Professional Documents
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Engineering and Technology, Eds. R.K. Shah, M. Ishizuka, T.M. Rudy, and V.V. Wadekar, Engineering Conferences
International, Hoboken, NJ, USA, September 2005.
CHE2005 – 29
Bengt Sunden
Division of Heat Transfer, Department of Heat and Power Engineering, Lund Institute of Technology, Lund University,
P.O. Box 118, SE-22100, Lund, Sweden. Bengt.Sunden@vok.lth.se
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1.5 High-Temperature Coolants must be used at very high pressures, and thus primary issues
for high-temperature use of helium relate to high-strength,
There are three primary classes of high-temperature high-temperature materials.
coolants that are needed for these applications. Molten salts. Various fluoride-based molten salts have
Additionally, process fluids for thermochemical hydrogen highly desirable properties as high-temperature coolants, due
production require consideration. These coolants and to their high heat capacity, low pumping power, and very low
process fluids are: pressures (sufficiently low to be compatible with fusion
Helium. Helium is the required primary coolant for plasmas). Molten salts are highly inert if proper chemistry
near-term demonstration of combined hydrogen and control is maintained. They provide a logical, low risk choice
electricity production. Helium is also the most desirable for use as high-temperature intermediate heat transfer fluids
power cycle fluid for molten salt waste transmuters, and for thermochemical hydrogen production, where chemistry
molten salt fusion blanket systems. Helium is inert, but control is easy and flow velocities are modest. More
Table:1
Selected properties of most commonly used high temperature materials and fabrication technologies. (From: Ohadi and
Buckley [2001])
interesting materials and chemistry issues require research require special approaches to create passivating surface layers
for applications where chemistry control is complicated and provide high corrosion resistance.
by neutron transmutation (e.g., fusion/fission neutron Hydrogen Iodide. The decomposition temperatures of this
effects) and where contaminants must be recovered (e.g., solution are lower than those required for sulfuric acid
debris from inertial fusion targets, fission products for decomposition, but are very high and the material interactions
molten-salt transmutation). of this acid at elevated temperatures must be accommodated in
Lead-bismuth. This is the most attractive liquid metal heat exchanger designs.
for high-temperature heat transfer due to its high boiling Hydrogen. Hydrogen embrittlement of materials used for
temperature compared to sodium, and with similar heat exchangers, flow channels and gas containers under
properties and corrosion issues to the tin-lithium liquid pressure must also be considered.
metal that has been studied for fusion systems. Also, this
material is the best candidate for spallation targets for 2. CERAMIC HEAT EXCHANGERS
accelerator-based neutron sources and for cooling fast-
neutron-spectrum cores for actinide management. Heat The key properties for the selection of heat exchanger
transfer, fluid mechanics, and material compatibility need ceramics include: thermal shock resistance, high temperature
to be studied. capability, corrosion resistance and in some cases thermal
Sulfuric acid. The primary candidate process fluid for conductivity. There are three prime candidate industrial areas
the thermochemical production of hydrogen is sulfuric for ceramic heat exchangers: process heat exchange, power
acid but its high-temperature thermal decomposition generation heat exchange, and industrial waste heat recovery.
products create aggressively oxidizing conditions that For chemical process heat exchange, the primary use of
ceramic heat exchanger would be for liquid-to-liquid or liquid-
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to-vapor heat exchange. This would employ the ceramic for efforts now focused on a ceramic recuperator for an
heat exchanger in a medium-to-low temperature (<100 oC ) automobile hybrid gas turbine. Challenges facing the designer
range where it would have no advantage over metallic include the following: (1) selection of compact and efficient
heat exchangers with respect to temperature. However, heat transfer surface and flow-path geometries to meet high
many process streams are highly corrosive, requiring at effectiveness.
least that the metal heat exchanger has protective coating.
For power generation heat exchange, the primary use
of the ceramic heat exchanger would be the transfer of
heat to a working fluid. This use would employ the
ceramic heat exchanger in a medium-to-high temperature
(between 100-400 oC) range, where it would have
advantages over the metallic heat exchangers with
respective to temperature. Additionally, depending on the Fig. 1. Example of a compact plate-fin ceramic recuperator
nature of the working fluid and on the heat source, the (Courtesy Allied Signal).
environment could be too corrosive for a metallic heat
exchanger. The major drawback to use ceramic heat 2.2 The major unsolved problems in the use of the ceramic
exchangers for power generation heat exchange is the lack heat exchangers
of high-pressure seals.
