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EMPLOYEES AND EMPLOYERS
IN SERVICE ORGANIZATIONS
Emerging Challenges and Opportunities
 21st Century Business Management

EMPLOYEES AND EMPLOYERS

IN SERVICE ORGANIZATIONS
Emerging Challenges and Opportunities

Edited by
Arvind K. Birdie, PhD
Apple Academic Press Inc. Apple Academic Press Inc.
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Library and Archives Canada Cataloguing in Publication

Employees and employers in service organizations : emerging challenges and opportunities / edited by
Arvind K. Birdie, PhD.
(21st century business management book series)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
Issued in print and electronic formats.
ISBN 978-1-77188-473-0 (hardcover).--ISBN 978-1-315-36585-5 (PDF)
1. Service industries--Personnel management. 2. Service industries--Employees. I. Birdie, Arvind K.,
author, editor II. Series: 21st century business management book series
HD9980.5.E48 2017 658.3 C2017-900748-3 C2017-900749-1
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Birdie, Arvind K., editor.
Title: Employees and employers in service organizations : emerging challenges and opportunities / editor,
Arvind K. Birdie, PhD.
Description: Toronto ; New Jersey : Apple Academic Press, [2017] | Series: 21st century business manage-
ment | Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2017002947 (print) | LCCN 2017008012 (ebook) | ISBN 9781771884730 (hardcover :
alk. paper) | ISBN 9781315365855 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Service industries--Employees. | Service industries--Personnel management.
Classification: LCC HD9980.5 .E467 2017 (print) | LCC HD9980.5 (ebook) | DDC 658.3--dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017002947

Apple Academic Press also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats. Some content that appears
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Dedicated to the love and joy of my family—my parents,
Gagan, Permendra and Shaurya for being my lifelong
lighthouse and my safe harbor
ABOUT THE EDITOR

Arvind K. Birdie, PhD

Arvind K. Birdie, PhD, is Program Director, PGDM and Associate
Professor at Vedatya Institute, Gurgaon, India. Dr. Arvind has been consis-
tently recognized for her teaching abilities. For more than fourteen years
she has taken post-graduate and graduate courses in management. As an
avid reader her strength lies in teaching various interdisciplinary subjects
with equal ease. In addition to academic teaching and training, she has
organized management development programs for corporate and acade-
micians. She is a regular presenter at various international and national
conferences, and she has published papers in refereed journals. Her areas
of interest include leadership, work-life balance, virtual work, and posi-
tive psychology. Dr. Birdie is the recipient of the Prof. Mrs. Manju Thakur
Memorial Award 2016 for Innovative Contributions in Research/Test
Construction/Book Publication for her book Organizational Behavior
and Virtual Work: Concepts and Analytical Approaches (Apple Academic
Press, 2016). The award was presented during the 52nd National and 21st
International Conference of the Indian Academy of Applied Psychology,
held at the Department of Psychology, University of Rajasthan, Jaipur,
February 23rd–25th, 2017. She enjoys travelling and spending time with her
family in free time.
CONTENTS

About the 21st Century Business Management Book Series ........................ xi

List of Contributors .................................................................................... xiii
List of Abbreviations ....................................................................................xv
Preface ...................................................................................................... xvii

Part I: Generation Y ............................................................................... 1

1. Protean Career and Boundaryless Careers: The Career
Orientation of Generation Y ...................................................................... 3
Arvind K. Birdie and Vandana Madhavkumar

2. What Motivates the Millennials: A Perspective ..................................... 23

Parul Wasan

3. Employee Retention Strategies in Service Industries:

Opportunities and Challenges ................................................................. 53
Rabindra Kumar Pradhan, Lalatendu Kesari Jena, and Ranjan Pattnaik

4. Gender Equality at Decision-Making Positions in Organizations ........ 71

Urban Šebjan and Polona Tominc

Part II: Technology and Knowledge Management .......................... 103

5. Organizational Environment Factors Affecting Knowledge
Management: Research Study in Software Companies ...................... 105
Jelena Horvat and Samo Bobek

6. Employee Acceptance of ERP Information Solutions in Service

Organizations: A TAM-Based Research ............................................... 131
Simona Sternad-Zabukovšek and Samo Bobek

7. Leadership Effectiveness: An Emerging Challenge to Today’s

Educational Organization and Its Practices in Private
Universities of India ................................................................................ 165
Sanjeev Kumar Jha and Girijesh Kumar Yadav
x Contents

8. Employee Engagement for Better Talent Management....................... 183

Sasmita Misra

Part III: Spirituality and Psychological Capital .............................. 203

9. Psychological Capital: A New Perspective to Understanding
Today’s Executive.................................................................................... 205
Arvind K. Birdie

10. Workplace Spirituality and Employee Engagement:

A Study of the Indian Service Industry................................................. 223
Rabindra Kumar Pradhan and Lalatendu Kesari Jena

Part IV: Work–Life Balance .............................................................. 247

11. Is Work–Life Balance a Significant Factor in Selecting a Profession?
A Study of Women Working in the Education Sector in India ........... 249
Durgamohan Musunuri

Part V: Managing Stress ..................................................................... 273

12. Mindfulness: A Concept and Its Role in the Workplace ..................... 275
Arvind K. Birdie and Kuldeep Kumar

13. Stress Management: Concept ................................................................ 291

Navdeep Kaur Kular

14. Stress Management in Service Organizations ...................................... 335

Uma Nagarajan

Index ................................................................................................................. 365

ABOUT THE 21ST CENTURY
BUSINESS MANAGEMENT BOOK
SERIES

Series Editor:
Arvind K. Birdie, PhD
Program Director PGDM, and Associate Professor,
Vedataya Institute, Gurgaon, India
Email: arvindgagan@gmail.com

CURRENT BOOKS IN THE SERIES

Employees and Employers in Service Organizations:
Emerging Challenges and Opportunities
Editor: Arvind K. Birdie, PhD

The Future of Organizations: Workplace Issues and Practices

Editor: Arvind K. Birdie, PhD

Other topics/volumes are planned on these topics:

1. Globalization and Emerging Leadership
2. Positive Psychology and Today’s Organizations
3. Changing Consumer Behavior and Organizations
4. The Impact of Technological Advancement on Organizations
5. Emerging Employer and Employee Relations
6. Designing Future Organizations and Emerging Sectors
7. Aging in South Asia and the Impact on Emerging Businesses
8. Issues in Intercultural Management
9. The Role of Spirituality in Management
10. Increasing Workforce Diversity in Organizations
11. Creating Innovation in Organizations
12. Purchasing Power and Happiness in Customers
LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

Arvind K. Birdie
IIMT School of Management, Vedatya Institute, Gurgaon, India. E-mail: arvindgagan@gmail.com.

Samo Bobek
Faculty of Economics and Business, University of Maribor, Razlagova, Maribor, Slovenia. E-mail:
samo.bobek@um.si.

