Essentials of Understanding

Psychology 12th Edition Robert S.

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 ROBERT S. FELDMAN

ESSENTIALS OF

Understanding
Psychology

12e
Essentials of
Understanding Psychology
TWELFTH EDITION

Robert S. Feldman
University of Massachusetts Amherst
ESSENTIALS OF UNDERSTANDING PSYCHOLOGY, TWELFTH EDITION

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Feldman, Robert S. (Robert Stephen), 1947- author.

Title: Essentials of Understanding Psychology/Robert S. Feldman, University
of Massachusetts Amherst.
Description: Twelfth Edition. | New York, NY : McGraw-Hill Education, 2016. |
Revised edition of the author’s Essentials of Understanding Psychology, 2015. |
Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2016018311 | ISBN 9781259531804 (alk. paper)
Subjects: LCSH: Psychology.
Classification: LCC BF121 .F337 2016 | DDC 150—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2016018311

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 Dedication
To
Jon, Leigh, Alex, Miles, Josh, Julie, Naomi,
Sarah, Jeff, Lilia, and Kathy
About the Author

ROBERT S. FELDMAN is Professor of Psychological and Brain Sciences and Deputy

Chancellor of the University of Massachusetts Amherst. A recipient of the College
Distinguished Teacher Award, he teaches psychology classes ranging in size from 15
to nearly 500 students. During the course of more than two decades as a college
instructor, he has taught undergraduate and graduate courses at Mount Holyoke Col-
lege, Wesleyan University, and Virginia Commonwealth University in addition to the
University of Massachusetts.
Professor Feldman, who initiated the Minority Mentoring Program at the University
of Massachusetts, also has served as a Hewlett Teaching Fellow and Senior Online
Teaching Fellow. He initiated distance-learning courses in psychology at the University
of Massachusetts.
A Fellow of the American Psychological Association, the Association for Psycho-
logical Science, and the American Association for the Advancement of Science, Profes-
sor Feldman received a BA with High Honors from Wesleyan University and an MS
and PhD from the University of Wisconsin-Madison. He is a winner of a Fulbright
Senior Research Scholar and Lecturer Award and the Distinguished Alumnus Award
from Wesleyan. He is past President of the Federation of Associations in Behavioral
and Brain Sciences (FABBS) Foundation, which advocates for the field of psychology,
and is on the board of the Social Psychology Network (SPN).
He has written and edited more than 250 books, book chapters, and scientific
articles. He has edited Development of Nonverbal Behavior in Children, Applications of
Nonverbal Behavioral Theory and Research, Improving the First Year of College: Research
and Practice, and co-edited Fundamentals of Nonverbal Behavior. He is also author of
P.O.W.E.R. Learning: Strategies for Success in College and Life. His textbooks, which have
been used by more than 2 million students around the world, have been translated
into Spanish, French, Portuguese, Dutch, German, Italian, Chinese, Korean, and Japanese.
His research interests include deception and honesty in everyday life, work that he
described in The Liar in Your Life, a trade book published in 2009. His research has
been supported by grants from the National Institute of Mental Health and the National
Institute on Disabilities and Rehabilitation Research.
Professor Feldman loves music, is an enthusiastic pianist, and enjoys cooking and
traveling. He serves on the Executive Committee and Board of New England Public
Radio. He has three children, two granddaughters, and two grandsons. He and his wife,
a psychologist, live in western Massachusetts in a home overlooking the Holyoke
mountain range.

v
Brief Contents

Preface xxiii

CHAPTER 1 Introduction to Psychology 1

MO D U LE 1 Psychologists at Work 3
MO D U LE 2 A Science Evolves: The Past, the Present, and the Future 12
MO D U LE 3 Research in Psychology 24
MO D U LE 4 Critical Research Issues 37

CHAPTER 2 Neuroscience and Behavior 44

MO D U LE 5 Neurons: The Basic Elements of Behavior 46
MO D U LE 6 The Nervous System and the Endocrine System:
Communicating Within the Body 54
MO D U LE 7 The Brain 62

CHAPTER 3 Sensation and Perception 79

MO D U LE 8 Sensing the World Around Us 81
MO D U LE 9 Vision: Shedding Light on the Eye 86
MO D U LE 1 0 Hearing and the Other Senses 95
MO D U LE 1 1 Perceptual Organization: Constructing Our
View of the World 109

CHAPTER 4 States of Consciousness 121

MO D U LE 1 2 Sleep and Dreams 123
MO D U LE 1 3 Hypnosis and Meditation 137
MO D U LE 1 4 Drug Use: The Highs and Lows of Consciousness 144

CHAPTER 5 Learning 158

MO D U LE 1 5 Classical Conditioning 160
MO D U LE 1 6 Operant Conditioning 168
MO D U LE 1 7 Cognitive Approaches to Learning 181

vii
viii Brief Contents

CHAPTER 6 Memory 191

MO D U LE 18 The Foundations of Memory 193
MO D U LE 19 Recalling Long-Term Memories 205
MO D U LE 20 Forgetting: When Memory Fails 216

CHAPTER 7 Thinking, Language, and Intelligence 224

MO D U LE 21 Thinking and Reasoning 226
MO D U LE 22 Language 242
MO D U LE 23 Intelligence 251

CHAPTER 8 Motivation and Emotion 270

MO D U LE 24 Explaining Motivation 272
MO D U LE 25 Human Needs and Motivation: Eat, Drink, and Be Daring 280
MO D U LE 26 Understanding Emotional Experiences 296

CHAPTER 9 Development 308

MO D U LE 27 Nature and Nurture: The Enduring Developmental Issue 310
MOD U LE 28 Infancy and Childhood 320
MOD U LE 29 Adolescence: Becoming an Adult 337
MOD U LE 30 Adulthood 348

CHAPTER 10 Personality 362

MO D U LE 31 Psychodynamic Approaches to Personality 364
MO D U LE 32 Trait, Learning, Biological and Evolutionary, and Humanistic
Approaches to Personality 374
MO D U LE 33 Assessing Personality: Determining What Makes Us
Distinctive 387

CHAPTER 11 Health Psychology: Stress, Coping, and Well-Being 396

MO D U LE 34 Stress and Coping 398
MO D U LE 35 Psychological Aspects of Illness and Well-Being 411
MO D U LE 36 Promoting Health and Wellness 417

CHAPTER 12 Psychological Disorders 425

MO D U LE 37 Normal Versus Abnormal: Making the Distinction 427
MO D U LE 38 The Major Psychological Disorders 437
MO D U LE 39 Psychological Disorders in Perspective 456
 Brief Contents ix

CHAPTER 13 Treatment of Psychological Disorders 464

MO D U LE 4 0 Psychotherapy: Psychodynamic, Behavioral, and Cognitive
Approaches to Treatment 466
MO D U LE 4 1 Psychotherapy: Humanistic, Interpersonal, and Group
Approaches to Treatment 476
MO D U LE 4 2 Biomedical Therapy: Biological Approaches to Treatment 484

CHAPTER 14 Social Psychology 495

MO D U LE 4 3 Attitudes and Social Cognition 497
MO D U LE 4 4 Social Influence and Groups 506
MO D U LE 4 5 Prejudice and Discrimination 514
MO D U LE 4 6 Positive and Negative Social Behavior 520

