Analysis of Science, Technology, and

Innovation in Emerging Economies

Clara Inés Pardo Martínez
Visit to download the full and correct content document:
https://textbookfull.com/product/analysis-of-science-technology-and-innovation-in-em
erging-economies-clara-ines-pardo-martinez/
More products digital (pdf, epub, mobi) instant
download maybe you interests ...

Biota Grow 2C gather 2C cook Loucas

https://textbookfull.com/product/biota-grow-2c-gather-2c-cook-
loucas/

Globalizing Innovation State Institutions and Foreign

Direct Investment in Emerging Economies The MIT Press
1st Edition Egan

https://textbookfull.com/product/globalizing-innovation-state-
institutions-and-foreign-direct-investment-in-emerging-economies-
the-mit-press-1st-edition-egan/

Innovation, Technology, and Market Ecosystems: Managing

Industrial Growth in Emerging Markets Rajagopal

https://textbookfull.com/product/innovation-technology-and-
market-ecosystems-managing-industrial-growth-in-emerging-markets-
rajagopal/

Leadership Development in Emerging Market Economies 1st

Edition Alexandre Ardichvili

https://textbookfull.com/product/leadership-development-in-
emerging-market-economies-1st-edition-alexandre-ardichvili/
Data Analytics Applications in Latin America and
Emerging Economies First Edition Rodriguez

https://textbookfull.com/product/data-analytics-applications-in-
latin-america-and-emerging-economies-first-edition-rodriguez/

Emerging Research in Electronics Computer Science and

Technology Proceedings of International Conference
ICERECT 2018 V. Sridhar

https://textbookfull.com/product/emerging-research-in-
electronics-computer-science-and-technology-proceedings-of-
international-conference-icerect-2018-v-sridhar/

The Urban Transport Crisis in Emerging Economies 1st

Edition Dorina Pojani

https://textbookfull.com/product/the-urban-transport-crisis-in-
emerging-economies-1st-edition-dorina-pojani/

Telecom Management in Emerging Economies Evolutionary

and Contemporary Perspectives 1st Edition Murali
Krishna Medudula

https://textbookfull.com/product/telecom-management-in-emerging-
economies-evolutionary-and-contemporary-perspectives-1st-edition-
murali-krishna-medudula/

Circus, Science and Technology: Dramatising Innovation

Anna-Sophie Jürgens

https://textbookfull.com/product/circus-science-and-technology-
dramatising-innovation-anna-sophie-jurgens/
Analysis of Science,
Technology, and
Innovation in
Emerging
Economies
Clara Inés Pardo Martínez
Alexander Cotte Poveda
Sylvia Patricia Fletscher Moreno
Analysis of Science, Technology, and Innovation
in Emerging Economies
 Clara Inés Pardo Martínez
Alexander Cotte Poveda
Sylvia Patricia Fletscher Moreno
Editors

Analysis of Science,
Technology, and
Innovation in
Emerging Economies
Editors
Clara Inés Pardo Martínez Alexander Cotte Poveda
School of Management Universidad Santo Tomás
Universidad del Rosario Bogotá, Colombia
Bogotá, Colombia
Colombian Observatory of Science
Sylvia Patricia Fletscher Moreno and Technology (OCyT)
Colombian Observatory of Science Bogotá, Colombia
and Technology (OCyT)
Bogotá, Colombia

ISBN 978-3-030-13577-5    ISBN 978-3-030-13578-2 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-13578-2

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer
Nature Switzerland AG 2019
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the
Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of
translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on
microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval,
electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now
known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are
exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information
in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the
publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to
the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The
publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and
institutional affiliations.

This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature
Switzerland AG.
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
 Foreword

Research and development (R&D) occupies a central place in all schools

of economic thought, including the emphasis of several of them on the
innovation systems that make the link between R&D and economic activ-
ity. Strong education and labor training systems are also essential to pro-
vide the adequate high-quality labor required for all these activities and
have also been the focus of significant attention. All of them are required
to increase productivity, economic growth, and the standard of living of
the population. Advance in all these areas, but particularly in R&D, is seen
as essential to reduce the gap that separates emerging and developing
countries from more advanced nations. Due to these links, economic the-
ory recognizes the importance of developing strong science and technol-
ogy as well as equally robust production sector policies, that is, “industrial”
policies, though not in the narrow sense of manufacturing. This is both
due to the incapacity of the innovator (firm, group of researchers, or indi-
vidual persons) to fully appropriate the benefits of their innovations and
due to the strong interactions among innovators and firms that are
required to develop new economic activities—“externalities”, in the eco-
nomic jargon, and scale economies of different nature.
The “structuralist” tradition in economic thought emphasizes, in turn,
that the diversification of economic structures toward activities with
greater technological contents is essential and indeed the basic source of
economic growth. This tradition includes remarkable figures and intellec-
tual traditions, such as Joseph Schumpeter, Hollis Chenery—the first
World Bank chief economist—Raúl Prebisch, and the Latin American
structuralist and neo-structuralist traditions, the evolutionary school of

v
vi FOREWORD

economics associated with the work of Richard Nelson, among others,

and the “New Structuralist Economics” of a more recent World Bank
chief economist from China, Justin Yifu Lin. The incapacity to develop
these new higher-technology activities is seen in the recent literature as
one of the factors that may generate a “middle-income trap”: a tendency
to stagnate at middle-income levels, a phenomenon in which most Latin
American countries are probably the best examples in the world.
This is linked to the inadequate levels of R&D spending and the rela-
tively low share of private sector spending in this area, which are remark-
able features in Latin America. According to the most recent World Bank
and UNESCO data, Latin America and the Caribbean spent about 0.9%
of GDP in R&D, well below the level of upper middle-income countries
(1.7% of GDP) and those of developing countries in the East Asia and the
Pacific and OECD members (about 2.5% in both cases). The Latin
American average is associated with the relatively higher levels of spending
by Brazil (1.2%), which followed by a large margin by Argentina, Costa
Rica, and Mexico (in the 0.5–0.6% range) and, even more, Chile,
Colombia, Cuba, Ecuador, and Uruguay (in the 0.3–0.4% range); the rest
of the countries spent minimal amounts (about 0.1% of GDP or less) or
lack information (Venezuela). On the positive side, the trend has been
positive for most countries, with the major exceptions of Cuba and Panama.
When we add the resources invested in the broader category of “inno-
vation”, the results are somewhat more positive. For example, in the excel-
lent publication by the Colombian Observatory of Science and Technology,
led by one of the co-editors of this volume, Clara Inés Pardo Martínez,
which uses the most recent OECD guidelines to measure spending in
R&D and innovation, estimates that the broader range of outlays in sci-
ence, technology, and innovation reaches close to 0.7% of GDP in 2017
versus less than 0.3% for R&D. There are also somewhat good signals in
this area, including rising private spending, access to information and
communications technologies, and publications in indexed scientific jour-
nals. On the negative side, it shows the deplorable levels of patenting
innovations by Colombian researchers and firms, and the rather negative
trend for public-sector spending and the university system. Some of these
results are presented in Chap. 2 in this volume.
The link between inadequate levels of R&D with the “middle-income
trap” faced by Latin America seems to be clear. The major reflection is the
fairly broad de-industrialization trend that the region has been facing,
which is furthermore “premature” according to the existing literature, as
 FOREWORD vii

it has happened at much lower levels of per capita GDP than when it took
place in the now industrialized countries. This is, of course, in open con-
trast to the experience of East Asia, where industrialization and techno-
logical deepening has continued, not only in China but also in several
emerging economies in that region, some of which have made the transit
to high-income ones, notably the Republic of Korea. This is accompanied
by high levels of R&D spending, which has boomed in China, reaching
levels of more than 2% of GDP in recent years, and making the Republic
of Korea one of the outstanding performers in this area, with spending
that surpasses now 4% of GDP.
There are, of course, interesting cases in Latin America in terms of
R&D, which have had positive effects on the development of specific sec-
tors. Perhaps the more remarkable are in agricultural research, which has
been reflected in the leadership that some countries have in agricultural
production and exports at the world level, such as soybeans and maize
from Brazil and Argentina, which has had positive externalities on smaller
countries (Bolivia and Paraguay). There are a few other examples, such as
the aircraft industry and the deep-oil developments in Brazil. But these are
not generalized trends and are highly concentrated in Brazil, the Latin
American leader in R&D, as we have seen.
Doing research on these issues in relation to the emerging economies
is, therefore, essential to bring attention and upgrade policies in this area.
It is important, in particular, that research be close to the policymakers
themselves, to have a stronger policy impact. This book is a remarkable
case in this sense. It is edited by the two Colombian professors, including
the head of the Observatory of Science and Technology, and includes
contributions from several other Colombian professors and their partners
in Ecuador, Mexico, and Spain.
It covers a diverse set of interrelated issues. It includes broad policy
issues, such as the influence of science and technology in the development
of three major Latin American cities, the role of open access policies in
science in Colombia, technological policies and gender inclusion in sci-
ence and technology in Ecuador, and the broad effects of R&D on techni-
cal change in Latin America and the Caribbean. It also deals with sectoral
topics: biotechnology and pharmaceutical development, as well as water
access in Colombia, and the aerospace cluster in Querétaro, Mexico, and
what it can learn from a similar cluster in Madrid. And it includes analysis
of trends in scientific education, R&D, patenting, and the national percep-
tions of science, technology, and innovations in Colombia. The country
viii FOREWORD

most included in the analysis is Colombia, but also Ecuador, Mexico,

Chile, and Latin America and the Caribbean in general.
I am grateful to the editors of this volume, Alexander Cotte and Clara
Inés Pardo Martínez for inviting me to write the preface for this very inter-
esting and novel research volume, and congratulate Palgrave Macmillan
for an excellent addition to their outstanding book collection. I hope this
research will contribute to enhance the attention of authorities for the role
of science, technology, and innovation policies in Latin America.