Jelena Horvat
University of Zagreb, Faculty of Organization and Informatics, Varaždin Pavlinska 2, HR 42000
Varaždin, Croatia. E-mail: jelena.horvat@foi.hr.

Lalatendu Kesari Jena

Department of Humanities and Social Sciences, IIT Kharagpur, India. E-mail: lkjena@iitkgp.ac.in.

Sanjeev Kumar Jha

Educational Survey Division, National Council of Educational Research and Training, New Delhi,
India. E-mail: krjhasanjeev03@gmail.com.

Navdeep Kaur Kular

Vedatya Institute, Gurgaon, India. E-mail:novikular@rediffmail.com.

Vandana Madhavkumar
GRG School of Management Studies, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India. E-mail: vandana@grgsms.com.

Sasmita Misra
Narsee Monji Institute of Management Studies, India. E-mail: sasmita.misra@nmims.edu.
Atasi Mohanty
Centre for Educational Technology, IIT Kharagpur, India. E-mail: atasim@cet.iitkgp.ernet.in.

Durgamohan Musunuri
Professor & Head, Department of Management Studies, JSS Academy of Technical Education,
NOIDA 201301, Uttar Pradesh, India. E-mail: durgamohan27@gmail.com.

Uma Nagarajan
Bhartiyar University, Chennai, India. E-mail: uma.anita@gmail.com.

Ranjan Pattnaik
Department of Humanities and Social Sciences, IIT Kharagpur, India. E-mail: dr.ranjanpattnaik@
iitkgp.ac.in.

Rabindra Kumar Pradhan

Department of Humanities and Social Sciences, IIT Kharagpur, India. E-mail: rkpradhan@hss.iitkgp.
ac.in.

Urban Sebjan
Faculty of Economics and Business, Raziagova, University of Maribor, Maribor, Slovenia. E-mail:
urban.sebjan1@um.si.
xiv List of Contributors

Simona Sternad-Zabukovšek
Faculty of Economics and Business, University of Maribor, Razlagova, Maribor, Slovenia. E-mail:
simona.sternad@um.si.

Polona Tomnic
Faculty of Economics and Business, Raziagova, University of Maribor, Maribor, Slovenia. E-mail:
polona.tominc@um.si.

Parul Wasan
Manav Rachna International University, Faridabad, Haryana, India. E-mail: parul.wasan@yahoo.
co.in.

Girijesh Kumar Yadav

National Institute of Occupational Health, Indian Council of Medical Research, Ministry of Health &
Family Welfare, Govt. of India. E-mail: girijeshkrydv@gmail.com.
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

APA American Psychological Association

ATMs automated teller machines
AVE average variance extracted
BI behavioral intention
BIS business information systems
BRICS Brazil, Russia, India, China, South Africa
CBRC China Banking Regulatory Commission
CCMDs career decision-making difficulties
CDM career decision making
CEPR Centre for Economic and Policy Research
CR composite reliability
DU deemed to be universities
ERP enterprise resource planning
EU European Union
EU-OSHA European Union for Occupational safety and Health
GDP gross domestic product
GoF goodness-of-fit
GSS General Social Survey
HEIs higher educational institutions
HES Higher Education System
IBOS International Business Owners Survey
ICT information and communication technology
IS information systems
IT information technology
KM knowledge management
LES leadership effectiveness scale
MIS management information systems
NCR National Capital Region
NIOSH National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health
OPC organizational-process characteristics
PCIL personal characteristics and information literacy
PLS partial least squares
POB positive organizational behaviour
xvi List of Abbreviations

PsyCap psychological capital

PU perceived usefulness
PwC Price Waterhouse Cooper
SCT system and technology characteristics
SEM structural equation modeling
SSA Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan
STC system and technological characteristics
TAM technological acceptance model
TPB theory of planned behaviour
TRA theory of reasoned action
VUCA volatile, uncertain, complex, and ambiguous
WLB work–life balance
PREFACE

Organizations are changing at a fast pace in reaction to globalization and

technological advancements, and new structures are emerging organiza-
tions. These changes are bringing changes in behavior in organizations.
These days employees believe in less loyalty toward organizations in
comparison to baby boomers. Generation Y believes in working smarter,
not harder.
With aging in South Asia, where the major portion of the population is
young, young entrepreneurs are creating wonders in the business world,
with employees choosing boundaryless and protean careers. New concepts
of flat structure for employers are becoming in demand for today’s busi-
nesses to function in an ever changing environment digital world without
boundaries.
Service industry in the past has metamorphosed into a revolution not
only in the United States but is evident in all developed and developing
countries also. At the dawn of the 21st century, all highly industrialized
countries have become “service economies,” at least when measured in
terms of share of the workforce employed in service industries.
More and more companies are service oriented, and with globaliza-
tion and technological advancement, expectations and skills required by
the organizations are changing at a fast pace from multitasking, working
24 × 7, and there are emerging challenges and opportunities for organiza-
tional behaviorists, such as work–life balance, globalization, redefining
leadership, contingent work force, stress management, telecommuting,
work force diversity, ergonomics, life satisfaction/subjective well-being,
etc.
The above-discussed concepts are new for employers and employees,
and very few qualitative and quantitative research studies with practical
implications for policymakers and employers have been performed. This
book explores the upcoming challenges/opportunities for employees, and
employers particularly in the orientation of service organizations in the
21st century. This book provides insights for implication and examines old
theories of organizations in light of changing concepts as well as emerging
concepts. The book explores the themes of work–life balance, spirituality,
xviii Preface

and emerging positive psychology concepts, such as psychological capital,

knowledge management, mindfulness. These are a big change from the
workforce generation of so-called Y Generation and its motivation, etc.
The approach in the chapters is by reviewing and conducting empirical
studies, round tables, and focus discussions with employees and employers
of the service industry by the authors.
I would like to acknowledge with gratitude the support I received from
the contributing authors. Their rich insights and shared perspectives have
enabled us to bring a lot of unique concepts of interdisciplinary ways to
understand today’s business world. We are indebted to organizations and
many industry practitioners who provided support and discussed their
ideas with the authors. I would like to acknowledge the support received
from my parent organization, Vedatya. I owe special thanks to my mentor
Dr. Madhu Jain. My heartfelt thanks to Dr. Vinnie Jauhari, Director, IIMT
School of Management for her inspiration and support.
I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my parents, in-laws,
my husband—Gagan, and our wonderful son, Shauryavir, for having
supported me all along. I would also like to thank my brother, Permendra
Singh, for his encouragement and always being there for me. Without
their patience, support, and motivation, this work would never have been
completed. My family has always been a great anchor and always had a
great role in all my accomplishments. Their being with me is the greatest
joy, which enables me to make a meaningful contribution.
I deeply value the strong support I received from the extraordinary
team at Apple Academic Press. A deep gratitude and my heartfelt thanks
to Ashish Kumar, President, AAP for believing in me to initiate the series
and constantly encouraging me to accomplish this work. I deeply value
his guidance. My special and heartfelt thanks to Sandra Sickels, Vice
President, Editorial and Marketing for support in terms of using her sensi-
tivity and good eye to design cover page and flyers for the series. She was
immensely helpful throughout the project from starting till final come out.
I also express special thanks to Rakesh Kumar, for valuable support with
index, referencing, suggested readings and production work, and Sheetal
Kumar from editorial team.
To all these truly excellent people, and to many others, too, I offer my
personal warm regards.
 PART I
Generation Y
CHAPTER 1

