Building Sustainable Communities:

Civil Society Response in South Asia

1st ed. Edition Md. Nurul Momen
Visit to download the full and correct content document:
https://ebookmass.com/product/building-sustainable-communities-civil-society-respon
se-in-south-asia-1st-ed-edition-md-nurul-momen/
Edited by
Md. Nurul Momen · Rajendra Baikady
Cheng Sheng Li · Basavaraj M.

Building
Sustainable
Communities
Civil Society Response
in South Asia
Building Sustainable Communities
 Md. Nurul Momen
Rajendra Baikady • Cheng Sheng Li
M. Basavaraj
Editors

Building Sustainable
Communities
Civil Society Response in South Asia
Editors
Md. Nurul Momen Rajendra Baikady
Department of Public Administration Paul Baerwald School of Social Work and
University of Rajshahi Social Welfare
Rajshahi, Bangladesh Hebrew University of Jerusalem
Jerusalem, Israel
Cheng Sheng Li
Department of Social Work Department of Social Work
Shandong University University of Johannesburg
Shandong, China Johannesburg, South Africa

M. Basavaraj
Dept of Economic Studies and Planning
Central University of Karnataka
Kadganchi, Karnataka, India

ISBN 978-981-15-2392-2    ISBN 978-981-15-2393-9 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-2393-9

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature Singapore
Pte Ltd. 2020
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether
the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse
of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and
transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar
or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication
does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant
protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book
are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or
the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any
errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional
claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Cover illustration: eStudio Calamar

This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Singapore
Pte Ltd.
The registered company address is: 152 Beach Road, #21-01/04 Gateway East, Singapore 189721,
Singapore
 Foreword

The Task of Building Sustainable Communities

There have been repeated warnings through the media, as a follow-up of
the intensive research which has been carried out across the world, to
change the way we live and to look for sustainable options. The Himalayan
glaciers are melting twice as fast as they were at the start of the twenty-­
first century (HT 21.06.2019). This is threatening water supply for more
than 800 million people, mostly in South Asia. The glaciers are already
one-fourth smaller than what they were 40 years ago. This could lead to
both floods and droughts. What South Asia will earn in development, it
will lose in disasters. Progress, development and livelihood in the coming
century would largely depend upon the way nations reduce, reuse and
recycle the earth’s resources. This is a responsibility which the state may
not be able to handle alone and therefore the rationale that a civil society
should become a partner to the state rather than simply a beneficiary,
recipient and a passive spectator. However, the problem is much beyond
defining a partnership role for a civil society. Due to the rise of marketiza-
tion, globalization and the increasing influence of dominant groups in
representative democracy, communities have been losing their tradi-
tional, cultural and geographical bonding. To reclaim community bond-
ing, civil society has to rise and respond to its challenges.

v
vi Foreword

A multi-pronged effort is required to build ‘Sustainable Communities’

and this suggests that the task is too convoluted to be left to the govern-
ment alone. This book uncovers various micro- and macro-level efforts
and instances in which the civil society responded to this challenge and
became partners in such a mission. In conventional public administra-
tion literature, communities are by themselves considered sustainable
and on that logic much effort has been expended in public policy to
conserve this surviving ‘community system’ or to plan programmes
within the context of community systems.1 However, this book refers to
case studies relating to how unsustainable communities have been able to
explore solutions and strategies to build a sustainable community. Since
the critical feature of ‘sustainability’ embedded within a community
seems threatened or lost, the remedies and anthropological narratives
suggested in this book would present a meaningful text.
Considering their common vulnerabilities that stem from underdevel-
opment and environmental challenges, there is greater expectation from
South Asian civil societies to join efforts in building sustainable commu-
nities in genuine partnerships, since sustainable community is the key to
development. It should be restored and reclaimed through civil society
efforts. The many authors of this book have brought multi-level case
studies to strengthen the belief that civil society efforts can salvage the
damage within communities. There is an epistemological question which
the book triggers on the nature of civil society vis-à-vis communities
since in many studies, and sometimes during programme implementa-
tion, the two metaphors are mistakenly used interchangeably. While
communities are mostly inward driven and are ready to bend backwards
in search of their autonomy, sustenance and sustainability, a civil society
is a compact of many loosely tied interest groups ready to bargain with
the state. In short, while communities are embedded in a natural

1
Many studies in Public Administration have been conducted on the belief that communities are a
sustainable fact of any policy. While the legendary scholar F.W. Riggs’s whole framework of
‘Ecology of Public Administration’ (1961) is about community-driven implementation, there are
continuing discourses in the discipline which reiterate its importance, i.e. Kapucu, N. (2016);
Wade, R. (1988); Mansuri, Ghazala and Vijayendra Rao (2003); M. Das Gupta, H. Grandvoinnett
and M. Romani (2004); UNHCR (2001).
 Foreword vii

ecological phenomenon for survival and resilience building, civil society

can be competitive within as much as outside. Interestingly, the efforts of
civil society suggested in the chapters of this book demonstrate that they
may catalyse the process and generate sustainability.
This book investigates the role of civil society in its mission towards
restoring sustainable communities. Civil society is recognizable within
government as the most uncivil (Glasius 2010) segment of an otherwise
symmetrically structured and sophisticatedly regulated state. It is per-
ceived to be informal, unorganized, noisy and mostly impulsive. It is
seen to value instinctive responses and provoke rebellious passions which
may sometimes cross over to the category of anti-state militants or insur-
gents (Karriem and Benjamin 2016). Rumford (2001) prefers to define
an ‘uncivil society’ as a ‘catch-all term for a wide range of disruptive,
unwelcome and threatening elements deemed to have emerged in the
spaces between the individual and the state’. On the contrary, civil soci-
eties obstinately remain fastened to the state carrying an infallible belief
that it plays a major role in the retention of democracy, rights of the
vulnerable and the constitutional spirit of inclusive governance. This civil
society is believed to be an intangible life-force of a Western state, while
communities represent a more natural phenomenon for South Asian
societies, which have a long history of their land habitations. Whatever a
thin line of distinction between the two, a civil society is an enigma, but
always hopeful of its might to achieve an Arcadian bliss when it
would bloom!

 n Age-Old History of Civil Society

A
in South Asia
The authors are also concerned about globalization as defacement of civil
society but micro-level case studies by many others have more to tell.
These studies re-inspire faith and prowess of not just people who consti-
tute civil societies across South Asia but also the bureaucracy which is left
with no option but to match the energy of civil society organizations
(CSOs). The book documents an analysis of CSOs where it is accepted
viii Foreword

that despite cross-cultural variations, CSOs are a fact of current dispensa-

tion as they march through sustainable options for growth and advance-
ment. No one has a deeper reach to an understanding of CSOs than the
people of South Asia due to their agrarian reference point, which dates
back to some of the oldest anecdotes from non-state voices which were
documented much before the Westphalian State2 came into being. Most
ancient kingdoms of South Asia were mostly reflections of their civil soci-
eties till mega wars broke down communities into small kingdoms and
then into nations. Starting from the oldest works, the Rig Veda3 (earlier
than 5000 BC) down to the Samhitas (1500 BC) and Puranas (500 BC),
one can observe the spirit of free will, human rights, conservation of spe-
cies, environmental protection and the nature of social movements
including rebellion against the state as an assertion of good and sustain-
able governance. It is always enlightening to explore civil society in the
lands of South Asia, which has a history of more than 6000 BCE, carry-
ing the world’s oldest narratives on civil society, passed on to the famous,
completely original, Comilla Experiment4 of Bangladesh and the Orangi
Project of Pakistan.
Civil Society has carried a deep influence on governance everywhere in
South Asia. The words Sabha and Samiti have their origin in both the Rig
Veda and the Atharva Veda. The word Republic appears 40 times in the
Rig Veda and 9 times in the Atharva Veda. The Sabha, a gathering of
people, was crucial for governance as it represented the collective con-
sciousness of the people, called Samjnana. This gathering of people was
expected to speak powerfully—Samvadaddhvam, generate a union of
minds—Sammanah, and hearts—Samachittam, and of hopes and aspira-
tions—akuti. This concept of a civil society, carried through most of the
ancient texts produced in this region, reflects on the nature of civil