McGraw-Hill Education Psychology’s

APA Documentation Guide
Glossary G-1
References R-1
Name Index I-1
Subject Index I-30
Contents

Preface xxiii
Making the Grade xxxi

CHAPTER 1

Introduction to Psychology 1

MODU L E 1 Psychologists at Work 3

The Subfields of Psychology: Psychology’s Family Tree 4
Working at Psychology 7

MODU L E 2 A Science Evolves: The Past, the Present, and the Future 12
The Roots of Psychology 13
Today’s Five Major Perspectives 14
APPLYING PSYCHOLOGY IN THE 21ST CENTURY: Psychology Matters 18
Psychology’s Key Issues and Controversies 19
Psychology’s Future 21
NEUROSCIENCE IN YOUR LIFE: Enhancing Your Mind 22

MODU L E 3 Research in Psychology 24

The Scientific Method 24
Psychological Research 26
Descriptive Research 26
Experimental Research 30

MODU L E 4 Critical Research Issues 37

The Ethics of Research 37
EXPLORING DIVERSITY: Choosing Participants Who Represent the Scope of Human
Behavior 38
NEUROSCIENCE IN YOUR LIFE: The Importance of Using Representative
Participants 39
Should Animals be Used in Research? 39
Threats to Experimental Validity: Avoiding Experimental Bias 40
BECOMING AN INFORMED CONSUMER OF PSYCHOLOGY: Thinking Critically About
Psychology: Distinguishing Legitimate Psychology from Pseudo-Psychology 41

xi
xii Contents

CHAPTER 2

Neuroscience and Behavior 44

MO DULE 5 Neurons: The Basic Elements of Behavior 46

The Structure of the Neuron 46
How Neurons Fire 47
Where Neurons Meet: Bridging the Gap 49
Neurotransmitters: Multitalented Chemical Couriers 51

MO DULE 6 The Nervous System and the Endocrine System:

Communicating Within the Body 54
The Nervous System: Linking Neurons 54
The Evolutionary Foundations of the Nervous System 57
The Endocrine System: Of Chemicals and Glands 58

MO DULE 7 The Brain 62

Studying the Brain’s Structure and Functions: Spying on the Brain 62
APPLYING PSYCHOLOGY IN THE 21ST CENTURY:Controlling a Robotic Arm
with Only the Mind 64
The Central Core: Our “Old Brain” 64
The Limbic System: Beyond the Central Core 66
The Cerebral Cortex: Our “New Brain” 67
Neuroplasticity and the Brain 70
NEUROSCIENCE IN YOUR LIFE: The Plastic Brain 71
The Specialization of the Hemispheres: Two Brains or One? 71
EXPLORING DIVERSITY: Human Diversity and the Brain 73
The Split Brain: Exploring the Two Hemispheres 73
BECOMING AN INFORMED CONSUMER OF PSYCHOLOGY: Learning to Control Your
Heart—and Mind—Through Biofeedback 75

CHAPTER 3

Sensation and Perception 79

MO DULE 8 Sensing the World Around Us 81

Absolute Thresholds: Detecting What’s Out There 81
Difference Thresholds: Noticing Distinctions Between Stimuli 83
Sensory Adaptation: Turning Down Our Responses 84
 xiii
Contents

MODU L E 9 Vision: Shedding Light on the Eye 86

Illuminating the Structure of the Eye 86
Color Vision and Color Blindness: The 7-Million-Color
Spectrum 91

MODU L E 10 Hearing and the Other Senses 95

Sensing Sound 95
Smell and Taste 99
The Skin Senses: Touch, Pressure, Temperature, and Pain 101
APPLYING PSYCHOLOGY IN THE 21ST CENTURY: You Probably Can’t Read
This Without Scratching 103
BECOMING AN INFORMED CONSUMER OF PSYCHOLOGY:
Managing Pain 105
How Our Senses Interact 106
NEUROSCIENCE IN YOUR LIFE: Synesthesia and the
Over-Connected Brain 107

MODU L E 11 Perceptual Organization: Constructing

Our View of the World 109
The Gestalt Laws of Organization 109
Top-Down and Bottom-Up Processing 110
Depth Perception: Translating 2-D to 3-D 111
Perceptual Constancy 113
Motion Perception: As the World Turns 114
Perceptual Illusions: The Deceptions of Perceptions 114
EXPLORING DIVERSITY: Culture and Perception 116

CHAPTER 4

States of Consciousness 121

MODU L E 12 Sleep and Dreams 123
The Stages of Sleep 124
REM Sleep: The Paradox of Sleep 125
Why Do We Sleep, and How Much Sleep Is Necessary? 126
NEUROSCIENCE IN YOUR LIFE: Why Are We So Irritable
When We Don’t Get Enough Sleep? 127
The Function and Meaning of Dreaming 128
Sleep Disturbances: Slumbering Problems 131
Circadian Rhythms: Life Cycles 132
Daydreams: Dreams Without Sleep 133
BECOMING AN INFORMED CONSUMER OF PSYCHOLOGY: Sleeping Better 134
xiv Contents

MO DULE 1 3 Hypnosis and Meditation 137

Hypnosis: A Trance-Forming Experience? 137
Meditation: Regulating Our Own State of Consciousness 139
APPLYING PSYCHOLOGY IN THE 21ST CENTURY: Meditation: Emotional
Control and Brain-Training 141
EXPLORING DIVERSITY:Cross-Cultural Routes to Altered
States of Consciousness 142

MO DULE 1 4 Drug Use: The Highs and Lows of Consciousness 144

Stimulants: Drug Highs 146
Depressants: Drug Lows 149
Narcotics: Relieving Pain and Anxiety 152
Hallucinogens: Psychedelic Drugs 153
BECOMING AN INFORMED CONSUMER OF PSYCHOLOGY: Identifying Drug
and Alcohol Problems 154

CHAPTER 5

Learning 158

MO DULE 1 5 Classical Conditioning 160

The Basics of Classical Conditioning 160
Applying Conditioning Principles to Human Behavior 163
Extinction 164
Generalization and Discrimination 165
Beyond Traditional Classical Conditioning: Challenging Basic Assumptions 166

MO DULE 1 6 Operant Conditioning 168

Thorndike’s Law of Effect 168
The Basics of Operant Conditioning 169
BECOMING AN INFORMED CONSUMER OF PSYCHOLOGY:
Using Behavior Analysis and Behavior Modification 178

MO DULE 1 7 Cognitive Approaches to Learning 181

Latent Learning 181
Observational Learning: Learning Through Imitation 183
NEUROSCIENCE IN YOUR LIFE: Learning Through Imitation 184
APPLYING PSYCHOLOGY IN THE 21ST CENTURY:
Questioning Assumptions in the Classroom 186
EXPLORING DIVERSITY: Does Culture Influence How We Learn? 186
 xv
Contents

CHAPTER 6

Memory 191

MODU L E 18 The Foundations of Memory 193

Sensory Memory 194
Short-Term Memory 195
Working Memory 197
Long-Term Memory 198
The Building Blocks of Memory:
NEUROSCIENCE IN YOUR LIFE:
Do You Have a Beyoncé Neuron in Your Brain? 203