PROTEAN CAREER AND

BOUNDARYLESS CAREERS:
THE CAREER ORIENTATION OF
GENERATION Y
ARVIND K. BIRDIE1 and VANDANA MADHAVKUMAR2*
Department of Post Graduate Studies & MBA, IIMT School of
1

Management, Vedatya Institute, Gurgaon, Haryana, India

2
GRG School of Management Studies, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India
Corresponding author. E-mail: vandana@grgsms.com
*

CONTENTS

Abstract ..................................................................................................... 4
1.1 Introduction ...................................................................................... 4
1.2 Gen Y and Protean Career Orientation .......................................... 11
1.3 Individuals with Protean Career Orientation ................................. 13
1.4 Gender and Protean Career Orientation ......................................... 14
1.5 Implications for Organizations ...................................................... 15
1.6 Implications for Individuals ........................................................... 16
1.7 Conclusion ..................................................................................... 18
Acknowledgments................................................................................... 18
Keywords ................................................................................................ 18
References ............................................................................................... 19
4 Employees and Employers in Service Organizations

ABSTRACT

For today’s organizations, right people are key differentiators that give
them competitive advantage. Due to globalization, career contexts and
work environments have changed. Workforce diversity has increased due
to technological advancements and the use of outsourcing, part time, and
temporary employees. In conjunction with environmental changes, indi-
viduals are also altering their career attitudes and behaviors. This comes as
a response to the increase in lifespan (and thus working lives), changes in
family structures (such as dual-career couples), and the growing number
of individuals seeking to fulfill needs for personal learning, development,
and growth. One of the most important challenges for HR managers is
to acquire and retain the Gen Y employees (born between late 1970s and
mid-1990s) who are likely to comprise the bulk of employees.
In times of frequently changing work environments with decreased job
stability, it is often more possible for an employee to pursue his career with
not one single organization during his or her lifetime but with multiple over
time. The decline of the traditional organizational career requires new ways
of viewing careers. Over the last decade, two new perspectives on careers
have emerged and become popular in the organizational literature: the
protean career and the boundaryless career. This chapter reviews this new
concept of individual career development practiced by the Gen Y employees
whose expectations and preferences are different from their predecessors.

1.1 INTRODUCTION

the path with a heart

—Herb Shepard

Traditionally, career is often described as an individual’s work-related

journey, often associated with the employing organization. Careers were
seen as linear and occurring within stable hierarchical organizational
structures (Levinson, 1978). This form of career, also referred to as the
“organizational career,” had limited job mobility as employees stayed
with the same organization throughout their professional life. Individual
careers in organizations were seen as predictable and secure; an individual
entered an organization and strove to rise through the ranks in an attempt
to reach higher positions with clearly defined boundaries. Individuals who
Protean Career and Boundaryless Careers: The Career Orientation 5

performed satisfactorily could be expected to be promoted. An employee’s

loyalty was rewarded by an organization in the form of job security and
lifetime employment. The implicit psychological contract, which refers
to a set of mutual expectations between the individual and the employer
(Hall & Mirvis, 1996), stipulated that as long as employees provided satis-
factory work they could rely on long-term employment with the prospect
of promotion in the organization (Baruch, 2006; Hansen, 1997). Career
was the responsibility of the organization and employees were committed
towards their organization (Sullivan & Baruch, 2009).
In contrast, contemporary careers appear to be more unpredictable,
non-linear and vulnerable. Today organizations operate in a complex
business environment characterized by stiff competition, disruptive tech-
nology advances, globalization and outsourcing (Cooper & Burke, 2002;
Kuchinke & Park, 2012). Organizations are therefore no longer in a posi-
tion to guarantee job security and stable career growth to employees.
Employees do not remain with a single employer for their lifetime as the
idea of lifetime employment with a single organization no longer holds.
Where psychological contract between individual and organization used to
be long-term and relational, it has become short term and transactional. The
new psychological contract requires individuals to engage in continuous
learning and to modify their work-related self-perceptions and identities
(Baruch & Hall, 2004). In the contemporary world of work, organizations
can expect employees to be loyal only as long as the employee’s short-
term expectations are met. In turn, individuals can expect organizations to
be loyal only as long as their skills and performance fulfill the organiza-
tion’s current needs (Hall & Mirvis, 1996).
One consequence of the changed psychological contract is that
employees’ job insecurity has increased (Baruch, 2006). During the 20th
century, employees might have expected the organization to plan and
control their careers, but in an era of increased uncertainty they need to take
greater responsibility for their own career development. Hansen (1997)
emphasized that because individuals “can no longer rely on their work
for security and stability, [they] will become self-directed persons who
develop their own careers, gain respect for others and value difference.
They will learn to expect change” (Hansen, 1997, p. 247). Employees will
need to become increasingly adaptable and multiskilled, which implies
that continuous professional development and learning how to learn will
take on greater importance in individuals’ careers. It is in this context that
6 Employees and Employers in Service Organizations

Sullivan and Baruch (2009, p. 1543) define career as “an individual’s

work-related and other relevant experiences, both inside and outside of
organizations that form a unique pattern over the individual’s life span.”
The definition identifies mobility between jobs, employers, occupations,
and industries (Sullivan & Baruch, 2009). Thus, a new approach to career
emerged that transfers the responsibility and risk of managing careers from
organizations to individuals. The traditional employee–employer contract
has been replaced by transactional relationship (Frenandez & Enache,
2008; Rousseau, 1989) and less loyalty from both sides (Hall, 2002).
Considering these developments, a perspective on careers by Hall
(1976a,b) and Arthur and Rousseau (1996) is characterized by a shift of
responsibilities for career progress from organizations to individuals and
by emphasizing on the individual’s freedom and growth as a core value
(cf. Hall, 1976a,b, 2002, 2004). The two key concepts that emerged within
this career perspective were the protean career attitude (Hall, 1976a,b,
2004) and the boundaryless career attitude (Arthur, 1994; Arthur & Rous-
seau, 1996). A protean career attitude has been characterized as involving
a broader perspective, a developmental progression, and viewing a career
as a calling and a way to self-fulfillment (Hall, 2002). A person with a
boundaryless career attitude is characterized by high mobility and prefers
to navigate physically and/or psychologically across many organizations
(Sullivan & Arthur, 2006).
The “protean career” argues that being self-driven and moving in
consonance with one’s own values is necessary for continuous personal
transformation and to achieve psychological success (Hall, 1976a,b; Hall
& Chandler, 2005, Sargent & Domberger, 2007). In such terms, protean
career actors constantly reevaluate their relationship with the organiza-
tion (Hall, 2002). This stance versus the organization is also reflected in
the “boundaryless career” which emphasizes freedom and agency, and is
in short, anything, but the traditional career designed by the organization
(Arthur & Rousseau, 1996; Cadin et al., 2000; Sullivan & Arthur, 2006).
Boundaryless careers can trespass physical boundaries (e.g., organizational
or national boundaries) and psychological boundaries (e.g., defying orga-
nizational norms for personal reasons) (Peiperl & Jonsen, 2007; Sullivan
& Arthur, 2006). Individuals combining the characteristics of both protean
and boundaryless careers are suggested to be in the best position to adapt
to changing contexts and achieve psychological success (Briscoe & Hall,
2006). Being the alternative to organizational careers, the boundaryless
and protean career concepts refer to a wide range of possible careers.
Protean Career and Boundaryless Careers: The Career Orientation 7

