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Service Management
Operations, Strategy, Information Technology
Tenth Edition
Sanjeev Bordoloi
Associate Professor of Operations Management
University of St. Thomas, Minnesota
James A. Fitzsimmons
Seay Professor of Business Emeritus
University of Texas at Austin
Mona J. Fitzsimmons
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SERVICE MANAGEMENT
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About the Authors
Sanjeev K. Bordoloi, Associate Professor of Operations and Supply Chain Management in the Opus College of Business at the
University of St. Thomas, Minnesota, received his B.Tech. in electrical engineering from the Indian Institute of Technology,
Varanasi; an MBA from Xavier Labour Relations Institute (XLRI); and a Ph.D. from The University of Texas at Austin. His
prior full-time teaching experience includes the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, the College of William and Mary,
and the University of Alaska Fairbanks. He won the Alfred Page Graduate Teaching Award at the College of William and Mary
and was featured in the “List of Teachers Ranked by Students as Excellent” at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.
His research interests include health care operations, process analysis and design, lean management, efficiency measures and
theory of constraints. He has worked full-time in the service industry at the executive level, primarily in project management and
technology management. He has consulted for several firms, including Sentara Healthcare, TRIA Orthopaedic Center, Archer
Daniels Midland, Accenture India, Northwestern University medical unit, Fairbanks Memorial Hospital, Humanics Incorpo-
rated, and Intandem Incorporated (event management).
James A. Fitzsimmons, Seay Professor of Business Emeritus, McCombs School of Business, The University of Texas at Austin,
received a B.S.E. from the University of Michigan, an MBA from Western Michigan University, and a Ph.D. with distinction
from the University of California at Los Angeles. His research in the area of emergency ambulance location won the Stan Hardy
Award in 1983 for the best paper published in the field of operations management. Consulting assignments include the RAND
Corporation; the U.S. Air Force; the cities of Los Angeles, Denver, Austin, Melbourne, and Auckland; the Texas comptroller;
General Motors; La Quinta Motor Inns; Greyhound; TRICON Restaurants International; and McDonald’s. Teaching experi-
ence includes faculty appointments at the University of California at Los Angeles, California State University at Northridge, the
University of New Mexico, Boston University Overseas Graduate Program, California Polytechnic State University at San Luis
Obispo, Seoul National University, and the Helsinki School of Economics and Business. He is a registered professional engineer
in the state of Michigan and has held industrial engineering positions at Corning Glass Works and Hughes Aircraft Company.
He served in the U.S. Air Force as an officer in charge of base construction projects. During his tenure at The University of
Texas, he was Ph.D. graduate advisor, chair of the undergraduate programs committee, and nominated for six teaching awards.
He is a Franz Edelman Laureat in the class of 1973. In 2004 he received an IBM Faculty Award in recognition for his contribu-
tions to the field of service operations management.
Mona J. Fitzsimmons, a graduate of the University of Michigan, received her undergraduate degree in journalism with major sup-
porting work in chemistry and psychology. Her graduate work was in geology and she has taught in public and private schools
and at the university level. She has done writing and editing for the Encyclopaedia Britannica Education Corporation and for
various professional journals and organizations. With James Fitzsimmons she edited New Service Development: Creating Memo-
rable Experiences published in 2000 by Sage Publications. Her nonprofessional activities have included volunteer work for the
Red Cross aquatics program and in wildlife rehabilitation. She has particular interests in the areas of environmental issues and
the responsibilities of patients and physicians in health care.
Preface
Services touch the lives of every person in this country every day: food services, communication services, and emergency ser-
vices, to name only a few. Our welfare and the welfare of our economy now are based on services. The activities of manufacturing
and agriculture always will be necessary, but we can eat only so much food and we can use only so many goods. Services, how-
ever, are largely experiential, and we always will have a limitless appetite for them.
Service operations management is established firmly as a field of study that embraces all service industries. The discipline was
first recognized as an academic field by the Decision Sciences Institute (DSI) at its 1987 Boston meeting. In 1989 the Interna-
tional Journal of Service Industry Management was inaugurated. The First International Research Seminar in Service Manage-
ment was held in France in 1990.
The Journal of Service Research was first published in August 1998 and quickly became the leading journal of the field. At the
2004 Boston meeting of the Production and Operations Management Society (POMS), a College on Service Operations was
established. In 2005 the IBM Almaden Research Center launched an initiative to establish a new discipline called Service Sci-
ence, Management, and Engineering (SSME). The first issue of Service Research was published by INFORMS in September
2011.
One way or another, COVID-19 will take the world to a new normal. There is cause for optimism. A global pandemic can be the
birthplace of service innovation and progress. Sometimes, it takes a crisis of this scale to help us realize that change is necessary.
While front-line healthcare personnel are focused on the daily challenges of the disease, the pandemic has revealed problems
with service delivery across the world, from supply chain breakdowns to staff and equipment shortages, and burnout. Managers
faced a host of challenges, including the supply and distribution of vital resources, the disproportionate impact the virus has had
on disadvantaged communities, the stress it placed on providers trying to balance work and home life, and the politicization of
simple protection protocols such as wearing masks. Major business challenges ahead will include issues such as rightsizing after
the pandemic, coordinating home workers with onsite workers, forecasting for a continuously uncertain future, and building a
responsive and agile supply chain for uninterrupted operations.
The difficulties presented by the pandemic placed the world at an inflection point. Each of us has a role to play in overcoming
the impacts of COVID-19. Whether it is to tackle preparedness for the next pandemic, improve the operational aspects of the
health care system, or reopening a restaurant, we all need to be working together and seize this moment to build back a better
world.
This edition continues to acknowledge and emphasize the essential uniqueness of service management. These are some key
features:
• The book is written in an engaging literary style, makes extensive use of examples, and is based on the research and
consulting experience of the authors.
• The theme of managing services for competitive advantage is emphasized in each chapter and provides a focus for each
management topic.
• The integration of technology, operations, and human behavior is recognized as central to effective service management.
• Emphasis is placed on the need for continuous improvement in quality and productivity in order to compete effectively in a
global environment.
• To motivate the reader, a vignette of a well-known company starts each chapter, illustrating the strategic nature of the topic
to be covered.
• Each chapter has a preview, a closing summary, key terms and definitions, a service benchmark, topics for discussion, an
interactive exercise, solved problems and exercises when appropriate, and one or more cases.
• Available within the Instructor Resources you can view through Connect is access to a facility location Excel spreadsheet,
chapter quizzes, and websites.
• The Instructor Resources also contain an instructor’s manual, case analyses, exercise solutions, sample syllabi, a yield
management game, and lists of supplementary materials.
Preface vii
Key Updates in the Tenth Edition