The industrial waste heat recovery environment is According to Tennery [1983], the following problems are
typically medium-to-high temperature (> 400 oC) and can unsolved for ceramic heat exchangers:
often be corrosive. In the less corrosive streams, it is • High cost of the ceramic tubes.
already a profitable market for the metallic heat • Long tubes of uniform properties are difficult to produce
exchanger. But for industry with corrosive waste streams, by the currently available methods. These may produce
little use is made of waste heat recovery, and a large fracture. Hence, the ceramic tube production techniques
market exists for the heat exchanger that proves viable need improvement.
(e.g., only about 5 % of all aluminum remelt furnaces • Tube-to-tube sheet joints cannot yet be made completely
have waste heat recovery devices). leak tight, because the differential thermal expansion of
the tubes has to be accommodated.
2.1 Ceramic recuperators • Durability of ceramic tubes in an environment of highly
contaminated hot process gases has to be confirmed.
The recuperators in current engines are fabricated • The coefficient of thermal expansion may change with
mainly from stainless steel. The gas-inlet temperature time due to reaction with some of the species present in
typically varies from 593°C (1100°F) at full power to the flue gases. This may result in unforeseen stresses and
perhaps as high as 816°C (1500°F) at part power. The cracking of the tubes.
latter temperature represents an upper value for the • Most of the mechanical properties known have been
capability of stainless steels. For operation at higher evaluated using small bars. The exact behaviour of the
temperatures, use could be made of super alloys, such as same material in the form of long, hollow tubes is not
Inconel 625, Inconel 617 or Haynes 230, but their cost known out.
would be prohibitively high for most applications. It is • Flue gases from coal or residual oil result, after long time,
generally agreed, particularly for military applications, in corrosion reactions with silconized and sintered alpha
such as an advanced battle-tank engine recuperator silicon carbide, changing their fact fracture strength. The
(McDonald [1980]), that ultimately ceramic heat exact reason for this and also the preventive steps need to
exchangers will be necessary. In the case of the small be worked out.
hybrid automobile gas turbine, cost considerations • Ceramic-metal composites are also being considered, but
mandate the use of ceramic heat exchangers. In support of fabrication would pose greater problems.
various high-temperature systems, development work on
ceramic heat exchangers has been in progress for more 3. HEAT EXCHANGERS FOR GAS TURBINE
than 25 years (Allied Signal [1992]). An excellent APPLICATIONS
example of a compact ceramic recuperator module
developed by Allied Signal in the late 1980s for a cruise- The utilization of recuperated and regenerated engine
missile application (Parker and Coombs [1979]) is shown cycles for high-efficiency gas turbines in the 21st century was
in Fig. 1. Ceramic heat exchangers that have been reviewed by McDonald and Wilson [1996]. According to
fabricated and tested include plate-fin, prime-surface and McDonald and Wilson [1996], to date, the use of gas turbines
tubular geometries. Many of these have been presented in embodying internal heat recovery within the thermodynamic
the open literature by the following articles: Parker and cycles has been limited. However, reducing specific fuel
Coombs [1979], Forster and Kleeman [1978], Bakker and consumption is necessary if one has to meet the environmental
Kotchick [1982], Kleiner et al. [1984], Avran and requirements that will gradually be introduced. A requirement
Boudigues [1989], Yoshimura et al. [1995]. This will be reduction in carbon-dioxide emissions, which can be
continuing work provides a substantial technology base attained by increasing engine thermal efficiency. One way to
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do this is to increase the compressor and turbine of intercooling and high effectiveness ceramic-composite
efficiencies. However, these have reached a near plateau, recuperators.
and future advancement will be small. Increased cycle
efficiency is also brought about by increased turbine inlet 3.1 Higher temperature operation for improved
temperature, which is enabled and encouraged by performance
improving materials technology.
The benefits of recuperation and regeneration have The most important parameter in the desire for higher
long been recognized, but early heat exchanger efficiency is turbine inlet temperature. This point will be
impediments (particularly structural integrity), together addressed in more detail in a later section covering materials
with market forces (e.g., abundance of low-cost fossil selection. A long-term microturbine efficiency goal of 40%
fuels), have halted the widespread use of this class of gas has been mentioned in many papers and articles, but to
turbine. For engines currently being planned for service, achieve such an engine with ceramic hot end components (i.e.,
low emissions will be a dominant factor in the selection of combustor, turbine, and recuperator) would be required, but
thermodynamic cycle and engine features. For a such technology is not commercially foreseen for several
significant reduction in specific fuel consumption (SFC) years.