1.1.1 PROTEAN CAREER

Individuals in order to survive in the current business environment

termed as VUCA world (volatile, uncertain, complex, and ambiguous)
need to become more self-reliant in managing their careers. This means
knowing what they want from their careers, developing the skills/knowl-
edge/network that is necessary to achieve their goals and being able to
“change with change.” These changes in career management gave rise to
the term “protean career,” first proposed by Hall (1976a,b) that describes
a career approach that is not dependent on the organization but proactively
managed by the individual. The origin of which comes from Proteus, the
Greek sea-god who could change forms as the situation demanded. A more
formal definition is provided below:

The protean career is driven by the person, not the organization, based
on individually defined goals, encompassing the whole life space, and
being driven by psychological success (rather than) objective measures of
success such as pay, rank or power.
—Briscoe

The protean career therefore shifts the focus of career management to

the individual while the organization’s role is to provide employees with
opportunities for growth and development. A protean career attitude has
been characterized as involving a broader perspective and viewing career
as a calling and a way to self-fulfillment (Hall, 2002). As Hall (1996c,
p. 10) notes, protean career is “a contract with oneself, rather than with
the organization,” when individuals take responsibility for transforming
their career path, in line with their personal aspirations (Grimland et al.,
2011). Individuals with protean career orientation take care of their career
management and demonstrate greater mobility, a more whole-life perspec-
tive and a developmental progression (Briscoe et al., 2006; Hall, 1976a,b,
2002). Hall (2002) alleges that the modern career growth involves work
challenges, relationships, and lifelong learning—all of which are required
for continued career success. Protean career approach is thus based on
continuous learning. The goal of the protean career is subjective career
success (Briscoe & Hall, 2006; Grimland et al., 2011; Hall, 1976a,b, 2002).
The aim of the employee in the protean career is therefore to develop the
skills and competencies that ensure employability in a changing work
context.
8 Employees and Employers in Service Organizations

Protean individuals value individual freedom and growth and define

career success in terms of psychological criteria, such as the degree of job
satisfaction, self-actualization, personal accomplishment, and a feeling
of fulfillment through the pursuit of meaningful work (Hall & Chandler,
2005; Hall & Mirvis, 1996). This description contrasts with a more tradi-
tional view where career success is defined in terms of external criteria
such as promotions, salary, and occupational status. Briscoe and Hall
(2006) further argue that “the Protean Career Orientation does not imply
particular behavior, such as job mobility, but rather it is a mindset about
the career—more specifically an attitude toward the career that reflects
freedom, self-direction, and making choices based on one’s personal
values” (Briscoe & Hall, 2006, p. 6). Therefore, as rightly put by Briscoe
and Hall (2006), a protean career orientation reflects the extent to which
an individual adopts such a perspective to their career. According to Hall
and Chandler (2005), the extreme form of this protean career perspective
would occur when the person’s attitude toward his/her career reveals a
sense of calling or awareness of purpose in his/her work.
In addition, Briscoe and Hall (2002) describe individuals with protean
career as being

(1) values-driven, that is, making career decisions based on their own
values as against the organization’s values. The person’s internal
values guide them in managing their career and attain career
success; and being
(2) self-directed, playing an independent role in managing their career
and being proactive in terms of performance and learning.
(3) Further, individuals with protean career orientation will be proac-
tive and independent and will not depend on external standards
(Briscoe et al., 2006).

Therefore, there is a change in the way individuals approach career

with professionals becoming more self-reliant, flexible, and mobile.
In operationalizing the protean career attitude, Briscoe et al. (2006)
distinguished two key components, namely, (1) an attitude of self-direct-
edness in terms of managing one’s own career and (2) a value-driven
attitude where the individual’s own values, rather than the values of the
organization, drive the career. The first component, namely Self-Directed
Career Management is tied to the meta-competency of adaptability and
is seen in individuals’ ability to adapt to changing conditions and to take
Protean Career and Boundaryless Careers: The Career Orientation 9

responsibility for their own career development. The second component,

namely Values Driven, is tied to the meta-competency of self-awareness
and is seen when individuals’ personal values guide their careers and
become the yardstick against which they measure their career success
(Hall & Chandler, 2005).
Thus, individuals who hold protean career attitudes are intent upon
using their own values (vs. organizational values for example) to guide
their career (“values-driven”) and take an independent role in managing
their vocational behavior (“self-directed”). An individual who did not hold
protean attitudes would be more likely to “borrow” external standards, as
opposed to internally developed ones, and be more likely to seek external
direction and assistance in behavioral career management as opposed to
being more proactive and independent.

1.1.2 BOUNDARYLESS CAREER

Another term that emerged along with the concept of protean career is
“boundaryless” career (Arthur, 1994; Arthur & Rousseau, 1996), which
involves a sequence of job opportunities that go beyond single employ-
ment settings. A person with a boundaryless career mindset “navigates the
changing work landscape by enacting a career characterized by different
levels of physical and psychological movement” (Sullivan & Arthur,
2006, p. 9). It involves the breaking down of traditional boundaries (e.g.,
job boundaries of specialist functions and skills), organizational careers
which progress independently of well-trodden career paths and the social
boundaries separating work and family roles. A boundaryless career atti-
tude is characterized by high mobility and a preference for navigating
physically and/or psychologically across many organizations (Sullivan &
Arthur, 2006).
The term boundaryless career was developed to provide a new perspec-
tive on old traditional career theories (Arthur, 2008). Boundaryless careers
are seen as the interlinking boundaries of organizations and occupations,
with other parts of people’s lives. Boundaryless careers involve career
opportunities that go beyond the boundary of a single employer (Arnold,
2011). Some of the trademarks of a boundaryless career include: transfer-
rable skills, knowledge and abilities across multiple firms, personal identi-
fication with meaningful work, on the job learning and the development of
10 Employees and Employers in Service Organizations

