Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Thatcherism in the
21st Century
The Social and Cultural Legacy
Editors
Antony Mullen Stephen Farrall
Department of English Studies Department of Criminology and Social
Durham University Sciences
Durham, UK University of Derby
Derby, UK
David Jeffery
Department of Politics
University of Liverpool
Liverpool, UK
© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature
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Contents
1 Introduction 1
Antony Mullen, Stephen Farrall, and David Jeffery
Part I Ideologies 13
Part II Regions 75
v
vi Contents
Part III Attitudes 157
Part IV Interpretations 229
Index293
List of Contributors
ix
x LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS
xi
List of Tables
Table 2.1 The ideological composition of the PCP 1990 using the
Norton typology 17
Table 2.2 The wet-dry distinction and the economic policy ideological
divide19
Table 2.3 The PCP and the economic policy ideological
(wet-dry) divide 1992 to 2010 20
Table 2.4 The parliamentary Conservative Party and the European
Question(s) 1992 to 2017 24
Table 2.5 The PCP and social, sexual and moral issues 1992–2017 28
Table 9.1 Political generations 167
Table 9.2 Age, period and cohort models: right-authoritarian values 169
Table 9.3 Wald tests for intergenerational differences from the age,
period and Cohort models 172
Table 9.4 Age period and cohort models: fear of crime and concern
about neighbourhood disorder 176
Table 9.5 Wald tests for intergenerational differences from the age,
period and cohort models 179
Table 11.1 Unemployment attitudes 223
Table 11.2 Priority for extra government spending on benefits 224
xiii
CHAPTER 1
Introduction
Margaret Thatcher died in London on 8th April 2013, aged 87. Her death
brought to a close the final chapter of her life. Her final years, in stark
contrast to her global prominence throughout the eighties and most of
the nineties, were markedly private. She gave up public speaking in 2002
following several minor strokes and, though she was able to record a
eulogy for Ronald Reagan’s funeral in 2004, her health deteriorated so
substantially in the years that followed that planning for her own funeral
commenced in 2009. Around the same time, Carole Thatcher spoke
openly of her mother’s dementia. By 2011, the severity of Thatcher’s con-
dition led to the closure of her office in the House of Lords, an act
described by the Daily Telegraph as a sign of her ‘final and irrevocable
withdrawal from public life’ (Walker 2011). Yet, despite her drawn out
physical decline and subsequent death, Thatcher remains a prominent and
influential figure in British politics. She continues to inspire those on the
A. Mullen (*)
Department of English Studies, Durham University, Durham, UK
S. Farrall
Department of Criminology and Social Sciences, University of Derby, Derby, UK
e-mail: s.farrall@derby.ac.uk
D. Jeffery
Department of Politics, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK
e-mail: d.jeffery@liverpool.ac.uk
1
It should also be acknowledged though that there were serious questions raised about the
extent to which May’s premiership put an end to Thatcherism. These debates were not con-
cerned with the sex of the two women in question, but with whether May’s ostensible shift
to the left—economically at least, with suggestions of an industrial strategy, government
intervention in the economy and workers on boards (some of which did not materialise)—
signaled the end of neoliberal thinking within the Conservative Party. Contributors to this
debate include Eliza Filby (2016), Raffy Marshall (2016) and Jason Cowley (2017). George
Trefgarne (2017) was among the few who argued that Theresa May’s economic and indus-
trial policies would have had Mrs Thatcher’s support.
1 INTRODUCTION 3
“the New Iron Lady” (Slack 2017). In the run up to the 2017 general
election, May’s popularity ratings—the highest since records began—
caused speculation that the Conservatives might gain seats in Labour’s
industrial heartlands (Maidment 2017). In response, Labour candidates in
areas where Thatcher was unpopular consciously linked May and Thatcher
in an effort to counteract May’s apparent popularity with their largely
Brexit supporting electorate. Labour MP Karl Turner—seeking re-election
in Kingston upon Hull East—hired a billboard and displayed upon it a
poster which showed May with Thatcher’s hair superimposed over her
own. The accompanying caption read: ‘Be Afraid. Be Very Afraid. They’re
the Same Old Tories.’ By the end of May’s premiership though, after she
had lost her parliamentary majority and failed (in her own terms) to deliver
Brexit, Thatcher supporters like Lord Dobbs were keen to contrast May
and Thatcher (as if attempting to rescue the latter’s reputation by disas-
sociation), with comments about how Thatcher would not ‘have got us
anywhere near this mess’ (Morrison 2019). The swathe of Conservative
victories in former Labour heartlands did not materialise until the general
election of 2019, when Boris Johnson won what one Sky News presenter
described on election night as “a majority of Thatcherite proportions”.