MODU L E 19 Recalling Long-Term Memories 205

Retrieval Cues 205
Levels of Processing 206
Explicit and Implicit Memory 207
Flashbulb Memories 208
Constructive Processes in Memory: Rebuilding the Past 209
APPLYING PSYCHOLOGY IN THE 21ST CENTURY: Remembering What Never Happened 212
EXPLORING DIVERSITY: Are There Cross-Cultural Differences in Memory? 213

MODU L E 2 0 Forgetting: When Memory Fails 216

Why We Forget 217
Proactive and Retroactive Interference: The Before and After of Forgetting 218
Memory Dysfunctions: Afflictions of Forgetting 219
BECOMING AN INFORMED CONSUMER OF PSYCHOLOGY:
Improving Your Memory 221

CHAPTER 7

Thinking, Language, and Intelligence 224

MODU L E 2 1 Thinking and Reasoning 226

Mental Images: Examining the Mind’s Eye 226
Concepts: Categorizing the World 227
Algorithms and Heuristics 228
Solving Problems 229
APPLYING PSYCHOLGY IN THE 21ST CENTURY: Does Playing Video Games Improve
Your Thinking? 235
Creativity and Problem Solving 237
BECOMING AN INFORMED CONSUMER OF PSYCHOLOGY: Thinking Critically and
Creatively 239
xvi Contents

MO DULE 2 2 Language 242

Grammar: Language’s Language 242
Language Development: Developing a Way with Words 243
Understanding Language Acquisition: Identifying the Roods of Language 244
The Influence of Language on Thinking: Do Eskimos Have More
Words for Snow Than Texans Do? 246
Do Animals Use Language? 247
EXPLORING DIVERSITY: Teaching with Linguistic Variety:
Bilingual Education 248
NEUROSCIENCE IN YOUR LIFE: Being Bilingual Affects Processing in the Brain 249

MO DULE 2 3 Intelligence 251

Theories of Intelligence: Are There Different Kinds of Intelligence? 252
Assessing Intelligence 257
Variations in Intellectual Ability 262
Group Differences in Intelligence: Genetic and Environmental Determinants 264
EXPLORING DIVERSITY: The Relative Influence of Genetics and Environment: Nature,
Nurture, and IQ 265

CHAPTER 8

Motivation and Emotion 270

MO DULE 2 4 Explaining Motivation 272
Instinct Approaches: Born to Be Motivated 272
Drive-Reduction Approaches: Satisfying Our Needs 273
Arousal Approaches: Beyond Drive Reduction 273
Incentive Approaches: Motivation’s Pull 274
Cognitive Approaches: The Thoughts Behind Motivation 275
Maslow’s Hierarchy: Ordering Motivational Needs 276
Applying the Different Approaches to Motivation 277

MO DULE 2 5 Human Needs and Motivation: Eat, Drink, and Be Daring 280
The Motivation Behind Hunger and Eating 280
Eating Disorders 284
APPLYING PSYCHOLOGY IN THE 21ST CENTURY: Harnessing Motivation:
Is There a Snowball Effect? 285
NEUROSCIENCE IN YOUR LIFE: When Regulation of Eating Behavior
Goes Wrong 286
BECOMING AN INFORMED CONSUMER OF PSYCHOLOGY:
Dieting and Losing Weight Successfully 286
Sexual Motivation 287, Al
The Needs for Achievement, Affiliation, and Power 293
 xvii
Contents

MODU L E 2 6 Understanding Emotional Experiences 296

The Functions of Emotions 297
Determining the Range of Emotions: Labeling Our Feelings 297
The Roots of Emotions 298
EXPLORING DIVERSITY: Do People in All Cultures Express Emotion Similarly? 303

CHAPTER 9

Development 308

MODU L E 2 7 Nature and Nurture: The Enduring Developmental Issue 310

Determining the Relative Influence of Nature and Nurture 312
Developmental Research Techniques 312
Prenatal Development: Conception to Birth 313
The Basics of Genetics 314
The Earliest Development 315

MODU L E 2 8 Infancy and Childhood 320

The Extraordinary Newborn 320
NEUROSCIENCE IN YOUR LIFE: Emotion Recognition in Infancy 323
The Growing Child: Infancy Through Middle Childhood 323

MODU L E 2 9 Adolescence: Becoming an Adult 337

Physical Development: The Changing Adolescent 337
APPLYING PSYCHOLOGY IN THE 21ST CENTURY: The Adolescent Brain:
Wired for Irresponsibility? 339
Moral and Cognitive Development: Distinguishing Right from Wrong 339
Social Development: Finding One’s Self in a Social World 341
EXPLORING DIVERSITY: Rites of Passage: Coming of Age Around
the World 346

MODU L E 30 Adulthood 348

Physical Development: The Peak of Health 349
Social Development: Working at Life 350
Marriage, Children, and Divorce: Family Ties 351
Changing Roles of Men and Women 352
Later Years of Life: Growing Old 353
BECOMING AN INFORMED CONSUMER OF PSYCHOLOGY: Adjusting
to Death 357
xviii Contents

CHAPTER 10

Personality 362

MO DULE 3 1 Psychodynamic Approaches to Personality 364

Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory: Mapping the Unconscious Mind 364
The Neo-Freudian Psychoanalysts: Building on Freud 370

MO DULE 3 2 Trait, Learning, Biological and Evolutionary, and Humanistic

Approaches to Personality 374
Trait Approaches: Placing Labels on Personality 374
APPLYING PSYCHOLOGY IN THE 21ST CENTURY:
Is There a Facebook Personality Type? 377
Learning Approaches: We Are What We’ve Learned 377
Biological and Evolutionary Approaches: Are We Born with Personality? 380
NEUROSCIENCE IN YOUR LIFE: Wired to Be an Extrovert? The Biological
Underpinnings of Personality 383
Humanistic Approaches: The Uniqueness of You 384
Comparing Approaches to Personality 385

MO DULE 3 3 Assessing Personality: Determining What Makes Us Distinctive 387

EXPLORING DIVERSITY:Should Race and Ethnicity Be Used to Establish Norms? 388
Self-Report Measures of Personality 389
Projective Methods 391
Behavioral Assessment 392
BECOMING AN INFORMED CONSUMER OF PSYCHOLOGY:
Assessing Personality Assessments 393

CHAPTER 11

Health Psychology: Stress, Coping,

and Well-Being 396

MO DULE 3 4 Stress and Coping 398

Stress: Reacting to Threat and Challenge 398
The High Cost of Stress 401
Coping with Stress 405
NEUROSCIENCE IN YOUR LIFE: Altering Memories of Fear for Those with PTSD 408
BECOMING AN INFORMED CONSUMER OF PSYCHOLOGY:
Effective Coping Strategies 409
 xix
Contents

MODU L E 35 Psychological Aspects of Illness and Well-Being 411

The As, Bs, and Ds of Coronary Heart Disease 411
Psychological Aspects of Cancer 412
Smoking 413
APPLYING PSYCHOLOGY IN THE 21ST CENTURY:Is There a New Smoking Epidemic in
the Making?: How Teenagers Are Turning to E-Cigarettes 414
Hucksters of Death: Promoting Smoking
EXPLORING DIVERSITY:
Throughout the World 415