multiple networks and peer learning relationships, and individual respon-

sibility for career management.
A boundaryless career attitude too has two components—organiza-
tional mobility preference and a boundaryless mindset. Boundaryless
career attitude is psychological and varies in the attitude that individuals
hold toward initiating and pursuing work-related relationships across orga-
nizational boundaries. It does not necessarily imply physical or employ-
ment mobility. A person with a decidedly high “boundaryless” attitude
toward working relationships across organizational boundaries may also
be comfortable, even enthusiastic about creating and sustaining active rela-
tionships beyond organizational boundaries. However, a second important
boundaryless career attitude is the inclination toward physically crossing
organizational boundaries in employment mobility. Someone high in such
an organizational mobility attitude would be comfortable with, or even
prefer a career that played out across several employers.
Arthur and Rousseau (1996, p. 6) provide six different meanings:
they involve movement across the boundaries of several employers, draw
validation and marketability from outside one’s present employer, are
sustained by external networks and information, break traditional orga-
nizational assumptions about hierarchy and career advancement, involve
rejecting existing career opportunities for personal or family reasons, and
are based on the interpretations of the career actor who may perceive a
boundaryless future regardless of structural constraints. These diverse
career forms have one over reaching characteristic in common they all
represent “the opposite of organizational careers—careers conceived to
unfold in a single employment setting” (Arthur & Rousseau, 1996, p. 5).

1.1.3 THE PROTEAN AND BOUNDARYLESS MODELS OF

CAREER

While most protean individuals exhibit more mobility and a learning

orientation, mobility and learning have been identified as correlates
of a protean career, but not necessary components of it. Therefore, an
overlap between protean and boundaryless is to be expected as protean
and boundaryless career attitudes are independent yet related constructs.
That is, a person could display protean attitudes and make independent,
inner-directed choices, yet not prefer cross boundary collaboration. In
comparison, a person could embrace a boundaryless mindset, yet rely on
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
In January, 1897, however, one provision of the Act, which
forbade all importation of liquors into the State by private
persons, even for their own use, was declared by the Supreme
Court of the United States to be an interference with
inter-state commerce, and therefore unconstitutional. This
breaks down the Dispensary Law, so far as concerns citizens
who are able to import liquors for themselves. Otherwise the
law seems to be now stoutly entrenched, and other States are
being sufficiently satisfied with its success in South
Carolina to adopt it. The following testimony as to its
success is from the pen of a North Carolinian, who became
instrumental in carrying the system into his own State.

"The familiar features of the dispensary were its closing

promptly at sundown; no drinking on the premises; the sale of
liquor to those only who were of age, who were not in the
habit of drinking to excess, who were sober at the time of the
sale, and who signed an application for what they bought on a
public book; and the fact that the dispenser was a salaried
officer, and thus free from pecuniary interest in stimulating
sales. To this was added in South Carolina a force of
constables whose special business it was to arrest those who
sold liquor contrary to law.

"The fact that the dispensary law was a substitute for

Prohibition made the law odious at first to those who had
fought most ardently for the Prohibition cause. And the
political faction over which Mr. Tillman had triumphed,
containing a good proportion of the best blood and brains of
the State, opposed the dispensary on personal grounds. The spy
system, as it was called, and the resistance to the
constables, sometimes resulting in bloodshed, set many of the
more peaceable and conservative citizens against the law.
Added to this, the constitutionality of the law as a whole and
of important provisions separately was strenuously contested
in the United States Courts, with varying success until the
Supreme Court settled the matter forever in favor of the law.
 These difficulties are mentioned to show what the system has
had to face in South Carolina, and for the purpose of
remarking that the system has triumphed over all opposition.
The amended Constitution of the State decrees against the
re-establishment of the saloon. The Dispensary candidate for
Governor in the last election defeated the Prohibition
candidate. And the testimony of sober, conservative citizens
of every rank and profession is now practically unanimous to
the effect that drunkenness and the crimes resulting therefrom
have decreased beyond expectation."

A. J. McKelway,
The Dispensary in North Carolina
(Outlook, April 8, 1899).

SOUTH CAROLINA: A. D. 1896.

New constitution.
Introduction of a qualified suffrage.
Practical disfranchisement pf the greater part of the negroes.

On the 1st of January, 1896, a new constitution, promulgated

by a constitutional convention the previous month, without
submission to popular vote, came into effect. It was framed
especially to accomplish a practical disfranchisement of the
larger part of the negro population, which it did by the
operation of an educational qualification with peculiar
conditions attached. Until the first of January, 1898, it
permitted the enrollment of voters who could read, or who
could explain to the satisfaction of the registering officer a
section of the constitution read to them; and all citizens
registered before that date were to be qualified voters
thereafter. But subsequent to the date specified, none could
be registered except those able to read and write any required
part of the constitution, or else to prove themselves owners
of property and taxpayers on not less than $300. Registration
to be conducted by county boards appointed by the governor.
 See, also (in this volume)
MISSISSIPPI.

Speaking in the United States Senate in justification of this

measure, Senator Tillman, of South Carolina, said: "We took
the government away. We stuffed ballot boxes. We shot them. We
are not ashamed of it. The Senator from Wisconsin would have
done the same thing. I see it in his eye right now. He would
have done it. With that system—force, tissue ballots, etc.—we
got tired ourselves. So we called a constitutional convention,
and we eliminated, as I said, all of the colored people whom
we could under the fourteenth and fifteenth amendments. … I
want to call your attention to the remarkable change that has
come over the spirit of the dream of the Republicans; to
remind you gentlemen from the North that your slogans of the
past—brotherhood of man and the fatherhood of God—have gone
glimmering down the ages. The brotherhood of man exists no
longer, because you shoot negroes in Illinois, when they come
in competition with your labor, as we shoot them in South
Carolina when they come in competition with us in the matter
of elections. You do not love them any better than we do. You
used to pretend that you did, but you no longer pretend it
except to get their votes. … You deal with the Filipinos just
as we deal with the negroes, only you treat them a heap
worse."

Congressional Record,
56th Congress, 1st Session, pages 2347, 2349.

SOUTH DAKOTA: A. D. 1898.

Constitutional amendment introducing the
Initiative and the Referendum.

A constitutional amendment, adopted by popular vote at the

November election, introduces the principle of the Swiss
Initiative and Referendum, providing that the Legislature must
render obedience to petitions signed by 5 per cent. of the
 voters of the State, which call for the enactment and
submission to popular vote of any stipulated law, or which
require the submission to a popular vote of any Act which the
Legislature may have passed.

SOUTH DAKOTA: A. D. 1899.

Adoption of the Dispensary System.

A constitutional amendment, providing for a dispensary system

of regulation for the liquor traffic was adopted in 1899 by a
majority of 1,613 votes.

See, (in this volume),

SOUTH CAROLINA: A. D. 1892-1899.

The newly adopted clause reads as follows: "The manufacture

and sale of intoxicating liquors shall be under exclusive
State control, and shall be conducted by duly authorized
agents of the State, who shall be paid by salary and not by
commission."

{519}

SOUTHWEST AFRICA, German:

Trade, etc.