Evidently the continued preoccupation with Margaret Thatcher in
British politics—broadly defined—is not the sole preserve of those on the
right who seek to emulate her. Her contemporary significance is also bol-
stered by those who oppose her and the ways they continue to deploy her
image, the journalists for whom Thatcher is the go-to figure for recent
historical comparison, and academics whose interest in her continues to
generate new and insightful takes on her premiership, style of leadership
and long-term influence.
The essays in this collection are less concerned with hypotheticals about
what Margaret Thatcher might do today, focusing instead upon how we
can understand the legacy of what she did do and how that manifests in the
present moment. With perspectives from a range of academic disciplines,
the book is divided into four main thematic sections:
the conditions for a free economy by limiting the scope of the state’, com-
prised one of the three overriding objectives of the Thatcherite political
project—the other two being to deliver electoral success and restoring the
‘authority and competence’ of the state to act (Gamble 1994, 4).
The centrality of neoliberalism to Thatcherite thought—and the reason
why it is such a useful lens for analysing Thatcherism—is due to two key
factors. The first is the global rise of New Right ideology, of which
Thatcherism was a key example and Thatcher a key proponent. Here, we
can analyse the importance and impact of neoliberalism in a comparative,
international perspective. The second is the socio-economic context in
which Britain found itself, now known as the Winter of Discontent, and
which Thatcher used as a spring-board to justify her economic reforms,
specifically the desire to boost economic growth, reduce inflation and cur-
tail trade union power (Crines et al. 2016, 31). Neoliberalism is important
because it is not a sui generis position, but a reaction to the effects of the
so-called ‘post-war consensus’.
The centrality of neoliberal thought to the Thatcherite project was also
recognised by Thatcher herself—a point perfectly surmised by the story
from when Thatcher was Leader of the Opposition, berating a ‘leftish
member of the Conservative Research Department by fetching out a copy
of The Constitution of Liberty from her bag and slamming it down on the
table, declaring “this is what we believe”’ (Margaret Thatcher Foundation
2019). Neoliberalism is a vital lens through which to analyse Thatcherism
because it was the very economic philosophy within which Thatcher situ-
ated her own economic policy programme.
This is not to say, however, that all policy reform lived up to the neolib-
eral ideal. In some key respects Thatcher continued the policies of the
much-derided ‘post-war consensus’: the NHS, the education system, pen-
sions, parks, libraries, museums and even the Royal Mail all survived the
Thatcher era more or less intact (Reitan 2003). Gamble also cautions
against the idea of seeing the Thatcher administrations as a radical neolib-
eral government. Tax cuts were slower than they could have been, there
was a failure to make deep cuts in state spending, and few programmes
were terminated altogether. Similarly, the establishment of a monetarist
policy regime arguably predates the Thatcher governments, and to the
extent that it ‘served important ideological and political needs … it was
less important as a guide to policy’ (Gamble 1994, 228–230).
6 A. MULLEN ET AL.
the miners’ strike of 1984–1985 and the wave of pit closures which fol-
lowed this, and the job losses in associated industries such as the railways.
Wherever and whenever one looks at Thatcherism as a critique of society,
as an ideological construct, and (or ‘or’) a set of policy and legislative
activities, one finds symmetries and contradictions.
transformed public attitudes to welfare and social security. She shows how
Tony Blair’s New Labour government was not able to counter the moral-
ising narrative surrounding social security spending that Thatcher intro-
duced into public discourse, and that the associated notions of the
‘deserving’ and ‘undeserving’ poor remain prevalent today.