This edition reflects the thoughtful suggestions from students, colleagues, and reviewers. The revision was accomplished during
the COVID-19 pandemic and incorporates the impact of that crisis on the delivery of services. The following are noteworthy
changes and additions to this new edition:
• The impact of COVID-19 on the nature of the service sector and its challenges is addressed in Chapter 1, The Service
Economy.
• A new section dealing with the socio-economic implications of COVID-19 has been added to Chapter 2, Service Strategy.
• A new section features the blockchain as a radical innovation with illustrations of its impact on financial services
in Chapter 3, New Service Development. A new example, Virtual Health: The Frontier in Healthcare Delivery highlights
the impact of emerging technology on health care delivery. A new case, Zoom Video Communications, has been added to
this chapter.
• In Chapter 4, The Service Encounter, we have added a new section on the topic of customer behavior changes following
COVID-19.
• The office layout post COVID-19 is treated in a new section of Chapter 5, Supporting Facility and Process Flows, with a
schematic of proposed changes. A new example featuring Chipotle's adaption to COVID-19 illustrates how its facilities
were changed in response to the pandemic.
• A new section has been added on the topic of rethinking lean service after COVID-19 in Chapter 7, Process Improvement,
to consider the impact of the pandemic on global supply chains.
• In Chapter 9, Service Supply Relationships, a new section on the impact of COVID-19 on supply chain design has been
added to reflect the supply and demand uncertainties. A new example shows how a bakery uses social media to build its
brand.
• A new example, Redwood Coast Medical Services, can be found in Chapter 11, Managing Capacity and Demand, that
illustrates the strategy of segmenting demand.
• In Chapter 12, Managing Waiting Lines, two new examples have been added; accommodating elite flyers and queuing
process at Starbucks.
• A new example of Little's Law applied to waiting at TSA airport screening is found in Chapter 13, Capacity Planning and
Queuing Models.
Special thanks and acknowledgment go to the following people for their valuable reviews of the first edition: Mohammad Ala,
California State University, Los Angeles; Joanna R. Baker, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University; Mark Davis, Bent-
ley College; Maling Ebrahimpour, University of Rhode Island; Michael Gleeson, Indiana University; Ray Haynes, California
Polytechnic State University at San Luis Obispo; Art Hill, the University of Minnesota; Sheryl Kimes, Cornell University; and
Richard Reid, the University of New Mexico.
The second edition benefited from the constructive comments of the following reviewers: Kimberly Bates, New York University;
Avi Dechter, California State University, Northridge; Scott Dellana, East Carolina University; Sheryl Kimes, Cornell University;
Larry J. LeBlanc, Vanderbilt University; Robert Lucas, Metropolitan State College of Denver; Barbara Osyk, University of
Akron; Michael Showalter, Florida State University; and V. Sridharan, Clemson University. We wish to acknowledge Fang Wu,
Ph.D. student at The University of Texas at Austin, who assisted in the development of some exercises and preparation of the
PowerPoint lecture presentations for the second edition.
The following reviewers contributed their experience and wisdom to the third edition: Sidhartha Das, George Mason University;
Avi Dechter, California State University at Northridge; Byron Finch, Miami University of Ohio; Edward M. Hufft, Jr., Met-
ropolitan State College of Denver; Ken Klassen, California State University at Northridge; Richard Reid, University of New
Mexico, Albuquerque; Ishpal Rekki, California State University at San Marcos; and Ronald Satterfield, University of South
Florida. Edmond Gonzales, an MBA student at Texas, prepared the chapter quizzes for the third edition CD-ROM. A special
thanks is extended to Christine Bunker of the ProModel Corporation for allowing us the use of Process Simulator to illustrate
applications of computer simulation to process analysis.
The fourth edition reflected the insights and suggestions of the following reviewers: Sanjeev Bordoloi, College of William and
Mary; Sid Das, George Mason University; John Goodale, Ball State University; Ken Klassen, California State University, North-
ridge; Peggy Lee, Penn State University; Matthew Meuter, California State University, Northridge; Jaideep Motwani, Grand Val-
ley State University; Elzbieta Trybus, California State University, Northridge; Rohit Verma, University of Utah; and Janet
viii Preface
Sayers, Massey University, New Zealand. A special thanks to colleagues Ed Anderson and Doug Morrice for permission to
include their Mortgage Service Game and to Mark Linford, an MBA student at the University of Texas at Austin, for preparing
the computer software.
The fifth edition benefited from insights gathered at a focus group session in Washington, DC, at the 2003 Decision Sciences
Institute annual meeting. We are grateful for the many suggestions provided by the following participants: Uday Apte, Southern
Methodist University; Sanjeev Bordoloi, College of William and Mary; Joe Felan, University of Arkansas at Little Rock; Richard
Franze, Kennesaw State University; Craig Froehle, University of Cincinnati; Yung Jae Lee, St. Mary’s College of California;
Katherine McFadden, Northern Illinois University; Mary Meixell, George Mason University; Elliott (Chip) Minor, Virginia
Commonwealth University; and Jake Simons, Georgia Southern University. We are also indebted to Mrs. Margaret Seay who
continues her generous support.
The sixth edition benefited greatly from the thoughtful suggestions of an outstanding group of reviewers: Sanjeev Bordoloi, Uni-
versity of Illinois-Urbana; Robert Burgess, Georgia Institute of Technology; Maureen Culleeney, Lewis University; Dick Fentriss,
University of Tampa; Craig Froehle, University of Cincinnati; Susan Meyer Goldstein, University of Minnesota; Jaideep Mot-
wani, Grand Valley State University; Rodney Runyan, University of South Carolina; and Rajesh Tyagi, DePaul University. We
give special thanks to Ravi Behara, Florida Atlantic University, for his comprehensive revision plan.
The seventh edition benefited from the constructive suggestions of the following reviewers: Michael Bendixen, Nova Southeast-
ern University; Dan Berg, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute; Elif Kongar, Bridgeport University; Stephen Kwan, San Jose State
University; Mary McWilliams, LeTourneau University; Kenneth Shaw, Oregon State University; and Donna Stewart, University
of Wisconsin-Stout. We appreciate the contributions for improvements from Jeanne Zilmer, Copenhagen Business School.
The following reviewers contributed their generous time and expertise to the eighth edition: Laura Forker, University of Massa-
chusetts-Dartmouth; Mike Galbreth, University of South Carolina; David Geigle, Texas A&M University; Lowell Lay, Texas Tech
University; Mark Leung, University of Texas at San Antonio; Mark McComb, Mississippi College; Jaideep Motwani, Grand Val-
ley State University; Rene Reitsma, Oregon State University; Jeff Smith, Florida State University; G. Peter Zhang, Georgia State
University; and Shu Zhou, San Jose State University.
We thank the following reviewers for their thoughtful comments on our preparation of the ninth edition: Ajay Das, Baruch Col-
lege; Adelina Gnanlet, California State University Fullerton; Diana Merenda, Baruch College; Jose Santiago, Baruch College;
and Sheneeta White, University of St. Thomas.
The authors are indebted to the following reviewers for their insightful comments on the tenth edition that followed the
COVID-19 pandemic shock to the world: Vipin Arora, California State University Fullerton; Amie Ellis, Georgia Southern Uni-
versity; Adelina Gnanlet, California State University Fullerton; Lowell Lay, Texas Tech University; Andrea M Prud'homme,
Ohio State University; Carrie Queenan, University of South Carolina; Mohammed Raja, York College of Pennsylvania; Samia
Siha, Kennesaw State University; and Richard G. Weissman, Endicott College.
We express special appreciation to all of our friends who encouraged us and tolerated our social lapses while we produced this
book. In particular, James and Mona Fitzsimmons are indebted for the support of Richard and Janice Reid, who have provided
lively and stimulating conversations and activities over many years, and who generously allowed us the use of their mountain
retreat. The beginning of the first edition was written in the splendid isolation of their part of the Jemez Mountains of New
Mexico. No authors could want for better inspiration.
Sanjeev K. Bordoloi
James A. Fitzsimmons
Mona J. Fitzsimmons
Overview of the Book
Part One begins with a discussion of the role of services in an economy. We first look at the historical evolution of societies
based on economic activity and conclude with a discussion of the emerging experience economy. Next, we consider the distinc-
tive characteristics of service operations, concluding with an open-systems view of service operations management. The strategic
service vision begins the final chapter in this section. The concept of sustainability and triple bottom line in services is intro-
duced. The impact of data analytics and the Internet of Things (IoT) on services is explored. Competitive service strategies are
discussed with an emphasis on the role of information as illustrated by the virtual value chain.
Designing the service enterprise to support the competitive strategy is the topic of Part Two. The disruptive impact of blockchain
technology and 5G on service design is explored. New services are developed using techniques such as a service blueprint that
diagrams the flow of activity occurring onstage above a line of visibility and backstage functions that are not seen by the cus-
tomer. The notion of a service encounter describes the interaction between service provider and customer in the context of a ser-
vice organization. The importance of the supporting facility is captured by how the servicescape affects customer and employee
behavior. Process analysis is treated in depth by identifying the bottleneck and calculating performance metrics such as through-
put time. The challenge of delivering exceptional service quality is addressed by comparing customers’ perceptions and expecta-
tions. The process improvement chapter describes tools and programs for continuous improvement, and a supplement measures
service productivity using data envelopment analysis. The strategic importance of service facility location is explored with ana-
lytical models in the conclusion of this part.
Management of service operations is addressed in Part Three. The topic of service supply relationships includes a discussion
of professional services. The next chapter is devoted to the topic of service-firm growth and the importance of globalization in
services. Strategies to manage capacity and demand follow including the concept of yield management. We address the question
of managing waiting lines from a psychological viewpoint. Capacity planning using queuing models with a supplement on com-
puter simulation featuring a Visio plug-in Process Simulator concludes this part.
Part Four is devoted to quantitative models for service management. The first chapter addresses the topic of forecasting service
demand using exponential smoothing models. The next chapter explores models for managing service inventory and discusses
the uses of RFID. The topic of project management using Microsoft® Project software as the foundation concludes the final
part.
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• Instructor Video List
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Brief Contents
PART ONE 12 Managing Waiting Lines 328
Understanding Services 1 13 Capacity Planning and Queuing Models 350
1 The Service Economy 3 Supplement: Computer Simulation 375
2 Service Strategy 27
PART FOUR
PART TWO Quantitative Models for Service
Designing the Service Enterprise 58 Management 396
3 New Service Development 60 14 Forecasting Demand for
4 The Service Encounter 88 Services 398
5 Supporting Facility and Process Flows 111 15 Managing Service Inventory 424
6 Service Quality 141 16 Managing Service Projects 461
7 Process Improvement 178
Supplement: Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA) 201 APPENDIX
8 Service Facility Location 212
A Areas of Standard Normal Distribution 498
B Uniformly Distributed Random Numbers [0, 1] 500
PART THREE C Values of Lq for the M/M/c Queuing Model 501
Managing Service Operations 241 D Equations for Selected Queuing Models 504
9 Service Supply Relationships 243
10 Globalization of Services 270 NAME INDEX 510
11 Managing Capacity and Demand 291 SUBJECT INDEX 513
Table of Contents
PART ONE Competitive Role of Information in Services 34
UNDERSTANDING SERVICES 1 Creation of Barriers to Entry 35
Revenue Generation 36
Database Asset 37
Chapter 1 Productivity Enhancement 37
The Service Economy 3
Using Information to Categorize Customers 38
Learning Objectives 3
The Virtual Value Chain 38
Chapter Preview 4
First Stage (New Processes) 39
Service Definitions 4
Second Stage (New Knowledge) 39
Facilitating Role of Services in an Economy 4
Third Stage (New Products) 40
Economic Evolution 5
Fourth Stage (New Relationships) 40
Stages of Economic Development 6
Data Analytics in Services 40
Preindustrial Society 7
Internet of Things (IoT) 41
Industrial Society 7
Limits in the Use of Information 43
Postindustrial Society 7
Invasion of Privacy 43
Nature of the Service Sector 8
Data Security 43
The Experience Economy 9
Reliability 43
Consumer Service Experience 9
Anticompetitive 43
Business Service Experience 10
Fairness 43
Service-Dominant Logic 12
Economics of Scalability 43
Distinctive Characteristics of Service Operations 13
Sustainability in Services 45
Customer Participation 13
Triple Bottom Line (TBL) 45
Simultaneity 14
Socio-Economic Implications of COVID-19 47
Perishability 14
Stages in Service Firm Competitiveness 47
Intangibility 15
Available for Service 47
Heterogeneity 15
Journeyman 47
Nontransferrable Ownership 15
Distinctive Competence Achieved 48
The Service Package 16
World-Class Service Delivery 49
Grouping Services by Delivery Process 17
Service Benchmark: Outside the Box 49
Open-Systems View of Service Operations Management 20
Summary 49
Service Benchmark: Sharing-Economy Pioneers Uber and
Key Terms and Definitions 50
Airbnb 22
Topics for Discussion 50
Summary 22
Interactive Exercise 51
CASE 2.1: United Commercial Bank and El Banco 51
CASE 2.2: The Alamo Drafthouse 54
Selected Bibliography 56
CASE 1.1: Village Volvo 23
Endnotes 56
CASE 1.2: Xpresso Lube 24
Endnotes 26 PART TWO
DESIGNING THE SERVICE ENTERPRISE 58
Chapter 2
Service Strategy 27 Chapter 3
Learning Objectives 27 New Service Development 60
Chapter Preview 27 Learning Objectives 60
The Strategic Service Vision 28 Chapter Preview 61
Understanding the Competitive Environment of Services 28 Sources of Service Sector Growth 61
Competitive Service Strategies 30 Information Technology 62
Overall Cost Leadership 30 The Internet as a Service Enabler 62
Differentiation 31 Innovation Drivers 63
Focus 31 Changing Demographics 64
Strategic Analysis 32 Innovation in Services 64
Porter’s Five Forces Analysis 32 Challenges of Adopting New Technology in Services 65
SWOT Analysis: Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, Readiness to Embrace New Technology 66
Threats 33 Blockchain—a Radical Innovation 66
Winning Customers in the Marketplace 33
Table of Contents xv
New Service Development 68 Chapter 5