MODU L E 36 Promoting Health and Wellness 417

Following Medical Advice 417
Well-Being and Happiness 420

CHAPTER 12

Psychological Disorders 425

MODU L E 37 Normal Versus Abnormal: Making the Distinction 427

Defining Abnormality 427
Perspectives on Abnormality: From Superstition to Science 429
Classifying Abnormal Behavior: The ABCs of DSM 432

MODU L E 38 The Major Psychological Disorders 437

Anxiety Disorders 437
Obsessive-Complusive Disorder 439
Somatic Symptom Disorders 441
Dissociative Disorders 442
Mood Disorders 443
Schizophrenia 447
NEUROSCIENCE IN YOUR LIFE: Brain Changes with Schizophrenia 450
Personality Disorders 451
Disorders That Impact Childhood 453
Other Disorders 453

MODU L E 39 Psychological Disorders in Perspective 456

The Social and Cultural Context of Psychological Disorders 457
APPLYING PSYCHOLOGY IN THE 21ST CENTURY: Are College Student Psychological
Disorders on the Rise? 458
EXPLORING DIVERSITY: DSM and Culture—and the Culture of DSM 460
BECOMING AN INFORMED CONSUMER OF PSYCHOLOGY:
Deciding When You Need Help 461
xx Contents

CHAPTER 13

Treatment of Psychological Disorders 464

MO DULE 40 Psychotherapy: Psychodynamic, Behavioral, and Cognitive

Approaches to Treatment 466
Psychodynamic Approaches to Therapy 467
Behavioral Approaches to Therapy 469
Cognitive Approaches to Therapy 472
How Cognitive Behavioral
NEUROSCIENCE IN YOUR LIFE:
Therapy Changes Your Brain 474

MO DULE 41 Psychotherapy: Humanistic, Interpersonal,

and Group Approaches to Treatment 476
Humanistic Therapy 476
Interpersonal Therapy 477
Group Therapies 478
Evaluating Psychotherapy: Does Therapy Work? 479
EXPLORING DIVERSITY:Racial and Ethnic Factors in Treatment:
Should Therapists Be Color Blind? 481

MO DULE 42 Biomedical Therapy: Biological Approaches to Treatment 484

Drug Therapy 484
Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT) 487
APPLYING PSYCHOLOGY IN THE 21ST CENTURY:Switching Off Depression? The Promise
of Deep Brain Stimulation (DBS) 488
Psychosurgery 489
Biomedical Therapies in Perspective 489
Community Psychology: Focus on Prevention 490
BECOMING AN INFORMED CONSUMER OF PSYCHOLOGY:
Choosing the Right Therapist 491

CHAPTER 14

Social Psychology 495

MO DULE 43 Attitudes and Social Cognition 497

Persuasion: Changing Attitudes 497
Social Cognition: Understanding Others 500
EXPLORING DIVERSITY:Attribution Biases in a Cultural Context: How Fundamental Is
the Fundamental Attribution Error? 504
 xxi
Contents

MODU L E 44 Social Influence and Groups 506

Conformity: Following What Others Do 506
Compliance: Submitting to Direct Social Pressure 509
Obedience: Following Direct Orders 511

MODU L E 45 Prejudice and Discrimination 514

The Foundations of Prejudice 514
NEUROSCIENCE IN YOUR LIFE:The Prejudiced Brain, Race, and Empathy 516
Measuring Prejudice and Discrimination: The Implicit Association Test 517
Reducing the Consequences of Prejudice and Discrimination 517

MODU L E 46 Positive and Negative Social Behavior 520

Liking and Loving: Interpersonal Attraction and the
Development of Relationships 520
Aggression and Prosocial Behavior: Hurting and Helping Others 523
Helping Others: The Brighter Side of Human Nature 527
APPLYING PSYCHOLOGY IN THE 21ST CENTURY:
The Awesomeness of Helping Others 529
BECOMING AN INFORMED CONSUMER OF PSYCHOLOGY:
Dealing Effectively with Anger 530

McGraw-Hill Education Psychology’s

APA Documentation Guide
Glossary G-1
References R-1
Name Index I-1
Subject Index I-30
Preface

Students First
If I were to use only two words to summarize my goal across the twelve editions of
this introduction to psychology, as well as my teaching philosophy, that’s what I would
say: Students first.
I believe that an effective introduction to a discipline must be oriented to s­ tudents—
informing them, engaging them, and exciting them about the field and helping them
connect it to their worlds.

INFORMING AND ENGAGING STUDENTS ON

PSYCHOLOGICAL CONCEPTS
McGraw-Hill Education’s Connect® is a digital assignment and assessment platform that
strengths the link between faculty, students, and course work, helping everyone accom-
plish more in less time. Connect Psychology includes assignable and assessable videos,
quizzes, exercises, and interactivities, all associated with learning objectives. Interactive
assignments and videos allow students to experience and apply their understanding of
psychology to the world with fun and stimulating activities.
Using Connect Psychology, student can learn the course material more deeply and
study more effectively than ever before.
At the lower end of Bloom’s taxonomy, students are introduced to Concept Clips,
the dynamic, colorful graphics and stimulating animations that break down some of
psychology’s most difficult concepts in a step-by-step manner, engaging students and
aiding in retention. They are assignable and
assessable in Connect or can be used as a
jumping-off point in class.
Now with audio narration, the Twelfth
Edition also includes nearly twenty new
Concept Clips on challenging topics
such as:
• Five Factors of Personality
• Biases and Heuristics
• Observational Learning
• Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation
• Structures and Functions of the Brain
• Inductive and Deductive Reasoning
• Convergent and Divergent Thinking
• Drive Reduction Theory
At the higher end of Bloom’s taxonomy
(analyze, evaluate, create), students can work
through in-depth arguments to sharpen their
critical thinking skills and prepare them to
be more discerning consumers of psychology
in their everyday lives. For each chapter,

xxiii
xxiv Preface

there are multiple sets of arguments accompanied by auto-graded assessments requiring

students to think critically about claims presented as facts.
Related NewsFlash exercises, powered by Connect, tie current news stories to
key psychological principles and learning objectives. After interacting with a contem-
porary news story, students are assessed on their ability to make the connection
between real life and research findings. Cases are revisited across chapters, encour-
aging students to consider multiple perspectives. The Twelfth Edition includes cur-
rent Newsflashes on topics such as transgender issues and locker room access, police
shootings and flaws in eyewitness testimony, and the link between cognitive abilities
and eating chocolate.
And, new Newsflashes will be added to Connect each semester.
Interactivities, assignable through Connect, require students to engage with the
content to practice and apply understanding. New activities include those for: Perspec-
tives in Psychology, Correlations, Neurons, The Brain and Drugs, The Stages of Sleep,
Levels of Processing, Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs, Naturalistic Observation, Observa-
tional Learning, and Defense Mechanisms.