2
The term ‘Westphalian State’ emerges from the Treaties of Westphalia in 1648. It refers to a state
possessing monopoly of force within their mutually recognized territories and a set of rules which
govern inter-state and intra-state relations.
3
See Lok Tilak (2004) and Kazanas (2002).
4
The Comilla Model (1959) of Bangladesh and the Orangi Project (1980s) of Pakistan were both
celebrated community development initiatives launched by Akhtar Hameed Khan, born in Agra
(India), for rural and urban communities, respectively. Even if they under-achieved, the pro-
grammes pushed several successful micro-credit programmes such as the BRAC(NGO) and
Grameen Bank by Dr. Md. Yunus and Fazle Hasan Abed.
 Foreword ix

society. The Vedas, Valmiki Ramayana and the Mahabharata of the sev-
enth–fifth century BCE, which is taken to and absorbed in a rational
analysis found in Kautilya’s Arthashashtra (Boesche 2002), third century
BCE, a treatise on economics and the economy of nations much before
Adam Smith’s Wealth of Nations. This region also produced meaningful
narratives on civil society in Buddhist literature, some of which could
also be reflected in the oldest available Bengali poetic volume Charayapada
of the tenth–eleventh century and Islamic epics in the works of Syed
Sultan, Abdul Hakim and the secular texts of Alaol. The coming of Kazi
Nazrul Islam re-ignited the praxis of civil society through his celebrated
works Bidrohi (The Rebel) and his newspaper Dhumketu (The Comet)
between 1915 and 1922. In much the same spirit, Prof. Nurul Momen
wrote Nemesis and a number of other works in 1944 and sometime later
when ordinary masses were making efforts to change their destinies
trapped in political and natural calamities. Going downwards to the
coastal rim of South Asia, Sri Lanka’s civil society literature demonstrated
a phenomenal growth and expansion with the establishment of the
Ceylon Bible Society in 1812 and the Mahabodhi Society in 1891. The
Ceylon Social Reform Society of 1905 has contributed immensely to cul-
tural conservation of Sri Lankan civil society values. Ironically, much has
remained unstudied and unresearched and the scholars in South Asia
have missed out on their indigenous wealth under the dominant Western
publications. Authors admit that it is difficult to delve into the deep mine
of this regional literature in the absence of sufficient archival conservation
and due to colonial influences. However, it is about time that the focus is
shifted inwards and the inner strengths of the region are explored.

 ow the Western and South Asian

H
Perspectives on Civil Society Differ
There is a sharp contrast in Western and South Asian perspectives on civil
society and this is what constitutes the much brutal interrogation into the
very concept of civil society and its uncivil peripheral fragments. There is
not much difference in the classical perspective of civil society as
x Foreword

understood in India, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Nepal and Pakistan due to

their much common and overlapping regional history. In clear deviation
from an understanding where loosely tied individuals come together for
the fulfilment of collectively held interest, South Asians mix in its mean-
ing a complex of regionally determined ethics, morality and sensitivity
towards local traditions. It would be nice to read what an outsider has to
say on this difference. Sebastian Velassery (2004) writes on the classical
Indian political tradition of civil society but it seems quite acceptable for
the region. Velassery writes (pp. 39–40) that this tradition is ‘society-­
centred as it subordinated the state and government to societal mandates.
This is the idea of an active involvement and participation of a group of
people as a community in the conduct of various institutions and organi-
zations they belong to in their day-to-day living and this may exist in a
system where government at the centre is paternalistic’. He further found
that most of these groups were led by hereditary, caste and local commu-
nity based laws and norms, as a result of which they enjoyed sufficient
internal autonomy and were left free from direct king’s interference. This
suggests that the prevalent understanding of civil society from a South
Asian perspective was more organic and interdependent yet clearly role
based, which differed from the Western concept of civil society as a tenu-
ous aggregate of independent self-contained individuals held together by
self-interest.
The Western–South Asian difference explains how civil societies in the
South Asian region were mostly equivalent to village councils and formed
little republics. Some of the primordial concepts are still reflected in the
northeastern India, which has a civil society identifiable by a particular
community residing on a particular hill. They have their own markets,
community-specific artefacts, clothes and norms to follow. The Meitis,
Paietes and Kukis or Ukhrul Nagas can never form a common civil soci-
ety. Similarly, the Jats and Gujjars of western and north-western India
follow different norms in accordance with their caste-specific civil societ-
ies. Such community-based segregations traverse the region. In
Bangladesh, India and Pakistan (and maybe in Sri Lanka and Nepal too)
the so-called organic civil societies even constituted their own justice dis-
pensation arrangements in the form of local communitarian court sys-
tems, that is, Shalish in Bangladesh and India, Khap Panchayats in India
 Foreword xi

and Jirgahs in Pakistan and Afghanistan. Nepal has arbitration panchayats

and village development committees acting as community mediators. Such
a community-linked and tradition-embedded civil society is an asset if
governments can channelize their energy and mainstream them into
national development. On the other hand, if left unattended, it could be
a catalyst to regressive, patriarchal, orthodox and fundamentalist led
obstruction to holistic and globally competitive development. Bangladesh
government has brought some grassroots changes to link district courts
to the Shaleesh in a village. Some of the South Asian countries also prac-
tise restorative justice systems with the help of their civil society.
Sustainability is the key outcome if these local community groups are
brought into mainstream governance and fulfil their share of
responsibilities.

 ddressing Sustainable Communities

A
and Civil Society
There have been inherent intellectual difficulties in the Western world
which has prevented an understanding about Asia in its own right and
within its own history and legacy of civilization (Cheung 2013,
pp. 249–261). Subsequent to Soviet collapse, Fukuyama mistakenly
declared the ‘End of History’ (Fukuyama 1992) and a triumph of Western
liberal ideology. He ignored the emergence of smaller but powerful nation
states identical to the ‘Rise of the Ants’5 or the prevalence of burly trans-­
boundary micro-level forces which were constantly challenging this
notion.6 As a result, South Asia missed an important opportunity to cen-
tre its development on communities and grow into their culturally well-­
rooted and user-friendly structures of governance.
Comparative public administration unravels the mysteries of the his-
torical evolution of community-based institutions spread between cul-
tural relativism and universalism. Riggs worked at the convergence point

5
A metaphor picked up from the world of science symbolic of natural changes Wilson and
Holldobler (2005).
6
See, Marks, Susan, (1997) reflections on legal thesis.
xii Foreword

of history, culture and contemporary socio-economic framework to ignite

a discourse on ecology-specific values, that is, Asian values and Asian
politics and society as given by Dalton and Shin (2006) and Kim (2010).
Under these circumstances, sustainability remained a major problem of
governance. A few of these problems are listed in the following:

1. Most developmental initiatives were more individualistic than institu-

tion based and that brought to them a premature death once the offi-
cial was transferred.
2. There was a political aspiration or a dominant vote bank behind an
initiative rather than a genuine need for social concern or particular
need for development.
3. Planning was mostly elitist and delinked to the ground realities and
therefore worked on Western borrowed and implanted frameworks.
4. The legal framework lagged behind the changing times and instead of
facilitating implementation, it obstructed and delayed it, only to
increase corruption and local mafias.
5. There was no machinery for handling emergencies like floods, land-
slides, hurricanes, tornadoes and fires which collapsed to a dead end
even the best worked out initiatives.

