecting game is followed around from station to station
until it comes to the surface within throwing distance. When this
occurs, and it may be before the animal actually reaches the surface,
the man in front sends the harpoon forward like lightning, with almost
infallible precision, to penetrate the body of the rising dugong and
firmly embed itself in it. The terrified animal plunges forward with a
tremendous splash, tearing the line attached to the harpoon along
with it to its full length. The canoe is pulled along with some velocity
through the water, but the wounded animal soon weakens through
loss of blood and the want of air. It is compelled to rise to the surface
to fill its lungs, but no sooner does it come near than another missile
flies from the hand of the hunter to also stick in the back of the
exasperated animal. Again it shoots away, with a renewed effort to
escape from the cruel harpoon, but in vain. Before long the want of
air again necessitates a return to the surface, only to be met with a
similar treatment as before. By this time the unfortunate dugong is so
much weakened that it cannot travel far without coming to the
surface frequently; and every time it does another spear is planted
into its body. Before long it caves in; a final swish with its powerful
tail, a quiver throughout the body, and its helpless carcase is in the
hands of the elated hunters. The victorious shouting or singing of the
men in the canoe is echoed by those watching the hunt on shore, the
latter, moreover, in their excitement usually starting a wild sort of
dance on the sand. A noose is placed round the dugong’s tail, by
which it is towed towards the land. If any resistance is proffered, the
rope is gathered in, and the creature drowned by keeping its head
under water, or one of the hunters suffocates it by thrusting two of
his fingers into its nostrils. This accomplished, the jaws are tied
together to prevent the carcase from water-logging and sinking.
Often the hunters submerge their canoe, and, by swimming
alongside, pull it under the floating carcase. The water is then bailed
out of the craft and in this way the dugong is lifted. The hunters then
row their prize ashore and drag it on to the beach, where it is
quartered and cooked. Practically the whole of it is eaten.
The rich flesh of the dugong is relished by all northern coastal
tribes from the east of Queensland to the west of Western Australia
as far south as the 24th degree of latitude.
The hunters recognize an “old man” dugong by its tusks; and they
assert that often a female is seen carrying its young upon a fin,
suckling it. According to aboriginal information, a young dugong
might also be observed riding on the back of its mother. A pregnant
dugong is considered to make the richest dish of all.
Occasionally a dugong or a big fish, like a whale, is stranded
during a gale, and this is indeed a red-letter day for the fortunate
tribe upon whose territory the find was made.
Birds of every description are hunted with stone, stick, or spear. It
is astounding how adroitly an aboriginal can project the light reed
spears; to fell a dove at a distance of from forty to fifty paces is
child’s play for an experienced thrower.
There are, however, a number of species which are hunted in a
peculiar way; and these will now be described.
In the northern coastal districts, where hawks are very plentiful,
the natives build small stone covers resembling a surveyor’s cairn. A
hunter conceals himself in one of these and holds a dove or other
small bird, which he has speared or captured, in his hand above a
small loop-hole left at the top of the structure. He moves it about to
attract the attention of the birds of prey soaring on high. Presently
one of the hawks swoops down upon the dove and grabs it with its
claws. But at the same moment, the hunter drops the dove and with
lightning quickness seizes the legs of the hawk and pulls the bird
under, to quickly kill it. This method is largely practised in the Victoria
River district, there being an abundance of stones available for the
construction of the covers. The occurrence of many cairns of the
type here described has hitherto puzzled travellers who observed
them.
The northern desert tribes of Western Australia adopt a similar
principle, but in place of the stones they use the tussocks of
porcupine grass to cover themselves. In order to attract the hawks
they are hunting, they set fire to one or two plants of porcupine grass
growing close by.
In the same district, and more especially on the Daly and other
rivers in the Northern Territory, wild geese are captured much after
the same principle. Large flocks of these semi-palmated geese
(Anseranus melanoleuca) are in the habit of visiting one and the
same place year after year. The natives know these places well, and
during the absence of the geese make an excavation in the ground,
which they cover with twigs, pieces of paper-bark, grass, and soil,
leaving only one or two look-out holes. When the birds have
returned, a couple of natives sit in the excavation and watch for the
geese to draw near. As soon as a head or a leg of a goose comes
near to an observation hole, one of the natives seizes the bird, draws