Member of the Board of Banco de la República José Antonio Ocampo

(Colombia’s central bank) and professor
School of International and Public Affairs
Columbia University
New York, NY, USA
 Contents

1 Influence of Science, Technology and Innovation on

Urban Sustainability  1
William H. Alfonso Piña and Clara Inés Pardo Martínez
1.1 Introduction  1
1.2 Data and Method  7
1.3 Results  8
1.3.1 Comparative Analysis of the Main Success
Factors and Lessons Learned in Different
Regions from the Application of STI Guidelines  8
1.3.2 Characteristics of Trends in STI in the Selected
Latin American Cities 11
1.4 Conclusions 16
References 17

2 Applying a New Methodology to Measure Investment in

R&D and Science and Technology Activities: The Case of
Colombia 21
Alexander Cotte Poveda, Jorge Andrade Parra, and Clara Inés
Pardo Martínez
2.1 Introduction 21
2.2 Data and Methods 25
2.3 Results 27
2.3.1 Trends in STIA Expenditure in Colombia 27
2.3.2 Investments in STIA by Colombian Institutions 28

ix
x Contents

2.3.3 Distribution of STIA Expenditure by Type of

Activity 28
2.3.4 Governmental STIA Funding by Socioeconomic
Objective 30
2.4 Conclusions 32
References 33

3 Bioprospecting Model for a New Colombia Drug

Discovery Initiative in the Pharmaceutical Industry 37
Juan Bueno and Sebastian Ritoré
3.1 Introduction 37
3.2 The Biodiversity of Colombia 39
3.3 Sustainable Biocommerce: The Valuation of Life and
Application of Biodiversity to Benefit the Prosperity of
Colombia 40
3.4 Problem Tree Analysis: To Understand the Problem Is to
Have the Solution 43
3.5 SWOT Analysis for Implementation of a Bioprospecting
Program in Colombia 45
3.5.1 Market Study on the Biopharmaceutical
Industry in Colombia 45
3.6 Risk Analysis and Risk Management in a Bioprospecting
Program 54
3.7 Trends in Bioprospecting to Solve Problems in Innovation 56
3.8 Conclusions 56
References 58

4 Patents for All: A Content Analysis of an Open-access

Dataset of Colombian Patents 1930–2000  65
Julián David Cortés-Sánchez
4.1 Introduction 65
4.2 Literature Review 68
4.3 Methods 73
4.4 Results 74
4.5 Discussion 82
4.6 Conclusions 89
References 91
 Contents  xi

5 Open Access Policies in Science to Promote Science,

Technology and Innovation in Emerging Economies. The
Case of Colombia 95
Karen Isabel Cabrera Peña and Patricia Beatriz Márquez
Rodríguez
5.1 Introduction 95
5.1.1 Literature Review 96
5.2 The Case of Colombia and Latin America 99
5.3 Methods100
5.4 Results101
5.4.1 Countries with Open Access Policies Associated
with STI101
5.4.2 Colombian Legal Framework on STI and Its
Relation to Open Access106
5.5 Conclusions115
References117

6 The Inclusion of Ecuadorian Women in Scientific-­

Technological Fields121
Antonio A. Franco-Crespo, Fernando Herrera García, and
Jessica Lin Gutiérrez
6.1 Introduction121
6.2 Literature Review123
6.3 Methods131
6.4 Results133
6.5 Conclusions137
References139

7 Effects of Expenditures in Science, Technology and R&D

on Technical Change in Countries in Latin America and
the Caribbean143
Alexander Cotte Poveda and Clara Carolina Jimenez
7.1 Introduction143
7.2 Data and Methodology145
7.2.1 Data145
7.2.2 Methodology146
7.3 Results147
7.4 Conclusions150
References154
xii Contents

8 Science, Technology and Water Access157

Gustavo Correa Assmus
8.1 Introduction157
8.2 Theoretical Framework158
8.3 Data and Methods160
8.4 Results162
8.4.1 Business Characterization162
8.4.2 Budget Participation163
8.4.3 Inflationary Effect163
8.4.4 Tax Participation163
8.4.5 Training of Scientific Staff164
8.4.6 Patent Development and Innovation164
8.5 Discussion165
8.6 Conclusions166
References167

9 The Ecuadorian Scientific Technological Policy Within

the Framework of “Buen Vivir”, a Dispute with the
Orthodoxy of Development169
Fernando Herrera García, Jessica Lin Gutiérrez, and Antonio
A. Franco-Crespo
9.1 Introduction169
9.2 Literature Review170
9.3 Methodology174
9.4 Results and Discussion175
9.4.1 The Academy-Government Relations Regarding
Higher Education Reform178
9.4.2 Change of PS&T and Conceptions of the
Relevant Participants181
9.5 Conclusions187
References189

10 Against All Odds: Scientific Education, Scientific

Competences and the Ideals of an Educated Country,
Colombia 1995–2010195
Gina G. Calderón and Edgar G. Eslava
10.1 Introduction195
 Contents  xiii

10.2 Literature Review197

10.2.1 UNESCO on Scientific Education and
Competences198
10.2.2 European Union “Key Competences”200
10.2.3 Competences in OECD DeSeCo Project202
10.2.4 Competences and Scientific Competences in
PISA204
10.2.5 Studies About Scientific Competences in
Colombian Scientific Education Policies207
10.3 Methodology208
10.4 Results211
10.4.1 General Statistics212
10.4.2 Clusters Analysis: Internal Coherence and
Consistency213
10.4.3 Survey: The Vision of the Colombian Teachers
and Experts216
10.5 Conclusions218
References219

11 Perception in Science, Technology and Innovation: A

Comparative Review for the Years 2012 and 2015 from
Colombian Surveys225
Sylvia Patricia Fletscher Moreno and Clara Inés Pardo
Martínez
11.1 Introduction225
11.2 Research Method227
11.3 Results and Implications229
11.3.1 Socio-demographic Characteristics230
11.3.2 Interest and Information S&T230
11.3.3 Attitudes and Valuation232
11.3.4 Social Appropriation of Science and Technology233
11.3.5 Citizen Participation234
11.3.6 Public Policies235
11.3.7 Perception Indexes236
11.4 Conclusions242
References244
xiv Contents

12 Innovation, Entrepreneurship, and Technology-Based

Clusters in Emerging Economies: How Can the Madrid
Aerospace Cluster Reinforce the Mexican Aerospace
Industry?245
José Manuel Saiz-Alvarez and José Ramón Gutiérrez-Martín
12.1 Introduction245
12.2 Literature Review248
12.2.1 The Importance of Entrepreneurship-Based
Innovation248
12.2.2 The Development of Industrial Clusters250
12.2.3 Technological Innovation and Endogenous
Development253
12.2.4 Innovation Processes in Sectoral Clusters257
12.2.5 Cluster Location258
12.2.6 The Querétaro Aerospace Valley (Mexico)260
12.2.7 The INNOVA Model of Madrid Aerospace
Cluster (Spain)262
12.3 Method263
12.3.1 Research Results264
12.4 Conclusions268
References270

13 Strategies for Identification of Interdisciplinary Research

Subjects: Approach, Tools, and Opportunities for
Sustainable Development of Agricultural Economies275
Wilmar Osorio Viana, Paola Andrea Calderón Cuartas,
and Javier Mauricio Naranjo Vasco
13.1 Introduction275
13.2 Literature Review279
13.3 Methods281
13.4 Results286
13.5 Conclusions and Significance293
References293
 Contents  xv

14 An Analysis of Urban Public Policy Regarding Science,

Technology and Innovation from the Perceptions of
Stakeholders: A Case Study for a City of an Emerging
Country297
Alexander Cotte Poveda, Clara Carolina Jimenez, and Clara
Inés Pardo Martínez
14.1 Introduction297
14.2 Trends in Science, Technology and Innovation (STI)
Policy in Bogotá301
14.3 Methods305
14.4 Results309
14.5 Discussion314
14.6 Conclusions316
References317