The book’s final section, ‘Interpretations’, opens with Dominic Dean’s
consideration of how authors of contemporary fiction captured and illus-
trated the complex nature of Thatcherism in their writing, in a way not
achieved by conventional political history. Dean looks to works by Hanif
Kureishi, Alan Hollinghurst and Kazuo Ishiguro as examples which high-
light Thatcherism’s contradictions, such as how its nationalist tendencies
contrast its orientation towards transnational wealth. Antony Mullen then
discusses the significance of the 2011 film The Iron Lady and its implica-
tions for historical narratives about Thatcher and Thatcherism. Mullen
discusses how the film—ostensibly objective, globally successful and
acclaimed for its accurate portrayal—de-politicises Thatcher by distancing
her from much of what she did in office, encouraging viewers to recognise
instead her achievements as a woman. Finally, Martin Farr brings the col-
lection to a close with a carefully curated reconstruction of the parliamen-
tary tributes to Thatcher following her death—an event which served as a
de facto debate about Thatcher’s legacy (and that of her eponymous-ism)
and one which three members of the House of Lords declared would be
of great significance to historians. Focusing upon how different genera-
tions of parliamentarian remembered Thatcher and the period she domi-
nated, Farr brings strands of MPs’ and peers’ speeches together in an
evaluation of what was a highly publicised media spectacle set against the
backdrop of ‘death parties’, worldwide news coverage and a televised
funeral.
References
Cowley, Jason. 2017. The May Doctrine. New Statesman, 8 February. https://
www.newstatesman.com/2017/02/-theresa-may-method-inter view-
jason-cowley.
Crines, Andrew S., Heppell, Timothy, and Dorey, Peter. 2016. The Political
Rhetoric and Oratory of Margaret Thatcher. Palgrave Macmillan.
1 INTRODUCTION 11
Filby, Eliza. 2016. What Sort of Toryism Will Emerge from This Fractious
Upheaval? The Guardian, 3 July. https://www.theguardian.com/commentis-
free/2016/jul/03/new-toryism-fractious-upheaval-thatcherism-dead.
Gamble, Andrew. 1994. The Free Economy and the Strong State. 2nd ed. Basingstoke:
Macmillan.
Green, E.E. 1999. Thatcherism: An Historical Perspective. Transactions of the
Royal Historical Society 9: 17–42.
Hall, Stuart. 1997. The Local and the Global: Globalization and Ethnicity. In
Culture, Globalization and the World-System: Contemporary Conditions for the
Representation of Identity, ed. Anthony D. King, 19–40. Minneapolis:
University of Minnesota Press.
Hay, Colin. 1996. Restating Social and Political Change. Oxford University Press:
Milton Keynes.
Levitas, Ruth. 1986. The Ideology of the New Right. Oxford: Polity Press.
Maidment, Jack. 2017. Theresa May Most Popular Leader since the Late 1970s as
Jeremy Corbyn Hits All Time Low. The Daily Telegraph, 26 April. https://
w w w. t e l e g r a p h . c o . u k / n e w s / 2 0 1 7 / 0 4 / 2 6 / t h e r e s a - m a y - p o p u l a r-
voters-leader-since-late-1970s/.
Margaret Thatcher Foundation. 2019. Thatcher, Hayek & Friedman. Margaret
Thatcher Foundation. https://www.margaretthatcher.org/archive/Hayek.asp.
Marshall, Raffy. 2016. Prime Minister May: Post-Thatcherite. ConservativeHome,
28 July. https://www.conservativehome.com/thetorydiary/2016/07/the-
resa-may-post-thatcherite.html.
Martin, Daniel. 2017. Conference on Margaret Thatcher Is Forced to Increase
Security after Social Media Threats to Hospitalise Delegates. Daily Mail, 29
November. https://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-5127023/Liverpool-
Thatcher-event-forced-increase-security.html.
Morrison, Sean. 2019. Margaret Thatcher Would Have Handled Brexit Better
than Theresa May, House of Cards Author Claims. Evening Standard, 13 May.
https://www.standard.co.uk/news/politics/margaret-thatcher-would-have-
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Reitan, Earl A. 2003. The Thatcher Revolution: Margaret Thatcher, John Major,
Tony Blair, and the Transformation of Modern Britain, 1979–2001. Oxford:
Rowman & Littlefield.