it below, and wrings its neck. In this way many birds may be bagged
without disturbing the flock.
On other occasions the natives climb trees, in which they build
platforms to seat themselves upon and await the arrival of geese at
dusk. The birds come in such large numbers that dozens are caught
at a time; they are simply seized by hand and killed on the spot. By
cleverly imitating the call of the birds: “nga ngang, ngang-ngang-
ngang,” the hunters entice as many birds as they like to the platform.
But even at daytime, a native often hides in a tussock of grass and
imitates the cry of the bird, which, when it unsuspectingly draws
near, is either grasped with the hand or hit on the head with a stick.
At times the hunter plucks a large water-lily leaf, into which he cuts
two holes for his eyes to look through. Holding this leaf over his face,
he swims out to some geese he has observed on a lagoon, and,
when within grasping length of the prey, he simply pulls a bird under
by its legs and strangles it.
The note of the whistling duck (Dendrocygna eytoni) is also
accurately reproduced, by which flocks of them are attracted and
killed with a throwing stick while hovering around the spot which
conceals the native. Cockatoos, plovers, and many other birds are
secured in a similar manner.
The flesh of an emu is valued, if for no other reason than for the
size of the carcase and the large amount of grease which lies
beneath the skin. The northern tribes of Western Australia have
discovered a simple means of capturing the big struthious bird in that
they poison a water known to be frequented by the game. When the
bird has quenched its thirst, it is stupefied to such a degree that it is
an easy matter for the natives, lying in ambush, to overtake it and
crack it on the head. The poison used is supplied by the leaf of
Tephrosia purpurea, which the natives call “moru”; the active
principle is a saponine. In central Australia the pitjuri leaf is largely
used for the same purpose.
 The natives also take advantage of the inquisitive nature of the
bird by enticing it into a cul-de-sac or other trap by waving a
conspicuous object, as for instance a corrobboree plume, from
behind a boulder or bush. When the bird is near enough, it is either
rushed with waddies or speared by a number of chosen, astute men.
The Larrekiya and Wogait tribes conceal themselves in the
branches of a tree, the seeds of which are known to attract the emu.
The hunters ascend the tree in the early hours of the morning and
remain there perfectly quiet until the prey arrives. At an opportune
moment, the bird is speared with a specially heavy spear known as
“nimmerima.”
The south-eastern tribes used to select one or more men, who
would be “dressed up” as emu after the style of the Kukata men
playing emu described on page 81. In the case of the hunters,
however, a real emu skin is usually employed, with the head
attached and held erect by means of a stick, which passes through
the neck. Very cleverly imitating the strut of the emu, the men
carefully approach their prey, drawing their spears, which they firmly
hold between two toes, along with them through the grass. Carefully
and very slowly encircling the birds, the hunters gradually work
towards the birds, when presently one or two of them are espied.
The moment this happens, the curious emu rush towards the
strangers ruffling their feathers and emitting peculiar guttural sounds.
Now the critical moment has arrived because the hunters know that,
when their faked plumage is recognized, the birds will decamp. They
stand and lift their spears with their feet. The birds are now in all
probability within throwing distance and very likely on the point of
turning. That is the time selected for throwing the missile. Having
previously selected their mark, the hunters, with a mighty flourish, let
the weapons fly through the air with almost infallible accuracy. Then
sounds the triumphant whoop; the men, discarding their disguise,
rush towards the wounded victim and promptly put an end to it. In
place of assuming the guise of an emu, the south-eastern tribes,
when in grass-tree (Xanthorrhœa) country, cut the crown from a
spreading tree and carry this as a cover.
 The real chase, that is the hunting of larger animals, reptiles, and
birds, is strictly the business of the men, although the children and
women often employ themselves at digging out lizards, snakes, and
the smaller marsupials.
Opossums are driven from their hiding places in the hollows of
trees by smoking them out. A fire is lit at the bottom of a tree which is
known to be hollow, to burn through the enclosing wall at one side.
Then green twigs are thrown upon the flame to make as much
smoke as possible, which works its way upwards through all the
hollows and emerges wherever there is an opening. The half-stifled
animals make for the openings and usually drop to the ground; if not
they are brought to fall by spear or throwing stick. Often the greater
half of the butt is thus burned through and the tree crashes to earth.
In this case a diligent search of all the hollows and nooks is made in
order that all things to eat, quite apart from the opossums, may be
bagged.
 PLATE XVIII