The above five basic causes to unsustainable governance diverted atten-

tion in the mid-1990s towards stronger norms for accountability, trans-
parency and performance audits through budget and expenditures.
Tough procurement procedures were introduced in departments and
wherever government funding was disbursed. Many colonial laws were
changed to give way to more appropriate and relevant measures to curb
delays, obstructions and corruption. The early years of the twenty-first
century brought a speedy investigation of laggard norms of governance to
open free spaces for local communities to perform and help as partners in
governance. The introduction of e-governance in service delivery was a
major transformation in public life. South Asian countries adopted the
Right to Information Acts, Public Disclosures Laws and also reforms,
even if minimal, were brought to the Representation of People’s Acts,
which improved public elections to state and central legislatures.
 Foreword xiii

It was during this time that the World Development Report (2004)
Making Services work for the poor people was published to focus upon
some of the most basic services to human development. These included
education, health, water, sanitation and electricity. Many dimensions to
poverty were highlighted and governments were asked to work towards
them. Recently, in 2014, the Indian government’s major initiative on
‘Swachh Bharat Abhiyaan’ has already started proving right the wisdom
which the experts had put in the 2004 Report. It is highlighted that sani-
tation is becoming a key to rising ambition to work and do better. The
World Development Report 2004 had set a holistic agenda for the region
to scale up sectoral reforms by linking them to public sector, budget man-
agement and decentralized administrative reforms. In India, the disburse-
ment to civil society groups increased and there was a mushrooming of
Self-Help Groups (SHGs), Community-Based Organizations (CBOs)
and voluntary groups in the process of materializing, implementing and
outreaching the demand groups, beneficiaries and the stakeholders. The
situation was so diffused for the sovereign state that scholars started
declaring that the state was hollowing out (Rhodes 1994) or retreating
(Strange 1996). As Rhodes (1994) further explained that ‘hollowing out’
referred to a loss of state capacity and a ‘shift from a unitary state to a
differentiated polity’ (1997, p. 19). The splattering by civil society groups
appeared to be eroding or eating away the state but Rhodes was also clear
that this neither increased state efficiency nor its effectiveness (2017,
p. 119). However, the public sphere became a network of competing civil
society groups rather than a Weberian pyramid of known functionaries.
While analyzing this changing situation replete with examples of rising
influence of marketization and subsequent unbundling of public sector
undertakings, deregulations and corporatization led many scholars to call
the process a form of a ‘predatory state’(Olson 1993; Galbraith 2008).
The rise of civil society inadvertently carried the mission to fill up gaps
of accountability and state capacity but it turned to neither of the two.
There was a felt need for a deadline of performance and the declaration
on Sustainable Development Goals established a meaningful direction
within the time availability. The Goal No. 11 on ‘sustainable cities and
communities’ is directed to protect habitats and life as the world grows
xiv Foreword

towards unmanageable and dangerous proportions of growth of popula-

tion, land-scarcity, environmental degradation and challenges of service
delivery. It is amply understandable that there is but one last effort to be
made by humanity to save this planet, which is to generate sustainable
communities. The Hyogo Declaration 2005, and later the Sendai
Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction (2015–2030), emphasizes on
community resilience building and ‘to build back better in recovery, reha-
bilitation and reconstruction’. This task is possible only with a vibrant,
involved and a committed civil society participating in the task of
governance.

Conclusions
Communities and the civil society encounter new responsibilities and
new challenges in the current phase of development. The marketization
of the 1990s is believed to have disrupted or scattered community bond-
ings and the rise of the civil society is one of the most appropriate options
to reclaim and restore sustainability, which once came naturally within
communities. Building sustainable communities is one great fiat for
development and growth in current times. The two concepts are embed-
ded in the history of South Asia, yet by adopting the Western implanted
models. this region has weakened its pace of development. Finally, the
effort to build sustainable communities through civil society responses is
a reminder that this multi-pronged process requires socio-legal-cultural
initiatives simultaneously to build resilience and address issues of state
capacity.

Centre
 for the Study of Law and Governance Amita Singh
Special Centre for Disaster Research
Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, India
 Foreword xv

References
Boesche, R. (2002). The First Great Political Realist: Kautilya and His Arthashastra.
Lanham: Lexington Books.
Cheung, A. B. L. (2013). Can There Be an Asian Model of Public Administration.
Public Administration and Development, 33(4), 249–261.
Dalton, R., & Shin, D. C. (Eds.). (2006). Citizens, Democracy and Markets
Around the Pacific Rim: Congruence Theory and Political Culture. Oxford:
Oxford University Press.
Das Gupta, M., Grandvoinnett, H., & Romani, M. (2004). State-Community
Synergies in Community-Driven Development. Journal of Development
Studies, 40(3), 27–58.
Fukuyama, F. (1992). The End of History and the Last Man. New York: The
Free Press.
Galbraith, J. K. (2008). The Predator State: How Conservatives Abandoned the
Free Market and Why Liberals Should Too (p. 208). Free Press.
Glasius, M. (2010). Uncivil Society. In H. K. Anheier & S. Toepler (Eds.),
International Encyclopedia of Civil Society. New York, NY: Springer.
Kapucu, N. (2016). Community-Based Research in Generating Usable
Knowledge for Public Policy and Administration. Administration & Society,
48(6), 683–710.
Karriem, A., & Benjamin, L. M. (2016). How Civil Society Organizations
Foster Insurgent Citizenship: Lessons from the Brazilian Landless Movement.
Voluntas: International Journal of Voluntary and Nonprofit Organizations,
27(1), 19–36. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1007/s11266-015-9549-3.
Kazanas, N. (2002). Indigenous Indo-Aryans and the Rigveda (PDF). Journal of
Indo-European Studies, 30, 275–334. Retrieved 30 December 2009.
Kim, S. Y. (2010). Do Asian Values Exist? Empirical Tests of the Four Dimensions
of Asian Values. Journal of East Asian Studies, 10, 315–344.
Mansuri, G., & Rao, V. (2003). Evaluating Community-Based and Community-­
Driven Development: A Critical Review of the Evidence, Development Research
Group. Washington, DC: World Bank.
Marks, S. (1997). The End of History? Reflections on Some International Legal
Thesis. European Journal of International Law, No. 449. Retrieved from www.
ejil.org/journal/Vol8/No3/art5.pdf.
Olson, M. (1993). Dictatorship, Democracy and Development. The American
Political Science Review, 87(3), 567–576. Retrieved July 1, 2019, from http://
www.jstor.org/stable/2938736.
xvi Foreword