(say a step-change reduction of 30%) exhaust heat
recovery exchangers will be required. 3.2 Gas turbine recuperator technology
The biggest challenge to the designer of heat
exchangers is in the small engine class (for hybrid 3.2.1 Heat transfer surface geometries
automobiles and small generator sets), where very high
temperature will require ceramic-composite heat There is a wide variety of efficient surface geometries that
exchangers. For these applications, where very high can be considered for compact high effectiveness counterflow
production quantities will be required, both ceramic heat exchangers, but discussion here is limited to only types
recuperators and regenerators may meet the requirements. that are considered representative for small gas turbine
While ceramic recuperator work is in its infancy, it may recuperators.
have, because of its simplicity, an advantage in terms of
low cost and ease of integration (as a module) for small 3.2.2 Primary-surface geometry
engines. Development work on rotary ceramic disk
regenerators has been ongoing for over three decades and The main attributes of primary-surface types are that the
significant advancement in durability and reduction of surface geometry is 100% effective (i.e., no secondary surface
seal leakage below about 7% remain to be demonstrated. fin efficiency effects), and sealing can be accomplished by
Complex integration with the rotating machinery, together welding without the need for an expensive and time
with the seal system and drive mechanism, aggravate the consuming high temperature furnace brazing operation.
already challenging cost goals. The recuperator that has been produced in the largest
To realize all of the challenging goals for small quantity (i.e., over 15,000) is the primary surface heat
engines, new approaches may be required for the exchanger for the AGT 1500 engine in the US Army M1 main
regenerator and some novel concepts have been discussed. battle tank. This annular recuperator embodies a multiplicity
In the case of the recuperator (for larger engines) there are of embossed wavy plates that are laser cut and welded to give
viable metallic units (e.g., prime-surface, plate-fin and a compact assembly (Kadambi [1992]). Caterpillar and Solar
profile-tube) available to meet the needs. These units are Turbines developed a compact primary-surface recuperator
expensive when produced in only small quantities and, in that has been fabricated in platular and annular forms (Ward
times of low-cost natural gas, there is little interest for and Holman [1992]). Produced in significant quantities for
industrial gas turbines. In the case of initial development several microturbines these recuperators have demonstrated
of the intercooled and recuperated (ICR) engine for good performance and structural integrity. Examples of
marine propulsion, metallic recuperators will be used. primary-surface recuperators are shown in a later section of
However, in later variants ceramic-composite units will this paper, where emphasis is placed on this type of
be used as the technology becomes available. Ceramic- construction for future higher efficiency microturbines. It is
composite recuperator technology is in its infancy, and it projected that an increase in recuperator hot gas inlet
is the potential for high-volume production for small temperature to 750 C is possible with a customized super 347
engines that will stimulate development. Renewed stainless steel.
thinking is also required in this area because the
recuperator matrix will need a very high ratio of surface 3.2.3 Plate-fin geometry
area to volume. It is likely that it would be coated with a
catalyst, making extended life a strong requirement. Plate-fin heat exchanger technology is well known, and
Advantage will be taken of heat-exchanger technology units of this type have been used for several decades in many
transfer from the small-engine field to benefit larger aerospace and industrial applications. The performance and
engines. It is projected that advanced industrial gas structural integrity of plate-fin recuperators have continuously
turbines (up to about 15 MW) entering service after about improved over the last three decades McDonald [1972, 1995]
2005 will have efficiency levels of 50% based on the use and they have been used for a variety of different gas turbine
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applications. A compact plate-fin recuperator used in a 75 could be expected from existing primary surface recuperators.
kW microturbine is shown in Fig. 2. Advancements Even the performance of the plate-fin configuration is
continue to be made, Takase [2002], and plate-fin surprisingly good. This might be explained by the small
recuperators remain a viable option for future hydraulic diameter and the relatively efficient plate-fin heat
microturbines. transfer surface type.