See (in this volume)

GERMANY: A. D. 1899 (JUNE).

SPAIN: A. D. 1868-1885.
Affairs in Cuba.

See (in this volume)

CUBA: A. D. 1868-1885.

SPAIN: A. D. 1895-1896.
Conflict between army and Press.
Change of Ministry.
Renewed insurrection in Cuba.

A violent conflict between the military authorities and the

newspaper Press arose in consequence of an attack made by
officers of the army on a Republican editor who had sharply
criticised certain details of army administration. They not
only assaulted him in person, but broke up his presses and
type. This military mob outrage was resented and denounced by
the whole Press, of every party; whereupon the military
authorities began prosecutions in the military courts, and
making arrests of publishers and editors, with a contempt for
law which seemed to be ominous of some revolutionary intent.
The Liberal Ministry, under Señor Sagasta, not able,
apparently, to control these proceedings, resigned office, and
a Conservative Cabinet was formed by Señor Canovas del
Castillo. The new Ministry had many difficulties to face, the
fresh outbreak of revolt in Cuba being the most serious.

See (in this volume)

CUBA: A. D. 1895.

But student rioting at Barcelona, caused by the dismissal of

11 professor whose writings were condemned at Rome, became
grave enough to require the sending of the redoubtable General
Weyler to the scene; and popular excitements in Madrid,
growing out of exposures of corruption in the municipal
council, drove two of the colleagues of Canovas from their
posts. In January, 1896, Weyler was sent to Cuba, to pursue in
that unhappy island a policy which produced conditions that
horrified the world.

See (in this volume)

CUBA: A. D. 1896-1897, and 1897-1898 (DECEMBER-MARCH).

Elections held in April, 1896, gave the government of Canovas

an overwhelming majority in the Cortes.
SPAIN: A. D. 1896-1897,
Administration of General Weyler in Cuba.

See (in this volume)

CUBA: A. D. 1896-1897.

SPAIN: A. D. 1896-1898.
Insurrection in the Philippines.

See (in this volume)

PHILIPPINE ISLANDS: A. D. 1896-1898.

SPAIN: A. D. 1897 (August-October).

Assassination of the Prime Minister, Canovas del Castillo.
Return of Sagasta to power.
Condition of the country.

On the 8th of August, the Spanish Prime Minister, Señor

Canovas del Castillo, was shot by an Italian anarchist, a
Neapolitan, named Angiolillo, while sojourning for a few days,
with his wife, at the baths of Santa Aguada. He lived but two
hours after receiving his wounds. General Azcarraga, Minister
of War, was called by the Queen to take temporary charge of
the government; but before the end of September he and his
cabinet were forced to resign, and the Liberals, under the
lead of Señor Sagasta, returned to power. "Canovas was the
strong man of Spain. He was not the educator of the people, or
the worker of the popular inclination. His vigorous
understanding was their muscular master. The police were on
his side; a useful portion of the press, hired judiciously for
the purpose; the army; and the brains to set them all in
motion; and, so equipped, Antonio Canovas del Castillo
confronted the Spanish people and said, 'Come on.' It was a
resolute and daring attitude, and kept the crowd triumphantly
at bay for thirty years. But of late a change had taken place.
A good deal of the old fire had burned out. Fifteen years of
colonial revolt, again, impress even the thickest-headed
Spanish peasant into conceiving that the trouble has no
business to last so long, and that his rulers, if hard and
exigent towards himself, are weak, extravagant, and
undexterous elsewhere. And this suspicion ripens into
certainty when he sees his sons torn from his side and packed
over sea, and when his taxes swell and swell, and the price of
bread goes up and up, and still no alteration for the better.
This cumulative truth is what the Spanish plebs have learned
at last, within a year ago, and if Canovas had had the
foresight of the true statesman, instead of the blind egoism
of the autocrat, he would have thrown up his losing cards
while there was time and said, 'The Cuban War is a mistake.
Forgive me.' But his unflagging obstinacy held him to his
desperate and aimless course. Although his complicity with his
emissary, Weyler, in sending and publishing one lying telegram
after another, was manifest as day, he smiled and rubbed his
hands, and vowed the war was all but over; and behind that
smile he half despised and half defied the victims he invited
to believe him. He made no claim to be a patriot. He knew he
was unpopular. He knew that for every cottage whence a son had
been torn away to that disastrous strife in Cuba the Conservative
Government of the nation may count upon one bitter foe—the
Republicans or the Duke of Madrid upon one sure ally. What
would have happened in Spain, had he lived longer, is quite
beyond the average power to say. The prospect was too horrible
for words. However, he died, and his ministry, after feebly
mimicking the stubborn temper of their chief, succumbed also,
leaving to the Liberal Party a legacy which may be likened to
a bomb with time-fuse well alight and sputtering into the
explosive. In plainer words what faces Señor Sagasta is the
following: Spain is a beggar. Her credit is gone. Her army,
always of late years behindhand in discipline, instruction,
commissariat, and the thousand and one minutiæ other nations
are solicitous to attend to, is decimated by disease,
dispirited, and utterly incompetent to engage in war with any
civilised power. Her navy is rotten. Her people are
 discontented and divided into various creeds. Some are for the
existing regime, some for Don Carlos, and some for the
Republic."

L. Williams,
Can Sagasta save Spain?
(Fortnightly Review, December, 1897).

SPAIN: A. D. 1897 (November).

Autonomous Constitution granted to Cuba and Porto Rico.

See (in this volume)

CUBA: A. D. 1897 (NOVEMBER);
and 1897-1898 (NOVEMBER-FEBRUARY).

SPAIN: A. D. 1898.
War with the United States.

See (in this volume)

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1898 (FEBRUARY-MARCH), to 1899 (JANUARY-
FEBRUARY).

SPAIN: A. D. 1898 (February-March).

Destruction of the United States
battle-ship Maine in Havana harbor.

See (in this volume)

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1898 (FEBRUARY-
MARCH).

SPAIN: A. D. 1898 (March-April).

Discussion of Cuban affairs with the Government of the
United States.
Message of the President to Congress,
asking for authority to intervene in Cuba.
 See (in this volume)
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1898 (MARCH-APRIL).

{520}

SPAIN: A. D. 1898 (April).

Demand of the United States Government that the authority and
Government of Spain be withdrawn from Cuba, and its result
in a state of war.

See (in this volume)

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1898 (APRIL).

SPAIN: A. D. 1898 (July-December).

Suspension of hostilities and negotiations of Treaty of
Peace with the United States.
Relinquishment of sovereignty over Cuba, and cession of Porto
Rico, Guam and the Philippine Islands to the United States.

See (in this volume)

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1898 (JULY-DECEMBER).

SPAIN: A. D. 1898 (August 21).

Letter from Spanish soldiers, on their departure from
Santiago de Cuba, to the soldiers of the American army.

See (in this volume)

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1898 (AUGUST 21).