Slack, James. 2017. Steel of the New Iron Lady: On the Day Theresa May Said
Britain WILL Quit the Single Market, She Put Cameron’s Feeble Negotiations
to Shame with an Ultimatum to Brussels That the UK Will ‘Walk Away from a
Bad Deal’. Daily Mail, 17 January. https://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/arti-
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Thatcher, Margaret. 1981. Interview for Sunday Times. Margaret Thatcher
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12 A. MULLEN ET AL.
Ideologies
CHAPTER 2
Timothy Heppell
This chapter will identify how the ideological composition of the parlia-
mentary Conservative Party (PCP) has evolved over the last three decades.
The rationale for engaging in this type of research is to establish the ideo-
logical legacy of Thatcherism within their parliamentary ranks. Prior to the
advent of Thatcherism, the following assumptions existed about the
Conservative Party vis-à-vis ideology. First, Conservatives tended to deny
that Conservatism was an ideology (Gilmour 1977, 121). Second, rather
than being ideological or dogmatic, Conservatives claimed that they were
pragmatic. This was tied to their belief in the importance of internal party
unity and that oft-used phrase that ‘we have our agreements in public and
our disagreements in private’ (Cowley and Norton 1999, 102). This in
turn explained why academics defined the party as one of non-aligned
political tendencies, rather than one characterised by ideological factions
(Rose 1964). Third, alongside their suspicion towards ideology, which
aided their attempts to demonstrate internal unity, was another
T. Heppell (*)
University of Leeds, Leeds, UK
e-mail: t.heppell@leeds.ac.uk
Table 2.1 The ideological composition of the PCP 1990 using the Norton
typology
Grouping Ideological categorisation N = 372
Critics of 67
Thatcherism
(Wets) Strongly interventionist, pro-European, socially liberal (27)
(Damps) Moderately interventionist, pro-European, socially (40)
liberal
Faithful Loyal to leadership position 217
Populists Interventionist, Eurosceptic, socially conservative 17
Thatcherites 71
(Neo-liberals) Economic dries, social liberals, Eurosceptic (15)
(Thatcher Group) Economic dries, loyalist on morality and Europe (30)
(Tory Right) Economic dries, social conservatives, loyalist on Europe (26)
Given these arguments, the chapter will consider the evidence of conti-
nuity and change in relation to each ideological dividing line separately in
each of the Parliaments since 1992, starting with the economic policy
divide, then the European policy divide, and then the divide over social,
sexual and moral matters.
Thatcher made the case for lower direct taxation upon corporate income,
personal wealth and incomes (Riddell 1989).
Not all Conservatives were entirely comfortable with the consequences
of Thatcherite economic medicine. Those Conservatives who raised
doubts about increasing unemployment, or the growing gap between the
wealthiest and the poorest in society, or about regional inequalities, would
incur the wrath of Thatcher. She would justify the inevitability of inequal-
ity and would reject egalitarianism. She could simultaneously praise those
who were the wealth creators in the economy, and argue that if social
deprivation and poverty did exist, it was due to the limitations of those
individuals and not caused by the limitations of the capitalism (Dorey 2011).
Those who did not endorse the Thatcherite approach to the economy
became known as wets, and as a consequence her backers became known
as the dries. The use of the term wets was said to have been coined by
Thatcher as a rebuke for ministers unwilling to fully support her economic
strategy, and those she felt too willing to seek compromise with the trade
unions. A more detailed delineation of the views of wets and dries is
offered in Table 2.2. At its most basic it was clear that the wets were
uncomfortable with the anti-union legislation and the tax and public
expenditure cuts, and they made the case for a more interventionist and
conciliatory approach (Young 1990, 198–202). Over time, Thatcher
would use her Prime Ministerial powers of appointment to undermine
their influence within Cabinet. Leading wets were either (a) dismissed—
e.g. Ian Gilmour in 1981 and Francis Pym in 1983; or (b) resigned—e.g.