Two handfuls of witchedy grubs.

“The most popular and at the same time most widely distributed article of diet in
the insect line is the larva of the big Cossus moth, commonly known as the
witchedy grub.”

Often, too, notches are cut into the butt of the tree in step-like
manner to allow the hunters to ascend for the purpose of chopping
out their prey from the hollows. Whilst some are thus busying
themselves aloft, others are waiting below in readiness to secure any
which might attempt to escape.
Most of the burrowing marsupials, as well as the dingo and the
imported rabbit, are dug out of the ground. The largest among these
is the wombat, which is nocturnal in habit. The native knows,
moreover, that when the weather is excessively hot, the animal often
comes to the surface and sleeps in front of its burrow. He therefore
stealthily surveys the recognized haunts of the wombat at such
times, and, should he be successful in locating one, he spears it on
the spot.
North of the Great Australian Bight the small wallaby is captured
as follows: The hunter ties a bundle of feathers to the top of a long
pole, up to twenty feet in length, and this he whirls around his head,
high in the air, as he walks across the tussocky plains known to
harbour the game they call “wilpa.” The wallabies, apparently taking
the whizzing feathers to be an eagle hawk, squat in fear, and, for the
moment, do not attempt to escape from the native. Before the animal
recognizes the fraud, the treacherous spear of the hunter has pinned
it to earth.
The larger species of these marsupials are hunted differently; they
are mostly stalked and killed with the spear. It seems almost
incredible that a native can approach a grazing kangaroo on a more
or less open plain to within spear-throwing distance without being
detected; but such is actually the case. He has so perfected his
stealthiness that he utilizes every momentary opportunity, at which
the animal’s attention is directed away from him; and slowly he
approaches step by step. His swarthy colour in itself gives him a
natural protection; but more, he has learned the value of artificially
colouring himself with the earth or mud of the terrain he is about to
scout. Thus upon a “blue mud flat” his body is painted a slaty blue,
whilst on a lateritic soil he applies red ochre or clay. His work is
considerably simplified when the ground contains such features as
ant-hills or dark-coloured boulders, which he can simulate. A native,
when stalking a kangaroo in this way, will always have his spear
poised in readiness to be thrown instantaneously if need be. Vide
Plate XX.
In central as well as northern Australia, hunting parties are
arranged as follows: Several men hide themselves at different points
of a known pad, along which kangaroo are in the habit of travelling to
water or cover. A large party of “beaters,” consisting of men, women,
and children, disperse in the direction of where kangaroos have
been reported to be feeding. On drawing near to the animals, all
members of the beating party begin to sing and shout. In the
Larrekiya tongue this sounds like “Ye-we o-ho, ye-we o-ho”; in the
Arunndta more like “Yerrewai, yerrewai.” They scamper through the
bush until a kangaroo is actually sighted, when it is pursued amidst
the cries of “Yackäu, yackäu” in the former, and “Yackai” in the latter
tongue. The frightened animal usually makes straight for the beaten
pad, along which it tears at a terrific rate. Upon hearing the cry of the
battue, the men in hiding along the pad place themselves in
readiness; and when the animal leaps by, the nearest hunter quickly
rises and discharges his spear. If he is successful in felling the
animal, he raises a loud, triumphant shout of “Käu,” as a signal to the
driving party, who as quickly as possible assemble at the spot.
Should the spear of the first thrower miss the kangaroo, the chances
are that the next man, further along the pad, will have a chance of
trying his skill.
A native considers one of the big hind legs to be the most effective
part to wound a kangaroo in, especially if the leg can be broken. If
the animal is hit in any other part of its body, it will in all probability
make off and that will necessitate perhaps a whole day’s tracking,