Glossary of Acronyms319
 Notes on Contributors

William H. Alfonso Piña Architect, with intensification in Architectural

Design and Environmental Issues, Master in Theory of Architecture and
holds a PhD. The professional performance experience has been oriented
towards the management and research in land use, public space, heritage
and coordination and development of urban and environmental studies,
which includes the implementation of investment projects.
Jorge Andrade Parra Master in Economics, Master in Public Policy and
Economist from the Universidad de los Andes. More than seven years of
professional experience in the public sector. With advanced knowledge of
public finances, public innovation in Colombia, public budgets, national
competitiveness and economic information analysis, he has served as
advisor to the Ministry of Finance.
Juan Bueno Researcher in Bioprospecting development and consulting.
Chief Scientific Officer Fundación Centro de Investigación de Bioprospección
y Biotecnología de la Biodiversidad Biolabb. Doctor in medicine, master’s
degree in biomedical sciences. Expert in design and implementation of anti-
microbial platforms to evaluate natural products and synthesis drugs with the
aim of optimizing in vitro antimicrobial activity.
Karen Isabel Cabrera Peña Assistant Professor of Law at Universidad
del Norte, with a PhD in Law and expertise in computer and society, pub-
lic law and legal process. Her research interests are public and legal admin-
istration, legal culture, civil and commercial matters. She has some
publications related to open science, copyright, public policies, internet
governance, among others.
xvii
xviii NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS

Gina G. Calderón Licentiate in Biology and Education with an MSc in

Science Didactics. Specialist in the development of integration, appropria-
tion and evaluation projects of ICT in educational environments. Researcher
and consultant in educative innovation, evaluation of educational models,
contents design and Virtual Learning Environments. Works in the Education
Innovation Office at Colombia’s National Ministry of Education.
Paola Andrea Calderón Cuartas Environmental manager with an MSc
in Agricultural Production Systems, Associate Professor in the Department
of Environmental Engineering of Universidad Católica de Manizales
(Colombia). Her research interests include management processes, cul-
ture and environmental education for sustainable production and con-
sumption. She is leading a research project to understand and improve the
environmental management systems used in Latin American universities.
Gustavo Correa Assmus PhD in Agrociencias, research professor at the
Universidad de La Salle. His research interests are water, poverty and
development in Colombia. He has experience and publications related to
environment, education, environmental economic valuation, environmen-
tal services payment, sustainable management, Colombian natural parks,
productivity and competitiveness, among others.
Julián David Cortés-Sánchez is resigned to perpetual learning. He is a
distinguished professor at the Universidad del Rosario’s School of
Management (Colombia). He has been a teaching assistant at Universidad
de Los Andes (Colombia), a junior researcher funded by Colciencias
(Colombia), and a guest lecturer at the University of California, Berkeley.
Alexander Cotte Poveda PhD (c) in Economics from the Universität
Göttingen in Germany, master’s in Economics from the University of the
Andes, Economist from the Central University. Research Associate of the
Colombian Observatory of Science and Technology—OCyT. International
Consultant on Science, Technology and Innovation for the World Bank.
Research topics are research, development and innovation—R&D+I,
among others.
Edgar G. Eslava BSc in Physics and Education, MSc and PhD in
Philosophy. Teacher, researcher and consultant in the areas of i­ nternational
education and educational policies. Faculty member of the Philosophy and
Letters department at Universidad Santo Tomas. Leads research projects
in philosophy of science and technology, philosophy of education and
integrated teaching.
 NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS xix

Sylvia Patricia Fletscher Moreno Magister in Human Resources

Management and Organizational Development, Universidad Externado de
Colombia. Specialist in International Business and International Trade. Vast
experience in project management, and in administrative, academic and
financial management. Professor of Microeconomics, Economic Theory
and Principles of Economics in Universidad Externado de Colombia.
Antonio A. Franco-Crespo Engineer in Electronics and Telecommuni­
cations, Specialist in Educational Management, Master in Business
Management and holds a PhD in Administration (UASB). Professor at
Escuela Politécnica Nacional in Ecuador. His lines of research are the
impacts of science, technology and innovation in society; women, science
and technology; and the market-environment-society relationship.
José Ramón Gutiérrez-Martín PhD in Business Sciences, Nebrija
University, and executive MBA (EMBA), IESE Business School (University
of Navarra). Full professor, consultant, and MBA, EMBA degree holder and
Alumni Director, ESDEN Business School, Spain. He has also taught in Spain
(Carlos III University) and Japan (IUJ, Niigata; and YCU, Yokohama) on
entrepreneurship, finance, innovation, and business in Eastern Asia.
Fernando Herrera García Engineer in Electronics and Information
Networks, Master in Development Economics and Doctor in Social
Sciences from FLACSO Ecuador. Professor—Researcher at Escuela
Politécnica Nacional in Ecuador. Member of the ESOCITE and of the
“Ecuadorian Society of Social Studies of Science and Technology”.
Specialist in science, technology and innovation policy; and political econ-
omy of public policies.
Clara Carolina Jimenez Political scientist and Magister in Economics of
Public Policies of the Universidad del Rosario. With skills in qualitative
and quantitative analysis. With experience both in the Education Sector,
and in NGO and Consulting. A researcher in scientific policy and innova-
tion of the Colombian Observatory of Science and Technology.
Jessica Lin Gutiérrez Business Engineer, graduated at Escuela Politécnica
Nacional in Ecuador. She is a product manager, and researches, selects,
and promotes the development of products in the organization where she
works, in Buenos Aires city. She is doing her master’s degree in International
Economic Relations at the University of Buenos Aires.
xx NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS

Patricia Beatriz Márquez Rodríguez Assistant Professor of Business

School at Universidad del Norte. PhD in Integration of Information
Technologies to organizations and Industrial Engineer from Universidad
Politécnica de Valencia. Her research interests are innovation and entrepre-
neurships, innovation management, social innovation, value chain, among
others, with publications, experience and consultancies in these topics.
Javier Mauricio Naranjo Vasco PhD in Chemical Engineering, Associate
Professor in the Department of Environmental Engineering of Universidad
Católica de Manizales (Colombia). An expert in the use of agro-food waste
for biorefineries, he is now focusing on industrial, agro-industrial and urban
solid waste valorization, taking into account issues on environmental edu-
cation, urban environmental management and life cycle assessment.
Wilmar Osorio Viana PhD in Chemical Engineering, Associate Professor
in the Department of Environmental Engineering of Universidad Católica
de Manizales (Colombia). His main research interests are now focusing on
the application of advanced technologies for the valorization of residues
into high-tech products and the knowledge management innovation strat-
egies required to increase social development in Latin America.
Clara Inés Pardo Martínez Food, Environmental and Sanitary Engineer,
with a master’s degree in Management, PhD in economics, and Postdoctorate
in energy and climate studies. International leading auditor with experience in
advising, consulting, research and teaching on issues related to environmental
and sustainability. She is full professor at the Universidad del Rosario’s School
of Management in Bogotá, Colombia and Consultant of different national
and international organizations.
Sebastian Ritoré is a photographer who works with the government of
Quindio, Armenia, Colombia.
José Manuel Saiz-Alvarez PhD in Economics and Business Administration,
Autonomous University of Madrid and a PhD in Sociology, the Pontifical
University of Salamanca. GIEE faculty-researcher, EGADE Business
School—Tecnologico de Monterrey (Mexico), and invited professor of dif-
ferent universities. Accredited by the Spain Agency for the Evaluation of
Quality and Accreditation and by the Mexican System of Researchers
(Mexico).
 List of Figures

Fig. 1.1 The main indicators of Santiago de Chile related to economic

performance and STI (patents are not indexed by number of
patents per year) 12
Fig. 1.2 The main indicators of Mexico City related to economic
performance and STI (patents are not indexed by number of
patents per year) 14
Fig. 1.3 The main indicators of Bogotá related to economic
performance and STI (patents are not indexed by number of
patents per year) 15
Fig. 2.1 Trends in STIA as a percentage of GDP. Source: OCyT
(2018). Note: p provisional data, pr preliminary data, py
projected data 27
Fig. 2.2 Trends in STIA investment as a percentage of GDP. Source:
OCyT (2018). Note: p provisional data, pr preliminary data, py
projected data 30
Fig. 2.3 Investments in R&D by socioeconomic objective. Source:
OCyT (2018). Note: p provisional data, pr preliminary data, py
projected data 31
Fig. 2.4 Investments in STIA by socioeconomic objective. Source:
OCyT (2018). Note: p provisional data, pr preliminary data, py
projected data 32
Fig. 3.1 Problem tree analysis of bioprospecting and the biotechnology
industry in Colombia 44
Fig. 3.2 Innovation trends in phytotherapeutics (number of products
developed) (Superintendencia de Industria y Comercio-SIC,
CIGEPI, 2015) 51