Service Design Elements 69 Supporting Facility and Process Flows 111
Service Blueprinting 70 Learning Objectives 111
Strategic Positioning through Process Structure 72 Chapter Preview 112
Taxonomy for Service Process Design 73 Environmental Psychology and Orientation 112
Degree of Divergence 73 Servicescapes 112
Object of the Service Process 73 Behaviors in Servicescapes 113
Type of Customer Contact 73 Environmental Dimensions of Servicescapes 114
Generic Approaches to Service System Design 74 Facility Design 115
Production-Line Approach 75 Nature and Objectives of Service Organizations 116
Customer as Coproducer 76 Land Availability and Space Requirements 116
Customer Contact Approach 77 Flexibility 116
Information Empowerment 78 Security 117
Intellectual Property 80 Esthetic Factors 117
Service Benchmark: Ten Things Google Has Found to Be The Community and Environment 118
True 80 Process Analysis 118
Summary 81 Types of Processes 118
Key Terms and Definitions 81 Flowcharting 119
Topics for Discussion 81 Gantt Chart 120
Interactive Exercise 82 Process Terminology 120
CASE 3.1: 100 Yen Sushi House 82 Facility Layout 122
CASE 3.2: Commuter Cleaning—A New Venture Proposal 83 Flow Process Layout and the Work Allocation Problem 122
CASE 3.3: Zoom Video Communications 85 Job Shop Process Layout and the Relative Location
Selected Bibliography 86 Problem 125
Endnotes 87 The Office Post COVID-19 126
Service Benchmark: Where, Oh Where Shall We Go? 128
Chapter 4 Summary 128
The Service Encounter 88 Key Terms and Definitions 128
Learning Objectives 88 Topics for Discussion 129
Chapter Preview 88 Interactive Exercise 129
Technology in the Service Encounter 89 Solved Problems 129
The Emergence of Self-Service 90 Exercises 132
The Service Encounter Triad 91 CASE 5.1: Health Maintenance Organization (A) 135
Encounter Dominated by the Service Organization 92 CASE 5.2: Health Maintenance Organization (B) 136
Contact Personnel–Dominated Encounter 92 CASE 5.3: Esquire Department Store 136
Customer-Dominated Encounter 92 CASE 5.4: Central Market 138
The Service Organization 93 Selected Bibliography 140
Culture 93 Endnotes 140
Empowerment 93
Control Systems 94 Chapter 6
Customer Relationship Management 94 Service Quality 141
Contact Personnel 95 Learning Objectives 141
Selection 95 Chapter Preview 141
Training 96 Defining Service Quality 142
Creating an Ethical Climate 97 Dimensions of Service Quality 142
The Customer 98 Gaps in Service Quality 143
Expectations and Attitudes 98 Measuring Service Quality 145
The Role of Scripts in Coproduction 98 SERVQUAL 145
Customer Behavior Changes Following COVID-19 99 Walk-Through Audit 145
Creating a Customer Service Orientation 100 Quality Service by Design 149
Service Profit Chain 101 Incorporation of Quality in the Service Package 149
Service Benchmark: Miss Manners on Complaint Poka-Yoke (Failsafing) 150
Handling 102 Quality Function Deployment 152
Summary 103 Achieving Service Quality 154
Key Terms and Definitions 103 Cost of Quality 154
Topics for Discussion 104 Statistical Process Control 155
Interactive Exercise 104 Unconditional Service Guarantee 159
CASE 4.1: Amy’s Ice Cream 104 Service Recovery 161
CASE 4.2: Enterprise Rent-A-Car 105 Approaches to Service Recovery 162
Selected Bibliography 108 Complaint Handling Policy 163
Endnotes 109 Service Benchmark: Bronson Methodist Hospital 163
Summary 164
xvi Table of Contents
Topics for Discussion 165 Impact of the Internet on Service Location 215
Interactive Exercise 165 Site Considerations 215
Solved Problems 165 Geographic Information Systems 216
Exercises 167 Facility Location Modeling Considerations 218
CASE 6.1: Clean Sweep, Inc. 170 Geographic Representation 218
CASE 6.2: The Complaint Letter 172 Number of Facilities 219
CASE 6.3: The Helsinki Museum of Art and Design 174 Optimization Criteria 220
Selected Bibliography 176 Facility Location Techniques 221
Endnotes 177 Cross-Median Approach for a Single Facility 222
Huff Model for a Retail Outlet 224
Chapter 7 Location Set Covering for Multiple Facilities 227
Process Improvement 178 Regression Analysis in Location Decisions 228
Learning Objectives 178 Service Benchmark: Here a Bun, There a Bun, Everywhere a
Chapter Preview 178 Bun-Bun 230
Quality and Productivity Improvement Process 179 Summary 230
Foundations of Continuous Improvement 179 Key Terms and Definitions 230
Plan-Do-Check-Act (PDCA) Cycle 179 Topics for Discussion 231
Problem Solving 180 Interactive Exercise 231
Quality Tools for Analysis and Problem Solving 181 Solved Problems 231
Check Sheet 181 Exercises 234
Run Chart 181 CASE 8.1: Health Maintenance Organization (C) 235
Histogram 181 CASE 8.2: Athol Furniture, Inc. 236
Pareto Chart 182 Selected Bibliography 240
Flowchart 182 Endnotes 240
Cause-and-Effect Diagram 183
Scatter Diagram 184 PART THREE
Control Chart 184 MANAGING SERVICE OPERATIONS 241
Benchmarking 185
Improvement Programs 186
Chapter 9
Deming’s 14-Point Program 186
Service Supply Relationships 243
ISO 9001 187
Six Sigma 187
Chapter Preview 243
Lean Service 191
Supply Chain Management 244
Rethinking Lean Service after COVID-19 193
Network Model 244
Service Benchmark: When Something Doesn’t
Managing Uncertainty 244
Work—Sometimes Just Hit It with a Hammer! 194
Omnichannel Supply Chain 245
Summary 194
Impact of COVID-19 on Supply Chain Design 245
Service Supply Relationships 247
Customer–Supplier Duality 247
Service Supply Relationships Are Hubs, Not Chains 248
CASE 7.1: Sonora County Sheriff 195
Managing Service Relationships 249
CASE 7.2: Mega Bytes Restaurant 196
Bidirectional Optimization 250
Chapter 7 Supplement: Data Envelopment Analysis
Productive Capacity 250
(DEA) 201
Perishability 251
Measuring Service Productivity 201
Social Media in Services 251
The DEA Model 201
Social Media as a Competitive Strategy 252
DEA and Strategic Planning 208
Social Media and Customer Convenience 252
Exercises 209
Social Media for Organizing and Co-Creation of Value 253
CASE 7.3: Mid-Atlantic Bus Lines 209
Selected Bibliography 210 Professional Service Firms 253
Endnotes 211 Attributes of Professional Services 253
Service Consulting 254
Operational Characteristics 255
Chapter 8 Outsourcing Services 256
Service Facility Location 212 Benefits and Risks of Outsourcing Services 257
Learning Objectives 212 Classification of Business Services 259
Chapter Preview 212 Managerial Considerations with Service Outsourcing 259
Strategic Location Considerations 213 Service Benchmark: Citizens Come First in Lynchburg 261
Competitive Clustering 213 Summary 262
Saturation Marketing 213 Key Terms and Definitions 262
Marketing Intermediaries 214 Topics for Discussion 262
Substitution of Communication for Travel 214 Interactive Exercise 263
Separation of Front from Back Office 214 CASE 9.1: Boomer Consulting, Inc. 263
Table of Contents xvii
CASE 9.2: Evolution of B2C E-Commerce in Japan 265 Summary 310

Selected Bibliography 268 Key Terms and Definitions 311
Endnotes 268 Topics for Discussion 311
Chapter 10 Solved Problems 311
Globalization of Services 270 Exercises 314
Learning Objectives 270 CASE 11.1: River City National Bank 316
Chapter Preview 270 CASE 11.2: Gateway International Airport 319
Domestic Growth and Expansion Strategies 271 CASE 11.3: The Yield Management Analyst 321
Focused Service 271 CASE 11.4: Sequoia Airlines 324
Focused Network 271 Selected Bibliography 326
Clustered Service 272 Endnotes 326
Diversified Network 272
Franchising 273 Chapter 12
The Nature of Franchising 273 Managing Waiting Lines 328
Benefits to the Franchisee 273 Learning Objectives 328
Issues for the Franchiser 274 Chapter Preview 328
Globalization of Services 275 The Economics of Waiting 329
The Nature of a Borderless World 275 Queuing Systems 329
Generic International Strategies 277 Strategies for Managing Customer Waiting 330
Global Service Strategies 278 The Psychology of Waiting 331
Multicountry Expansion 278 That Old Empty Feeling 331
Importing Customers 279 A Foot in the Door 331
Following Your Customers 280 The Light at the End of the Tunnel 332
Service Offshoring 280 Excuse Me, but I Was Next 332
Beating the Clock 280 Essential Features of Queuing Systems 333
Planning Transnational Operations 281 Calling Population 334
Service Benchmark: Small World and Other Myths 283 Arrival Process 334
Summary 283 Queue Configuration 338
Key Terms and Definitions 283 Queue Discipline 340
Topics for Discussion 284 Service Process 342
Interactive Exercise 284 Service Benchmark: The Magic of Disney Makes Queues
CASE 10.1: Goodwill Industries of Central Texas 284 Disappear 343
CASE 10.2: FedEx: Tiger International Acquisition 286 Summary 344
Selected Bibliography 289 Key Terms and Definitions 344
Endnotes 289 Topics for Discussion 344
Solved Problem 345
Chapter 11
Exercises 345
Managing Capacity and Demand 291
CASE 12.1: Thrifty Car Rental 345
CASE 12.2: Eye’ll Be Seeing You 347
Chapter Preview 291
CASE 12.3: Field Study 348
Generic Strategies of Level Capacity or Chase Demand 292
Strategies for Managing Demand 292
Endnotes 349
Customer-Induced Variability 292
Segmenting Demand 292
Offering Price Incentives 295 Chapter 13
Promoting Off-Peak Demand 296 Capacity Planning and Queuing Models 350
Developing Complementary Services 296 Learning Objectives 350
Reservation Systems and Overbooking 296 Chapter Preview 351
Strategies for Managing Capacity 298 Capacity Planning 351
Defining Service Capacity 298 Strategic Role of Capacity Decisions 352
Daily Workshift Scheduling 299 Analytical Queuing Models 353
Weekly Workshift Scheduling with Days-Off Constraint 301 Relationships Among System Characteristics 354
Increasing Customer Participation 302 Standard M/M/1 Model 355
Creating Adjustable Capacity 303 Standard M/M/c Model 357
Sharing Capacity 303 M/G/1 Model 360
Cross-Training Employees 303 General Self-Service M/G/∞ Model 360
Using Part-Time Employees 303 Finite-Queue M/M/1 Model 361
Yield Management 305 Finite-Queue M/M/c Model 362
Yield Management Applications 309 Capacity Planning Criteria 362
Service Benchmark: Pay Up Front and Take Your Average Customer Waiting Time 362
Chances 310 Probability of Excessive Waiting 363
xviii Table of Contents
Minimizing the Sum of Customer Waiting Costs and Service CASE 14.2: Gnomial Functions, Inc. 421
Costs 364 Selected Bibliography 423
Probability of Sales Lost Because of Inadequate Waiting Endnotes 423
Area 366
Service Benchmark: Don’t Guesstimate, Simulate! 366 Chapter 15
Summary 367 Managing Service Inventory 424
Key Terms and Definitions 367 Learning Objectives 424
Topics for Discussion 367 Chapter Preview 425
Interactive Exercise 368 Inventory Theory 426
Solved Problems 368 Role of Inventory in Services 426
Exercises 370 Characteristics of Inventory Systems 427
CASE 13.1: Houston Port Authority 372 Relevant Costs of an Inventory System 428
CASE 13.2: Freedom Express 373 Order Quantity Models 428
CASE 13.3: Renaissance Clinic (A) 373 Economic Order Quantity 428
Chapter 13 Supplement: Computer Simulation 375 Inventory Model with Quantity Discounts 432
Systems Simulation 375 Inventory Model with Planned Shortages 435
Simulation Methodology 375 Inventory Management Under Uncertainty 437
Monte Carlo Simulation 376 Inventory Control Systems 439
Generating Random Variables 376 Continuous Review System 439
Discrete-Event Simulation 380 Periodic Review System 440
Process Simulator by ProModel 382 The ABCs of Inventory Control 441
Automobile Driver’s License Office Revisited 383 Radio Frequency Identification 443
Solved Problems 385 Single-Period Model for Perishable Goods 444
Exercises 388 Expected Value Analysis 444
CASE 13.4: Drivers License Renewal 393 Marginal Analysis 445
CASE 13.5: Renaissance Clinic (B) 393 Retail Discounting Model 446
Selected Bibliography 394 Service Benchmark: Your Bag Is Tagged 448
Endnotes 395 Summary 448
PART FOUR Topics for Discussion 449
Quantitative Models for Service Management 396 Interactive Exercise 449
Solved Problems 449
Exercises 451
Chapter 14
CASE 15.1: A.D. Small Consulting 456
Forecasting Demand for Services 398
CASE 15.2: Last Resort Restaurant 457
CASE 15.3: Elysian Cycles 458
Chapter Preview 398
The Choice of Forecasting Method 399
Endnotes 460
Subjective Models 399
Delphi Method 399
Cross-Impact Analysis 401 Chapter 16
Historical Analogy 401 Managing Service Projects 461
Causal Models 401 Learning Objectives 461
Regression Models 401 Chapter Preview 461
Econometric Models 402 The Nature of Project Management 462
Time Series Models 402 Characteristics of Projects 462
N-Period Moving Average 402 Project Management Process 462
Simple Exponential Smoothing 403 Selecting the Project Manager 463
Forecast Error 406 Building the Project Team 463
Relationship Between α and N 406 Principles of Effective Project Management 464
Exponential Smoothing with Trend Adjustment 407 Techniques for Project Management 464
Exponential Smoothing with Seasonal Adjustment 409 Gantt Project Charts 464
Exponential Smoothing with Trend and Seasonal A Critique of Gantt Charts 466
Adjustments 411 Constructing a Project Network 466
Summary of Exponential Smoothing 413 Critical Path Method 468
Service Benchmark: Googling the Future 414 Microsoft Project Analysis 471
Summary 414 Resource Constraints 471
Key Terms and Definitions 414 Activity Crashing 472
Topics for Discussion 415 Incorporating Uncertainty in Activity Times 477
Interactive Exercise 415 Estimating Activity Duration Distributions 477
Solved Problems 415 Project Completion Time Distribution 478
Exercises 418 A Critique of the Project Completion Time Analysis 480
CASE 14.1: Oak Hollow Medical Evaluation Center 419 Problems with Implementing Critical Path Analysis 481
Table of Contents xix
Monitoring Projects 481 Selected Bibliography 497