before it can be overtaken and killed. If only lightly wounded, the
hunters will experience considerable difficulty in bringing the game to
bay; and the shrewdest strategy might be needed to outwit the
watchful animal. In the latter case the pursuers often split their
company, and, whilst some are attracting the kangaroo’s attention in
the distance, the others endeavour to crawl towards it under cover,
until they are near enough to impart the death blow.
Whilst pursuing a wounded animal, a native simply flies over the
ground. He cares for no obstacles and seems instinctively to
presage the stability of doubtfully inclined and pivotted rocks, lying
upon hilly slopes or partially concealed among tall grass. Thus he,
with great confidence, jumps from point to point, with the agility of an
antelope, and makes rapid headway, whereas a white man would
hesitate and come to grief.
In the Musgrave, Mann, and Tomkinson Ranges in central
Australia, long brushwood fences are constructed of a more or less
zig-zag shape, the angles of which lie upon beaten pads, which are
known to be used by kangaroos and wallabies living in the particular
area. At each “angle,” the natives dig a large, deep hole, the mouth
of which they cover with thin sticks, pieces of bark, and subsequently
the whole with sand and grass to give the trap as natural an
appearance as possible. So much completed, a log of timber is
placed across the pad, at that side of the hole, from which the fleeing
game is expected to come. The idea of the log is to make the animal
jump over it and land upon the flimsy cover of the hole on the other
side. Quite frequently an aboriginal places himself in hiding behind
the fence at one of the “angles” and spears the game as it emerges;
in this case the hole is dispensed with.
A kangaroo-hunting expedition often takes a tribe far away from a
main camp, and the party may be absent for two or three weeks at a
time. A native knows that kangaroo follow the new grass, which
appears upon patches recently visited by a thunder-cloud or, as is
the case upon the north coast, by a bush fire. When either of such
phenomena has been chronicled, and after a short time has lapsed,
a party of experienced men leave the main camp and prospect the
ground for game. When they return, they report the results of their
mission to the old men, and, if favourable, arrangements are
immediately made for the expedition. The best time for the hunt is
considered to be the later afternoon; in the morning and during the
heat of the day, the animals are resting, and the hunter knows that
under those conditions his chances are not nearly so good as
towards evening, when they leave their haunts to feed.
When in 1828 the military settlement at Fort Dundas disbanded,
Sir Gordon Bremer let a number of Timor buffaloes, which had been
used by the residents, roam at large. Since that time, the animals
multiplied to such an extent that large herds were found by later
settlers both on Melville Island and the mainland opposite.
Thousands have been shot by European hunters, principally for their
hides. The natives, too, have learned to recognize these beasts as
an important asset to the objects of their chase, although, it must be
admitted, the flesh is not relished to anything like the extent of that of
the indigenous game; often, in fact, a buffalo is slain merely for a
slice or two of the flesh, usually the tongue. The cattle of the
European, on the other hand, is eaten with distinct pleasure. Buffalo
are hunted by stalking with the spear. This is not a task which
demands much skill or laborious strategy. The buffalo spends most
of its time out on the plains, more or less under cover of the tall, rank
grass, which grows up after the “wet season.” In consequence of
this, it is a simple matter for the native to avail himself of the same
cover when approaching his prey. In nearly every case, the wounded
animal makes off, and the excited hunting gang follow it until it
collapses through loss of blood. It might even be necessary to throw
another spear or two during the chase to finally bring the beast to
fall. The jubilation which takes place during the final stage of a
buffalo-hunt is depicted in the Frontispiece of this book, an actual
scene from life witnessed on Melville Island.
 PLATE XIX