xxi
xxii List of Figures

Fig. 3.3 Phytotherapeutic patent applicants in Colombia

(Superintendencia de Industria y Comercio-SIC, CIGEPI,
2015)51
Fig. 3.4 Types of patent applicants for phytotherapeutics in Colombia
(SIC, CIGEPI, 2015) 52
Fig. 3.5 Companies applying for patents on phytotherapeutics in
Colombia (Superintendencia de Industria y Comercio-SIC,
CIGEPI, 2015) 52
Fig. 3.6 Trademarks registered in Colombia by leading patent
applicants on phytotherapeutic (Superintendencia de Industria
y Comercio-SIC, CIGEPI, 2015) 53
Fig. 4.1 Dependency rate, 2006–2015. Source: OCyT, 2015, p. 120 70
Fig. 4.2 Self-sufficiency rate, 2006–2015. Source: OCyT, 2015, p. 121 71
Fig. 4.3 Invention coefficient, 2006–2015. Source: Author, based on
OCyT, 2015, p. 122 71
Fig. 4.4 Colombians’ patent application and granted patents rates in
international offices, 2006–2015. Source: Author, based on
OCyT, 2015, p. 123 72
Fig. 4.5 Number of patents granted in Colombia in 1930–2000.
Source: The author based on Mayor, 2005 74
Fig. 4.6 Invention coefficient 1985–1998. Source: The author based
on Mayor, 2005, and the National Statistics Department
(DANE), 1985–1998 75
Fig. 4.7 Publication of patents by type of inventor. Source: The author
based on Mayor, 2005 75
Fig. 4.8 Content analysis of word frequency in patent titles. Source:
The author based on Mayor (2005) and analyzed using Voyant
Tools76
Fig. 4.9 Ratio of the terms in patent names in 1930–1953, 1954–
1977, and 1978–2000. Source: The author based on Mayor
(2005) and analyzed using Voyant Tools 76
Fig. 4.10 Collocation graph of keywords in patent names in 1930–1953.
Source: The author based on Mayor (2005), and analyzed
using Voyant Tools 77
Fig. 4.11 Collocation graph of keywords in patent names in 1954–1977.
Source: The author based on Mayor (2005), and analyzed
using Voyant Tools 78
Fig. 4.12 Collocation graph of keywords in patent names in 1978–2000.
Source: The author based on Mayor (2005), and analyzed
using Voyant Tools 78
 List of Figures  xxiii

Fig. 4.13 Collocation graph of keywords in patent names granted in

cities in the Andean (left) and Caribbean (right) regions.
Source: The author based on Mayor (2005), and analyzed
using Voyant Tools 79
Fig. 4.14 Collocation graph of keywords in patent titles granted to
companies. Source: The author based on Mayor (2005), and
analyzed using Voyant Tools 80
Fig. 4.15 Collocation graph of keywords in patent titles granted to
groups of people. Source: The author based on Mayor (2005),
and analyzed using Voyant Tools 80
Fig. 4.16 Collocation graph of keywords in patent titles granted to
individual male inventors. Source: The author based on Mayor
(2005), and analyzed using Voyant Tools 81
Fig. 4.17 Collocation graph of keywords in patent titles granted to
individual female inventors. Source: The author based on
Mayor (2005), and analyzed using Voyant Tools 81
Fig. 4.18 Number of patents by IPC section. Source: The author based
on Mayor (2005) and WIPO (2017a) 83
Fig. 4.19 Top five IPC sections from 1930 to 2000 and patent
application by field of technology 2017. Source: The author
based on Mayor (2005) and WIPO (2017a) 88
Fig. 5.1 Evolution of GDP (US$ millions) vs. R&D Investment (as a
GDP Percentage) in Colombia, 1990–2015 113
Fig. 5.2 Evolution of GDP (US$ millions) vs. R&D investment (as a
GDP percentage) in Colombia, 1990–2015 114
Fig. 5.3 Number of Open Access publications in Scopus. Colombia vs.
Worldwide 1996–2016 114
Fig. 7.1 Technical change, research and development, and science and
technology in Latin America and the Caribbean 151
Fig. 7.2 Technical change, science publications and patents in Latin
America and the Caribbean 152
Fig. 7.3 Technical change, education and expenditure in technology
and communications in Latin America and the Caribbean 153
Fig. 9.1 Higher education system and science and technology system
before 2010. CONESUP (Consejo Nacional de Educación
Superior), CONEA (Consejo Nacional de Evaluación y
Acreditación de la Educación Superior) 181
Fig. 9.2 Higher education system and science and technology system
after 2010. CES (Consejo de Educación Superior), CEACCES
(Consejo de Evaluación, Acreditación y Aseguramiento de la
Calidad de la Educación Superior) 182
xxiv List of Figures

Fig. 11.1 Do you consider that science or technology is made in

Colombia? Source: SPPS&T, 2012 and 2015 OCyT 229
Fig. 11.2 Media by which the respondent is informed about science and
technology. Source: SPPS&T, 2012 and 2015 OCyT 231
Fig. 11.3 Problems that could be solved with innovation. Source:
SPPS&T, 2012 and 2015 OCyT 233
Fig. 11.4 Activities related to science and technology done by
respondents. Source: SPPS&T, 2012 and 2015 OCyT 234
Fig. 11.5 Solutions generated by science and technology according to
respondents in both surveys. Source: SPPS&T, 2012 and 2015
OCyT236
Fig. 12.1 Growth axis in the aerospace industry. Source: Authors 247
Fig. 13.1 Colombian model for science, technology, and innovation
(Adapted from CONPES, DNP, 2015) 279
Fig. 13.2 RG-TED research lines and its year of creation 282
Fig. 13.3 Particular research topics emerged from the RG-TED research
lines283
Fig. 13.4 RG-TED historic research subjects ordered by their global
projection indicator 288
Fig. 13.5 Conceptual map for the emergence of interdisciplinarity in
RG-TED289
Fig. 13.6 Conceptual frame in order to understand the group behavior
and performance dynamics 291
Fig. 13.7 A general strategy for the knowledge management for research
groups in LA&C countries 292
Fig. 14.1 Potential indirect influence and dependence map 310
Fig. 14.2 Relational analysis for role the State, universities and enterprise 313
Fig. 14.3 Value chain in the formulation of STI policy 315
 List of Pictures

Picture 1 The páramo ecosystem represents 17% of Colombia’s floral

diversity, yet covers only 2.5% of the continental territory
(Marín & Parra, 2015) 40
Picture 2 Any biotrade initiative must be registered under the Nagoya
protocol, so that the benefits are shared equitably in the
communities affected (Kang, Jung, & Ryu, 2015) 41

xxv
 List of Tables

Table 1.1 Comparative analysis related to success factors and lessons

learned from STI guidelines 9
Table 2.1 Main studies of the relationship between R&D and
economic growth and development 23
Table 2.2 The main trends in STIA investments by institutions,
2009–201729
Table 3.1 SWOT analysis for bioprospecting and biotechnology
enterprises in Colombia 46
Table 3.2 Drugs under development by the pharmaceutical industry,
201148
Table 3.3 Top 10 pharmaceutical companies by sales (billions of
dollars)48
Table 3.4 Concentration of drug market in Colombia, 1993–2007
(Vásquez Velásquez et al., 2010) 54
Table 5.1 Countries with Open Access policies associated with STI 102
Table 5.2 Policy strategies to implement in countries with emerging
economies (Colombia) 116
Table 6.1 The data of the number of publications made by Ecuador
and its neighboring countries (2007–2016) 128
Table 6.2 The data of the number of publications made by Ecuador
and its neighboring countries (2007–2016) 128
Table 6.3 The percentage of women’s participation in the academic
field129
Table 6.4 The number of women who have traveled abroad for studies 130
Table 6.5 Recurring codes 133
Table 6.6 Categories 134

xxvii
xxviii List of Tables

Table 7.1 Dependent GDP 146

Table 7.2 Fixed-effects estimations of technical change 148
Table 7.3 Fixed-effects with Driscoll and Kraay standard errors
estimations of technical change 149
Table 11.1 Structure of survey on public perception of S&T 228
Table 11.2 Comparative results of the 12-perception index calculated
from the perception surveys of the years 2012 and 2015 at
the national level 237
Table 12.1 Firms belonging to the Querétaro Aerospace Valley
(excluded SMEs) 260
Table 12.2 Descriptive statistics of selected variables from the sample 264
Table 12.3 Matrix of correlations 265
Table 12.4 KMO and Bartlett tests 266
Table 12.5 Commonalities 266
Table 13.1 Some countries in the Cornell University et al. 2017 ranking
(adapted)277
Table 13.2 Level of interdisciplinary treatment of a research topic and
interdisciplinarity indicator 284
Table 13.3 Contribution scale of a research topic to the area of
knowledge and complexity indicator 285
Table 13.4 Prioritized sustainable development goals for RG-TED/
context and congruence indicator 285
Table 13.5 RG-TED historic research subjects and indicators for
knowledge management 287
Table 13.6 Key factors of the interaction in external couplings for
RG-TED292
Table 14.1 The current scheme of the STI policy in Bogotá 303
Table 14.2 Interviews and focus groups carried out within the
framework of the project to determine the main factors to be
considered in an STI policy 306
Table 14.3 List of factors obtained from interviews and focus groups 308
Table 14.4 Vester Matrix 309
Table 14.5 Influence matrix factor typology 309
 CHAPTER 1