Earned Value Chart 482 Endnote 497
Project Termination 483
Project History Report 483 Appendix A: Areas of Standard Normal Distribution 498
Service Benchmark: The House That Warren Built 484 Appendix B: Uniformly Distributed Random
Summary 484 Numbers [0, 1] 500
Key Terms and Definitions 484 Appendix C: Values of Lq for the M/M/c Queuing Model 501
Topics for Discussion 485 Appendix D: Equations for Selected Queuing Models 504
Interactive Exercise 485 Name Index 510
Solved Problems 485 Subject Index 513
Exercises 487
CASE 16.1: Info-Systems, Inc. 494
CASE 16.2: Whittier County Hospital 495
Part
1
Understanding Services
We begin our study of service management in Chapter 1, The Service Economy, with an appreciation of the central role that
services play in the economies of nations and in world commerce. No economy can function without the infrastructure that ser-
vices provide in the form of transportation and communications and without government services such as education and health
care. As an economy develops, however, services become even more important and soon the vast majority of the population is
employed in service activities.
However, services have distinctive features that present unique challenges for management. Perhaps the most important charac-
teristic of service operations is the presence of the customer in the service delivery system. Focusing on the customer and serv-
ing customers’ needs are the basis for a service-dominant logic that is an alternative to the traditional goods-centered paradigm.
An effective competitive strategy is particularly important for service firms because they compete in an environment that has
relatively low barriers to entry. We begin Chapter 2, Service Strategy, with a discussion of the strategic service vision, a frame-
work in the form of questions about the purpose and place of a service firm in its market. The well-known generic competitive
strategies—overall cost leadership, differentiation, and focus—are applied to services. Porter’s five forces and SWOT analysis are
applied to service firms. The topics of sustainability and economics of scalability are discussed in the context of growing a ser-
vice firm. The competitive role of information in services is highlighted throughout with Data Analytics and Internet of Things
featured.
Chapter
1
The Service Economy
Learning Objectives
After completing this chapter, you should be able to:
1. Describe the central role of services in an economy.
2. Identify and differentiate the five stages of economic activity.
3. Describe the features of preindustrial, industrial, and postindustrial societies.
4. Describe the features of the experience economy contrasting the consumer (B2C) with the business (B2B) service
experience.
5. Explain the essential features of the service-dominant logic.
6. Identify and critique the six distinctive characteristics of a service operation, and explain the implications for managers.
7. Describe a service using the five dimensions of the service package.
8. Use the service process matrix to classify a service.
We are witnessing the greatest labor migration since the industrial revolution. This migration from agriculture and manufactur-
ing to services is both invisible and largely global in scope. The migration is driven by global communications, business and
technology growth, urbanization, and low-cost labor. Service industries are leaders in every industrialized nation, they create
new jobs that dominate national economies, and they have the potential to enhance the quality of life of everyone. Many of
these jobs are for high-skilled knowledge workers in professional and business services, health care, and education. As shown
in Table 1.1, the extent of this movement to services is not only significant in the industrialized nations (European Union, the
United States, and Japan) but also represents a proportion of the labor force larger than that employed in industrial production
for the developing BRIC economies (Brazil, Russia, India, and China).
TABLE 1.1 Sector Employment in T

Top
op 10 Nations by 2019 LLabor
abor Force Size
Nation % of World Labor % Agri % Industry % Services

China 22.3 27.7 28.8 43.5
India 14.3 47.0 22.0 31.0
European Union 6.4 5.0 21.9 73.1
United States 4.8 0.7 20.3 79.1
Indonesia 3.9 32.0 21.0 47.0
Brazil 3.1 9.4 32.1 58.5
Pakistan 2.2 42.3 22.6 35.1
Russia 2.1 9.4 27.6 62.5
Bangladesh 2.0 42.7 20.5 36.8
Japan 1.9 2.9 26.2 70.9
Sources: https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/field/labor-force-by-occupation.html; https://www.data.worldbank.org/indicator/SL.TLF.TOTL.IN.
4 Chapter 1: The Service Economy
Chapter Preview
In a discussion of economic development, we learn that modern industrialized economies are dominated by employment in the
service sector industries. This represents a natural evolution of economies from preindustrial to industrial and finally to postin-
dustrial societies. The nature of the service economy is explored in terms of employment opportunities and the transition to
experienced-based relationships for both consumers and businesses.
The distinctive characteristics of service operations suggest that the service environment is sufficiently unique to question the
direct application of traditional manufacturing-based management techniques. In particular, the service manager operates in a
system in which the customer is present and a co-creator of value. The concept of a service package to describe a service from an
operations point of view is the foundation for an open-systems view of service management challenges. We begin with a selection
of service definitions.
Service Definitions
Many definitions of service are available but all contain a common theme of intangibility and simultaneous consumption. The
following represent a sample of service definitions:
Services are deeds, processes, and performances. (Source: Valarie A. Zeithaml, Mary Jo Bitner, and Dwayne D. Gremler,
Services Marketing, 7th ed., New York: McGraw-Hill, 2017, p. 4.)
Services are economic activities offered by one party to another, most commonly employing time-based performances to
bring about desired results in recipients themselves or in objects or other assets for which purchasers have responsibility. In
exchange for their money, time, and effort, service customers expect to obtain value from access to goods, labor, professional
skills, facilities, networks, and systems; but they do not normally take ownership of any of the physical elements involved.
Source: Jochen Wirtz and Christopher Lovelock, Services Marketing: People, Technology, Strategy, 8th ed., Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-
Hall, 2007, p. 6.
A service system is a value-coproduction configuration of people, technology, other internal and external service systems, and
shared information (such as language, processes, metrics, prices, policies, and laws).
Source: Jim Spohrer, Paul Maglio, John Bailey, and Daniel Gruhl, Computer, January 2007, p. 72.
Facilitating Role of Services in an Economy

As shown in Figure 1.1, services are central to the economic activity in any society. Infrastructure services, such as transporta-
tion and communications, are the essential foundation of an economy. Both infrastructure and distribution services function as
economic intermediaries and as the channel of distribution to the final consumer. Infrastructure and distribution services are a
prerequisite for an economy to become industrialized; therefore, no advanced society can be without these services.
In an industrialized economy, specialized firms can supply business services to manufacturing firms more cheaply and efficiently
than manufacturing firms can supply these services for themselves. Thus, we find advertising, consulting, and other business
services being provided for the manufacturing sector by service firms.
Except for basic subsistence living, where individual households are self-sufficient, service activities are absolutely necessary for
the economy to function and to enhance the quality of life. Consider, for example, the importance of a banking industry to
transfer funds and a transportation industry to move food products to areas that cannot produce them. Moreover, a wide variety
of personal services, such as restaurants, lodging, and child care, have been created to move former household functions into
the economy. In fact, the consumer performing self-service activities is a service contributor often using technology (e.g., airline
boarding kiosk) to eliminate non-value-adding tasks or affording personalization and control (e.g., online brokerage).
Government services play a critical role in providing a stable environment for investment and economic growth. Services such
as public education, health care, well-maintained roads, safe drinking water, clean air, and public safety are necessary for any
nation’s economy to survive and people to prosper.
Increasingly, the profitability of manufacturers depends on exploiting value-added services. For example, automobile manufac-
turers have discovered that financing and/or leasing automobiles can achieve significant profits. Otis Elevator long ago found
that revenues from after-sales maintenance contracts far exceed the profits from elevator equipment sales. This revenue enhance-
ment strategy by manufacturers of deliberately coupling a service with their product is referred to as servitization. Almost every
product today has a service component.
Chapter 1: The Service Economy 5
Thus, it is imperative to recognize that services are not peripheral activities but rather integral parts of society. They are central
to a functioning and healthy economy and lie at the heart of that economy. Finally, the service sector not only facilitates but also
makes possible the goods-producing activities of the manufacturing sectors. Services are the crucial ingredient for today’s global
economy.
Economic Evolution
In the early 1900s, only 3 of every 10 workers in the United States were employed in the services sector. The remaining workers
were active in agriculture and industry. By 1950, employment in services accounted for 50 percent of the workforce. Today, ser-
vices employ about 8 out of every 10 workers. Since WWII, we have witnessed a major evolution in sector employment from
being predominantly manufacturing and agriculture to being predominantly services. This change in employment opportunities
has made a significant impact on culture, demographics, and education.
Economists studying economic growth are not surprised by these events. Colin Clark argues that as nations become industrial-
ized, there is an inevitable shift of employment from one sector of the economy to another.1 As productivity (output/labor-hour)
increases in one sector, the labor force moves into another. This observation, known as the Clark-Fisher hypothesis, leads to a
classification of economies by noting the activity of the majority of the workforce.
Figure 1.2 describes a hierarchy of economic activity. Many economists, including Clark, limited their analyses to only three
stages, of which the tertiary stage was simply services. We have subdivided the service stage to create a total of five stages.
Today, an overwhelming number of countries still are in the primary stage of development. These economies are based on
extracting natural resources from the land. Their productivity is low and income is subject to fluctuations based on the prices of
commodities such as sugar and copper. In much of Africa and parts of Asia, more than 70 percent of the labor force is engaged
in extractive activities.
Figure 1.3 shows the rapid increase in service employment in the United States and illustrates the almost mirror image decline
in agriculture employment. This sector employment trajectory is repeated for all of the nations represented in Table 1.1. We can
observe that migration to services is a predictable evolution in the workforce of all nations, and successful industrial economies
FIGURE 1.1 Role of Services in an Economy
Source: Bruce R. Guile and James Brian Quinn, eds., Technology in Services: Policies for Growth, Trade, and Employment, Washington, D.C.: National Acad-
emy Press, 1988, p. 214.
are built on a strong service sector. Furthermore, competition in services is global. Consider the growth of Indian call centers
and British financial services. Trade in services remains a challenge, however, because many countries erect barriers to protect
domestic firms. India and Mexico, for example, prohibit the sale of insurance by foreign companies.
Stages of Economic Development