Rhodes, R. A. W. (1994). The Hollowing Out of the State. The Changing

Nature of Public Services in Britain. Political Quarterly, 65(1), 138–151.
Rhodes, R. A. W. (1997). Understanding Governance: Policy Networks,
Governance, Reflexivity and Accountability (Public Policy & Management)
(p. 19). Philadelphia: Open University.
Rhodes, R. A. W. (2017). Network Governance and the Differentiated Polity:
Selected Essays (Vol. 1). London: Oxford University Press.
Riggs, F. W. (1961). The Ecology of Public Administration. Bombay: Asia
Publishing House.
Rumford, C. (2001). Confronting ‘Uncivil Society’ and the ‘Dark Side of
Globalization’: Are Sociological Concepts Up to the Task? Sociological
Research Online, 6(3), 1–4. https://doi.org/10.5153/sro.640.
Strange, S. (1996). The Retreat of the State: The Diffusion of Power in the World
Economy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Tilak, L. (2004). Indus Civilization. Delhi: Discovery Publishing House.
UNHCR. (2001, February 15). Reinforcing a Community Development Approach.
EC/51/SC/CRP.6.
Velassery, S. (2004). Constitution of a Rational Society: A Kautilyan Text, Chap.
III. In W. A. Barbieri, R. Magliola, & R. Winslow (Eds.), Civil Society: Who
Belongs? Washington, DC: Council for Research in Values and Philosophy.
Wade, R. (1988). Village Republics: Economic Conditions for Collective Action in
South India. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Wilson, E. O., & Holldobler, B. (2005). The Rise of the Ants: A Phylogenetic
and Ecological Explanation. PNAS, 102(21), 7411–7414. https://doi.
org/10.1073/pnas.0502264102.
World Bank. (2004). World Development Report 2004: Making services Work for
Poor People - Overview (English). World Development Report. Washington,
DC: World Bank Group. Retrieved from http://documents.worldbank.org/
curated/en/527371468166770790/World-Development-Report-2004-
Making-services-work-for-poor-people-Overview.
 Acknowledgment

Editing this book started with many challenges and endless learning. The
contents of this book were shaped by the discussion and debates between
junior and senior scholars from diverse social science subjects.
Commitment, dedication and an aspiration for new learning among all
contributing authors resulted in this book. This book presents truly inter-
disciplinary and international content pertaining to civil society organi-
zation and social welfare in the South Asian region.
We the editors sincerely thank all our contributing authors for their
valuable contributions, and also thanks go to many other colleagues who
offered advice, criticism, and encouragement in various settings. We spe-
cially mention the support of Prof. Nasreen Aslam Shah (Pakistan), Dr.
Nadarajah Pushparajah (Sri Lanka), Bharat Bushan (India), Dr. Jilly
Johan (India), Dr. Ashok D Souza (India), AHM Kamrul Ahsan
(Bangladesh), Vasudeva Sharma (India), Dr. Anurada Koumodurai
(India), Prof. Awal Hossain Mollah (Bangladesh), Dr. Aslam Khan
(Ethiopia), Kanagarajan Eswaran (India), Mahbub Alam Prodip
(Bangladesh), Golam Rabbani (Bangladesh), Prof. Md. Faruque Hossain
(Bangladesh), Dr. Anjali Kulkarni (India) with peer reviewing chapters.
In addition, a big thanks goes to Prof. Matthew McCartney (University
of Oxford), Prof. M. Shamsur Rahman (Ex-Vice Chancellor, Jatiyo Kobi
Kazi Nazrul Islam University), Prof. Vimla V. Nadkarni (TISS Mumbai),
Prof. He Xuesong (East China University of Science and Technology),
xvii
xviii Acknowledgment

Prof. Jing Guo (University of Hawaii at Manoa), Prof. GAO Jianguo

(Shandong University), Sandeep Kaur (Palgrave Macmillan, New Delhi),
Sagarika Ghosh (Palgrave Macmillan, New Delhi), NAPSIPAG Sri Lanka
and the International Association of Schools of Social Work (IASSW) for
their constant support and guidance at various stages of preparation of
this book.
We gratefully acknowledge the many friends and family who sup-
ported us along the journey with their expertise, encouragement and
stimulating suggestions.

Md. Nurul Momen

Rajendra Baikady
Cheng Sheng Li
M. Basavaraj
 Contents

1 Introduction: Civil Society in the Era of Globalization—

Emerging Concerns as a Social Welfare Provider  1
Md. Nurul Momen, Rajendra Baikady, Cheng Sheng-Li,
and M. Basavaraj

Part I Changing South Asian Society and Developmental

Challenges  15

2 Role of Civil Society Organization in the Inclusion of

People with Deafblindness in South Asia: A Case Study
on Sense International India 29
Akhil Paul, Atul Jaiswal, Uttam Kumar, and Parag Namdeo

3 Samurdhi Programme as a Poverty Alleviation Strategy:

An Evaluation Study Based on Sri Bodhi Gramma
Village in Gampaha District in Sri Lanka 47
R. Lalitha S. Fernando, H. O. C. Gunasekara,
and H. K. S. Gunasekara

xix
xx Contents

4 Vulnerability of the Charland Dwellers to Climate

Change: Various Adaptation Practices in Bangladesh 75
Mahfuzul Haque

Part II The State Civil Society Organization and Social

Welfare  87

5 Media and NGOs: Strategic Effective Governance 99

Akbaruddin Ahmad, Rashidul Islam, and Touhid Alam

6 Role of Civil Society in Democratic Consolidation

Process in Bangladesh115
Mostafijur Rahman

7 Civil Society and Political Change: Globalization

and Transforming Relations in South Asia141
Anju Lis Kurian and C. Vinodan

8 Democratic Practice and Good Governance in Nepal151

Girdhari Dahal

9 Taxonomy of State-CSOs Relations in India171

Binod Kumar

10 The Civil Struggle to Access Airwaves: Study on SARU

Community Radio Initiative in Sri Lanka191
M. C. Rasmin and W. A. D. P. Wanigasundera

Part III Civil Society Initiatives for Women Welfare 211

11 Civil Society as the Guardian of Women’s Human

Rights in India223
Bharti Chhibber
 Contents xxi

12 Role of Civil Society Organisations in Women

Empowerment: A Study of SKDRDP, India241
Naveen Naik Karje and Anjali Kulkarni

13 Role and Contribution of Non-Governmental

Organizations in Women Empowerment: A Case
Study of the All Pakistan Women’s Association263
Nasreen Aslam Shah

14 Civil Society’s Contribution to Women Empowerment:

Bangladesh Perspective285
Tania Afrin Tonny and Jewel Ahmed

15 Women Empowerment: Impact Assessment of Select

Interventions by Various Third Sector Organizations
in India301
K. N. Veena, Shashidhar Channappa, and V. J. Byra Reddy

Part IV Building Sustainable Communities: Civil Society

Response 315

16 Social Audit: A Tool to Access Social Justice327

Nitin Dhaktode

17 Social System Breakdown of Bangladesh Due

to Rohingya Crisis: In Search for Possible Solution345
Md. Zahir Ahmed

18 Impact of Organic Farming on Sustainable Livelihood

of Farmers361
Ramesha Naika, C. Sivapragasam, and
Sri Krishan Sudheer Patoju
xxii Contents

19 Managerial Efficacy of Jagratha Samithi cum Family

Empowerment Forum: A Case Study of Panancherry
Panchayat377
Neena Joseph

20 People with Disabilities: The Role of Social Workers

for Rehabilitation in Bangladesh403
Isahaque Ali, Azlinda Azman, Paramjit Singh Jamir Singh,
Zulkarnain A. Hatta, Ndungi Wa Mungai,
Muhammud Shariful Islam, and Tahmina Akhtar