Influence of Science, Technology

and Innovation on Urban Sustainability

William H. Alfonso Piña and Clara Inés Pardo Martínez

1.1   Introduction
Science, technology and innovation (STI) are fundamental to promoting
sustainable development in cities, taking into account the fact that more
than 90% growth in urban populations is expected in the next 30 years; it
is important to determine what are the best conditions to maintain ade-
quate infrastructure, reduce the use of resources, and prevent environ-
mental deterioration and the risk of natural disasters, and STI have an
important role because they can provide different solutions to improve the
quality of life in urban areas (UNCTAD, 2013).
Cities that are global knowledge leaders are normally characterized by a
high concentration of STI resources that attract the best human resources,
effective researchers and institutions that generate quality research and

W. H. Alfonso Piña (*)

Universidad del Rosario, Bogotá, Colombia
e-mail: william.alfonso@urosario.edu.co
C. I. Pardo Martínez
School of Management, Universidad del Rosario, Bogotá, Colombia
e-mail: clara.pardo@urosario.edu.co

© The Author(s) 2019 1

C. I. Pardo Martínez et al. (eds.), Analysis of Science, Technology,
and Innovation in Emerging Economies,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-13578-2_1
2 W. H. ALFONSO PIÑA AND C. I. PARDO MARTÍNEZ

social impact, a friendly commercial environment with an open culture, a

knowledge-based economy conducive to the growth of emerging indus-
tries and close links with global STI networks generating growth develop-
ment through international collaborations (Advertisement Feature, 2017).
Factors that promote growth and development in the regions around
the world have close relationships with investments and the strengthening
of research and development (R&D) in different socioeconomic contexts
and local wealth, indicating the regional value added by a complex and
holistic STI approach, which allows for a decrease in inequality and a
strengthening of land-use planning based on knowledge that is key to
smart cities (Dettori, Marrocu, & Paci, 2012). This approach has been
applied by different regions generating transformations in the flows of
investments, information and services in the main commerce hubs of (by
order of importance) London, New York and Tokyo, followed by Madrid,
Milan and Shanghai, as second hub; Latin American cities have begun to
work to apply STI in urban management with the aim of connecting to
the flows of global commerce (Caicedo Aspril, 2011).
Considering that most urban regions share a large number of similari-
ties and productive dynamics, a strategic approach is needed to help dif-
ferentiate between regions, beyond landscape and cultural aspects, through
increased investment in R&D, which improves the value added and pro-
ductivity. In Latin America, this strategy for global competitiveness is
known as investment in STI.
In the cities, technology can improve urban planning and governance
by using different strategies to improve transportation and water and
energy supplies, localize settlements with lower risks and better localize
urban infrastructure.
This study starts from the conception of a correlation among the con-
cepts of R&D, regional differentiation and development. The existence of
such a correlation is clear from the fact that the current global dynamics
have shown that what generates more added value to cities and regions is
their investment in STI, which helps to overcome the homogenization of
productivity between urban regions.
The main argument in favour of STI as a key to differentiated regional
development is based on the fact that regional agglomeration provides the
best context for a knowledge economy (Hudson, 1999) and for the creation
and dissemination of knowledge as well as for learning (Valdez-­Lafarga &
León-Balderrama, 2015). Moreover, innovation plays a predominant role in
the postulates of Porter (2000) to sustain ­competitiveness. The author
argues that, for the specific case of a region, prosperity is linked to the
 INFLUENCE OF SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND INNOVATION… 3

region’s competitive advantage, and the first driving force of competitive

advantage is innovation that depends on the results and process of knowl-
edge generation through science and technology.
Camagni (2003, p. 8) states that, from an urban economy perspective,
the explanatory arguments of the competitive advantages of large cities
and urban agglomerations always attach special importance to the effects
derived from innovation, which is a dimension that generates economies
of scale derived from the indivisibility of some processes and is the funda-
mental cause of the emergence of positive externalities. Therefore, a large
number of metropolitan regions of the world are those that, with their
stockpiling of physical, human capital, finance and knowledge, generate
the largest volume of localization and urbanization economies and consti-
tute an attractor for all types of activities, especially those with high STI
content as a key element in the sophistication of markets and higher growth.
The analysis of STI as a competitiveness factor highlights the relation-
ship among region, knowledge, innovation and diffusion, as well as the
spatial dimension of the technical change supported by the construction
of local and/or national innovation systems (Ramirez J. & Parra-Peña S.,
2010), and demonstrates that the notions of technical change, innovation
and competitiveness are closely related to development (Cimoli, Carlos, &
Annalisa, 2005).
Globalization has opened up a wide range of opportunities for the pro-
ductive sectors in developing countries to be competitive and exploit
forms of improved growth and progress. However, a basic requirement for
development is that the different production sectors increase their techno-
logical standards (Chadha, 2007, p. 415) to a great extent; it is now essen-
tial for industries to expand their STI efforts in a liberalized and globalized
environment to be able to respond successfully to the current competition
and production dynamics.
All of the above has generated increasing recognition among regional
authorities that economic growth and the competitiveness of their
regions depend to a large extent on the ability of the companies in these
regions to innovate, which is why offering appropriate support to help
local companies to be more innovative and competitive is now a key fac-
tor in regional policy (Cooke & Memedovic, 2003, p. 8).
Second, STI is not only crucial for regional economic competitiveness
but also for the growth of basic productivity. The findings suggest that
expenditures on R&D, industrial diversity and the distribution of human
capital endowments can have an important effect on the generation of
innovation and productivity (Mukim, 2012, p. 357).
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
 XVIII.
RELICS OF THE ARK.

We have already seen that Berosus relates how in his time portions
of the ark were removed, and used as amulets. Josephus says that
remains of the ark were to be seen at his day upon Ararat; and
Nicolas of Damascus reports the same. S. Epiphanius writes: “The
wood of the ark of Noah is shown to this day in the Kardæan (Koord)
country.”[261] And he is followed by a host of fathers. El Macin, in his
History of the Saracens, relates that the Emperor Heraclius visited
the relics after he had conquered the Persians, in the city of Thenia,
at the roots of Ararat. Haithon, the Armenian, declares that upon the
snows of Ararat a black speck is visible at all times: this is Noah’s
ark.[262] Benjamin of Tudela, in his Itinerary, says that all the wood
was carried away by the Caliph Omar, in A.D. 640, and was placed by
him in a temple or mosque he erected in an island formed by the
Tigris. One of the beams is shown in the Lateran at Rome. In 1670,
Johann Jansenius Strauss ascended to a hermit’s cell on the side of
Ararat, to bind up the cœnobite’s leg which was broken. The hermit’s
cell, said Strauss, was five days’ journey up the mountain, athwart
three clouds, and above a region of intolerable cold, in a calm warm
atmosphere. From the account of the hermit, Herr Strauss learnt that
the old man had dwelt there twenty-five years, and that he had felt
there neither rain nor winds. On the top of the mountain, fifteen
Italian miles from the cell, through the clear air, was distinguishable
the great vessel grounded in the snow. The hermit had reached it,
and of one of its planks had cut a cross, which he exhibited to the
German traveller.
In the town of Chenna, in Arabia Felix, says the traveller Prévoux, is
a large building, said to have been erected by Noah; and a large
piece of wood is exhibited through an iron grating, which is said to
have formed a portion of his ark. There is also to be seen at Chenna
a well, said to have been dug by the patriarch Jacob, of which the
water is icy cold.
The Armenians say that a certain monk, Jacob, once ascended
Ararat, and carried off a fragment of the ark, which he made
afterwards into a cross, and this is preserved amongst the sacred
relics of Etchmiadzin. When the Persian king, Abassus the Great,
sent to inquire about the ark, the monks replied that it was in vain for
him to attempt to reach it, on account of the precipices and glaciers,
and innumerable difficulties of the way.[263]
 XIX.
CERTAIN DESCENDANTS OF HAM.