Describing where our society has been, its current condition, and its most likely future is the task of social historians. Daniel
Bell, a professor of sociology at Harvard University, has written extensively on this topic, and the material that follows is based
on his work.2 To place the concept of a postindustrial society in perspective, we must compare its features with those of prein-
dustrial and industrial societies.
FIGURE 1.2 Stages of Economic Activity
FIGURE 1.3 Trends in U.S. Employment by Sector, 1850–2015
Source: https://www.visualcapitalist.com/visualizing-150-years-of-u-s-employment-history/.
Chapter 1: The Service Economy 7
Preindustrial Society
The condition of most of the world’s population today is one of subsistence, or a preindustrial society. Life is characterized as
a game against nature. Working with muscle power and tradition, the labor force is engaged in agriculture, mining, and fishing.
Life is conditioned by the elements, such as the weather, the quality of the soil, and the availability of water. The rhythm of life
is shaped by nature, and the pace of work varies with the seasons. Productivity is low and bears little evidence of technology.
Social life revolves around the extended household, and this combination of low productivity and large population results in high
rates of underemployment (workers not fully utilized). Many seek positions in services, but of the personal or household variety.
Preindustrial societies are agrarian and structured around tradition, routine, and authority.
Industrial Society
The predominant activity in an industrial society is the production of goods. Energy and machines multiply the output per labor-
hour and structure the nature of work. Division of labor is the operational “law” that creates routine tasks and the notion of
the semiskilled worker. Work is accomplished in the artificial environment of the factory, and people tend the machines. Life
becomes a game that is played against a fabricated nature—a world of cities, factories, and tenements. The rhythm of life is
machine-paced and dominated by rigid working hours and time clocks. Of course, the unrelenting pressure of industrial life is
ameliorated by the countervailing force of labor unions.
An industrial society is a world of schedules and acute awareness of the value of time. The standard of living becomes measured
by the quantity of goods, but note that the complexity of coordinating the production and distribution of goods results in the
creation of large bureaucratic and hierarchic organizations. These organizations are designed with certain roles for their mem-
bers, and their operation tends to be impersonal, with persons treated as interchangeable. The individual is the unit of social life
in a society that is considered to be the sum total of all the individual decisions being made in the marketplace.
Postindustrial Society
While an industrial society defines the standard of living by the quantity of goods, the postindustrial society is concerned with
the quality of life, as measured by services such as health, education, and recreation. The central figure is the professional per-
son because rather than energy or physical strength, information is the key resource. Life now is a game played among persons.
Social life becomes more difficult because political claims and social rights multiply. Society becomes aware that the indepen-
dent actions of individuals and organizations can combine to create havoc for everyone, as evidenced by environmental pollution
and traffic congestion. The community rather than the individual becomes the social unit.
Bell suggests that the transformation from an industrial to a postindustrial society occurs in many ways. First, there is a natural
development of services, such as transportation and utilities, to support industrial development. As laborsaving devices are
introduced into the production process, more workers engage in nonmanufacturing activities, such as maintenance and repair.
Second, growth of the population and mass consumption of goods increase wholesale and retail trade, along with banking, real
estate, and insurance. Third, as income increases, the proportion spent on the necessities of food and home decreases, and the
remainder creates a demand for durables and then for services.
Ernst Engel, a Prussian statistician of the 19th century, observed that as family incomes increase, the percentage spent on food
and durables drops while consumption of services that reflect a desire for a more enriched life increases correspondingly. This
phenomenon is analogous to the Maslow hierarchy of needs, which says that once the basic requirements of food and shelter are
satisfied, people seek physical goods and, finally, personal development. However, a necessary condition for the “good life” is
health and education. In our attempts to eliminate disease and increase the span of life, health services become a critical feature
of modern society.
Higher education becomes the condition for entry into a postindustrial society, which requires professional and technical skills
of its population. Also, claims for more services and social justice lead to a growth in government. Concerns for environmental
protection require government intervention and illustrate the interdependent and even global character of postindustrial prob-
lems. Table 1.2 summarizes the features that characterize the preindustrial, industrial, and postindustrial stages of economic
development.
TABLE 1.2 Comparison of Societies
Features
Use of Standard of
Predominant Human Unit of Living
Society Game Activity Labor Social Life Measure Structure Technology
Preindustrial Against nature Agriculture Raw Extended Subsistence Routine Simple
Mining muscle household Traditional hand tools
power Authoritative
Industrial Against Goods- Machine- Individual Quantity of Bureaucratic Machines
fabricated production tending goods Hierarchical
nature
Postindustrial Among Services Artistic Community Quality of Interdependent Information
persons Creative life in Global
Intellectual terms of
health,
education,
recreation
Nature of the Service Sector