James Prior in 1984 and Michael Heseltine in 1986; or (c) they were
retained but marginalised—e.g. Peter Walker held office throughout but
Table 2.2 The wet-dry distinction and the economic policy ideological divide
Non-Thatcherite wet Thatcherite dry
Table 2.3 The PCP and the economic policy ideological (wet-dry) divide
1992 to 2010
Parliament Agnostic Wet Dry
Source: Amended from Heppell (2002), Heppell and Hill (2008, 2009, 2010)
2 THE IDEOLOGICAL COMPOSITION OF THE PARLIAMENTARY… 21
era, and it was clearly won by the dries. The level of wet representation had
diminished to such an extent that academic research on the ideological
mapping of the PCP ceased to assess wet-dry representation after the
study on the 2005 Parliament (see Heppell and Hill 2009; Heppell 2013).
policy across Europe with that of the British Conservative Party’, but it
could also ‘entrench neo-liberalism as a global hegemonic project’ (Gifford
2014, 89–94). However, Thatcher had underestimated the ‘expansionist
elements’ of the SEA, and it formed the ‘basis for spill-over initiatives’
which the President of the European Commission, Jacques Delors, could
exploit—e.g. the promotion of a social dimension and harmonisation
around the rights of workers (Gifford 2014, 89). As she came to recognise
her own misjudgement, so her rhetoric moved in a Eurosceptic direction
(Daddow et al. 2019; Roe-Crines and Heppell 2020). She concluded that
(a) the social dimension spill over effects demonstrated that the free mar-
ket philosophy that had underpinned to SEA was being reneged upon;
and (b) the integrationist process being advanced by Delors, which would
advance the power of European institutions, represented a threat to parlia-
mentary sovereignty (Gifford 2014, 96).
Those on the pro-European wing concluded that pooling their sover-
eignty with their European partners and allies, was essential not just for
economic reasons, but for the renewal of British influence on the world
stage. To Eurosceptics, sovereignty was something you either possessed or
you did not, it could not be shared, and to imply otherwise was to misread
the situation—i.e. you were surrendering your sovereignty to a supra-
national body over which the British would have no real control (Heppell
2002, 303). This ideological battle would be running parallel to develop-
ments that did much to damage the governing credibility of the
Conservatives in the early 1990s. Black Wednesday in September 1992—
which resulted in a humiliating and forced ejection from the ERM—was a
pivotal moment in Conservative Party history, as it did much to stimulate
further Conservative mistrust of further integration within Europe (Kettell
2008). If this damaged their claims to governing competence, then the
parliamentary passage (and ratification) of the Treaty of European Union
fatally undermined their claims to party unity (Baker, Gamble and Ludlam
1993, 1994). Not only were there a significant number of rebellions—at
least fifty backbench Conservative parliamentarians rebelled at least once
during the passage of the legislation—but its eventual passage only
occurred after Major tied it to a vote of confidence in his administration
(in July 1993) (Cowley and Norton 1999). When, later in the Parliament,
eight members of his own parliamentary ranks defied the whip on a bud-
getary contribution division, Major withdrew the whip from them, only to
reinstate it months later without any guarantees about their future loyalty
2 THE IDEOLOGICAL COMPOSITION OF THE PARLIAMENTARY… 23
(Heppell 2007, 474). The scale of the discontent was laid open to the
electorate in the general election campaign of 1997. On the vexed ques-
tion of the single European currency, the official leadership position had
the following three stages: first, win the general election; second, negoti-
ate the terms for a possible entry into the single currency; and third, if
appropriate conditions for entry are made available then put these to the
people in a referendum. Approximately one third of Conservative candi-
dates decided to reject the official leadership position of negotiate and
decide (or wait and see), and made clear in their electoral campaigning
material, that they would never agree to joining a single European cur-
rency (McAllister and Studlar 2000, 361). An irony existed with regard to
the Conservative Party and Europe: voters were actually closer to the
Conservatives on European policy than they were the more pro-European
New Labour Party, but the Conservatives internal disagreements would
ensure that they could secure no electoral benefit from this (Evans 1998).
Between the end of the Major administration, and the beginning of the
Cameron-led coalition government, a considerable amount of changes
would occur in relation the Conservatives and the European question. It
was increasingly clear that defining the cleavage within the Conservative
Party around the terminology of pro-Europeanism and Eurosceptism was
no longer credible (Cowley and Stuart 2010, 141). Opposition had seen
a process of attitudinal realignment take place. Within this, the pro-
European Conservative case for contemplating further integration had
been marginalised. Running parallel to this a new distinction was emerg-
ing amongst Euroscepticism between two variants—hard and soft (for a
more detailed discussion on hard and soft Euroscepticism, see Taggart and
Szczerbiak 2008). The hard variant was not just rejecting what they per-
ceived to be the excessively regulatory agenda of the European Union, but
they were arguing the case for a hyperglobalist economy and the opportu-
nities from prioritising the Anglosphere (Wellings and Baxendale 2015).