1. Aluridja tree-climber.

“The climber, as he ascends, cuts fresh notches into the bark with his
tomahawk....”

2. Wordaman tree-climber.

“... the hunter is virtually hanging by his arms, which are hooked by the hands, and
is sitting upon his heels.”

All along the north coast, a welcome addition to the daily fare is
wild bees’ honey, or as it is now generally called by the semi-civilized
tribes “sugar-bag.” The wild bee establishes its hive either in a
hollow tree or in a crevice in the ground, and the hunting native—
man, woman, or child—is ever on the look-out for it. When the exit of
a hive has been discovered in the ground, from which numerous
bees are flying, the lucky finder immediately begins to carefully dig
down along the narrow channel until he reaches the honeycomb. If
the supply is limited, it is usually removed in toto by hand and lifted
to his mouth without further ado. If, on the other hand, there is a
goodly amount available, the whole of the comb is collected and
placed in a cooleman or other food-carrier and taken to camp.
When a hive is located in a hollow tree, the native places his ear
against the butt and listens; by frequently altering the position of his
ear like one undertaking a medical auscultation, he can gauge the
exact position of the hive by the murmur and buzz beneath the bark.
It is then a simple matter for him to cut into the cover and collect the
honeycomb. Some of the experienced hunters can “smell” their way
for a considerable distance to a wild-bee hive.
The Victoria River tribes have invented an ingenious device, by
means of which they can secure honey from otherwise inaccessible
fissures in rocks or hollows in stout-butted trees. A long stick is
selected, to one end of which is tied a bundle of vegetable fibre or
pounded bark. With the bundle forward, the stick is poked into the
cleft leading to the hive, and, when the honey-comb is reached, it is
turned around and allowed to absorb some of the honey. Then the
stick is quickly removed and the absorbed honey squeezed from the
fibres into a receptacle. The process is repeated, time after time,
until the greater part of the honey has been obtained.
Wild bee honey is very liquid, but, nevertheless, quite as sweet
and tasty as that of the Ligurian bee. The wild bee, moreover,
possesses no sting, and so offers no serious resistance to the
enthusiasm of the collector. The bee itself is comparatively small,
about the size of an ordinary house fly.
There are no wild bees in central Australia, but in their stead
appears the honey ant (Melophorus inflatus). These remarkable
insects live underground, usually in the red sandy loams carrying
forests of mulga. Throughout the MacDonnell Ranges, and the
country north and south-west of them, and in the Musgrave Ranges
district, they are eagerly looked for by the local tribes. When the
entrance to a nest has been discovered, a gin at once sets to by
inserting a thin stick as a guide and digging down the course of the
hole. This is a somewhat tedious undertaking, and not infrequently
she has to dig to so great a depth as to completely bury herself. On
several occasions I have unexpectedly come across a woman thus
engaged, and neither was she aware of my coming, nor I of her
presence, until right opposite her. The “honey-ant” itself is a modified
worker of the colony, which is so overfed by the ordinary workers
that its abdomen swells to the size of a marble, about three-eighths
of an inch in diameter, in consequence of the liquid honey stored
within. With the exception of the few transverse plates, the
abdominal walls are reduced to an extremely fine membrane,
through which the honey can be clearly seen from outside. The
insect’s viscera are compressed into a small space near the vent.
The ant, in this condition, is naturally unable to move from the spot. It
appears that the inflated ants in this phenomenal way provide for the
needs of the colony during the barren season of the year, acting in
the capacity of living tanks or barrels, which can be tapped as
required.
The gin collects numbers of these ants, as she burrows her way
downwards, and lays them in her cooleman; when the nest has been
ransacked she returns with her prize to camp.
When a native wishes to partake of the honey, he grips one of the
ants by the head, and, placing the swollen abdomen between his
lips, he squeezes the contents into his mouth and swallows them.
In regard to the taste, the first sensation the palate receives is a
distinct prick of formic acid, which is no doubt due to a secretion
produced by the ant in self-defence. But this is both slight and
momentary; and the instant the membrane bursts, it is followed by a
delicious and rich flavour of pure honey.
The Aluridja and Wongapitcha call this wonderful ant
“winudtharra,” whilst to the Arunndta it is known as “yerumba.”
In many parts of central Australia the leaves of the red gums
(Eucalyptus rostrata), growing along the river-beds, are covered with
lerp manna—white, conical structures, about the size of a small
lentil, which are secreted by the larvæ of an insect known as Psylla.
On account of their sweetish taste, large quantities of the cones are
collected and eaten. The Arunndta refer to manna as “prelja.”
 CHAPTER XV
VEGETABLE DIET

Women collect vegetable products—“Yelka”—“Munyeroo”—“Nardoo”—Water lily

tubers—Native truffle—The “Kaula” or Native Pear—Gall-nuts of the mulga
and bloodwood.