BETTER DATA, SMARTER REVISION, IMPROVED RESULTS

Students study more effectively with Smartbook®.
• Make It Effective. Powered by Learnsmart, SmartBook creates a personalized
reading experience by highlighting the most impactful concepts a student needs
to learn at that moment in time. This ensures that every minute spent with
SmartBook is returned to the student as
the most value-added minute possible.
• M
 ake It Informed. Real-time
reports quickly identify the concepts
that require more attention from indi-
vidual students—or the entire class.
SmartBook™ detects the content a
student is most likely to forget and
brings it back to improve long-term
knowledge retention.
Students help inform the revision strategy.
• M
 ake It Precise. Systematic and
precise, a heat map tool collates data
anonymously collected from thou-
sands of students who used Connect
Psychology’s Learnsmart.
• M
 ake It Accessible. The data is
graphically represented in a heat map
as “hot spots” showing specific con-
cepts with which students had the
most difficulty. Revising these con-
cepts, then, can make them more
accessible for students.

GAIN INSIGHT ON YOUR CLASS AND STUDENT PERFORMANCE

Whether a class is face-to-face, hybrid, or entirely online, Connect provides the tools
needed to reduce the amount of time and energy that instructors must spend to
administer their courses. Easy-to-use course management tools allow instructors to
 xxv
Preface

spend less time administering and more time teaching, while reports allow students
to monitor their progress and optimize study time.
• The At-Risk Student Report provides instructors with one-click access to a
dashboard that identifies students who are at risk of dropping out of the
course due to low engagement levels.
• The Category Analysis Report details student performance relative to specific
learning objectives and goals, including APA Learning Goals and Outcomes and
levels of Bloom’s Taxonomy.
• Connect Insight is a one-of-kind visual analytics dashboard—now available for
both instructors and students—that provides at-a-glance information regarding
student performance.
• The LearnSmart Reports allow instructors and students to easily monitor
progress and pinpoint areas of weakness, giving each student a personalized
study plan to achieve success.

Student Tools: Mastering the Material

Student success in psychology means mastering the material at a deep level. These are
some of the tools that help students maximize their performance:

STUDY ALERTS Study Alert

Differentiate the five stages of
Throughout, marginal notes point out important and difficult concepts and topics.
sleep (stage 1, stage 2, stage 3,
These Study Alerts offer suggestions for learning the material effectively and for
stage 4, and REM sleep), which
studying for tests.
produce different brain-wave
patterns.
FROM THE PERSPECTIVE OF . . .
Every chapter includes questions to help students connect psychological concepts with
career realities. Called “From the Perspective of . . . ,” this feature helps students under-
stand how psychology relates to their chosen field of study.

From the perspective of…

An Educator How might you use the findings in sleep
research to maximize student learning?

Source: © Blend Images/Getty Images RF

NEUROSCIENCE IN YOUR LIFE

This updated feature emphasizes the importance of neuroscientific research within
the various subfields of the discipline and in students’ lives. Representative brain
scans, with both caption and textual explanation, illustrate significant neuroscien-
tific findings that increasingly influence the field of psychology. For example, one
Neuroscience in Your Life feature explains how people with eating disorders process
information differently.
xxvi Preface

NEUROSCIENCE IN YOUR LIFE: WHEN REGULATION OF EATING

BEHAVIOR GOES WRONG
Research suggests that individuals with eating disorders not only show differences in behavior, but also
in the brain. For example, in the representational images below, those with bulimia show differences in
many areas of the brain that likely relate to how those with bulimia process their environment. Although
researchers are not sure if these differences are the cause or the result of disordered eating, under-
standing these differences may help us better address it. In particular, these images show areas in
which people with bulimia differ in the shape of their brains (red/yellow being areas that are larger and
blue/purple being smaller) as compared to those who do not have the disorder (Marsh et al., 2015).

Person with bulimia

Adapted from Marsh et al. (2015). Anatomical characteristics of the cerebral surface in bulimia nervosa. Biological
­Psychiatry, 77(7), 616–623.

Student Learning: Content and Concepts

The following information about new and revised topics and textual changes, including new definitions based on heat map data,
provides a good indication of the content’s currency and clarification for students.

Chapter 1—Introduction to Psychology
• Added psychological information about
terrorism and possible homophobia
in the Orlando nightclub shootings
• Updated the number of active
­psychologists
• Revised statistics about females out-
numbering male psychologists 2:1
• Revised information about the in-
crease in racial/ethnic minority psy-
chologists
• Added material about torture scandal
leading to psychologists being pro-
hibited from participating in military
interrogations
• Revised definitions for neuroscience,
behavioral, and humanistic
­perspectives
• Outlined key issues more clearly
• Refined description of nature vs.
­nurture description
• Refined operational definition
­description
• Reworded description of use of
­theories/data
• Refined goal of case studies
• Refined description of experiment as
only way to establish causality
• Revised definitions of significant out-
come and choosing participants
• Reworded experimenter expecta-
tions concept
• Refined description of individual
­difference vs. universal principles
Chapter 2—Neuroscience and Behavior
• Added material about using the
mind to move robotic limbs
• Included volume of gray matter in
cortex differs according to income
level
• Included Stiff Person Syndrome and
stem cell implants
• Clarified description of dendrite and
of axon
• Refined inhibitory and excitatory
message difference
• Clarified somatic division and auto-
nomic division
• Reworded transcranial magnetic
stimulation (TMS)
• Revised thalamus presentation
• Added correspondence between
brain tissue and touch sensitivity
• Redefined association areas
Chapter 3—Sensation and Perception
• Added positive consequences of
pain
• Updated statistics on incidence and
cost of chronic pain
• Discussed additional benefits of hyp-
nosis and chronic pain
• Explained mirror therapy for pain
­relief
• Described face blindness
• Described neural basis of itching
• Clarified Weber law examples
• Clarified visual spectrum
• Refined presentation of retina
­definition