SPAIN: A. D. 1899.
Abolition of the Ministry of the Colonies.
Resignation of the Sagasta Cabinet.
Ratification of the Treaty of Peace.

The new conditions in Spanish government resulting from the

loss of Cuba, Porto Rico, and the Philippines were promptly
acknowledged, in January, by the abolition of the Ministry of
 Colonies, for which no sufficient duties remained. On the 20th
of February the Cortes was summoned, and on the same day the
"state of siege," declared during the war, which had
practically suspended constitutional rights, was removed by
proclamation. The Treaty of Peace with the United States was
laid before the Cortes; but the military party, led by General
Weyler, opposed the approval of the Treaty, evidently for the
purpose of embarrassing and weakening the government. They
were so far successful that Señor Sagasta and his cabinet were
forced to resign, on the 28th of February, and a Conservative
Ministry, under Señor Silvela, was formed. But the Cortes,
which declined to support the government in accepting the
Treaty of Peace, was dismissed a few days later by the
Queen-Regent, who signed the Treaty on her own responsibility,
March 11. The Silvela Ministry proved inharmonious, made so
especially by the Minister of War, General Polavieja, and in
September it was reconstructed, with Polavieja dropped out.

SPAIN: A. D. 1899 (January).

Relinquishment of sovereignty in Cuba.

See (in this volume)

CUBA: A. D. 1898-1899 (DECEMBER-OCTOBER).

SPAIN: A. D. 1899 (February).

Sale of the Caroline, Pelew and Marianne Islands to Germany.

See (in this volume)

CAROLINE AND MARIANNE ISLANDS.

SPAIN: A. D. 1899 (May-July).

Representation in the Peace Conference at The Hague.

See (in this volume)

PEACE CONFERENCE.

SPAIN: A. D. 1900 (October-November).

 Weyler appointed Captain-General of Madrid.
Resignation of the Silvela Ministry.
The army in control.

The army won control of the government in October, when

General Linares, Minister of War, without consulting his
colleagues of the cabinet—if report be true—appointed General
Weyler to be Captain-General of Madrid. Several members of the
cabinet resigned in protest, and the Premier, Señor Silvela,
found it necessary to place the resignation of the Ministry as
a whole in the hands of the Queen-Regent (October 21). A new
cabinet was formed, with General Azcarraga for its chief,
General Linares retaining the portfolio of the War Office, and
Weyler holding the military command in Madrid. The military
party appears to be fully in power, and a token of the spirit
it has carried into the government was given within ten days
after the formation of the new Ministry, by the promulgation
of a decree suspending the guarantees of the constitution and
establishing martial law throughout the kingdom. Some
movements of Carlist agitation and insurrection furnished a
pretext for this measure, but they appear to have had no
serious character.

It is probable that the military reaction at Madrid will

stimulate a revival of the old independent aspirations of the
Catalonians, which have been showing of late many signs of new
life. The desire for separation from Spain has never died out in
Catalonia, and a resolute new effort to accomplish it may
easily appear among the incidents of the near future.

SPAIN: A. D. 1900 (November).

Spanish-American Congress.

At the instance of the "Sociedad Union Ibero-Americana," an

unofficial organization which has been in existence for more
than 15 years, a congress was held in Madrid in November,
1900, with the object of strengthening the relations between
 Spain and those American peoples who are of Spanish origin.
The proposal of the "Union Ibero-Americana" met with the
approval of the Spanish Government, and on April 16 a Royal
decree was issued appointing Señor Silvela, the Prime
Minister, to be president of a congress to be held in Madrid.
The Government of Spain then issued invitations to the
Spanish-American Republics, asking them to send
representatives, which invitations were accepted by the
governments of Mexico, the Argentine Republic, Chile, Uruguay,
Peru, and other States. The list of subjects for discussion
included proposals of treaties of commerce, international
arbitration, the harmonizing of the civil, penal, and
administrative legal codes of the various countries
represented, emigration, the international validity of
professional diplomas, the establishment of Ibero-American
banks, and others. The most important result of the Congress
was the voting of a plan of compulsory arbitration by the
South American republics. The motion was introduced by Peru,
which has the most to gain by arbitration. Chile's was the
sole dissenting voice. "This," remarks "The Nation," of New
York, "recalls the fact that Chile consented to take part in
the Pan-American Congress at the City of Mexico, only on
condition that any arbitration there provided for should not
concern her own disputed boundaries."

SPAIN: A. D. 1901.
Anti-clerical agitation, directed
especially against the Jesuits.
Marriage of the Princess of the Asturias.

A case arising in Madrid in February produced excitements of

feeling against the Jesuits which spread to all parts of the
country, and were the cause of serious political
demonstrations and rioting in many cities. A wealthy young
lady, Señorita Ubao, had been persuaded by her confessor, a
priest of the Jesuit order, to enter a convent, against the
wish of her family. The family applied to the High Court for a
 mandate to secure her release. The prominence of the parties
drew universal attention to the case, and it was discussed
with passion throughout Spain, stirring up, as appears to be
evident, a latent anti-clerical feeling which only waited to
be moved.
{521}
It seems, moreover, to have served as an occasion for
demonstrations of the republicanism that continues to be
strong in Spain. Students of the universities were active
promoters of the excitement, and set examples of disorder
which were followed by rougher mobs. In Madrid, Zaragoza,
Valencia, Valladolid, Santandar, Granada, Malaga, Barcelona,
and other towns the excitement ran high, and was not quieted
by a decision of the High Court on the 19th of February,
restoring Señorita Ubao to her friends. At Barcelona, on the
last day of March, a meeting of 9,000 citizens, held in the
bull-ring, is reported to have passed resolutions in favor of
the separation of Church and State, advocating the prohibition
of religious orders, and expressing a desire that their
property should be taken possession of by the State. The
meeting voted messages congratulating France and Portugal on
their Anti-Clerical attitude. The meeting was followed by a
riotous attack on the Jesuit convent, and by a conflict of the
mob with the civil guard, in which blood was shed. From
various parts of the country, demands for the expulsion of the
religious orders were reported, in April, to be reaching the
government.

A royal wedding which occurred in the early days of this

anti-clerical agitation added something to the disturbance of
the public mind. Dona Maria de las Mercedes, eldest of the
children of the late King Alphonso XII. and his second wife,
was married on the 14th of February to Prince Charles, of the
Neapolitan Bourbon family, son of the Count of Caserta. The
Princess was Queen of Spain, in her infancy, for a few months
after her father's death, until the posthumous birth of her
brother, in 1886, and presumptively she may again inherit the
 crown. In itself, the marriage does not seem to have been
unpopular; but, for some reason, the Count of Caserta was
odious to the public of Madrid, and became the object of
unpleasant attentions from the mob, while the bride and
bridegroom, and other members of the family of the latter,
were treated with respect.

SPANISH-AMERICAN CONGRESS, The.

See (in this volume)

SPAIN: A. D. 1900 (NOVEMBER).

SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR.