Whatever contributes towards the vegetable diet of a tribe is

procured essentially by the women. Daily excursions are made by
the women, young and old, collectively or in small groups, to lay in a
stock for the family meal, which is prepared when the sire returns to
camp. The articles which are collected are almost unlimited in
variety, the time of the year usually determining which kind in
particular is made the object of the day’s outing.
The children accompany their mother, and although they help in
the general collecting, as decided by the mother, they find many little
“luxuries,” like the seeds of the mistletoe and the nectar contained in
the calyx of a flower, which they partake of as opportunity affords.
Throughout the central and west-central regions, one of the
commonest vegetables, which is eaten in very large quantities, both
raw and roasted, is the tunicated corm of the Cyperus rotundus,
which grows in the sandy banks of practically all the river-courses in
the area mentioned. These little bulbs grow not very deep below the
surface, and, being covered by a comparatively loose sand or sandy
loam, are easily obtained. The gins use “wanna” or yam-sticks which
they mostly hold in the fist of one hand and apply the chisel-point to
the ground like a pick, whilst the other hand scoops or scratches the
sand out of the hole. As the bulbs come up, they are placed into the
bark carrier (Plate XXI). The best time to dig for the bulbs is when
the grass-like blades of the plant have dried off. When a tribe has
been camped for a while near a favourable collecting ground, many
acres of soil are turned over, giving one quite the impression of a
cultivated field. The Arunndta call this bulb “yelka” or “irriakutta,” the
Aluridja “dunnmördta.” The bulb is about the size of a field-pea. To
eat it, all that is required to be done is to rub it between the palms of
the two hands and then blow away the light shell, which peels off
during the process. The natives usually take up five or six at a time
and treat them thus, when they are to be eaten raw; children are
especially fond of them raw. The bulbs have a sweetish, nutty
flavour.
When “yelka” is to be roasted, the bulbs are laid for a short time on
hot ashes, then taken up, rubbed between the hands, as described
above, and eaten.
Of equal importance in this region is a little, fleshy-leaved plant,
resembling a portulaca, which is known generally as “munyeroo,”
and bears the botanic name of Claytonia. It springs up all over the
sandhills of central Australia after a good rainfall. When on the
march, the natives eat the leaves of this plant raw, both as
nourishment and as a thirst-quencher; at times they are thrown on to
hot ashes, and, after baking for a short time only, eaten hot. But by
far the most important product of the munyeroo is its seed, which
occurs as tiny jet-black grains enclosed within a capsule. Though to
us it would seem most tedious work, it does not take the gins so very
long to collect large quantities of the seed in their bark carriers or
coolemans. Seen in bulk like this, the seed reminds one forcibly of
gunpowder. With sufficient collected for a meal, they return to camp
and clean the seed by “pouring” it from one carrier to another in the
wind, when the dry shells will be blown away. If there is no wind
available, the gin takes up a handful of the seed, and holding it over
a cooleman, blows the husks away with her mouth. When tolerably
clean, the seed is placed, little by little, upon a flat grinding stone and
reduced to a mealy consistency with a pebble, which is worked by
hand. Every now and again, a little water may be added to the mass,
which, after a while, is scraped into a cooleman with the side of the
hand. The paste may be eaten raw, but more frequently it is mixed
with more meal to make a dough, and then baked in hot ashes. The
Arunndta call this seed “ingwitega,” the Aluridja “waketo.”
On the eastern side of the great central region, especially along
the Cooper Creek, the small plant commonly known as “nardoo” is
economically the most important to the local tribes. Nardoo grows
only on clayey flats, on which water has been stagnant for a while. It
is not altogether unlike a small-leaved shamrock; and its scientific
name is Marsilea quadrifolia. Forming a ring around the stem, just
above the surface of the ground, each plant develops a bunch of
spore cases, which, when matured, are gathered in great numbers
by the tribes. Those of the readers who are familiar with the history
of Australian exploration will recollect that the members of the ill-
fated Burke and Wills expedition were for an appreciable time
sustained by nardoo cakes, which were given them by the
Yantowannta tribe on the Cooper Creek. The spore cases are
flattish-oblong in shape, about the size of a small lentil, and
extremely hard. The natives collect, grind, and prepare nardoo in
precisely the same way as the other tribes mentioned treat the
munyeroo. On account of the extensive use which is made of the
stone hand-mill, in the Cooper Creek district, consisting of a large flat
slab of stone, upon which a pebble is worked to and fro, the
implement has earned for itself the name of nardoo-stone. The
Arunndta refer to nardoo as “parapara,” the Dieri as “kalumba.”
By the same process the seed of many acacias, which is collected
in considerable quantities, is made into cakes. A peculiar ingredient
is added to the flour by the Victoria Desert tribes in the form of white
ants, which they knead into the dough and bake with it.
On the north coast, from King Sound east to the Gulf of
Carpentaria, quite a variety of grass seeds, also those of the lotus
lily, are ground and baked.
One of the regular articles of vegetable diet in the tropics is the
tuber of the water-lily, which is gathered by the score and roasted in
ashes; it tastes almost like a potato, with perhaps a distinctive
flavour about it resembling that of the Jerusalem artichoke. In the
Northern Kimberleys, the species most frequently eaten is the
beautiful Nymphaea stellata, which is variously known as “kapa,”
“kadje,” or “toki.” But perhaps the most popular dish in the tuber line
in the Northern Territories is the yam. A great variety of these is
available, but it often requires the genius of an aboriginal to locate
them, especially when there are no leaves showing on the surface. It