21 Poverty and Social Inequality: Bangladesh Experience425

M. Rezaul Islam, Niaz Ahmed Khan, Adi Fahrudin,
Md. Rabiul Islam, and A. K. M. Monirul Islam

Part V Contemporary South Asian Civil Society: Issues,

Challenges and Concerns 453

22 Civil Society and Governance in South Asia: Issues

and Challenges465
Abhishek Pratap Singh

23 Role of Civil Society in Bangladesh: Challenges and

Prospects481
Md. Awal Hossain Mollah

24 Proactive Functions of CSOs in Post War Situations:

Importance of Having Branded CSOs (Learnings
from Sri Lanka)497
Jeganathan Thatparan

25 Scaling Up NGO Impact on Development in South Asia503

Firdous Ahmad Dar
 Contents xxiii

26 Making Sense of Civil Society: The Experience of

Pakistan, Afghanistan and Nepal521
Debasish Nandy

27 Civil Society, Political Stability and Peace-Building

in Bangladesh and Sri Lanka: A Comparative Study547
Z. R. M. Abdullah Kaiser

Part VI Child Welfare in South Asia 571

28 Child Welfare Practices in Organizational and

Institutional Context of Bangladesh585
Isahaque Ali, Azlinda Azman, Paramjit Singh Jamir Singh,
Zulkarnain A. Hatta, Muhammud Shariful Islam, and
Tahmina Akhtar

29 Trafficking of Children: Social Work Strategies

in Prevention and Reintegration611
Lakshmana Govindappa

30 Efforts Towards Education: Looking into

Non-Government Support for Non-­Formal Education
in Bangladesh631
Gazi Arafat Uz Zaman Markony

Part VII Towards Achieving 2030 Agenda: Issues,

Challenges and Concerns 657

31 Popular Participation in Environmental Governance in

Non-Western Societies: Procedure and Application673
A. K. M. Mahmudul Haque
xxiv Contents

32 Bridging Gender Gap in Bhutan: CSOs’ Response

to Gender Disparity701
Pema Rinzin

33 Forest Rights Act 2006, Customary Laws,

and Sustainable Community Development:
Study on Lodha Tribe of West Bengal, India717
Koustab Majumdar and Dipankar Chatterjee

34 Ensuring Safety for Women at Public Space:

Need and Approaches733
M. Nagaraj Naik

35 We Are Stressed of Nuclear Power Plant: 2014 and 2017747

Ghouse Basha Ahameed Mustafa and Prince Annadurai

36 Hajj and Umrah Management in Bangladesh:

Issues, Challenges and Human Rights Perspective781
Isahaque Ali, Azlinda Azman, Paramjit Singh Jamir Singh,
Mahathir Yahaya, Zulkarnain A. Hatta, and Muhammud
Shariful Islam

37 Conclusion: The Modern Welfare States–Civil Society

Organization and the Welfare Challenges—Global
and Local Debates803
Md. Nurul Momen, Rajendra Baikady, Cheng Sheng-Li, and
M. Basavaraj

Index  821
 Notes on Contributors

Akbaruddin Ahmad is Chairman, Policy Research Centre.bd (PRC.

bd); Chairman (Admn), NAPSIPAG (Network of Schools and Institutes
of Public Administration and Governance of the Asia Pacific Region);
Chief Editor, The Weekly Finance World and former Vice Chancellor,
DarulIhsan University.
Jewel Ahmed is a sector specialist at BRAC, the Bangladesh-based
world’s largest NGO, with its Gender Justice and Diversity Programme.
Before joining BRAC he worked at Shapla Mahila Sangsta, a Bangladesh-­
based local NGO, with its Justice for Marginalised programme as
Associate Coordinator. He has been working in the development sector
for the last 6 years. He received his undergraduate and graduate degrees
in Public Administration from the University of Rajshahi, Bangladesh
with excellent academic results. His research interests include gender,
women’s rights, NGOs and Civil society, etc.
Md Zahir Ahmed is Junior Research Coordinator at the Policy Research
Centre, Dhaka, Bangladesh. He is currently pursuing his doctoral degree
at the Northwest Normal University, China. Previously, he has worked
with Policy Research Centre (PRC.bd) as Junior Research Coordinator.

xxv
xxvi Notes on Contributors

He was former Research Assistant, Government of People’s Republic of

Bangladesh. His research areas are sexual harassment, disaster manage-
ment, domestic violence, e-governance, social development, and youth
empowerment. He holds a BS and MS in Psychology from the Department
of Psychology, University of Dhaka. Alongside, he has also studied pro-
fessional courses under the University of London.
Tahmina Akhtar is a professor in the Institute of Social Work and
Research (ISWR), University of Dhaka, Bangladesh. Working since
1991, Akhtar specializes in psychotherapy and counseling. Her research
activities have been concentrated on juvenile delinquents, Community
Mental Health, and HIV/AIDS.
Touhid Alam is a senior research associate at Policy Research Centre.bd
(PRC.bd), a civil society think-tank in Bangladesh and a member of
NAPSIPAG (Network of Schools & Institutes of Public Administration
and Governance of the Asia Pacific Region).
Isahaque Ali is a fellow at the Social Work Section, School of Social
Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang, Malaysia. He was a senior
lecturer in the Sociology and Social Work Department, Gono University,
Dhaka, Bangladesh. He was a postdoctoral fellow at the Social Work
Section, School of Social Sciences, USM during 2015–2016. He is an
honorary research fellow with Comparative Research Programme on
Poverty (CROP), International Social Science Council (ISSC) and
University of Bergen (UiB), Norway, from 19 January 2015 to 31
December 2018.
Prince Annadurai, MSW, MA (Psychology), PhDDr, is an assistant
professor in the Department of Social Work for the last 18 years and also
Dean of Student Affairs for the past year at Madras Christian College
(Chennai, India). He has extensive experience in the fields of social work
and psychology and has also lectured in international universities such as
Chan Jung Christian University, China, and Thompson River
University, Canada.
Azlinda Azman is Professor and Dean, School of Social Sciences,
Universiti Sains Malaysia (USM), Penang, Malaysia. She is also the
Convenor of the AIDS Action and Research Group (AARG), USM. A
 Notes on Contributors xxvii

Fulbright Scholar, she holds a PhD in Clinical Social Work from

New York University. Her fields of expertise include social work educa-
tion/curriculum, theory and methods in social work and social work
research. Her areas of research interest include community development,
family institution and well-being, poverty, HIV/AIDS and drug-related
issues. Azlinda is an executive committee member of the Malaysian
Association of Social Workers (MASW). Within the short span of her
career as a professional social worker, she is now enthusiastically advocat-
ing for the development of Standards for Social Work Curriculum and
Competency as well as the Social Worker’s Bill for the country. She chairs
the National Joint Council Committee on Social Work Education. As
Convenor of AARG, USM, she regularly conducts workshops and train-
ings for agencies and NGOs providing direct services to drug-addiction
and HIV/AIDS affected populations, while actively doing research in the
areas of HIV/AIDS. AARG manages two government-supported Needle
Syringe and Exchange Programme (NSEP) sites each in the states of
Penang and Perak (Sungkai and Jelapang), respectively. AARG is the pio-
neer institution operating the NESP programmes since its introduction
in 2006 to mitigate the spread of HIV and AIDS. Azlinda is also the
Honorary Secretary of the Malaysian AIDS Council (MAC) (2018–2020)
and has immensely contributed in advocating for issues related to HIV
and AIDS.
Rajendra Baikady is a Social Work educator and researcher. He is the
winner of the Golda Meir Postdoctoral Fellowship at the Hebrew
University of Jerusalem, Israel (2019–2020) and the Confucius Studies
Understanding China Fellowship (Postdoctoral Research) at Shandong
University, Peoples Republic of China (2018–2019). Baikady was one
among the 20 selected candidates for the Short-­Term Research Award
(STRA) by the Ministry of Education, Government of Taiwan, and con-
ducted research at the National Chengchi University, Taiwan during
June–July 2018. Baikady was awarded the prestigious INLAKS founda-
tion Research Travel Grant 2015 and Indian Council of Social Science
Research, Collect Data abroad Scholarship—2015 for conducting
research at Shandong University, China. He has published nearly 15
peer-reviewed research papers and 29 book chapters. His most recent
xxviii Notes on Contributors