We shall follow certain Mussulman traditions for what follows. Ad,

son of Amalek, therefore grandson of Ham, established himself in
Arabia, where he became chief of the tribe of the Adites. He fell into
idolatry. He had two sons named Schedad and Schedéd, who
reigned over numerous subjects—one for two hundred and fifty, the
other for three hundred years. They built a superb city, where houses
were of sumptuous magnificence; the like of this city was never seen
before, nor will be seen again. This city vanished when the tribe of
the Adites was exterminated; as we shall relate when we give the
legends attaching to Heber. The commentators of the Koran tell
marvels of this wondrous city.
Under the Khalifate of Moawiyah, first of the Ommiades, an Arab of
the desert, named Kolabah, going in quest of his camel in the plain
of Aden, lighted on the gate of a beautiful city. He went in, but, being
filled with fear, he did not remain there more time than sufficed for
him to collect some of the stones of the street, and then he returned.
His neighbours, to whom he relates his adventure, repeated it to the
Khalif, who ordered Kolabah to be brought before him. The Arab
related frankly what he had seen, but Moawiyah would not give
credence to the marvellous tale, till he had consulted his learned
men, and especially the illustrious Al-Akhbar, who assured him that
the story of the poor Arab was worthy of all trust, for the city he had
seen was none other than that built by Schedad, son of Ad, in the
land of the Adites in which Aden is situated; and that, as the pride of
this prince knew no bounds, God had sent His angel to destroy all
the inhabitants, and conceal their splendid city from the eyes of men,
to be revealed only at intervals, that the memory of God’s judgment
might not fade out of men’s minds.
Schedad had a son named Dhohak, of whom strange tales are told.
He knew magic, and gained the sovereignty over the entire universe;
and he kept his subjects in terror by excessive cruelty. In the
Caherman-Nâmeh it is related that the Devil, satisfied with his
proceedings, offered him his services gratuitously, and they were
cheerfully accepted. The ferocity of the tyrant increased, he skinned
men alive, impaled and crucified them on the slightest charges.
After having served him five years, the Evil One thus addressed him:
“Sire! for many years I have been thy faithful attendant, neither have
I received of thee any recompense. Now I beseech of thee one
favour—that I may kiss thy shoulders.”
This favour was readily granted. Dhohak himself plucked off his
mantle to facilitate the kiss.
But no sooner had the Devil applied his lips to the two shoulders of
the tyrant, than two serpents, which could not be plucked off,
fastened there and began to gnaw his flesh.
Tabari says that the king bore on his shoulders two frightful ulcers or
cancers, resembling serpents’ heads, sent him by God as a
punishment for his crimes. These cancers caused him such acute
agony, that he shrieked night and day. No one was able to provide a
remedy or to abate the torment.
One night when he was asleep, some one appeared to him in a
dream, and said, “If you desire your ulcers to give less pain, apply to
them human brains.”
Next day, Dhohak awoke and ordered two men to be brought before
him; he slew them, cut open their skulls, extracted the brains and
applied them to his cancers. The relief was instantaneous, and
Dhohak felt, for the first time for many days, some hours of repose.
After this, every day two men were killed to form poultices for his
ulcers. During the two hundred latter years of the life of Dhohak, the
prisons were emptied to satisfy his requirement for fresh brains; and
when no more criminals could be procured, it was made a tribute for
his kingdom to render to him two men, each day, to be immolated to
soothe his pain.
Now there was at Ispahan a blacksmith, named Kaveh, who had two
beautiful sons, whom he loved more dearly than his own life. One
day they were seized, carried before the king, and his shoulders
were poulticed with their brains.
Kaveh was at work at his anvil when the news of the slaying of his
sons reached him. He deserted his anvil; and uttering a piercing cry,
he rushed into the streets, with his leathern apron before him, bitterly
lamenting his loss, and calling for vengeance on the monarch. The
people crowded about him, they plucked off his leather apron, and
converted it into a standard.
The crowd gathered as it advanced. From every street men flowed to
join the army, and shortly the blacksmith found himself at the head of
a hundred thousand men.
They marched to Demavend, where was the palace of the tyrant.
And Kaveh, before attacking it, thus addressed his soldiers, “I am not
one to lead you against a king; you need a king to make war against
a king.”
“Well,” said his followers, “we elect you to be our king.”
“I am but a simple blacksmith, and am not fit to rule,” answered
Kaveh, “but there is a royal prince named Afridoun, the son of
Djemschid, who has fled from the cruelty of Dhohak: choose him.”
They agreed. The prince was found and invested with the
sovereignty; then a battle was fought, and Dhohak’s army was
routed, and the tyrant was slain.
When Afridoun mounted the throne, he named Kaveh governor of
Ispahan. And when Kaveh was dead, the king asked his children to
give him their father’s leathern apron. Then, having obtained it, he
placed it among his treasures, and whenever he went to battle he
attached the smith’s apron to a tall staff, and marched under that
banner against his enemies.
In after years, this leathern apron was studded with precious stones,
till Omar, despising it, ordered the old piece of leather to be burnt;
but Yezdeguerd had already robbed it of its gems.[264]
Afridoun exercised the sovereignty during two hundred years. He
was the first to study astronomy, and he founded the science of
medicine. He was the first king to ride on an elephant. He had three
sons, Tur, Salm, and Irad. He loved the third son, Irad, more than the
two elder, and he gave him the sovereignty over Irad, Mosul, Koufa,
and Bagdad.
After the death of Afridoun, Tur and Salm marched against Irad,
defeated him and killed him, saying: “Our father has divided his
inheritance unjustly. He has given to Irad the best portion, the centre
of the world; as for us, we are cast out to its extremities.”
On the death of Tur and Salm, the crown left this family, and passed
to a king named Cush, who was of the sons of Ham, the son of
Noah. Cush reigned forty years. After him Canaan ascended the
throne. Cush and Canaan worshipped idols. It is said that Nimrod
was the son of Canaan. When Canaan died, Nimrod succeeded him.
Nimrod had a vizir named Azar (Terah), son of Nahor, son of
Sarough (Serug), who was sixth in generation from Noah. This Azar
was the father of Abraham, the friend of God.
From the time of the Deluge to the time of Abraham was three
thousand years. During that period, there was no prophet save Hud
(Eber), who was sent to the Adites, and Saleh, who was sent to the
Thamudites.
We shall relate the history of Hud and of Saleh, and then return to
that of Nimrod.[265]
 XX.
SERUG.

“And Eber lived four and thirty years, and begat Peleg.
“And Peleg lived thirty years, and begat Reu. And Reu lived two and
thirty years, and begat Serug. And Serug lived thirty years, and
begat Nahor.”[266]
Serug is said to have discovered the art of coining gold and silver
money. In his days men erected many idols, into which demons
entered and wrought great signs by them. Samiri was king of the
Chaldees, and he discovered weights and measures and how to
weave silk, and also how to dye fabrics. He is related to have had
three eyes and two horns.
At the same time Apiphanus was king of Egypt. He built a ship, and
in it made piratical descents upon the neighbouring people living on
the shores of the Mediterranean Sea. He was succeeded by
Pharaoh, son of Saner, and the kings after him assumed his name
as their title.[267]
Nahor was the son of Serug. In the twenty-fifth year of his life, Job
the Just underwent his trial, according to the opinion of Arudha the
Canaanite. At that time Armun, king of Canaan, built the two cities
Sodom and Gomorrah, and called them after the names of his two
sons; but Zoar he named after his mother. At the same time, Murk or
Murph, king of Palestine, built Damascus.[268]
 XXI.
THE PROPHET EBER.