• Refined presentation of visual
­processing units in the brain related
to different stimuli
• Clarified biodfeedback with
­additional examples
• Clarified retinal disparity/binocular
cues
• Included new definition of linear
perspective
• Refined ESP discussion
Chapter 4—States of Consciousness
• Clarified brain alterations related
to hypnosis
• Refined definition of addictive drugs
• Clarified the uses of hypnosis
• Refined description of the reasons
why people use drugs
• Added new information on D.A.R.E.
• Clarified the depressive effects of
­alcohol
• Included use of Suboxone and
Vivatrol in treatment of heroin
­addiction
• Added material about increased
­heroin use in the U.S.
• Refined description of barbiturates
• Clarified effects of MDMA use
• Explained multiple functions of sleep
• Included types of meditation:
­focused attention, mindfulness,
and compassion
• Discussed body rhythms involving
heart and kidneys as well as brain
processing
• Explained that sleep provides oppor-
tunity to prune neural connections
• Updated latest marijuana use
­statistics
• Updated research findings on
­consequences of marijuana use
Chapter 5—Learning
• Clarified classical conditioning
­process
• Clarified Pavlov’s research
• Removed reference to autism and
punishment
• Clarified positive and negative
­punishment
• Clarified different types of partial
­reinforcement schedules
• Redefined behavior modification
techniques
• Clarified choice of strategies in
­behavior modification
• Redefined relational and analytical
learning styles
• Expanded conclusion regarding the
impact of violent video games
• Revised Little Albert conclusion
• Explained Facebook addiction
• Added information about ­educational
practices based on learning data
Chapter 6—Memory
• Clarified capacity of working memory
• Described erasing traumatic memories
• Clarified chunk
• Clarified mnemonics
• Clarified working memory
­components
• Removed serial position effect term
• Clarified role of hippocampus in
memory
• Clarified information on MRI scans
of hippocampus
• Clarified role of amygdala in ­memory
• Redefined prime
• Clarified memory errors
• Clarified keyword technique
• Clarified cross-cultural differences
in memory
Chapter 7—Thinking, Language, and
Intelligence
• Reworded examples for prototype
• Redefined familiarity heuristic
• Refined description of arrangement
problems
• Clarified survival vs. dying frame
study
• Explained cognitive effects of video
games
• Redefined mental set
• Explained the idea of taking time off
to increase creativity
• Clarified nativist approach to lan-
guage
• Revised definition of interactionist
approach to language
• Clarified fluid intelligence
• Updated WISC-IV to WISC-V
• Replaced term mental retardation
with intellectual disability
• Clarified moderate, severe, and pro-
found intellectual disability
• Clarified differences between black
and white family environments
Chapter 8—Motivation and Emotion
• Clarified drawbacks to instinct
­approaches to motivation
• Redefined arousal approaches to
­motivation
• Redefined cognitive approaches to
motivation
xxvii
Preface
• Clarified esteem in Maslow’s
hierarchy
• Refined weight set point
definition
• Added new evidence on genetic
causes of homosexuality
• Clarified discussion of intersex
people
• Added new material on transgender
issues
• Refined high need for achievement
discussion
Chapter 9—Development
• Clarified attachment concept
• Refined discussion of degrees of
attachment and parenting styles
• Redefined conservation
• Clarified discussion of conservation
• Clarified zone of proximal develop-
ment and scaffolding
• Revised discussion of growth spurt
and surge in growth hormones in
­adolescence
• Included more on emerging
­adulthood
• Clarified Kohlberg’s levels
• Updated suicide incidence
• Revised Alzheimer’s statistics
Chapter 10—Personality
• Reworked unconscious determinants
of personality
• Revised statistics on use of personal-
ity testing in business and industry
• Redefined id
• Redefined ego
• Redefined superego
• Revised the discussion of relation-
ship between id, ego, and superego
• Revised discussion of fixation
• Revised discussion of penis envy
• Clarified discussion of defense
­mechanisms
• Redefined repression
• Clarified discussion of trait theory
• Redefined trait
• Clarified presentation of Allport’s
traits
• Revised description of trait labeling
critique
• Clarified discussion of culture and
self-esteem
• Revised discussion of self-concept
Chapter 11—Health Psychology: Stress,
Coping, and Well-Being
• Clarified problem-solving vs.
­emotion-focused coping strategies
xxviii Preface
• Refined the discussion of the rela-
tionship between smoking, emotion,
and nicotine levels
• Clarified the relationship between
high self esteem and happiness
• Clarified discussion of positive
­illusions
• Refined the discussion of how peo-
ple respond to extreme situations in
terms of happiness
• Added new material on e-cigarettes
• Discussed how psychotherapy can
slow the progression of cancer
• Included training of physicians to
convey empathy
• Included cumulative effects of
­cataclysmic events
• Updated statistics on amount spent
on PTSD of veterans
Chapter 12—Psychological Disorders
• Revised description and definition of
DSM to incorporate DSM-5 changes
• Included new terminology to reflect
DSM-5, including autism spectrum
disorder, intellectual disability, gen-
der dysphoria, paraphilic disorder,
neurodevelopmental disorders,
­neurocognitive disorders, illness
­anxiety disorder, somatic symptom
disorder
• Added more material on college
­student psychological disorders
• Removed five axes terminology
• Clarified positive/negative symptoms
of schizophrenia
• Clarified discussion of overattention
and underattention in schizophrenia
• Added new statistics on the inci-
dence of adolescent depression
• Refined discussion of additional
­disorders
• Clarified discussion of abnormality as
deviation from the average
• Clarified drawbacks to abnormality
as personal discomfort
• Refined discussion of difficulties
with medical perspective
• Refined discussion of psychoanalytic
theoretical explanations of
­abnormality
• Clarified discussion of criticisms of
cognitive perspective
• Refined discussion of sociocultural
explanations of psychological disor-
ders
• Clarified panic disorder vs. phobic
disorder
• Revised discussion of causes of
­anxiety disorders
• Clarified etiology of illness anxiety
disorder
• Refined discussion of hallucinations
and perceptual problems in
­schizophrenia
• Clarified biological and situational
explanations of schizophrenia
• Refined discussion of predisposition
model of schizophrenia
• Refined discussion of neurocognitive
disorders
Chapter 13—Treatment of
Psychological Disorders
• Clarified definition of psychoanalysis
• Clarified description of resistance
• Refined discussion of contemporary
psychodynamic therapy
• Refined presentation of behavioral
approaches
• Refined discussion of rational-­
emotive therapy
• Clarified contemporary person-­
centered therapy
• Redefined interpersonal
­psychotherapy
• Refined goals of family therapy
• Refined overview of biological
­approaches to treatment
• Revised definition of drug therapy
• Refined description of success rates
of antidepressant drugs
• Included discussion of deep brain
stimulation (DBS)
Chapter 14—Social Psychology
• Refined discussion of need for
­cognition
• Refined explanation of cognitive
­dissonance
• Clarified how people combine traits
mathematically
• Refined discussion of the foot-in-the-
door technique
• Refined discussion of the not-so-free-
sample technique
• Clarified Darley & Latane helping
model
• Discussed potential hard-wiring of
brain for altruistic behavior
• Included benefits of virtual inter-
group contact in improving
­intergroup relations
• Discussed types of aggression in
­everyday life
• Discussed microaggressions
• Included how heterosexual and gay
couples meet
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
 random, or deliberately conceal their most sacred institutions, or have
never paid any attention to the subject? (l.c., p. 41).

To remove this reproach was the work of Professor Tylor.

Edward Burnett It is difficult to express in adequate terms what
Tylor. Professor E. B. Tylor has done for ethnology. He is
the founder of the science of comparative ethnology; and his two
great works, Early History of Mankind (1865) and Primitive Culture
(1871), while replete with vast erudition, are so suggestive and
graced by such a charming literary style and quiet humour that they
have become “classics,” and have profoundly influenced modern
thought. From their first appearance it was recognised that a master-
mind was guiding the destinies of the nascent science. Some idea of
the magnitude and diversity of his work may be gathered from the
bibliography of 262 items, published between 1861 and 1907,
collected by Miss Freire-Marreco, Anthropological Essays Presented
to Edward Burnett Tylor in Honour of his Seventy-first Birthday, Oct.
2, 1907. An appreciation of the labours of Professor Tylor is given by
Andrew Lang in this volume. The true significance of the aims of “Mr.
Tylor’s Science,” as Max Müller called it, may be best gathered from
Professor Tylor’s own words:—
For years past it has become evident that the great need of
anthropology is that its methods should be strengthened and
systematised. The world has not been unjust to the growing science, far
from it. Wherever anthropologists have been able to show definite
evidence and inference, for instance, in the development series of arts in
the Pitt-Rivers Museum at Oxford, not only specialists, but the educated
world generally, are ready to receive the results and assimilate them into
public opinion. Strict method has, however, as yet, only been introduced
over part of the anthropological field. There has yet to be overcome a
certain not unkindly hesitancy on the part of men engaged in the precise
operations of mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology, to admit that the
problems of anthropology are amenable to scientific treatment. It is my
aim to show that the development of institutions may be investigated on a
basis of tabulation and classification.