books (co-edited) are Social Welfare Policies and Programmes in South Asia
(Routledge) and The Palgrave Handbook of Global Social Work Education
(Palgrave Macmillan), Social Welfare in India and China—A Comparative
Perspective (Palgrave Macmillan). He is co-editor of the journal special
issue of Social Work and Society (to be published in 2020) and also has
ongoing international collaboration with researchers from China, Israel,
Japan, Slovenia and South Africa. Presently, he is at the Hebrew University
of Jerusalem Israel and conducting research under the supervision of
John Gal. In addition, he is also affiliated to the Department of Social
Work, University of Johannesburg, South Africa as Senior Research
Associate (a special appointment). His ongoing projects are the Routledge
Handbook of Field Work Education in Social Work and the Routledge
Handbook of Poverty in the Global South.
M. Basavaraj is Assistant Professor of Economics at the Department of
Economic Studies and Planning School of Business Studies, Central
University of Karnataka, India since 2012. Prior to this, he worked 5
years as a lecturer in Economics in Undergraduate and Pre-University
Colleges and also qualified for the University Grants Commission Junior
Research Fellowship and Meritorious scholarship in Master’s Degree. He
holds a Master of Philosophy and a Doctor of Philosophy in Economics
from S.V. University, Tirupati and the Department of Economic Studies
and Research, Gulbarga University, Kalaburagi, respectively. He has pub-
lished two books, many research articles in national and international
journals and presented many papers in various conferences; one of the
research papers was appreciated at ISBM-2014-Meiji University, Tokyo,
Japan. His research mainly focuses on regional imbalance and develop-
ment, small-scale industries, agriculture, economics, social welfare, etc.
V. J. Byra Reddy holds a PhD in Business Administration from
Mangalore University and a postgraduate in Economics from Bangalore
University. His areas of teaching interests include managerial economics,
advanced micro economics, international business, research methods and
public policy. He has more than 20 years of experience teaching
­postgraduate management courses and four years of industry experience
at the entry and middle level management. Presently, he is a professor in
the School of Business and Head, School of Public policy at the University
 Notes on Contributors xxix

of Petroleum and Energy Studies [UPES], Dehradun, India. In his cur-

rent role, he is steering International and National accreditations at
UPES. He is one of the pioneers of Quality in Business Education and
currently serves on the board of one of the largest Business Education
accrediting bodies based out of the USA—the International Accreditation
Council for Business Education [IACBE]. Recognizing his efforts in the
area of quality in Business Education, the IACBE awarded him the ‘Frank
V. Mastrianna Educational Leader of the year award’ for the year 2015 at
the IACBE Annual Conference during April 2015 at Baltimore, USA. In
addition to delivering MDP/EDP and research-based consultancy pro-
grammes to professionals in the Industry, he has published more than 25
scholarly papers in national and international journals and edited books.
He also has varied international exposure in terms of participating in
academic events, including teaching in various countries in Asia, America,
Europe and Africa. During his experience in the last 20 years, he has
guided more than 150 postgraduate Management students through their
dissertations successfully. He has successfully supervised research scholars
through their PhD courses.
Shashidhar Channappa is Head, Department of Social work, The
Oxford College of Arts, Bangalore. He completed his Bachelor’s degree
from National College, Jayanagar and postgraduation from Lorven
Educational Centre, Chandapura, which is affiliated to Bangalore
University. He was awarded PhD from Bangalore University. He has
more than 15 years of experience in the field of teaching, training and
development. His research and teaching interests include studies of the
informal sector, women empowerment, reproductive health, street ven-
dors and manual scavengers to name a few. He has worked as a trainer for
BESCOM (Parivarthana Dhare Module) where he trained around 2500
employees. He was also a resource person who conducted a two-­day
workshop on Field Work Supervision: A Key Factor for Strengthening
Fieldwork program funded by Asia Foundation, which was organized at
Talawa, Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka. He has received scholarships to pres-
ent papers in Cambodia, China, Croatia, Japan and Ireland. He received
the Best Presentation Award at The Second International Conference on
Transforming Social Welfare and Social Work in China during
December, 2016.
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
The Project Gutenberg eBook of The cave

dwellers of Southern Tunisia

 This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United
States and most other parts of the world at no cost and with
almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away
or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License
included with this ebook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you
are not located in the United States, you will have to check the
laws of the country where you are located before using this
eBook.

Title: The cave dwellers of Southern Tunisia

Recollections of a sojourn with the Khalifa of Matmata

Author: Daniel Bruun

Translator: L. A. E. B.

Release date: September 7, 2023 [eBook #71585]

Language: English

Original publication: United Kingdom: W. Thacker & Co, 1898

Credits: Galo Flordelis (This file was produced from images

generously made available by The Internet Archive)

*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE CAVE

DWELLERS OF SOUTHERN TUNISIA ***
THE BEY OF TUNIS.
 THE

C AV E D W E L L E R S
OF

SOUTHERN TUNISIA

RECOLLECTIONS OF A SOJOURN WITH THE

KHALIFA OF MATMATA

TRANSLATED FROM THE DANISH OF

DANIEL BRUUN

BY

L. A. E. B.

London: W. THACKER & CO., 2 Creed Lane, E.C.

Calcutta: THACKER, SPINK, & CO.
1898
[All Rights Reserved]
 P R E FA C E

My journey among the cave dwellers of Southern Tunisia was

essentially one of research, since I was entrusted by Doctor Sophius
Müller, Director of the Second Department of the National Museum,
with the honourable task of purchasing ethnographical objects for the
said museum.
On submitting this work to the public, it is incumbent upon me to
offer my sincere thanks to all those who afforded me support and
help in my travels: the Minister of Foreign Affairs, at whose
recommendation Cubisol, the Danish Consul in Tunis, addressed
himself to the French Regency, and obtained permission for me to
travel through the country, and also an escort, guides, etc. Doctor
Müller and Chamberlain Vedel, whose respective introductions,
given from the National Museum and the Society concerned with
ancient manuscripts, and addressed to other similar institutions,
introduced me not only to these, but also to those remarkably
scientific men, Gauckler and Doctor Bertholon, whose friendship I
have to thank for much information and assistance.
England’s Representative in Tunis, Drummond Hay, may be said
to have traced my path through Tunisia, as, on the basis of his
remarkable knowledge of both individuals and of relative
circumstances, he sketched a plan of my journey, from which I
required to make little or no deviation. The Government and officers
in El Arad, the officials, both military and civilian, showed me the
greatest hospitality, and assisted me in the highest degree; Colonels
Billet and Gousset especially claim my warmest gratitude.
Much of what I have recorded has been left in its original form,
namely, as letters written home, some to my wife, some to other
persons, as, for instance, to the publisher, Herr Hegel. I have not
altered these lest they might lose the fresh impression under which
they were written. Several portions were composed with a view to
publication in the French journal the Revue Tunisienne, and in the
Parisian magazine Le Tour du Monde.
The illustrations were obtained from various sources. Albert, the
photographer in Tunis, obligingly allowed me to make use of a
number of photographs, from which were chiefly drawn the views of
the town and of the sea-coast. With a detective camera I myself took
some instantaneous photographs on the journey from Gabés to the
mountains, of which a number are introduced. Besides these, Mr.
Knud Gamborg has engraved some drawings of my own. Mr.
Gauckler also gave me the free use of the sketches already
published in his Collection Beylicale, from which were selected the
pictures of the villages in the Matmata mountains. Lastly, from the
wife of Consul Henriksen at Sfax I received two paintings, which are
reproduced.
When, in the spring, I made an expedition to Greenland, I left my
manuscript with my friend Doctor Kragelund, of Hobro, who had
already afforded me his assistance, and gave him full powers to
arrange the somewhat heterogeneous materials. In my absence he
corrected the proofs as they came from the press, and has therefore
taken a very important part in my work, and enabled it to be
published in its present form. For this act of friendship I tender him
my warmest thanks.
Daniel Bruun.
November 1894.