For those of this rejectionist mindset the case for leaving the European
Union was gradually being made. Those defined as soft Eurosceptics
adopted a revisionist approach—i.e. like their fellow hard Eurosceptics
they opposed any processes of further integration within the European
Union—but they felt that the economic benefits justified continued mem-
bership, and the reform from within was the best strategy (Lynch 2015).
On the hard-soft or rejectionist-revisionist distinction within the PCP,
Cameron and his ministerial ranks were clearly aligned with the soft-
revisionist faction. The hard or rejectionist faction, however, felt that
24 T. HEPPELL
Cameron had been complacent with regard to the threat from UKIP. They
concluded that his modernising rhetoric, which downplayed immigration,
was being exploited by UKIP. There was clear evidence that the electoral
performance of UKIP improved significantly during the Cameron era, and
that their vote base was primarily (but not exclusively) drawn from disaf-
fected Conservatives (Ford and Goodwin 2014). Their frustrations mani-
fested themselves in parliamentary dissent. During the 2010 to 2015
Parliament, 103 out of 306 Conservative parliamentarians would vote
against the Conservative whip at least once on a European policy related
division (Lynch 2015, 193). Although not his preference, Cameron was
being forced to engage with the debates about the repatriation of powers,
and by 2013 he had mapped out the following strategy—if the
Conservatives won the general election of 2015, then he would aim to (a)
renegotiate our terms of membership within the European Union, and
then he would (b) put those new terms of membership to the people in an
in-out referendum (Heppell et al. 2017, 768).
In the ensuing 2016 European Union referendum the breakdown of
the vote amongst the 330 Conservative parliamentarians of the 2015 PCP
was as follows: 174 (or 52.7 percent) voted remain, 145 (43.9 percent)
voted leave, and 11 (3.4 percent) did not publicly declare their vote
(Heppell et al. 2017). Table 2.4 considers the ideological composition of
the PCP in the six Parliaments between 1992 and 2015, and from this the
speed and scale of the change in attitudes can be identified. That balance
between Europhile (29.6 percent) and Eurosceptic (58.0 percent) forces
Table 2.4 The parliamentary Conservative Party and the European Question(s)
1992 to 2017
Parliament Agnostic Europhile Eurosceptic
(Soft) (Hard)
Source: Amended from Heppell (2002, 2013), Heppell and Hill (2008, 2009, 2010), Heppell et al. (2017)
2 THE IDEOLOGICAL COMPOSITION OF THE PARLIAMENTARY… 25
that actually stood for (Norton 2009, 39). In the era of New Labour
hegemony, Thatcherite Conservatism was increasingly felt to be obsessed
with economics. Voters associated them with greed, selfishness and the
profit motive, and felt that they were insufficiently aware of issues around
social justice (Quinn 2008). The Conservative Party, in large part due to
the socially conservative rhetoric, was a brand that was felt to be toxic—
i.e. the ‘nasty party’ (Bale 2010, 283–362).
The media attention that social conservatives could generate with their
views on social, sexual and moral matters, overshadowed those seeking to
promote a socially liberal mindset. The evidence of a social conservative-
liberal divide was clear in the oppositon era of 1997 to 2005, as all three
Conservative Party leaders—William Hague (1997–2001), Iain Duncan
Smith (2001–2003) and Michael Howard (2003–2005)—experienced
party management difficulties (Hayton 2012). Their parliamentarians
were badly split on the following social, sexual and morality-based issues:
first, on the repeal of Section 28 of the Local Government Act of 1988
under Hague; second, on providing equality for gay and unmarried cou-
ples to adopt children under Duncan Smith; and third, on the Civil
Partnership Bill and the Gender Recognition Bill under Howard
(McManus 2011).