This is the opening of a masterly paper “On a Method of

Investigating the Development of Institutions; applied to Laws of
Marriage and Descent.”[100]
100. J. A. I., xviii., 245, 1889.
The tabular method is not applicable to much of the vast mass of
material with which Tylor dealt; but the accuracy and systematising
of method are found throughout, and were of invaluable service to a
science peculiarly attractive to the vague speculator and enthusiastic
dilettante.
Tylor (1871) insisted on the necessity of sifting and testing all the
evidence, relying to a great extent on “the test of recurrence,” or of
undesigned coincidence in testimony; he says: “the more odd the
statement, the less likely that several people in several places
should have made it wrongly. This being so, it seems reasonable to
judge that the statements are in the main truly given, and that their
close and regular coincidence is due to the cropping-up of similar
facts in various districts of culture. Now the most important facts of
ethnography are vouched for in this way” (2nd ed., 1873, p. 10).
Avebury. A further stimulus to the study of comparative
ethnology in this country was given by the
publication of Sir John Lubbock’s (Lord Avebury’s) Origin of
Civilisation (1870), and opened the eyes of a large public to the
interest of ethnology and its value in throwing light upon the earlier
stages of culture of civilised peoples.
Sociology. The question as to the influence of environment
on the development of social organisation is as old
as the world’s oldest thinkers, and finds expression in Aristotle and in
Plato, though Sociology, as a science, is a product of the last
century. The word “Sociology” was first used by Auguste Comte
(1798-1857), who showed its aim to be to discover the nature, the
natural causes, and the natural laws of society. With the
development of natural science came the insistence on a naturalistic
interpretation of social differences, demonstrated by Guyot (1807-
1884) and Draper (1811-1882), and over-emphasised by Buckle
(1821-1862).
Comte Buckle.
 Comte’s method was that of deductive construction and
prescription. Buckle’s plan was to evolve a social science inductively
through a study of history, with the help of economics and statistics.
His History of Civilisation answers the great question which he sets
himself: “Are the actions of men, and therefore of societies,
governed by fixed laws, or are they the result either of chance or of
supernatural interference?” He attempted to show how “Climate,
Food, Soil, and the General Aspect of Nature” were the dominant
influences in early societies, determining the food supply, the degree
of population, and the economic condition.
Unfortunately, in pursuit of this idea Buckle was apt to overlook the
influences of culture-contact, and of economic factors; thus
deserving, to some extent, the censure of Jevons: “Buckle referred
the character of a nation to the climate and the soil of its abode.”[101]
At the same time Buckle must be regarded as the first historical
sociologist of the modern scientific movement.
101. Letters and Journal of Stanley Jevons, 1866, p. 454.
Herbert Spencer. The evolutionist explanation of the natural world
as applied to sociology found its fullest exponent
in Herbert Spencer (1820-1903), who studied the anatomy of the
social frame. He derived the principles of sociology from the
principles of psychology and of biology, and regarded social
development as a super-organic evolution.
But all these earlier attempts to discover a social science were
speculative rather than practical. The solid foundations of inductive
sociology were laid by Bachofen, Morgan, J. F. McLennan, and
others.
Bachofen, Bachofen (1861) was the first to study the
Morgan, system of filiation through the mother, or mother-
McLennan, and right, which was widely distributed among ancient
others.
peoples, and still occurs in many regions in a
more or less developed condition. McLennan frankly states that “the
honour of that discovery, the importance of which, as affording a new
starting-point for all history, cannot be over-estimated, must, without
stint or qualification, be assigned to him” (1876, p. 421).
Independently, however, J. F. McLennan (1827-1881), in his
Primitive Marriage (1865), arrived at the conclusion “that the most
ancient system in which the idea of blood-relationship was embodied
was a system of kinship through females only.”[102] He points out
more than once that “Mr. Maine seems not to have been able to
conceive of any social order more primitive than the patriarchal.”[103]
This book was reprinted with additions in 1876, and his two other
books were published posthumously (1885, 1896). In these and
more fugitive writings McLennan was a keen controversialist, and
with unnecessary vigour and animus attacked Morgan, Sir Henry
Maine, and Dr. Howitt. McLennan’s attitude may be partly explained
by the fact that he was a lawyer and a theorist, but he possessed
great enthusiasm, with which he infused those who came into
contact with him, and his labours served to advance the study of
sociology.
102. P. 124 of 1876 ed.

103. P. 181, ibid.

“From the time of Plato downwards, theories of human society

have been current in which the family living under the headship of a
father is accepted as the ultimate social unit. These theories have
taken various shapes ... with Sir Henry Maine (Ancient Law, 1861)
the theory becomes a theory of the origin of society, or at least of the
earliest stage of society in which Comparative Jurisprudence is
called upon to take interest.”[104]
104. D. McLennan, The Patriarchal Theory, 1885, p. x.
Morgan was undoubtedly the greatest sociologist of the past
century, and in his monumental work (1871) laid a solid foundation
for the study of the family and kinship systems; he formulated a
scheme of the evolution of the family based on a study of the
classificatory system of relationships,[105] of which he was the
discoverer. According to this scheme, human society has advanced,
through gradual evolution, from a state of complete promiscuity to
one characterised by monogamy. Dr. Rivers[106] points out that “In
recent years the scheme has encountered much opposition.... The
opponents of Morgan have made no attempt to distinguish between
different parts of his scheme, but, having shown that certain of its
features are unsatisfactory, they have condemned the whole.” The
greater part of Morgan’s work is, however, of lasting value. Morgan
based his conclusions on an enormous number of kinship terms
collected by himself and others from every available source. Dr.
Rivers has introduced[107] a new method of collecting similar data by
means of recording exhaustive genealogies from a limited area. In
this way not only can kinship terms be collected with accuracy, but a
large number of other sociological data are obtained with a
readiness and precision not hitherto possible. Indeed, it is no
exaggeration to say that this method is producing a revolution in the
method of sociological field work.
105. W. H. R. Rivers, “On the Origin of the Classificatory System of
Relationships,” Anthropological Essays (Tylor Volume), 1907.

106. Jour. Anth. Inst., xxx., 1900, p. 74; Sociological Rev., 1910.

107. In the classificatory system most of the kin in the same generation are
grouped under one general term; e.g., all the males of the grandfather’s
generation are called by one term—another term includes father, father’s
brothers, father’s male cousins, mother’s sisters’ husbands, mother’s female
cousins’ husbands, and so on.