Note.—The fact of three years having elapsed since the Danish

original of the Cave Dwellers was published, renders the letter form
of which the author speaks somewhat unsuitable for translation. It
has been necessary, therefore, in many cases to modify that form,
and also to omit certain passages in the work as being of little or no
interest to English readers.
 CONTENTS

CHAP. PAGE

I. WITH DRUMMOND HAY IN TUNIS 1

II. SUSA 5
III. FROM SFAX TO GABÉS 17
IV. FROM GABÉS TO THE MATMATA MOUNTAINS 32
V. RETURN TO GABÉS 59
VI. OF THE MATMATA MOUNTAINS AND THEIR INHABITANTS 93
VII. FROM GABÉS TO THE OASIS OF EL HAMMA—THE SHOTTS 116
VIII. THE OASIS OF EL HAMMA 129
IX. OVER AGLAT MERTEBA TO THE MATMATA MOUNTAINS 152
X. BRIDAL FESTIVITIES IN HADEIJ 158
XI. OVER THE MOUNTAINS AND ACROSS THE PLAIN FROM
HADEIJ TO METAMER 197
XII. METAMER AND MEDININ 217
XIII. SOUTHWARDS OVER THE PLAIN TO TATUIN 233
XIV. DUIRAT 243
XV. THE TUAREG 253
XVI. BACK TO TUNIS 274
XVII. TUNIS 285
SUPPLEMENT—THE TRIBES OF TUNISIA: A SYNOPSIS 292
COSTUMES—THE DRESS OF THE COUNTRYWOMEN 324
POSTSCRIPT 334
 L I S T O F I L L U S T R AT I O N S

PAGE

THE BEY OF TUNIS Frontispiece

DRUMMOND HAY, BRITISH CONSUL-GENERAL AT TUNIS 3
SUSA 8
TWO KHRUMIR WOMEN 13
AT SFAX 20
TOWER IN THE VILLAGE OF MENZEL 24
JEWESSES AT MENZEL 25
ON THE OASIS OF GABÉS 28
WASHERWOMEN AT THE JARA BRIDGE 30
MAP OF SOUTHERN TUNISIA 33
PLOUGHING—GABÉS 37
JEWISH FAMILY IN A CAVE DWELLING IN HADEIJ 43
CAVES IN MATMATA 45
A CAVE DWELLING, MATMATA 46
THE BRIDAL FESTIVITIES 49
HOLD UP! 59
EXCAVATED STABLE 62
BERBER WOMAN OF THE VILLAGE OF JUDLIG 65
A CAVE INTERIOR 66
FALCONERS 77
MANSUR 100
SECTIONS OF DWELLING IN MATMATA WHERE I LIVED—
PLAN 103
MEDININ 112
BEDOUIN WOMEN GROUPED BEFORE THEIR HUT 113
AT GABÉS 117
IN THE MOUNTAINS—ON THE ROAD TO AIN HAMMAM 120
REARING 156
CAMEL WITH CANOPY 169
THE BRIDE ESCORTED OVER THE MOUNTAINS 176
FANTASIA 179
A STREET IN BENI BARKA 219
MEDININ 224
DUIRAT 245
SHENINI 248
A HALT IN THE DESERT—TENT OF A TRIBAL CHIEF 251
A TUAREG 254
A TUAREG 262
MOORISH WOMEN IN A STREET IN TUNIS 289
THE CAVE DWELLERS OF

SOUTHERN TUNISIA
 CHAPTER I
With Drummond Hay in Tunis

Though the midday sun still shone bright and hot, I sat at my ease
and breathed again in the pleasant atmosphere of a cool drawing-
room, from which the stifling air and the flies were excluded by
closely drawn blinds.
I had just arrived from Tunis by rail, over the scorching hot plain,
and past the milky-white shallow lagoon known as the Lake of Tunis.
Beyond Goletta the blue hills seemed to quiver beneath the rays of
the sun, and my eyes were blinded by the dazzling white walls of the
cathedral standing on the heights, where, in olden days, Byrsa, the
fortress of Carthage, stood, defying the invader and the storm.
As we sped over the traces of the mighty circular wall, which
formerly enclosed the town, I caught a glimpse of a white roof
amongst the green trees of a wood, and requested the conductor to
stop the train at the English Consul’s summer abode.
Down a pretty shady avenue I walked to the white summer
palace, with its beautiful columned portico, the finest in all Tunisia.
It is a proud name that my host bears,—a name associated with
unfailing honour in the history of Morocco. His late father, Sir J. H.
Drummond Hay, as England’s Representative, practically led
Morocco’s policy during the past forty years. He represented
Denmark also, and under him his son won his diplomatic spurs.
My host had invited me that we might quietly arrange a plan for
my intended expedition to visit the Berber tribes of Tunisia.
I was aware that in the south-west mountains of the Sahara I
should meet with Berbers of a pure race such as are scarcely to be
found elsewhere. Our country’s excellent Representative, Consul
Cubisol, had procured me a French permit for the journey, without
which it would be difficult for a lonely traveller to visit regions
unfrequented by Europeans.
In the spring, Drummond Hay had made a tour on horseback over
the greater part of Southern Tunisia; he was therefore acquainted,
not only with the localities, but also with several of the native chiefs
who would be able to assist me. He understands the people and
their country thoroughly, for he speaks Arabic like a native, and is
quite conversant with the life, opinions, manners, and customs of the
inhabitants. His wife had travelled far and wide with him in Morocco
when he was serving under his father, and accompanied him to the
capital of Morocco; so she also is well versed in Oriental life.
Together we traced the plan of my
journey, which, in the main, I
afterwards followed. Here I will not
anticipate what I shall relate later; only
premising this—that I owe first and
foremost to Drummond Hay the fact of
having comprised in my journey those
regions which no traveller has as yet
described. To him I was also
afterwards indebted for the elucidation
and explanation of what I had seen
and heard.
Both my host and hostess had
resided for many years in Stockholm,
when Drummond Hay was Consul
there. The north has great attractions
for them, as Drummond Hay’s mother
was a Dane, a Carstensen, being
daughter of the last Danish Consul- DRUMMOND HAY, BRITISH
General at Tangier. CONSUL-GENERAL AT TUNIS.
England has great interests in
Tunis, not only directly on account of the many Maltese living there
under British protection, but also indirectly, more especially since the
French settled in the country; it will therefore be understood that the
post of British Representative is one of confidence.
 CHAPTER II