For many people, service is synonymous with servitude and brings to mind workers flipping hamburgers and waiting on tables.
However, the service sector that has grown significantly over the past century cannot be described accurately as composed only
of low-wage or low-skill jobs in hotels and fast-food restaurants. Instead, as Figure 1.4 shows, approximately 31 percent of the
total employment in 2019 occurred in high-skill service categories such as professional and business services, health care and
social assistance, and educational services.
FIGURE 1.4 Distribution of U.S. Employment by Industry, 2019
Source: http://www.bls.gov/emp/tables/employment-by-major-industry-sector.htm.
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Was it not just, after all, that a man who had lived by adventures
should perish as an adventurer? He was not a consummate
politician, whatever Cicero may assert; he failed to be that, because
he lacked conviction and a genuine devotion. The instability of his
feelings, the inconsistency of his conduct, that sort of scepticism that
he affected for all convictions were not less hurtful to his talents than
to his character. If he had known how to put greater unity into his
life, if he had early attached himself to some honourable party, his
capacities, finding employment worthy of them, would have attained
their perfection. He might have no doubt failed, but to die at
Pharsalia or Philippi is still considered an honour by posterity. On
the contrary, as he changed his opinions as often as his interests or
caprices, as he served by turns the most opposite parties without
belief in the justice of any, he was never anything but an immature
orator and a hap-hazard politician, and he died on the high-road like
a common malefactor. However, notwithstanding his faults, history
has some difficulty in judging him harshly. The ancient writers never
speak of him without a secret liking. The brilliancy that surrounded
his youth, the charms of his mind, the elegance which he knew how
to preserve in his worst disorders, a sort of daring frankness which
prevented him seeking honourable pretexts for dishonourable
actions, his clear judgment of political situations, his knowledge of
men, his fertility of resource, his strength of resolution, his boldness
in daring all and in constantly risking his life; these many brilliant
qualities though mingled with so many great defects have disarmed
the most severe judges. The sage Quintilian himself, little fitted as he
was to understand that passionate nature, dared not be severe upon
him. After having praised the graces of his mind and his incisive
eloquence, he contented himself with saying, by way of moral: “He
was a man who deserved to have had a juster sense of conduct and a
longer life, dignus vir cui mens melior et vita longior
contigisset!”[234]
At the time that Caelius died, that elegant youth of which he was
the model, and which the verses of Catullus and the letters of Cicero
have helped us to know, had already partly disappeared. There
remained scarcely any of those young men who had shone in the
fêtes of Baiae and who had been applauded in the Forum. Catullus
died first, at the very moment when his talents were being ripened by
age, and were becoming more serious and more elevated. His friend
Calvus was soon to follow him, carried off at thirty-five, no doubt by
the fatigues of public life. Curio had been killed by Pompey’s soldiers,
as Caelius was by Caesar’s. Dolabella survived, but only for a short
time, and he also was to perish in a tragic manner. It was a
revolutionary generation which the revolution mowed down, for it is
true, according to the celebrated saying, that in all times as in all
countries revolution devours her own children.
CAESAR AND CICERO
I
CICERO AND THE CAMP OF CAESAR IN GAUL
Cicero was not wrong when he said one day to Caesar: “After our
time, there will be great debates about you, as there have been
among ourselves.”[235] It is certain that he is that historical personage
whom men still discuss with most heat. None has excited more
sympathy or roused more animosity, and it must be admitted that
there seems to be something in him to justify both the one and the
other. He cannot be admired or blamed without some reservations,
and he always attracts on some side those whom he repels on
another. The very people who hate him the most, and who cannot
pardon him the political revolution that he accomplished, are forced
into a secret admiration for him when they think of his victories, or
read his writings.
The more complex and disputable his character, the more
necessary it is, in order to form a just idea of him, to interrogate
those who were in a position to know him. Although Cicero was
almost all his life separated from Caesar by grave disagreements,
twice he had occasion to maintain a close intercourse with him:
during the Gallic war he was his political ally and his assiduous
correspondent; after Pharsalia he became his friend again, and acted
as intermediary between the conqueror and those he had condemned
to exile. Let us inquire what he says of him at these two periods of his
life when he saw him most closely, and let us collect from his
correspondence, through which we become so well acquainted with
the eminent men of that time, the information it contains about him
who was the greatest of all.
I.
I must first recall the events which led Cicero to desert the
aristocratic party to which he had been attached since his consulship,
in order to serve the triumvirs, and how the courageous friend of
Hortensius and of Cato became so subservient to Pompey and
Caesar. It is not an honourable period in his life, and his most
convinced admirers say as little about it as possible. However, there
is some interest, perhaps even some profit, in pausing upon it for a
moment.
Cicero’s return from the exile to which he had been condemned
after his consulship by the efforts of Clodius, was a veritable
triumph. Brundusium, where he disembarked, celebrated his arrival
by public rejoicings. All the citizens of the free towns that bordered
the Appian Way, waited for him on the road, and the heads of
families with their wives and children came from all the
neighbouring farms to see him pass. At Rome, he was received by an
immense multitude crowded on the public squares, or ranged on the
steps of the temples. “It seemed,” said he, “that all the city was drawn
from its foundations to come and salute its liberator.”[236] At his
brother’s house, where he was going to live, he found the most
eminent members of the senate awaiting him, and at the same time
congratulatory addresses from all the popular societies of the city. It
is probable that some who had signed these, had voted with the same
eagerness the preceding year for the law that exiled him, and that
many clapped their hands on his return who had applauded his
departure; but the people have occasionally these strange and
generous impulses. It sometimes happens that they break away by a
sudden bound from the malice, distrust, and narrowness of party
spirit, and, at the very moment when passions seem most inflamed
and divisions most clearly marked, they unite all at once to render
homage to some great genius or to some great character, which, we
know not how, has compelled their recognition. Usually, this
gratitude and admiration last but a short time; but, should they
endure only a day, they do eternal honour to him who has been their
object, and the glory they leave behind is sufficient to illumine a
whole life. Therefore we must pardon Cicero for having spoken so
often and with so much effusiveness of this glorious day. A little
pride was here both legitimate and natural. How could a soul so
sensitive to popular applause have resisted the intoxication of a
triumphal return? “I do not feel as though I were simply returning
from exile,” said he, “I appear to myself to be mounting to
heaven.”[237]
But he was not long in descending again to earth. Whatever he
may have thought at first, he soon recognized that this city which
welcomed him with so much rejoicing was not changed, and that he
found it much the same as when he left it. Anarchy had reigned there
for three years, an anarchy such as we have difficulty in imagining,
notwithstanding all the examples that our own revolutions have
given us. Since the triumvirs had let loose the rabble in order to seize
upon the government of the republic, it had become entirely master.
A daring tribune, a deserter from the aristocracy, and one who bore
the most illustrious name in Rome, Clodius, had taken upon himself
to lead it, and as far as possible, to discipline it. He had displayed in
this difficult work many talents and much audacity, and had
succeeded well enough to deserve to become the terror of honest
people. When we speak of the Roman mob, we must not forget that it
was much more frightful than our own, and was recruited from more
formidable elements. Whatever just dismay the populace that
emerges all at once from the lowest quarters of our manufacturing
cities, on a day of riot, may cause us, let us remember that at Rome,
this inferior social stratum descended still lower. Below the
vagabond strangers and the starving workmen, the ordinary tools of
revolutions, there was all that crowd of freedmen demoralized by
slavery, to whom liberty had given but one more means for evil-
doing; there were those gladiators, trained to fight beast or man, who
made light of the death of others or themselves; there were, still
lower, those fugitive slaves, who were indeed the worst of all classes,
who, after having robbed or murdered at home, and lived by pillage
on the road, came from all Italy to take refuge and disappear in the
obscurity of the slums of Rome, an unclean and terrible multitude of
men without family, without country, who, outlawed by the general
sentiment of society, had nothing to respect as they had nothing to
lose. It was among these that Clodius recruited his bands.
Enlistments were made in open day, in one of the most frequented
spots in Rome, near the Aurelian steps. The new soldiers were then
organized in decuries and centuries, under energetic leaders. They
assembled by districts in secret societies, where they went to receive
the password, and had their centre and arsenal at the temple of
Castor. When the day arrived, and a popular manifestation was
wanted, the tribunes ordered the shops to be closed; then, the
artisans were thrown on the public streets, and all the army of the
secret societies marched together towards the Forum. There they
met, not the honest folks, who, feeling themselves the weaker party,
stayed at home, but the gladiators and herdsmen whom the senate
had fetched to defend them from the wilds of Picenum or Gaul, and
then the battle commenced. “Imagine London,” says M. Mommsen,
“with the slave population of New Orleans, the police of
Constantinople, and the industrial condition of modern Rome, and
think of the political state of Paris in 1848: you will have some idea of
republican Rome in its last days.”
No law was any longer respected, no citizen, no magistrate was
secure from violence. One day the fasces of a consul were broken, the
next a tribune was left for dead. The senate itself, led away by these
examples, had at last lost that quality which Romans lost the last, its
dignity. In that assembly of kings, as a Greek had called it, they
debated with revolting coarseness. Cicero surprised no one when he
gave his adversaries the names of swine, filth, rotten flesh.
Sometimes the discussions became so heated that the noise reached
that excited crowd that filled the porticoes near the curia, which then
took part in them, with so much violence that the terrified senators
hastened to fly.[238] We can easily understand that it was much worse
in the Forum. Cicero relates that, when they were tired of insulting,
they spat in each other’s faces.[239] When a man wished to address the
people, he had to take the rostrum by storm, and he risked his life in
trying to keep his place there. The tribunes had found a new way of
obtaining unanimity of votes for the laws that they proposed:
namely, to beat and drive away all who took it into their heads not to
agree with them. But contests were nowhere more violent than on
the Campus Martius on election days. Men were driven to regret the
time when they trafficked publicly in the votes of the electors. Now,
they did not even take the trouble to buy public offices; they found it
more convenient to seize them by force. Each party went before
daylight to the Campus Martius. Collisions took place on the roads
leading to it. Each party hastened to arrive before its adversaries, or,
if these were already established there, attacked them in order to
dislodge them: naturally the appointments belonged to those who
remained masters of the place. In the midst of all these armed bands
there was no security for any one. Men were obliged to fortify
themselves in their houses for fear of being surprised. They could
only go out with a train of gladiators and slaves. To go from one
quarter of the city to another, they took as many precautions as if
they had to traverse a desert country, and they met at the turning of a
street with the same fear they would have had at the corner of a
wood. In the midst of Rome there were real battles and regular
sieges. It was an ordinary manœuvre to set fire to the houses of their
enemies at the risk of burning down a whole quarter, and, towards
the end, no election or popular assembly took place without
bloodshed. “The Tiber,” says Cicero, speaking of one of these
combats, “was full of the corpses of the citizens, the public sewers
were choked with them, and they were obliged to mop up with
sponges the blood that streamed from the Forum.”[240]
Such were the obscure convulsions in which the Roman republic
perished, and the shameful disorders that sapped its remaining
strength. Cicero well knew that bloody anarchy and the dangers he
was about to run, and had therefore resolved, before re-entering
Rome, to be prudent, so as not to run the risk of having to leave it
again. His was not one of those minds that misfortune strengthens,
and that feel a kind of pleasure in struggling against ill-fortune. Exile
had discouraged him. During the long weariness of his sojourn in
Thessaly, he had made a sad review of the past. He had reproached
himself for his occasional courage and independence, for his
boldness in combating the powerful, and for the mistake he had
made in joining himself too closely to the party which he had judged
the best, but which was evidently the weakest, as though to act thus
had been a crime. He came back thoroughly resolved to entangle
himself as little as possible with any one, to disarm his enemies by
concession, and to keep on good terms with everybody. This was the
course he followed on his arrival, and his first speeches are
masterpieces of policy. It is plain that he still leans towards the
aristocracy which had taken an active part in his restoration, and to
praise it he has noble expressions of patriotism and gratitude; but
already he commences to flatter Caesar, and he calls Pompey “the
most virtuous, the wisest, the greatest of the men of his age or of any
age.”[241] At the same time, he tells us himself, he took good heed not
to appear in the senate when irritating questions were to be
discussed, and was very careful to escape from the Forum as soon as
the debate became too heated. “No more violent remedies,” he
replied to those who tried to urge him to some brilliant action; “I
must put myself on diet.”[242]
However, he soon perceived that this adroit reserve was not
sufficient to ward off all danger. While he was rebuilding his house
on the Palatine, which had been destroyed after his departure, the
bands of Clodius threw themselves on the workmen and dispersed
them, and, emboldened by this success, set fire to the house of his
brother Quintus, which was close by. A few days later, as he was
walking on the Via Sacra, he heard all at once a great noise, and on
turning round saw sticks raised and naked swords. It was the same
men who came to attack him. He had great difficulty in escaping into
the vestibule of a friendly house while his slaves fought bravely
before the door to give him time to escape. Cato would not have been