See (in this volume)

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1898 (FEBRUARY-MARCH), to 1899 (JANUARY-
FEBRUARY).

SPANISH SOLDIERS: Letter to American soldiers.

See (in this volume)

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1898 (AUGUST 21).

SPION KOP, The storming of.

See (in this volume)

SOUTH AFRICA (THE FIELD OF WAR):
A. D. 1900 (JANUARY-FEBRUARY).

SPITZBERGEN: Claimed by Russia.

See (in this volume)

POLAR EXPLORATION, 1898.

SPITZBERGEN: Recent Exploration of.

 See (in this volume)
POLAR EXPLORATION, 1896, 1897, 1898, 1899, 1900, 1900-.

SPOILS SYSTEM, The:

As maintained in the service of the
United States House of Representatives.

See (in this volume)

CIVIL SERVICE REFORM: A. D. 1901.

SPOONER AMENDMENT, The.

See (in this volume)

PHILIPPINE ISLANDS: A. D. 1901 (FEBRUARY-MARCH).

STAMBOULOFF, M. Stephen, assassination of.

See (in this volume)

BALKAN AND DANUBIAN STATES: BULGARIA.

STANDARD OIL COMPANY.

See (in this volume)

TRUSTS: UNITED STATES.

STATEN ISLAND: Incorporation in Greater New York.

See (in this volume)

NEW YORK CITY: A. D. 1896-1897.

STATISTICS: Of the British-Boer war.

See (in this volume)

ENGLAND: A. D. 1900 (DECEMBER);
and SOUTH AFRICA (THE FIELD OF WAR:
A. D. 1901 (FEBRUARY), and (APRIL).
STATISTICS: Of Christian Missions.

See (in this volume)

MISSIONS, CHRISTIAN.

STATISTICS: Of finances and exports of the United States.

See (in this volume)

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1900 (JUNE), and (DECEMBER).

STATISTICS: Of the navies of the Sea Powers.

See (in this volume)

NAVIES OF THE SEA POWERS.

STATISTICS: Of the shipping of the world.

See (in this volume)

SHIPPING OF THE WORLD.

STATISTICS: Of the Spanish-American war.

See (in this volume)

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1898-1899, STATISTICS;
and 1900 (JUNE);
also, PHILIPPINE ISLANDS: A. D. 1900 (MAY), and (OCTOBER).

STATISTICS: Of war-making expenditure by the leading Powers.

See (in this volume)

WAR BUDGETS.

STEAM TURBINES, The invention of.

See (in this volume)

SCIENCE, RECENT: MECHANICS.
STEEL: The Age of.

See (in this volume)

NINETEENTH CENTURY: THE AGE OF STEEL.

STEEL PRODUCTION, Combinations in.

See (in this volume)

TRUSTS: UNITED STATES.

STEVENSON, Adlai E.:

Bi-metallic mission to Europe.

See (in this volume)

MONETARY QUESTIONS: A. D. 1897 (APRIL-OCTOBER).

STOCKHOLM, Exposition at.

A Scandinavian industrial exposition, which proved exceedingly

attractive, was held with much success at Stockholm, the
Swedish capital, in the summer and autumn of 1897.

STONEHENGE:
Fall of two stones.

"The last night of the nineteenth century was marked, as a

correspondent pointed out in our issue of yesterday, by a
serious injury to what remains of the majestic monument of
Stonehenge. One of the great uprights of the outer circle of
stones, as well as the cross-piece mortised to it on the top,
fell to the ground, thus destroying still further the most
striking effect of this gigantic temple or sepulchre. The fall
was probably caused by the torrents of rain and the violent winds
that closed the troubled record of the year 1900. One of the
uprights was brought to the ground, where it lies like so many
other of the stones that formed this vast megalithic structure,
 and the capstone has been broken in pieces. The continuous
exterior circle of which these formed a part was originally
about one hundred feet in diameter, and though the masses were
less imposing individually than those of the great tritithons
around the centre, the effect of the mighty round of uprights,
sixteen feet high, with huge capstones resting on them, must
have been wonderful in its noble simplicity …

{522}

"The solicitude of the present age has placed Stonehenge, like

other great national monuments, under the permissive
protection of the law, but the law itself cannot prevent the
ravages of weather and the gradual subsidence of the
foundations on which these masses stand. Little, we fear, can
be done to keep the remaining uprights standing. They will
fall when their time comes and will lie where they fall like
those that have already succumbed to their fate. It is better,
perhaps, for the dignity of this venerable monument that it is in
no serious danger of that restoration which is at work on so
many later structures, more splendid as triumphs of art, but
less stubborn in their strength."

London Times,
January 4, 1901.

STORMBERG, Battle of.

See (in this volume)

SOUTH AFRICA (THE FIELD OF WAR):
A. D. 1899 (OCTOBER-DECEMBER).

STRATHCONA'S HORSE.

See (in this volume)

CANADA: A. D. 1899-1900.
STRIKES.

See (in this volume)

INDUSTRIAL DISTURBANCES.

SUDAN, The Egyptian: A. D. 1885-1898.

Abandonment to the Dervishes.
Death of the Mahdi.
Reign of the Khalifa.
Anglo-Egyptian re-conquest.

See (in this volume)

EGYPT: A. D. 1885-1896; 1897-1898; and 1899-1900.

SUDAN, The Egyptian: A. D. 1899.

Anglo-Egyptian condominium established.

See (in this volume)

EGYPT: A. D. 1899 (JANUARY).

SUDAN, The French: A. D. 1895.

Under a Governor-General of French West Africa.

See (in this volume)

AFRICA: A. D. 1895 (FRENCH WEST AFRICA).

SUDAN, The French: A. D. 1897.

Definition of Tongoland boundary.

See (in this volume)

AFRICA: A. D. 1897 (DAHOMEY AND TONGOLAND).

SUDAN, The French: A. D. 1898-1899.

Agreement with Great Britain as to the limits.

See (in this volume)

NIGERIA: A. D. 1882-1899.
SUDANESE TROOPS: Mutiny in Uganda.

See (in this volume)

UGANDA: A. D. 1897-1898.

SUFFRAGE:
Qualifications in the several States of the American Union.

See (in this volume)

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1901 (JANUARY);
also, DELAWARE; LOUISIANA;
MARYLAND; MISSISSIPPI; NORTH CAROLINA; and SOUTH
CAROLINA.

SUFFRAGE, Woman.

See (in this volume)

WOMAN SUFFRAGE.

SUGAR BOUNTIES.

An extremely complicated and irrational state of things,

connected with the production and consumption of sugar
throughout the world, has been experienced for many years, as
a consequence of the system of bounties on exportation, by
which a number of European countries have stimulated the
production of beet-sugar, in competition with the sugar
produced from cane. The system was carried to its extreme
development in 1896-1897, in consequence of action taken in
Germany.

See (in this volume)

GERMANY: A. D. 1896 (MAY).

The legislation in other countries which followed the German

measure of 1896 was set forth briefly in a memorial from the