“Unto Shem, the father of all the children of Eber, the brother of
Japheth the elder, even to him were children born.
“The children of Shem;—Elam, and Asshur, and Arphaxad, and Lud,
and Aram.
“And the children of Aram;—Uz, and Hul, and Gether, and Mash.
“And Arphaxad begat Salah; and Salah begat Eber.”[269]
According to some Mussulman writers, Oudh (Lud), the son of
Shem, had a son named Ad; but, according to others, Ad was the
son of Aram, son of Shem.
The tribes of Ad and Thamud lived near one another in the desert of
Hedjaz, in the south of Arabia. The land of the people of Ad was
nearer Mecca than the valley of Hidjr, and the valley of Hidjr is
situated at the extremity of the desert on the road to Syria.
Never in all the world were there such great and mighty men as the
Adites. Each of them was twelve cubits high, and they were so
strong that if any of them stamped on the ground he sank up to his
knees.
The Adites raised great monuments in the land which they inhabited.
Wherever these Cyclopean edifices exist, they are called by the
Arabs the constructions of the Adites.
God ordered the prophet Hud (Eber) to go to the Adites and preach
to them the One true God, and turn them from idolatry. But the
Adites would not hearken to his words, and when he offered them
the promises of God, they said, “What better dwellings can He give
us than those which we have made?” And when he spoke to them of
God’s threatenings, they mocked and said, “Who can resist us who
are so strong?”
For fifty years did the prophet Hud speak to the Adites, and their
reply to his exhortations is preserved in the Koran, “O Hud, you
produce no evidence of what you advance; we will not abandon our
gods because of your preaching. We mistrust your mission. We
believe that one of our gods bears a hatred against you.”
Hud replied, “I take God to witness, and you also be witnesses, that I
am innocent of your polytheism.”[270]
The words of the Adites, “We believe that one of our gods bears a
hatred against thee,” signified that they believed one of their gods
had driven him mad.
During the fifty years that Hud’s mission lasted, the Adites believed
neither in God nor in the prophet, with the exception of a very few,
who believed in secret.
At the end of that time God withheld the rain from heaven, and
afflicted the Adites with drought. All the cattle of Ad died, and the
Adites fainted for lack of water. For three years no rain fell.
Hud said to the Adites, “Believe in God, and He will give you rain.”
They replied, “Thou art mad.” But they chose three men to send to
Mecca with victims; for the infidels believe in the sanctity of Mecca,
though they believe not in the One true God.
But Eber said, “Your sacrifices will be unavailing, unless you first
believe.”
The three deputies started for Mecca with many camels, oxen, and
sheep, as sacrifices. And when they reached Mecca they made
friends with the inhabitants of that city, and were received with
hospitality. They passed their days and nights in eating and drinking
wine, and in their drunkenness they forgot their people, and the
mission on which they had been sent. The inhabitants of Mecca
ordered musicians to sing the afflictions of the Adites, to recall to the
envoys the purpose of their visit. Then Lokman and Morthed, two of
the deputies, declared to Qaïl, the third, that they believed in Allah;
and they added, “If our people had believed the words of the prophet
Hud, they would not have suffered from drought,” and Lokman and
Morthed were not drunk when they said these words.
Qaïl replied, “You do not partake in the affliction of our nation. I will
go myself and will offer the victims.”
He went and led the beasts to the top of a mountain to sacrifice
them, and turning his face to heaven, he said, “O God of heaven,
hearken unto my prayer, and send rain on my poor afflicted people.”
Instantly there appeared three clouds in the blue sky: one was red,
one was black, the third was white; and a voice issued from the
clouds, saying, “Choose which shall descend upon thy people.”
Then Qaïl said within himself, “The white cloud, if it hung all day over
my nation, would not burst in rain; the red cloud, if it hung over them
night and day, would not drop a shower; but the black cloud is heavy
with water.” So he chose the black cloud.
And a voice cried, “It is gone to fall upon thy people.”
Qaïl returned full of joy, thinking he had obtained rain; but that cloud
was big with the judgments of God. Qaïl told what he had done to his
companions, Lokman and Morthed, but they laughed at him.
Now the cloud, when it arrived over the land of Ad, was
accompanied by a wind. And the Adites looked up rejoicing, and
cried, “The rain, the rain is coming!”
Then the cloud gaped, and a dry whirlwind rolled out from it, and
swept up all the cattle that were in the land, and raised them in the
air, spun them about, and dashed them lifeless on the ground.
But the Adites said, “Fear not; first comes wind, then comes rain.”
And they rushed out of their houses into the fields. Hud thought they
were coming forth to ask his assistance; but they sought him not.
Then the whirlwind caught them up and cast them down again. Now
each of these men was like a palm-tree in stature, and they lay
shattered and lifeless on the sand.
Hud was saved, along with those who had believed his word.
Now when the envoys at Mecca heard what had befallen their
people, they went all three to the summit of the mountain, and
Lokman and Morthed said to Qaïl, “Believe.” But he answered,
raising his face and hands to heaven: “O God of heaven, if thou hast
destroyed my people, slay me also.”
Then the whirlwind came, and rushed on him, and caught him up
and cast him down, and he was dead.
But Lokman and Morthed offered their sacrifice, and a voice from
heaven said, “What is your petition?”
Lokman answered: “O Lord, grant me a long life, that I may outlive
seven vultures.” Now a vulture is the longest-lived of all birds; it lives
five hundred years.
And the voice replied, “However long thy life may be, death will close
it.”
Lokman said, “I know; that is true.”
Then his prayer was granted. And Lokman took a young vulture and
fed it for five hundred years, and it died; then he took a second, and
at the expiration of five hundred years it died also; and so on till he
had reached the age of three thousand five hundred years, and then
he died also.
Morthed made his request, and it was, “O Lord, give me wheat
bread,” for hitherto in Ad he had eaten only barley bread. So Allah
gave Morthed so much wheat, that he was able to make bread
thereof all the rest of his life.
Hud lived fifty years with the faithful who had received his doctrine,
and his life in all was one hundred and fifty years. The prophet Saleh
appeared five hundred years after Hud; he was sent to the
Thamudites.[271]
But there is another version of the story given by Weil.
Hud promised Schaddad, king of the Adites, a glorious city in the
heavens, if he would turn to the true God. But the king said, “I need
no other city than that I have built. My palace rests on a thousand
pillars of rubies and emeralds; the streets and walls are of gold, and
pearl, and carbuncle, and topaz; and each pillar in my house is a
hundred ells long.”
Then, at Hud’s word, God let the city and palace of Schaddad fade
away like a dream of the night, and storm and rain descended, and
night fell, and the king was without home in the desert.[272]
Of Lokman we must relate something more. He was a great prophet;
some say he was nephew of Job, whose sister was his mother;
others relate that he was the son of Beor, the son of Nahor, the son
of Terah.
One day, whilst he was reposing in the heat of the day, the angels
entered his room and saluted him, but did not show themselves.
Lokman heard their voices, but saw not their persons. Then the
angels said to him,—
“We are messengers of God, thy Creator and ours; He has sent us
unto thee to announce to thee that thou shalt be a great monarch.”
Lokman replied, “If God desires what you say, His will can
accomplish all things, and doubtless He will give me what is
necessary for executing my duty in that position in which He will
place me. But if He would suffer me to choose a state of life, I should
prefer that in which I now am,”—now Lokman was a slave,—“and
above all would I ask Him to enable me never to offend Him; without
which all earthly grandeur would be to me a burden.”
This reply of Lokman was so pleasing to Allah, that He gave him the
gift of wisdom to such a degree of excellence, that he became
capable of instructing all men; and this he did by means of a great
multitude of maxims, sentences, and parables to the number of ten
thousand, each of which is more valuable than the whole world.[273]
When Lokman did not know anything with which others were
acquainted, he held his tongue, and did not ask questions and thus
divulge his ignorance.
As he lived to a great age, he was alive in the days of King David.
Now David made a coat of mail, and showed it to Lokman. The sage
had seen nothing like it before, and did not know what purpose it
was to serve, but he looked knowing and nodded his head. Presently
David put the armour upon him, and marched, and said, “It is
serviceable in war.” Then Lokman understood its object; so his
mouth became unsealed and he talked about it.
Lokman used to say, “Silence is wisdom, but few practise it.”[274]
Thalebi relates, in his Commentary on the Koran, that Lokman was a
slave, and that having been sent along with other slaves into the
country to gather fruit, his fellow-slaves ate them, and charged
Lokman with having done so. Lokman, to justify himself, said to his
master, “Let every one of us slaves be given warm water to drink,
and you will soon see who has been the thief.”
The expedient succeeded; the slaves who had eaten the fruit
vomited it, and Lokman threw up only warm water.
The same story precisely is told of Æsop.
Lokman is always spoken of as black, with thick lips. He is regarded
by the Arabs much as is Bidpay by the Indians, and Æsop by the
Europeans, as the Father of Fable.
 XXII.
THE PROPHET SALEH.