moved by this violence; Cicero must have been very much
frightened; above all it taught him that his system of prudent reserve
did not sufficiently assure his safety. It was, in fact, probable that no
party would expose itself to defend him as long as he had only
compliments to give it, and as he could not stand alone and without
support in the midst of all these armed factions, it was really
necessary that, in order to find the support he needed, he should
consent to attach himself more closely to one of them.
But which should he choose? This was a grave question in which
his interests were at variance with his sympathies. All his
inclinations were evidently for the aristocracy. He had closely
attached himself to it about the time of his consulship, and since that
time he had professed to serve it, and it was for it that he had just
braved the anger of the people and exposed himself to exile. But this
very exile had taught him how the most honourable course was also
the least safe. At the last moment, the senate had not found better
means of saving him than to make useless decrees, to put on
mourning, and go and throw themselves at the feet of the consuls.
Cicero thought that this was not enough. Seeing himself so ill-
defended, he had suspected that people who did not take his
interests in hand more resolutely were not very sorry for his
misfortunes; and perhaps he was not wrong. The Roman aristocracy,
whatever he had done for it, could not forget he was a “new” man.
The Claudii, the Cornelii, the Manlii, always looked with a certain
displeasure on this insignificant townsman of Arpinum, whom the
popular vote had made their equal. Still they might have pardoned
his good fortune if he had borne it with more modesty; but we know
his vanity; though it was only ridiculous, the aristocracy, whom it
offended, thought it criminal. They could not tolerate the legitimate
pride with which he constantly recalled that he was only a parvenu.
They thought it strange that, when attacked by insolence, he dared to
reply by raillery; and quite recently they had shown themselves
scandalized that he had forgotten himself so far as to buy the villa of
Catulus at Tusculum, and to go and live on the Palatine in the house
of Crassus. Cicero, with his usual shrewdness, very clearly discerned
all these sentiments of the aristocracy, and even exaggerated them.
Since his return from exile he had yet other grievances against them.
They had taken much trouble to get him recalled; but had not
foreseen the splendour of his return, and it did not seem that they
were very well pleased with it. “Those who have clipped my wings,”
said Cicero, “are sorry to see them grow again.”[243] From this
moment his good friends in the senate would do nothing more for
him. He had found his finances much embarrassed, his house on the
Palatine burnt, his villas at Tusculum and Formiae plundered and
destroyed, and they decided with reluctance to indemnify him for
these losses. What irritated him still more, was that he saw clearly
that they did not share in his anger against Clodius. They showed
themselves cool or remained silent during his violent fits of anger. A
few even, the most adroit, affected to speak only with esteem of this
factious tribune, and did not blush to give him their hand in public.
Whence came their regard for a man who had so little for them? It
was that they hoped to make use of him, and that they secretly
nourished the thought of calling in the mob to the help of the
endangered aristocracy. This alliance, although less usual than that
of the mob with despotism, was not impossible, and the bands of
Clodius, if they could be enlisted, would have permitted the senate to
hold the triumvirs in check. Cicero, who perceived this policy, feared
to become its victim; he bitterly regretted then the services he had
tried to render to the senate, and which had cost him so dear. In
recalling the dangers to which he had exposed himself in order to
defend it, the obstinate and unsuccessful struggles that he had
maintained for four years, the ruin of his political position and the
disasters of his private fortune, he said with sorrow: “I see clearly
now that I have been only a fool (scio me asinum germanum
fuisse”).[244]
It only remained for him then to turn to the triumvirs. This was
the advice given to him by his friend the prudent Atticus, and his
brother Quintus, whom the burning of his house had rendered
cautious contrary to his habit; this was the resolution he was himself
tempted to take every time he ran some fresh danger. Nevertheless,
he had some trouble in making up his mind. The triumvirs had been
heretofore his most cruel enemies. Without speaking of Crassus, in
whom he detected an accomplice of Catiline, he well knew that it was
Caesar who had let Clodius loose against him, and he could not
forget that Pompey, who had sworn to defend him, had lately
abandoned him to the vengeance of his two friends; but he had no
choice of alliances, and since he dared no longer trust the aristocratic
party, he was forced to put himself under the protection of others. He
had then to resign himself to his fate. He authorized his brother to
pledge him to Caesar and Pompey, and prepared himself to serve
their ambition. His first act, after his return, had been to demand for
Pompey one of those extraordinary powers of which he was so
greedy: by his exertions Pompey had been entrusted for six years
with the victualling of Rome, and on this occasion he had been
invested with an almost unlimited authority. A short time after,
although the public treasury was exhausted, he had a sum of money
granted to Caesar for the payment of his legions, and permission to
have ten lieutenants under his orders. When the aristocracy, who
understood with what design Caesar was carrying out the conquest of
Gaul, wished to prevent him continuing it, it was again Cicero who
demanded and obtained for him permission to finish his work. It was
thus that the old enemy of the triumvirs became their usual defender
before the senate. The support that he consented to give was not
useless to them. His great name and his eloquence drew towards him
the moderate men of all parties, those whose opinion was wavering
and their convictions undecided; those, above all, who, wearied with
a too tempestuous liberty, sought everywhere a firm hand that might
give them repose; and these, joined to the personal friends of Caesar
and Pompey, to the tools that the rich Crassus had made by bribery,
and to the ambitious men of all sorts who foresaw the advent of the
monarchy and wished to be the first to salute it, formed in the senate
a majority of which Cicero was the head and the orator, and which
rendered to the triumvirs the important service of giving a legal
sanction to that power which they had gained by violence and
exercised illegally.
Cicero had at length obtained repose. His enemies feared him,
Clodius dared no longer risk attacking him, his familiarity with the
new masters was envied, and yet this skilful conduct, which gained
for him the thanks of the triumvirs and the congratulations of
Atticus, did not fail at times to disturb him. It was in vain for him to
say to himself that “his life had regained its splendour,” he did not
feel less remorse in serving men whose ambition he knew, and whom
he knew to be dangerous to the liberty of his country. In the midst of
the efforts that he made to satisfy them, he had sudden awakenings
of patriotism which made him blush. His private correspondence
bears everywhere the trace of the alternations of mood through
which he passed. One day he wrote to Atticus in a light and resolute
tone: “Let us give up honour, justice, and fine sentiments.... Since
those who can do nothing will not love me, let us try to make
ourselves loved by those who can do everything.”[245] But shame
seized him the next day, and he could not avoid saying to his friend:
“Is anything sadder than our life, mine above all? If I speak
according to my convictions I pass for a madman; if I listen to my
interests, I am accused of being a slave; if I am silent, they say I am
afraid.”[246] Even in his public speeches, notwithstanding the
restraint he puts on himself, we can feel his secret dissatisfaction. It
seems to me that we discover it above all in that extraordinary tone
of bitterness and violence which was then habitual to him. Never,
perhaps, did he pronounce more passionate invectives. Now this
excess of violence towards others often comes from a mind ill at ease.
What made his eloquence so bitter at this time was that uneasy
feeling which a man has who is in the wrong path and has not the
courage to leave it. He did not forgive his old friends their raillery
and his new ones their demands; he reproached himself secretly for
his base concessions; he had a spite against others and against
himself, and Vatinius or Piso suffered for all the rest. In this
condition of mind he could not be a safe friend for anybody. It
happened sometimes that he suddenly turned on his new friends,
and gave blows so much the more disagreeable that they were not
expected. Sometimes he diverted himself by attacking their best
friends, to show others and prove to himself that he had not entirely
lost his liberty. People had been very much surprised to hear him, in
a speech in which he defended Caesar’s interests, praise to excess
Bibulus, whom Caesar detested. One day even he seemed quite ready
to return to those whom he had called honest men before he
abandoned them. It seemed to him a good opportunity to break with
his new party in a formal manner. The friendship of the triumvirs
had become very cool. Pompey was not pleased with the success of
that Gallic war which threatened to make his own victories forgotten.
Cicero, who heard him speak without restraint against his rival,
thought he might without danger give some satisfaction to his
irritated conscience, and wished by a brilliant stroke to deserve the
pardon of his old friends. Taking advantage of some difficulty that
was raised in regard to the carrying out of Caesar’s agrarian law, he
formally announced that on the Ides of May he would speak on the
sale of the Campanian lands which by this law were distributed
among the people. The effect of his declaration was very great. The
allies of the triumvirs were as much offended as they were surprised,
and the aristocratic party hastened to welcome with transports of joy
the return of the eloquent deserter, but in a few days everything
turned against him. At the very moment when he decided on this
brilliant stroke, the alliance between the triumvirs that was thought
to be broken, was renewed at Lucca, and, amid a concourse of their
flatterers, they once more divided the world between them. Cicero,
then, was about to find himself again alone and without support in
the presence of an angry and all-powerful enemy who threatened to
deliver him up again to the vengeance of Clodius. Atticus scolded;
Quintus, who had pledged himself for his brother, complained
roughly that his promises were being broken. Pompey, although he
had secretly encouraged the defection, affected to be more angry
than anybody. The unhappy Cicero, attacked on all sides, and
trembling at the passions which he had raised, hastened to submit,
and promised everything that was required. Thus this attempt at
independence only made his slavery heavier.
From this moment he seems to have resolutely accepted his new
position, from a feeling that he could not change it. He resigned
himself to heap more and more exaggerated praises on the vain
Pompey, who never had enough. He consented to become the agent
of Caesar with Oppius and Balbus, and to supervise the public
buildings he was constructing. He went further, and was willing at
the request of his powerful protectors to give his hand to men whom
he regarded as his greatest enemies. This was not a small sacrifice for
a man who had such strong aversions; but from the time that he
joined their party so decidedly, he was obliged to accept their
friendship as he defended their plans. They began to take steps to
reconcile him to Crassus. This was a great matter which was not done
in a day, for when it was thought that their old enmity was appeased,
it broke out all at once in a discussion in the senate, and Cicero
abused his new ally with a violence that surprised himself. “I thought
my hatred exhausted,” said he naïvely, “and did not imagine any
remained in my heart.”[247] He was then asked to undertake the
defence of Vatinius; he consented with a pretty good grace, although
he had pronounced a furious invective against him the year before.
The advocates in Rome were accustomed to these sudden changes,
and Cicero had done the same thing more than once. When Gabinius
returned from Egypt, after having restored King Ptolemy against the
formal command of the senate, Cicero, who could not abide him,
thinking it a good opportunity to ruin him, prepared to attack him;
but Pompey came to beg him urgently to defend him. He dared not
refuse, changed his part, and submitted to speak in favour of a man
whom he detested and a cause which he considered bad. He had at
least the consolation of losing his case, and although he was always
anxious for success, it is probable that this failure did not give him
much pain.
But he well understood that so much deference and submission, all
these notorious self-contradictions to which he was forced, would
end by rousing public opinion against him. Therefore, about this
time, he decided to write an important letter to his friend Lentulus,
one of the chiefs of the aristocracy, which he probably intended to be
circulated, and in which he explains his conduct.[248] In this letter,
after having related the facts in his own way and sufficiently abused
those whom he had abandoned, a convenient and common mode of
anticipating their complaints and making them responsible for the
mischief he was about to do them, he ventures to present, with
singular candour, a sort of apology for his political instability. The
reasons he gives to justify it are not always very good; but we must
believe that better cannot be found, since they have not ceased to be
used. Under the pretence that Plato has somewhere said, “one must
not do violence to one’s country any more than to one’s father,”
Cicero lays it down as a principle, that a politician ought not to
persist in wishing for what his fellow-citizens do not wish, nor lose
his pains in attempting useless opposition. Circumstances change,
one must change with them, and suit oneself to the wind that blows,
so as not to go to pieces on the rocks. Besides, is that really to
change? Cannot one in the main wish for the same thing and serve
one’s country under different banners? A man is not fickle for
defending, according to circumstances, opinions that seem
contradictory if by opposite routes he marches to the same goal, and
do we not know “that we must often shift the sails when we wish to
arrive in port”? These are only the general maxims which an
inventive politician can make up to hide his weaknesses, and there is
no need to discuss them. The best way to defend Cicero is to
remember in what a time he lived, and how little fitted he was for
that time. This elegant literary man, this skilful artist, this friend of
the arts of peace, had been placed, by a caprice of fate, in one of the
most stormy and troubled periods of history. What could a man of
leisure and study do among those deadly struggles where force was
master, a man who had no arms but his words, and who always
dreamed of the pleasures of peaceful times and the pacific laurels of
eloquence? A more manly soul than his would have been needed to
make head against these assaults. Events stronger than himself
confounded his designs every instant and played with his hesitating
will. On his entry into public life he had taken for his motto, leisure
and honour, otium cum dignitate; but these two things are not easy
to unite in revolutionary times, and almost always one of the two is
lost when we are too anxious to preserve the other. Resolute
characters, who know this well, make their choice between them at
once, and, according as one is a Cato or an Atticus, one decides from
the very first day either for leisure or for honour. The undecided, like
Cicero, pass from one to the other, according to circumstances, and