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• Hydrogen production technologies powered with flow phenomena analysis is more complex and difficult
nuclearenergy offer increases in efficiency and because it may have a profound influence on the heat transfer
dramatic reductions in pollution. results. It has been substantiated that turbulent flows could
• These advantages are available in each phase of the cause substantial enhancement over laminar flows in heat
lifecycle of the energy carrier: collection, production, transfer rates between the fluid and the heat exchanger wall.
transmission and distribution, and end use. Therefore, it is very important to select an appropriate
• Nuclear-based hydrogen production appears to be methodology to calculate turbulent flows in obtaining
economically viable. reasonable results and better understanding of heat transfer
The analysis of heat exchangers that will be required mechanisms due to turbulent effects.
for the Gen IV system concept will rely, in part, on
conventional heat exchanger design. Determination of 5.1 High Temperature Electrolysis
heat transfer coefficients as well as effectiveness
assessments are required. The first of these aspects can be High-temperature electrolysis uses the technology of solid-
pursued by CFD modeling. However, the effects of oxide fuel cells to split steam into hydrogen and oxygen. The
thermal radiation must be assessed to determine its cells operate at 700-850 oC and have the electrical potential
importance. Moreover, unconventional designs and reversed from that of the fuel cell mode. A schematic diagram
fabrication processes may be required to accommodate of an HTE plan is shown in Fig. 6. The materials challenges in
special futures and process environments. the development of high-temperature electrolysis are divided
Subramanian et al. [2004], developed two different into categories: those within the cells themselves and those in
two-dimensional computational models to investigate the the surrounding plant.
heat exchanger design parameters in order to find an
optimal design for fluid flow and heat transfer on the
helium side of a compact offset strip-fin high temperature
heat exchanger. The models are based on solving the set
of incompressible laminar momentum and energy
equations over the periodic module of the area of heat
exchanger as well as the full heat exchanger channel
lengths. The study deals with the development of an
advanced high temperature heat exchanger design for
hydrogen production by the sulfur iodine thermochemical
cycle from advanced nuclear reactor concepts. The offset
strip-fin hybrid plate type compact heat exchanger
concept is chosen, and the material is a liquid silicon
impregnated carbon composite. The offset strip-fin is
chosen as a method of heat transfer enhancement due to Fig. 6. High-temperature electrolysis.
the boundary layer restart mechanism between the fins
that has a direct effect on heat transfer enhancement. The The concept of HTE builds on the technology of Solid-
effect of the fin thickness, pitch in flow direction, and the Oxide Fuel Cells (SOFCs), using the same materials, but
aspect ratio of the offset fins on the flow field and heat producing hydrogen and oxygen rather than electricity. DOE-
transfer are studied in 2-D using computational Fluid FE and commercial interests have had very significant
Dynamics (CFD) techniques, and the results were then programs for the last two decades to develop SOFCs,
compared with the analytical calculation results. particularly for use with coal gasification. The service
Heat transfer augmentation in a pipe has been studied conditions for such coal-based SOFCs are severe, with
and reported in numerous papers, many of which deal temperature above 1000 oC and fuel gas containing the full
with rough surfaces where promotion of turbulence range of products characteristic of the partial oxidation of coal,
kinetic energy is caused by separation of flows. While including CO2, CO, H2, SO2 and various nitrogen oxides. In
researchers have contributed significantly in this field, comparison, the severe conditions of solid oxide electrolytic
there is still relatively poor understanding of the processes cell is more benign, operating at lower temperatures (750 to
of these flows. It is because the flow is so complex and 900 oC) with the inlet and outlet gases consisting of only
presently existing turbulence models still have many steam and hydrogen in different proportions. The anode of the
limitations in predicting a wide range of parameters in electrolytic cell contains the only instance of more severe
separating, reattaching, recirculating and chemically conditions than an SOFC, since pure O2 may be present if no
reacting flows. Insertions in a flow passage such as coils, diluent is used. Fig. 6 shows a concept for driving the Sulfur-
wings, orifices, plates, cylinders, etc., have been used to Iodine process using process heat from a Modular Helium
increase heat transfer rates in the design of a heat Reactor (MHR). The intermediate heat exchanger (IHX)
exchanger. Also, using non-straight channels or ducts, would consist of helium-to-helium heat-exchanger modules
such as channels with corrugated walls or micro-fins or housed within a vessel, along with the primary coolant
ducts with a backward facing step, and elbow flows have circulator. The chemical reactions would each be driven in
been considered to attain high heat transfer rates. The multiple, parallel trains of process equipment. Alternatively,
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the intermediate heat transfer fluid could be a high- balance of power plant in a fuel cell system dictates the major
temperature, low-pressure molten salt liquid, depending cost.