The prophet Saleh was the son of Ad, son of Aram, son of Shem,
and is not to be confused with Saleh, son of Arphaxad.
The Mussulmans say that he was sent to convert the Thamudites.
The Thamudites were in size and strength like their brethren the
Adites, but they inhabited the rocks, which they dug out into
spacious mansions. They had in the midst of their land an unfailing
supply of sweet and limpid water. They were idolaters. Saleh came
armed with the command of Allah to these men, and he preached to
them that they should turn from the worship of stocks and stones to
that of the living God who made them.
Now Saleh had been born among the Thamudites, but he had never
been an idolater. When he was young, the natives of the land had
laughed at him, and said, “He is young and inexperienced; when he
is old, and has grown wiser, he will adore our gods.”
When Saleh grew old, he forbade the Thamudites to worship idols,
and he spoke to them of the true and only God.
But they said, “What miracle can you work, to prove that your
mission is from God?”[275]
Then he said, “Oh, my people, a she-camel that shall come from
God shall be to you for a sign. Let her go and eat on the earth, and
do her no injury, that a terrible retribution fall not upon you.”[276]
Now Saleh had asked them what miracle they desired, and they had
answered, “Bring out of the rock a camel with red hair, and a colt of a
camel also with red hair; let them eat grass, and we will believe.”
Saleh said to them, “What you ask is easy,” and he prayed.
Then the rock groaned and clave asunder, and there came out a
she-camel with her foal, and their hair was red, and they began to
eat grass.
Then the Thamudites exclaimed, “He is a magician!” and they would
not believe in him.
The camel went to the perpetual fountain, and she drank it up, so
that from that day forward from their spring they could get no water,
and they suffered from thirst.
The Thamudites went to Saleh and said, “We need water!”
Saleh replied, “The fountain shall flow one day for you, and one day
for the camel.”
So it was agreed that the camel should drink alternate days with the
people of the land, and that alternate days each should be without
water whilst the other was drinking.
Then Saleh said, for he saw that the people hated the camel and her
foal, “Beware that you slay not these animals, for the day that they
perish, great shall be your punishment.”
The she-camel lived thirty years among the Thamudites, but God
revealed to Saleh that they were bent on slaying the camel, and he
said, “The slayer will be a child with red hair and blue eyes.”
Now the Thamudites ordered ten midwives to attend on the women
in their confinement, and if a child were born with the signs indicated
by the prophet, it was to be destroyed instantly.
Nine children had thus been killed, and the parents conceived a
deadly animosity against Saleh the prophet, and formed a design to
slay him.
One of the chiefs among the Thamudites had a son born to him with
red hair and blue eyes, and the nurses would have destroyed it, but
the nine men spake to the father of the child, and they banded
together, and saved the infant.
Now when this child had attained the age of eleven, he became
great and handsome; and each of the parents whose children had
been put to death, when he saw him, said, “Such an one would have
been my son, had not he been slain at the instigation of Saleh.” And
they combined to put the prophet to death. They said among
themselves, “We will kill him outside the city, and returning, say we
were elsewhere when he was murdered.”
Having formed this project, they left the city and placed themselves
under a rock, awaiting his exit from the gates. But God commanded
the rock, and it fell and crushed them all.
Next day their corpses were recovered, but the Thamudites were
very wroth, and said, “Saleh has slain our children, and now he slays
our men;” and they added, “We will be revenged on his camel.”
But no one could be found to undertake the execution of this deed,
save the red-haired child. He went to the fountain where the camel
was drinking, and with one kick he knocked her over, and with
another kick he despatched her.
But the foal, seeing the fate of her mother, ran away, and the boy
with the red hair and blue eyes ran after her.
Saleh, seeing what had taken place, cried, “The judgment of God is
about to fall.”
The people were frightened, and asked, “What shall we do?”
“The judgment of God will not fall as long as the colt remains among
you.”
Hearing this, the whole population went in pursuit of the young
camel. Now it had fled to the mountain whence it had sprung, and
the red-haired boy was close on its heels. And when the young
camel heard the shouting of the inhabitants of the city, and saw the
multitude in pursuit, it stood before the rock, turned round, uttered
three piercing cries, and vanished.
The Thamudites arrived and beat the rock, but they could not open
it. Then said Saleh, “The judgment of God will fall; prepare to receive
it. The first day your faces will become livid, the second day they will
become black, and the third day red.”
Things happened as Saleh had predicted. And when the signs befel
them which Saleh had foretold, they knew that their end was near.
The first day they became ash pale, the second day coal black, and
the third day red as fire, and then there came a sound from heaven,
and all fell dead on the earth, save Saleh and those who believed in
him; these heard the sound, but did not perish.
By the will of God, when the people were destroyed, one man was
absent at Mecca; the name of this man was Abou-Ghalib. When he
knew what had befallen his nation, he took up his residence in
Mecca; but all the rest perished, as it is written in the Koran, “In the
morning they were found dead in their houses, stretched upon the
ground, as though they had never dwelt there.”
From Saleh to Abraham there was no prophet. At the time of that
patriarch there was no king over all the earth. The sovereignty had
passed to Canaan, the son of Cush, the son of Ham, who was the
son of Noah.[277]
The camel of the prophet Saleh was placed by Mohammed in the
heavens, together with the ass of Balaam, and other favoured
animals.
Now wonderful as is this story, it is surpassed by that related by
certain Arabic historians of the mission of Saleh. This we proceed to
give.
Djundu Ibn Omar was king of the Thamudites, a people numbering
seventy thousand fighting men. He had a palace cut out of the face
of a rock, and his high priest, Kanuch Ibn Abid, had one likewise.
The most magnificent building in the city was a temple which
contained the idol worshipped by the people. This idol had the head
of a man, the neck of a bull, the body of a lion, and the feet of a
horse. It was fashioned out of pure gold, and was studded with
jewels.
One day, as Kanuch, the high priest, was worshipping in the temple,
he fell asleep, and heard a voice cry, “The truth will appear, and the
madness will pass away.” He started to his feet in alarm, and saw
the idol prostrate on the floor, and its crown had fallen from its head.
Kanuch cried out for assistance, and fled to the king, who sent men
to set up the image, and replace on its head the crown that had
fallen from it.
But doubt took possession of the heart of Kanuch; he no longer
addressed the image in prayer, and his enthusiasm was at an end.
The king observed this, and sent two vizirs with orders to imprison
and execute him. But Allah struck the vizirs with blindness, and he
sent two angels to transport Kanuch to a well-shaded grotto, well
supplied with all that could content the heart of man.
As Kanuch was nowhere to be found, the king appointed his
kinsman Davud to be high priest. But on the third day he came to the
king to announce to him that the idol was again prostrate.
The monarch set it up once more, and Eblis, entering the image,
spoke through its mouth, exhorting all men to beware of novel
doctrines which were about to be introduced.
Next feast-day Davud was about to sacrifice two oxen to the idol,
when one of them opened its mouth, and thus addressed him:—
“Will you sacrifice creatures endued with life by the living God to a
mass of lifeless metal? O God, do Thou destroy this sinful nation!”
And the oxen broke their halters, and ran away.
Horsemen were deputed to pursue and capture them, but they
escaped, for Allah screened them.
But God in His mercy resolved to give the Thamudites another
chance of repenting of their idolatry.
Raghwah, Kanuch’s wife, had shed incessant tears since the
disappearance of her husband. Allah dispatched a bird out of
Paradise to guide her to the grotto of Kanuch.
This bird was a raven; its head was white as snow, its back was
green as emerald. Its feet were purple; its beak of heaven’s blue. Its
eyes were gems; only its body was black, for this bird did not fall
under the curse of Noah, as it was in Paradise.
It was midnight when the raven entered Raghwah’s dark chamber,
where she lay weeping on a carpet; but the glory of its eyes illumined
the whole room, as though the sun had suddenly flashed into it.
Raghwah rose from her place, and gazed in wonder on the lovely
bird, which opened its beak and said, “Arise and follow me! God has
seen thy tears, and will reunite thee to thy husband.”
Raghwah followed the raven, which flew before her, and with the
light of its eyes turned the night into day. The morning star had not
risen, when they stood before Kanuch’s grot. Then cried the raven,
“Kanuch, open to thy wife!” and so vanished.
Nine months after that Raghwah had rejoined her husband, she bore
him a son, who was the image of Seth, and had on his brow the
prophetic light; and Kanuch, in the hope of drawing him to the
knowledge of the true God and to a pious life, gave him the name of
Saleh (The Blessed).
Not long after Saleh’s birth, Kanuch died; and the raven of Paradise
returned to the grotto to lead back Saleh to his own people.
Saleh grew in beauty and strength, to the admiration of his mother
and all who saw him.
A war was being waged between the descendants of Ham and the
Thamudites, and the latter had lost many battles and a large portion
of their army, when Saleh suddenly appeared in the battle-field at the
head of a few friends, and, by his personal heroism, turned the tide
of victory, and routed the enemy.
This success drew upon him the gratitude and love of the people, but
the envy of the king was kindled, and he sought the life of the young
prophet. But as often as assassins were sent by the king to take his
life, their arms shrivelled up, and were only restored at the
intercession of Saleh. These circumstances tended to increase and
confirm the number of his adherents, so that he was able to build a
mosque, and occupy with worshippers of the true God one whole
quarter of the city.
But one day the king surrounded the mosque with his troops, and
threatened Saleh and his followers with death if they would not work
a miracle to prove their worship to be the true one.
Saleh prayed, and instantly the leaves of the date-tree that stood
before the mosque were transformed into serpents and scorpions,
which fell over the king and his soldiers; whilst two doves, which
dwelt on the terrace of the mosque, sang aloud, “Believe in Saleh,
he is a prophet and messenger of God!”
But Saleh was moved with compassion when he saw the anguish of
those who had been bitten by the scorpions and vipers, and he
prayed to God, and the noxious reptiles were transformed back
again into date-leaves, and those who had been stung were made
whole. Nevertheless the king hardened his heart, and continued to
worship false gods.
When Saleh saw the impenitence of the Thamudites, he besought
God to destroy them; but an angel appeared to him in a cave, and
sent him to sleep for twenty years.
When he woke he betook himself towards the mosque he had built,
never doubting that he had slept but a single night. The mosque was
gone, his friends and adherents were dead or dispersed, a few
remained, but they were old, and he hardly recognized them. Falling
into despair, the angel Gabriel came to him and said,—
“Thou wert hasty in desiring the destruction of this people, therefore
God hath withdrawn from thy life twenty years, which He has taken
from thee in sleep. Now He sends thee precious relics wherewith to
establish thy mission, to wit, Adam’s shirt, Abel’s sandals, Seth’s
overcoat, Enoch’s seal ring, Noah’s sword, and Hud’s staff.”
Next day, as the king Djundu with his brother Schihab, and the
priests and the princes of the people, formed a procession to an idol
temple near the town, Saleh ran before the procession, entered the
temple, and stood in the door.
“Who art thou?” asked the king in astonishment: for he did not
recognize Saleh, so greatly had God changed him in his sleep of
twenty years.
He answered: “I am Saleh, the messenger of the only God, who
preached to you twenty years ago, and showed to you many signs