thus jeopardize both. We have arrived at one of those painful
moments in his life when he sacrifices honour to leisure; let us not be
too severe upon him, and let us remember that, later, he sacrificed
not only his leisure, but even his life, to save his honour.
II.
One of the results of the new policy of Cicero was to give him an
opportunity of becoming well acquainted with Caesar. Not that they
had been hitherto strangers to one another. The taste of both for
letters and the similar nature of their studies, had united them in
their youth, and from these early relations, which men never forget,
there had remained some natural sympathy and good-will. But as in
later life they had attached themselves to opposite parties,
circumstances had separated them. In the Forum, and in the senate,
they had acquired the habit of always being of opposite opinions, and
naturally their friendship had suffered from the vivacity of their
dissensions. Yet Cicero tells us that, even when they were most
excited against each other, Caesar could never hate him.[249]
Politics had separated them, politics reunited them. When Cicero
turned towards the party of the triumvirs their intimate relations
recommenced; but this time their position was different, and their
connection could no longer have the same character. The old school-
fellow of Cicero had become his protector. It was no longer a mutual
inclination or common studies, it was interest and necessity that
united them, and their new ties were formed by a sort of reciprocal
agreement in which one of the two gave his talents and a little of his
honour, that the other might guarantee him repose. These are not
very favourable circumstances, it must be admitted, to produce a
sincere friendship. However, when we read Cicero’s private
correspondence, in which he speaks unreservedly, we cannot doubt
but that he found many charms in these relations with Caesar which
seemed to him at first to be so difficult. Probably this was because he
compared them with those which he had at the same time to keep up
with Pompey. Caesar at least was affable and polite. Although he had
the gravest affairs on his hands, he found time to think of his friends
and to joke with them. Victorious as he was, he allowed them to write
to him “familiarly and without subserviency.”[250] He answered with
amiable letters, “full of politeness, kind attentions and charm,”[251]
which delighted Cicero. Pompey, on the contrary, seemed to take a
pleasure in wounding him by his lofty airs. This pompous and vain
man, whom the adoration of the Orientals had spoilt, and who could
not avoid assuming the deportment of a conqueror merely in going
from his house at Alba to Rome, affected an imperious and haughty
tone which alienated everybody. His dissimulation was still more
displeasing than his insolence. He had a sort of dislike of
communicating his projects to others; he hid them even from his
most devoted friends, who wished to know them in order to support
them. Cicero complains more than once that he could never discover
what he wanted; it even happened that he was completely deceived
as to his real intentions and made him angry, thinking he was doing
him a service. This obstinate dissimulation passed, no doubt, for
profound policy in the eyes of the multitude; but the more skilful had
no difficulty in discerning its motive. If he did not express his
opinion to anybody, it was because most frequently he had no
opinion, and, as it very commonly happens, silence with him only
served to cover the fact. He went at random, without fixed principles
or settled system, and never looked beyond present circumstances.
Events always took him by surprise, and he showed clearly that he
was no more capable of directing them than of foreseeing them. His
ambition itself, which was his dominant passion, had no precise
views or decided aims. Whatever dignities were offered to satisfy it, it
was plainly seen that he always desired something else; this was
perceived without his saying it, for he tried very awkwardly to hide it.
His ordinary stratagem was to pretend indifference, and he wished to
be forced to accept what he most ardently desired. We can well
understand that this pretence when too often repeated deceived
nobody. Upon the whole, as he had successively attacked and
defended all parties, and after having often appeared to desire an
almost royal authority, had not endeavoured to destroy the republic
when he had the power to do so, it is impossible for us to discover
now what plan he had conceived, or even if he had conceived any
distinct plan at all.
It is not so with Caesar. He knew the object of his ambition, and
saw distinctly what he wished to do. His plans were settled even
before he entered public life;[252] in his youth he had formed the
design to become master. The spectacle of the revolutions on which
he had looked had given rise to the thought; the confidence that he
had in his own capacity, and in the inferiority of his enemies, gave
him strength to undertake it, and a sort of superstitious belief in his
destiny, not uncommon in men who attempt these great adventures,
assured him in advance of success. Therefore he marched resolutely
towards his end, without showing undue haste to attain it, but
without ever losing sight of it. To know exactly what one wants is not
a common quality, above all in those troubled times in which good
and evil are mingled, and yet success only comes to those who
possess it. What, above all, gave Caesar his superiority was, that in
the midst of those irresolute politicians who had only uncertain
projects, hesitating convictions, and occasional ambitions, he alone
had a deliberate ambition and a settled design. One could not
approach him without coming under the influence of that tranquil
and powerful will, which had a clear idea of its projects, the
consciousness of its own strength, and the confidence of victory.
Cicero felt it like the rest, notwithstanding his prejudices. In
presence of such consistency and firmness he could not avoid
making unfavourable comparisons with the perturbation and
inconsistency of his old friend. “I am of your opinion about Pompey,
he hinted to his brother, or rather you are of mine, for I have sung
the praises of Caesar for a long time.”[253] In fact, it was sufficient to
approach a man of real genius to recognize the emptiness of this
semblance of a great man, whose easy successes and air of inflated
majesty had imposed so long upon the admiration of fools.
We must not, however, suppose that Caesar was one of those
stubborn men who will not give way to circumstances, and never
consent to alter anything in the plans they have once conceived. No
one, on the contrary, knew how to bend to necessity better than he.
His aim remained the same, but he did not hesitate to take the most
diverse means to attain it, when it was necessary. One of these
important modifications took place in his policy, precisely at the
period with which we are occupied. What distinguishes Caesar from
the men with whom he is usually compared, Alexander and
Napoleon, has been well stated by M. Mommsen, namely, that
originally he was a statesman rather than a general. He did not, like
them, come from the camp, and he had as yet merely passed through
it when, by force of circumstances and almost in spite of himself, he
became a conqueror. All his youth was passed in Rome in the turmoil
of public life, and he only set out for Gaul at an age at which
Alexander was dead and Napoleon vanquished. He had evidently
formed the plan of making himself master without employing arms;
he reckoned upon destroying the republic by a slow and internal
revolution, and by preserving as much as possible, in so illegal an
attempt, the outward form of legality. He saw that the popular party
had more taste for social reforms than for political liberties, and he
thought, with reason, that a democratic monarchy would not be
repugnant to it. By multiplying dissensions, by becoming the secret
accomplice of Catiline and Clodius, he wearied timid republicans of a
too troubled liberty and prepared them to sacrifice it willingly to
repose. He hoped in this way that the republic, shaken by these daily
attacks, which exhausted and tired out its most intrepid defenders,
would at last fall without violence and without noise. But, to our
great surprise, at the moment when this skilfully-planned design
seemed on the point of succeeding, we see Caesar suddenly give it up.
After that consulship in which he had governed alone, reducing his
colleague to inaction and the senate to silence, he withdraws from
Rome for ten years, and goes to attempt the conquest of an unknown
country. What reasons decided him to this unexpected change? We
should like to believe that he felt some disgust for that life of base
intrigues that he led at Rome, and wished to invigorate himself in
labours more worthy of him; but it is much more likely that, after
having seen clearly that the republic would fall of itself, he
understood that he would require an army and military renown to
gain the mastery over Pompey. It was, then, without enthusiasm,
without passion, designedly and on calculation, that he decided to set
out for Gaul. When he took this important resolution, which has
contributed so much to his greatness, he was forty-four.[254] Pascal
thinks it was very late to begin, and that he was too old to interest
himself in the conquest of the world. It is, on the contrary, as it
seems, one of the most admirable efforts of that energetic will that, at
an age when habits are irrevocably fixed, and when a man has
definitely entered on the road he must follow to the end, Caesar
suddenly commenced a new life, and, leaving in a moment the
business of popular agitator that he had followed for twenty-five
years, set himself to govern provinces and lead armies. This
spectacle, indeed, is more surprising now than it was then. It is no
longer the custom to turn oneself into an administrator or a general
at fifty, and these things seem to us to demand a special vocation and
a long apprenticeship; history shows us that it was otherwise at
Rome. Had they not just seen the voluptuous Lucullus, on his way to
command the army of Asia, learn the art of war during the voyage,
and conquer Mithridates on his arrival? As to administration, a rich
Roman learnt it in his own home. Those vast domains, those legions
of slaves that he possessed, the management of an immense fortune
which often surpassed the wealth of several kingdoms of our days,
familiarized him early with the art of government. It was thus that
Caesar, who had as yet only had occasion to practise himself in the
government of provinces and the command of armies during the year
of his praetorship in Spain, had no need of further study to be able to
conquer the Helvetii and to organize the conquered countries, and
that he found himself at the very first attempt an admirable general
and an administrator of genius.
It was at this epoch that his intimate relations with Cicero
recommenced, and they lasted as long as the Gallic war. Cicero often
had occasion to write to him to recommend people who wished to
serve under his command. The ambition of the young men at that
time was to set out for Caesar’s camp. Besides the desire of taking
part in great deeds under such a general, they had also the secret
hope of enriching themselves in those distant countries. We know
with what charms the unknown is usually adorned, and how easy it is
to lend it all the attractions we wish. Gaul was for the imagination of
that time what America was to the sixteenth century. It was supposed
that in those countries that no one had visited there lay immense
treasures, and all who had their fortune to make hastened to Caesar
to have their share of the booty. This eagerness was not displeasing
to him; it bore witness to the fascination his conquests exercised, and
helped his designs, and accordingly he readily invited men to come
to him. He wrote gaily to Cicero, who had begged a commission for
some unknown Roman: “You have recommended M. Offius to me; if
you like I will make him King of Gaul, unless he prefers to be
lieutenant of Lepta. Send me whom you will that I may make him
rich.”[255] Cicero had with him at that moment two persons whom he
loved very much and who had great need of being enriched, the
lawyer Trebatius Testa and his own brother Quintus. It was a good
opportunity, and he sent them both to Caesar.
Trebatius was a young man of much talent and great zeal for study,
who had attached himself to Cicero and did not leave him. He had
early left his poor little town of Ulubrae, situated in the midst of the
Pontine marshes, for Rome,—Ulubrae the deserted, vacuae Ulubrae,
whose inhabitants were called Ulubran frogs. He had studied law,
and, as he had become very learned in it, no doubt he rendered many
services to Cicero, who does not appear ever to have known much of
law, and who found it more convenient to laugh at it than to learn it.
Unfortunately, consultations being gratuitous, lawyers did not make
their fortune at Rome. Accordingly Trebatius was poor, in spite of his
knowledge. Cicero, who liked him unselfishly, consented to deprive
himself of the pleasure and use that he found in his society, and sent
him to Caesar with one of those charming letters of recommendation
that he knew so well how to write, and in which he displayed so
much grace and wit. “I do not ask of you,” he says, “the command of
a legion, or a government for him. I ask for nothing definite. Give
him your friendship, and if afterwards you care to do something for
his fortune and his glory I shall not be displeased. In fact, I abandon
him to you entirely; I give him to you from hand to hand as they say,
and I hope he will find himself well off in those faithful and
victorious hands.”[256] Caesar thanked Cicero for the present that he
had made him, which could not fail to be very valuable to him, “for,”
he wittily remarked, “among the multitude of men who surround me,
there is not one who knows how to prepare a suit.”[257]
Trebatius left Rome reluctantly; Cicero said that he had to turn
him out of doors.[258] The first sight of Gaul, which resembled very
little the France of to-day, was not cheering. He passed wild
countries, among half-subdued and threatening people, and in the
midst of these barbarian surroundings which oppressed his heart, he
always thought of the pleasures of that cultivated city that he had just
left. The letters that he wrote were so disconsolate, that Cicero,
forgetting that he had felt the same regrets during his own exile,
reproached him gently for what he called his foolishness. When he
arrived at the camp his ill-humour was redoubled. Trebatius was not
a warrior, and it is very likely that the Nervii and the Atrebates
frightened him very much. He arrived just at the moment when
Caesar was setting out on the expedition to Britain, and refused, one
knows not on what pretext, to accompany him: perhaps he alleged,
like Dumnorix, that he feared the sea; but, even in remaining in Gaul
there was no want of danger and tedium. Their winter quarters were
not comfortable; they suffered from cold and rain under that
inclement sky. In summer they had to take the field, and his terror
recommenced. Trebatius was always complaining. What added to his
discontent was that he had not found all at once the advantages he

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Service Management: Operations,

Strategy, Information Technology 10th

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SUPPLY CHAIN MANAGEMENT BUSINESS SYSTEMS DYNAMICS Doane and Seward

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New Service Development 68 Chapter 5

CASE 9.2: Evolution of B2C E-Commerce in Japan 265 Summary 310

Monitoring Projects 481 Selected Bibliography 497

TABLE 1.1 Sector Employment in T

Nation % of World Labor % Agri % Industry % Services

Facilitating Role of Services in an Economy

FIGURE 1.1 Role of Services in an Economy

Stages of Economic Development

FIGURE 1.2 Stages of Economic Activity

FIGURE 1.3 Trends in U.S. Employment by Sector, 1850–2015

TABLE 1.2 Comparison of Societies

Nature of the Service Sector

FIGURE 1.4 Distribution of U.S. Employment by Industry, 2019

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