upon tradeoffs between pumping power, heat-exchanger Fuel preheating and reforming, both internal and external;
mechanical design, and materials performance. The HTE involve extensive use of heat exchangers to drive the
primary process heat exchangers were estimated to have a reforming reactions, which are endothermic overall. Internal
hot side fluid inlet temperature of 900 oC and a hot side reforming usually ensures higher efficiencies to be achieved,
outlet temperature of 400 oC. Outside of the compared to the external reforming configuration, which on
electrolytic cells proper, there are several materials the other hand can rely on existing reforming reactors. The
challenges in the separation and handling of the hydrogen choice between them is driven by technical, cost and risk
and oxygen. Separation of the hydrogen steam exiting considerations. The experience and know-how today exists for
from the HTE cells can be done either through heat exchangers (a developed technology) at inlet temperature
condensation of the condensed water, lowering the overall below 650°C, where stainless steel alloys can be used
efficiency of the process. The use of an inorganic, McDonald [2003], McDonald [2000]. Higher temperatures
hydrogen permeable membrane would allow nearly involve advanced materials which are very costly or ceramics
isothermal and constant pressure operation of the having durability issues, which still need to be addressed for
electrolytic plant. The durability of such a membrane in achieving reliable products at reasonable capital cost. In this
the reducing environment of the 800 oC steam –hydrogen respect, analytical approaches and detailed performance
mixture will have to be investigated. The other models are required for design optimization and cost reduction
significant material challenge lies in cooling the existing (Traverso et al. [2004]).
oxygen stream. As mentioned above, if no diluent (e.g., High temperature heat exchangers, operating in the inlet
nitrogen or air) is used, the piping and heat exchangers temperature range of 750-1100°C, require the use of advanced
needed; will be exposed to extremely oxidizing conditions. materials, such as nickel-based alloys, cobolt based alloys and
The primary side of the oxygen cooler may have to be ceramics, which still represent a cost and reliability issue.
lined with a ceramic, at least in the high temperature Moreover, previous experiences on externally fired gas turbine
region. cycles (Jolly et al. [2001] Traverso et al. [2005]) showed that
pressure drops of ceramic heat exchangers can significantly
6. HEAT EXCHANGERS FOR MCFC AND SOFC affect the performance of the cycle, because even if high-
HYBRID SYSTEMS turbulent flows can enhance the heat exchange coefficients,
pressure drops over 10% (loss relative to inlet pressure)
Fuel cell technology is relatively new technology for become unacceptable for achieving good cycle performance.
electric power generation. Major applications of fuel cells Figure 7 shows an atmospheric hybrid system where the high
encompass stationary, transportation and portable power temperature fuel cell (MCFC or SOFC) works under
applications. The power generation can vary from about 1 atmospheric conditions (Tarnowski et al. [2002]). To recover
W to several MW. In addition to the fuel cell stack, the the energy content of the exhaust gases, it is necessary to
power plant would require fuel reforming (if hydrogen is provide the plant with a high temperature heat exchanger
not supplied), air management and power conditioning of (HTHE) similar to that used in externally fired gas turbines.
the unregulated DC power generated in a fuel cell. This component works under unfavorable conditions (different
Heat exchangers play a critical role in many fuel cell pressures between the hot and cold streams and high operating
systems. In fact, fuel cells thermal management is temperature) and must have high effectiveness in order to
particularly critical for ensuring both the proper feeding achieve the suitable turbine inlet temperature (TIT) and keep
conditions for air/oxygen and fuel, and for keeping the the gas turbine at efficient operating points. These
operating temperature under control. Magistri et al. [2005] requirements make the heat exchanger critical and very
discussed the types of heat exchangers used in fuel cell expensive.
systems, the related design issues and performance As shown in Fig. 7, another high temperature heat exchanger
requirements. Several options in terms of cycle layout and is also present. This component, called “Ceramic HX” in the
heat exchanger technology are also discussed from the on- same figure, is less critical than the previous one because it
design, off-design and control perspectives. The impact of preheats the air flow entering the fuel cell. In this case, a low
heat exchangers on the performance of PEMFC systems effectiveness is however acceptable (less than 50%), without
and SOFC-MCFC gas turbine hybrid systems has been affecting the performance of the plant. Moreover, Fig. 7 shows
investigated. the “Ceramic HX” as a separate unit for sake of clarity.