Susa

“A happy journey until our next meeting, and may Allah preserve you
from cholera!”
These were the parting words of my friend Gauckler, Inspector of
Antiquities and Arts, who bade me a last farewell at the Italian
railway station of Tunis.
Numbers of flamingoes stalked along the shores of the lagoon,
showing like white patches on the blue-grey expanse of water. Out
on the horizon, where the lake ended, I could see Goletta’s white
houses, and beyond them a deep, dark blue line—the
Mediterranean.
At midday the heat was stifling, but after we reached Goletta Bay
the sun sank rapidly, and the air grew cooler as a little steamer took
us through the entrance to the harbour, past the homeward-bound
fishing-boats. Just at sunset we reached our large steamer. To the
north, Carthage’s white church on the heights near Marsa appeared
on the horizon, and, in the south, the blue mountains of Hammamlif.
Amid the noisy whistling of the steamer, mingled with screams
and shouts, I tumbled on board with my numerous bundles and
packages; finding my way at last to the saloon, where a frugal dinner
awaited us.
Next morning, when I went on deck, the coast lay like a flat, grey
stripe ahead of us. I went forward and enjoyed the fresh sea breeze
for which I had so longed in Tunis. Near the bows of the ship were
two dolphins. One of them rose to the surface of the water and
spouted a stream of spray through the little orifice in its head, then
sank again. The other then rose in its turn.
 The white bundles on the fore part of the deck now began to stir
into life, and each as it rose threw back its burnous, and showed a
dark face. One Arab had with him his whole family. He had spread a
rush mat on which, amongst their numerous belongings, lay, closely
packed, husband, wife (perhaps wives), several children and a large
poodle. A roguish little girl came to discover what I was
contemplating. She was sweet, brown, and clean, and peeped up at
me, hiding her face the while with one hand, evidently conscious of
wrong-doing. The tips of her fingers and toes were stained red with
henna, which was not unpleasing. Soon after, a closely veiled figure,
apparently the mother, came to fetch the little one. I had just time to
perceive that she was pretty, as she threw back a fold of her haik to
wrap round her child and herself. What a charming picture they
made as they leant against the bulwarks and gazed towards the
land!
Upon a slope, quite near, lay Susa—white, white, everything was
white.
On the summit of the slope were some towers and a crenelated
wall, and on the seashore beneath, yet another wall. Below lay the
harbour, too shallow, however, for our ship to enter; we had therefore
to lie out in the open.
A boat took me to the quay, where some twenty black-eyed boys
of all ages, with gleaming teeth and red caps, lay watching for their
prey. As the boat drew alongside, they rushed down to seize my
luggage. The boatmen attempted to push them aside, but,
nevertheless, one caught up my little handbag, another my umbrella,
and a third my photographic apparatus. There was nothing for me to
do but to jump ashore and chase the thieves. It was long before I
could collect everything under the charge of one lad. Then, with a
couple of smart taps right and left, my little guide and I marched up
to the Kasba, where the Commandant lives. Here are the magazines
and barracks, and here, too, I knew that I should find a collection of
antiquities.
Susa was originally a Phœnician colony, and played no small part
in the Punic Wars. Trajan called it “Hadrumetum,” and made it the
capital of the province. It was laid waste by the Vandals, rebuilt by
Justinian, and destroyed by Sid Obka, who utilised the greater
portion of its ancient materials to build the holy city of Kairwan. Later
the town was rebuilt by the Turks, who had here for a long time one
of their hiding-places for their piratical fleets. The town was therefore
assaulted by Charles V. in 1537, and again by Andreas Doria in
1539, and, lastly, was occupied without a struggle on the 10th of
September 1881, by a force under General Etienne. It is, after Tunis,
the most important town in the Regency, and is governed by a
Khalifa in the name of the Bey.

SUSA.

Numerous remains of all these periods are to be found in Susa. In

the houses, mosques, and in the surrounding country, antiquities and
ancient ruins abound. From the Commandant I learnt that the
foundations of the Kasba date from the time of the Phœnicians.
Later, the Romans, as also those conquerors who followed them,
built over these.
In the salle d’honneur are arranged many earthen vessels of
Phœnician origin found in tombs, together with other objects of the
same period.
From Roman times remain magnificent mosaics, partly buried in
the walls; vessels, vases, and broken fragments of marble figures.
The Kasba itself, with its many arches, gateways, turrets, and walls
inlaid with tiles, dates from the days of the Arabs or Turks.
In nearly every instance the mosaics depict horses, their names
being introduced beside them. Evidently, in those days, this was
already deemed an important mart for horses bred in the country.
The breeding of Barbs appears to date further back than is generally
believed, and, in fact, to be older than the Arabian conquest of this
land. One sees horses depicted with red head-stalls, decorated on
the top with tufts of feathers, and with their near quarters branded,
exactly as seen on the troop horses of to-day.
The outlines of the horses on the mosaics prove that the Barbs of
that period were the same in type as those of the present age; also
that their careful treatment is not of recent date. Even the same class
of flat iron shoes is used now, as then, on the horses’ forefeet.
I inquired of the Commandant whether particularly fine horses
were reared in this region. He replied in the affirmative, and that in
the direction of Kairwan there are nomad tribes whose horses are of
noble race.
I climbed the high tower of the Kasba,—now used as a lighthouse,
—whence I overlooked the town which lay below me encircled by its
protecting wall. Over the country, on all sides, olive woods met my
view, and far away on the horizon I could catch a glimpse of villages,
looking like white specks. There dwell the ill-disposed tribes who, in
1881, held out against the French. They never ventured on an open
engagement, but at night assembled in their hundreds and kept up
an incessant fire on the French lines; killing a number of both officers
and men. These were avenged by heavy levies and fines on the
inhabitants. Poor people, they had only defended their hearths and
homes.
My boy guide followed me through the streets, where drowsy lazy
Moors crouched, half asleep in their shops, waiting for purchasers.
The loveliest small boys and girls were lying about in the streets,
much to the obstruction of traffic, here conducted by means of small
donkeys and large mules.
Stepping into a little Moorish coffee-house, I found, to my
astonishment, that the interior resembled in construction an old
Byzantine basilica, its dome being supported on arches and pillars.
The whole was white-washed, but well preserved. The coffee-house
was named “el Kaunat el Kubba,” which may be translated Church
Café.[1] Nothing could be more artistic than the cooking utensils,
mats, and pottery scattered here and there about this very old
building.
At five o’clock it was dark. The stream of wayfarers diminished,
and the streets were deserted and empty. I dined at the Hotel de
France on the seashore, not far from the esplanade, and sat after
dinner reading my papers, till I heard a frightful noise outside, and,
peering out, saw a crowd of Arabs gathered behind an unfurled
banner. They shouted and yelled in measured time. One of them
said a few words which all the others repeated. I was told that they
were praying to Allah for rain. They halted a few paces from a kubba,
called Bab el Bahr, and the procession dispersed, the banner being
taken into the kubba.
I went for a turn on the seashore by the road which leads along
the walls to Bab el Jedir. The sun was melting hot. Against the walls
were built a number of mud huts and sheds, in which, amongst
carriages and carts, horses and donkeys were stabled.
Outside were piles of pottery, vessels of all shapes and sizes,
from the largest receptacles for wine or water—reminding one of
those found belonging to the Roman age—to cups and jars of spiral
or other strange forms, such as I have seen in the museum at
Carthage.