When Cameron won the leadership of the Conservative Party in 2005
it was on a modernising platform (Heppell 2008, 171–94). Central to
modernisation was the notion of brand decontamination, and showcasing
to the electorate that the Conservative Party was changing—i.e. that it
would offer a more inclusive and socially liberal mode of Conservatism
(Quinn 2008). The nasty party imagery could be negated by changing the
focus and emphasis of Conservatism. At the most basic of levels this meant
apologising for the mistakes of the Thatcher era on social, sexual and
moral matters—and so, for example, Cameron spoke at Gay Pride, and
offered an apology for section 28 of the Local Government Act 1988, and
said that his party, and his predecessor had been ‘wrong’ on this issue
(Bale and Webb 2011, 46). So, how successful was Cameron at engineer-
ing a shift towards social liberalism within the PCP?
Table 2.5 identifies those shifts in opinion within the PCP in the period
between 1992 and 2017. During the opposition years social conservative
sentiment within the PCP increased, and for all three of the opposition
Parliaments it was above 70 percent of the PCP. When Cameron suc-
ceeded Howard as Leader of the Conservative Party he inherited a parlia-
mentary party in which social liberal sentiment had fallen to as low as 12
28 T. HEPPELL
Table 2.5 The PCP and social, sexual and moral issues 1992–2017
Parliament Agnostic Socially liberal Socially conservative
Source: Amended from Heppell (2002, 2013), Heppell and Hill (2008, 2009, 2010), Heppell et al. (2017)
Conclusion
Based on the above analysis what patterns can we detect in terms of the
changing ideological composition of the PCP? On the economic policy
ideological divide, it is clear that the Thatcherite dries had triumphed over
the non-Thatcherite wets. So comprehensive was that victory that the
mapping of the wet-dry divide was not deemed worthy of coverage in
academic research after 2010 (as the wets were in single figures).
If the Thatcherite viewpoint triumphed in the economic policy divide,
then a slightly more complicated interpretation has to be offered in rela-
tion to the European policy ideological divide. This is for two reasons.
First, how we position Thatcher on the European question is complicated
by her actions in office and her rhetoric as a former Prime Minister. Some
of her actions in office contributed to the integrationist process, such as
30 T. HEPPELL
her commitment to the SEA, but some of her actions (and rhetoric) from
1988 to 1990 showcased her increasing scepticism about further integra-
tion. Without the constraints of office, Thatcher became a thorn in the
side of her successor, as she simplified the complexities of the European
debate, and became the figurehead of Euroscepticism in the 1990s (as
demonstrated by Andrew Crines later in this collection). Second, it is actu-
ally an oversimplification to talk of the European question, or of being for
or against European integration, because the question changes over time.
When Thatcher became Leader of the Conservative Party the question
was whether to be in the Common Market or not, yet by the end of her
leadership tenure the primary question was whether to join the ERM or
not. To her successor came the associated question of whether to join the
single European currency or not. By the time that Cameron became Prime
Minister, the circumstances had changed—the Eurozone crisis, the
increasing saliency of immigration as an issue for voters, and the electoral
threat from UKIP—made for an environment that was different from the
environment that Thatcher faced. The questions were about the repatria-
tion of powers and redefining their relationship with the European Union,
and if that was not feasible, then the question was whether to leave or not.
Whilst acknowledging these complexities it is clear that late Thatcherism
was defined by a shift towards Euroscepticism. She legitimised
Euroscepticism, and her parliamentarians clearly followed her lead, becom-
ing overwhelmingly Eurosceptic once they were in opposition (Turner
2000, 124).
However, whereas the changes in the positioning of the Conservative
Party on the economic and European policy ideological divides demon-
strate movement towards Thatcherism, the same cannot be said consider-
ing the social, sexual and moral ideological divide. Notwithstanding the
doubts about their commitment to gender equality when in office, and the
divisiveness caused by same sex marriage, what cannot be denied is that
numerically a shift away from social conservatives and towards social liber-
alism had occurred at the parliamentary level. Cameron may have failed to
withstand the tidal wave of Euroscepticism that would overcome his party
at parliamentary level—and also amongst the membership—but this lesser
acknowledged part of his legacy to the Conservative Party, should be
acknowledged. As such, three decades after the fall of Thatcher, a mixed
pattern of development exists in terms of the ideological composition of
the PCP.
2 THE IDEOLOGICAL COMPOSITION OF THE PARLIAMENTARY… 31
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CHAPTER 3
Edmund Neill
E. Neill (*)
New College of the Humanities, London, UK
e-mail: Edmund.neill@nchlondon.ac.uk
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