Waste heat recovery from the exhaust gases of high Normally, this component is fully integrated in the fuel cell
temperature fuel cells or from the reformed fuel in a low stack and it is not a proper ceramic heat exchanger.
temperature fuel cell is essential to increase the overall Figure 8 shows the performance of an atmospheric
system efficiency. This will require high temperature heat hybrid system with an SOFC, but similar conclusions could be
exchangers. The design requirement may dictate to take drawn for an MCFC system. The size of the system is about
care of considerable thermal stresses during the startup, 500 kW and the efficiency is 55%. The Fuel Cell power is
shutdown and load fluctuations. The cost of high around 400 kW and the gas turbine is 100 kW. Presently, the
temperature materials could be prohibitive when the system size more suitable for combined HTFC-GT is around 1
MW, where about 80 % of the power comes from the fuel cell
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and the remaining part derives from the gas turbine. As a with a closed cycle gas turbine. R&D programs are under way
consequence, technical characteristics of the compressor, to explore area where technical development is needed (IAEA,
expander and especially heat exchangers come directly [1996]). Among these programs, the closed-cycle gas turbine
from the Microturbine Technology (McDonald [2003]) concept is investigated in several industrial projects (IAEA,
[2000]):
• The Pebble Bed Modular reactor (PBMR) in South Africa,
with a gross electrical generation of 117 MWe. The
project schedule has been established, with a development
of first unit in 2006.
• The Gas Turbine Modular Helium Reactor (GT-MHR)
developed by an international consortium, with a targeted
286 MWe generation per module, a prototype single unit
is scheduled in Russia in 2009.
• Test Reactors are being commissioned in Japan (High
Temperature Test Reactor) and China (HTR10) to
evaluate the safety and performance of HTGR. These
reactors are designated with an indirect conversion cycle,
but they will support R&D activities like electricity
generation via the gas turbine and high temperature
process heat applications.
Fig. 7. Simplified layout of an atmospheric high The Japan Atomic Energy Research Institute (JAERI) has
temperature fuel cell-gas turbine hybrid system. constructed a very high-temperature engineering test reactor
(HTTR). The HTTR has a 10 MW (Thermal) intermediate
and are similar for Hybrid Systems with MCFC or SOFC. heat exchanger (IHX) to exchange heat between the primary
Figure 8 represents also the influence of the effectiveness and secondary coolants (helium gas) (JAERI [1992]). The
of the high temperature heat exchanger on the efficiency primary coolant of 950 oC and 4 MPa flows upward on the
of the Fuel Cell and overall plant. shell side, and the secondary one of 200 oC and 4.1 MPa flows
downward in the helically coiled tubes and leaves through a
hot header and the center pipe.
8. MONOLITHIC EXCHANGERS
8.1 Ceramic monolith structures
Ceramic monolith structures are used in the industry today
and they are produced in large numbers by use of the extrusion
technique. They are uni-body structures composed of
interconnected repeating cells or channels, Figs. 9 and 10.
They are increasingly under development and evaluation for
many new reactor applications (Selimovic, et al. [2004] and
Heck and Gulati [2001]), e.g., chemical process and refining
Fig. 8. Fuel cell efficiency, system efficiency and industries, catalytic combustion, low emission power plants,
operating temperatures versus HTHE effectiveness etc. However, monoliths are mainly used where only one fluid
(atmospheric system). flows through all the channels. An example is the monolithic
exhaust structure in automotive applications. In endothermic
The effectiveness of the high temperature heat and slow reactions such as steam reforming of hydrocarbons,
exchanger is relevant not only for the system performance large amount of heat are needed to maintain reaction rates. If
point of view but also for the recuperator operating the catalysts were deposited on tubes then usage of monoliths
temperature. In fact, a decrease in the effectiveness of the would be more efficient, leading to greater reaction rates and a
High Temperature Heat Exchanger affects the smaller reactor (Williams [2001]). Additionally, there would
temperature of the hot stream at the inlet of the be a great improvement in mechanical integrity. Especially it
recuperator (see Fig. 8). If this component is the original would be advantageous if two fluids in monolithic channels
one provided with the micro gas turbine package, it would can exchange heat and/or mass. The reason why monoliths are
not be suited for such a high temperature. not widely used in these applications is because of complex
technique for feeding and distributing the two fluids in and out
7. High Temperature Gas Reactor (HTGR) of the channels.
Selimovic et al. [2005] focused on the compact ceramic
Recent advances in the design of turbo machinery, heat exchanger where two fluids are fed and distributed into
recuperators and magnetic bearings provide the potential individual channels in a multi-channels structure. Their study
for the use of the High Temperature Gas Reactor (HTGR) show three different approaches of modelling: analytical,
235
experimental and numerical modelling. The exchanger is structure, mathematical analysis was made on one honeycomb
of monolithic shape where heat and mass is transferred in cell, or matrix, that formed a small part of the regenerator
rectangular channels. Usually, for the pressure drop cross-section along the flow path. The regenerator is
calculations of standard channel shapes, different composed of two different materials along the heat exchangers,
available correlations can be applied. However, when one is 0.2 m long alumina and the other is 0.1 m long
these channels are manifolded and connected to other cordierite.
components complex geometries are involved and then
modelling with correlation parameters may be
unsuccessful. Similar to plate heat exchangers, the
pressure drop as well as thermal performance depends on
distribution of fluid. Therefore it is important to
investigate how good the flow distribution is from the
main port pipe into the channels. The analytical
investigation made here includes both U- and Z-type
configurations.
Fig. 10. Honeycomb regenerator and dimensions of solid Fig. 11 shows the dimensions of a heat regenerator used in
material and flow path. A dashed line bound one a twin-type 100 kW HiTAC regenerative burner. The
symmetrical cell. regenerator dimensions is 150 x 150 x 300 mm3. the cell size
is attributed to 100 cells/in2 and hence, the specific heat
Monolithic ”honeycomb” structure has been transfer area is 4200 m2/m3. All flue gases generated by
manifolded by two stage manifolds where either U-type combustion are sucked again by the burners and pass through
or Z-type manifold can be used to distribute the flow rate the regenerators. The honeycomb compact heat regenerator
uniformly through each branch. This stage manifold can has relatively high effectiveness of about 88% and recovers
be compared to the manifolding of plate heat exchangers 72% of energy contained in combustion flue gases at nominal
(PHE). The main difference compared to PHE’s is that operating conditions. Consequently, the energy storage and the
each branch will further divide the flow to the monolithic pressure drop are calculated and the thermal performance of
structure with specified channel arrangement. This stage the honeycomb heat regenerator is evaluated at different
manifolding is called I-type manifold here. More detailed switching times and loading. The model takes into account the
picture of I-type manifold can be observed in Fig. 11. thermal conductivity parallel and perpendicular to flow
Concerning the monolithic channels, two different gas direction of solid and flowing gases. It considers the variation
distributions (channel arrangements) are investigated: the of all thermal properties of solid material and gases with
checkerboard and linear, Figs. 10 and 11. The important temperature. Moreover, the radiation from combustion flue
physical characteristics are then the size of the channel gases to the storage materials was considered in the analysis.
through which the gaseous reactants and products traverse
wall thickness, and the total monolith’s compactness. 9. CONCLUSIONS
Rafidi and Blasiak [2005] developed a two-
dimensional simulation model to find out the temperature High temperature heat exchanger technology has become
distribution of the solid storing material and flowing gases important for improving the performance of power generation.
and other thermal and flow parameters for this regenerator The characteristics of different high temperature materials and
and compared computed results with experiments. coolant have been discussed. The need to develop various type
Because of geometric symmetry of the honeycomb of high temperature heat exchangers for different applications
236
such as hydrogen production, reforming process of SOFC Energy Exchange in an Ultra High Temperature Heat
fuel cell, generation of high temperature gas, low Exchanger. Part A: computational theory, Applied Thermal
emission power plants etc. have been outlined. High Engineering, Vol. 18, pp. 1263-1276.
temperature heat exchanger design materials selection and Kadambi, V., Etemad, S., and Russo, L., 1992, Primary-
thermal-hydraulic issues were discussed. Differences Surface Heat Exchanger for a Ground Vehicle, SAE Paper
compared to low temperature heat exchangers were 920418.
outlined. Unsolved problems in using ceramic heat Kleiner R. N. 1984, Highly Compact Ceramic
exchangers were presented. Examples from a variety of Recuperator for Engine Application. ASME Paper 84-GT-50.
applications area were highlighted. Koschier, H., Mauch, R., 2000, Advantages of the LV 100
as a Power Producer in a Hybrid Propulsion System for Future
10. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Fighting Vehicles, ASME, J. Engineering for Gas Turbines
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The present work was in part financially supported by the Kumada, M., 1999, A Study on the High Performance
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