In a later book (1878) Morgan summarised his earlier conclusions

and proposed a classification of culture consisting of a lower, middle,
and an upper Status of Savagery, a lower, middle, and an upper
Status of Barbarism, and the Status of Civilisation based upon
certain inventions and industries.
About this time various students wrote on marriage and the family,
of whom the foremost were Giraud Teulon (1867, 1874, 1884), H.
Post (1875), Letourneau (1888), Von Hellwald (1889), and others,
the conclusions of the earlier writers being summed up by Professor
E. Westermarck in his masterly History of Human Marriage (1891);
but much has been written since that date on this subject of
perennial interest.
 Professor F. H. Giddings, in his Principles of Sociology, sums up in
the following words the trend of modern writers on ethnological
sociology:—
Professor Ludwig Gumplowicz [1883] has tried to demonstrate that the
true elementary social phenomena are the conflicts, amalgamations, and
assimilations of heterogeneous ethnical groups. M. Novicow [1893],
generalising further, argues that social evolution is essentially a
progressive modification of conflict by alliance, in the course of which
conflict itself is transformed from a physical into an intellectual struggle.
Professor De Greef [1886], looking at the question in a very different way,
finds the distinctive social fact in contract, and measures social progress
according to the displacement of coercive authority by conscious
argument. Mr. Gabriel Tarde [1890], in an original and fascinating study,
which has made an enduring impress on both psychological and
sociological thought, argues that the primordial social fact is imitation, a
phenomenon antecedent to all mutual aid, division of labour, and
contract. Professor Émile Durkheim [1895], dissenting from the
conclusions of M. Tarde, undertakes to prove that the characteristically
social process, and therefore the ultimate social phenomenon, is a
coercion of every individual mind by modes of action, thought, and feeling
that are external to itself (p. 14).

According to Giddings, the original and elementary subjective fact in

society is “the consciousness of kind.”
Social psychology offers a vast and fertile field which has been but
little worked, and there was needed an introduction to the subject
which should afford that general point of view which is the starting-
point of further studies. This Dr. W. McDougall has attempted in a
recently published little book.[108] His general conclusion is that the
life of societies is not merely the sum of the activities of individuals
moved by enlightened self-interest, or by intelligent desire for
pleasure and aversion from pain; but that the springs of all the
complex activities that make up the life of societies must be sought
in the instincts and in the other primary tendencies that are common
to all men and are deeply rooted in the remote ancestry of the race.
Professor E. A. Ross, of Wisconsin, simultaneously attacked the
same subject, on the problems of which he had previously written.
[109]
Magic and Magic and religion are very generally held to be
Religion. not only distinct from one another, but antithetical.
There is, however, a tendency among certain living students to
regard them as analogous phenomena, both being expressions of a
belief in a power or energy which may be designated by the
Melanesian term “mana,” or the American “orenda.” It has more than
once been pointed out that it is in some cases very hard—perhaps
impossible—to determine whether certain actions can be classed as
either magical or religious, as they appear to belong to both
categories. As in the case of religion from the ethnological
standpoint, magic has been investigated in the field, and immediate
references to it are to be found in ethnological literature—the
comparative study of magic has to some extent been undertaken by
Frazer, Jevons, and others; but one of the most important
contributions to the subject is by Hubert and Mauss,[110] who treat it
from a sociological aspect.
108. An Introduction to Social Psychology, 1908.

109. Congress of Arts and Sci., St. Louis, 1904, v. (1906), p. 869.

110. H. Hubert et M. Mauss, “Esquisse d’une théorie générale de la magie,”

L’Année sociologique, vii., 1904. M. Mauss, “L’Origine des pouvoirs
magiques dans les sociétés Australiennes,” École pratique des Haute Études
(Sec. Relig.), 1904.
Anthropology Parson Thwackum in Tom Jones says: “When I
and Religion. mention religion I mean the Christian religion; and
not only the Christian religion, but the Protestant religion; and not
only the Protestant religion, but the Church of England.”
Anthropology, by a reverse process, passes “in larger sympathy from
specific creeds to partake of the universal spirit which every creed
tries to embody.”[111] The interest of Anthropology in religion was
defined by Huxley.[112] “Anthropology has nothing to do with the truth
or falsehood of religion—it holds itself absolutely and entirely aloof
from such questions—but the natural history of religion, and the
origin and growth of the religions entertained by the different tribes of
the human race, are within its proper and legitimate province.”
111. Clodd, Animism, 1905, p. 11.

112. Address to Dept. of Anthrop., Brit. Ass. Dublin, 1878.

This is not the place to attempt a definition of religion—a task

which has led to so many failures. We must be content with the
statement that it most frequently presents itself under the aspects of
ritual, myth, and belief. Anthropology has hitherto practically confined
its attention to ritual and myth, and but too frequently exclusively to
the last.
As Andrew Lang (1887)[113] points out, in the sixth century B.C.
Xenophanes complained that the gods were credited with the worst
crimes, and other classical writers were shocked at the
contradictions between the conception and ritual worship of the
same god. In ancient Egypt the priests strove to shift the burden of
absurdity and sacrilege from their own deities. It taxed the ingenuity
of pious Brahmans to explain the myths which made Indra the slayer
of a Brahman. Euhemerus (316 B.C.), in his philosophical romance,
Sacra Historica, in rationalising the fables about the gods was
regarded as an atheist. Certain writers like Plutarch (60 A.D.) and
Porphyry (270 A.D.) made the ancient deities types of their own
favourite doctrines, whatever these might happen to be. The early
Christians had a good case against the heathen. Eusebius, in the
Præparatio Evangelica, anticipating Andrew Lang himself, “ridiculed,
with a good deal of humour, the old theories which resolved so many
mythical heroes into the sun” (p. 20). “The physical interpreters,” said
Eusebius, “do not even agree in their physical interpretations.” The
light of the anthropological method had dawned on Eusebius. Many
centuries later Spencer, Master of Corpus Christi College,
Cambridge (1630-93), had no other scheme in his mind in his erudite
work on Hebrew ritual,[114] which he considered was but an
expurgated adaptation of heathen customs. Fontenelle[115] explained
the irrational element in myth as inherited from savagery.
113. 1899 ed., pp. 6, 7.

114. De Legibus Hebræorum Ritualibus, 1732.

115. De l’Origine des Fables: Œuvres, Vol. III., 1758.

 The revival of learning made scholars acquainted with the religions
not only of Greece and Rome, but of the nations with whom the
Greeks and Romans had come in contact—Egyptians, Semites,
Persians, and Indians. Travellers gave accounts of the religions they
found in remote parts of the world, and missionaries reported on
beliefs and customs of many nations. These were the sources from
which were compiled the comprehensive works on religion, from
Alexander Ross, View of All the Religions in the World, etc., 1652, to
Dupuis, Origine de tous les cultes ou Religion Universelle, 1794. All
heathen religions were believed to be based on sun and star
worship.
New vistas were opened up by the writings of De Brosses (1760),
who investigated the beliefs of savage races and based all religion
on “Fetishism.”
To quote once more from Lang: “In the beginning of the
[nineteenth] century Germany turned her attention to mythology. In a
pious kind of spirit, Friedrich Creuzer [1771-1858] sought to find
symbols of some pure, early, and Oriental theosophy in the myths
and mysteries of Greece. The great Lobeck, in his Aglaophamus
(1829), brought back common-sense, and made it the guide of his
vast, his unequalled learning. In a gentler and more genial spirit, C.
Ottfried Müller [1797-1840] laid the foundation of a truly scientific and
historical mythology. Neither of these writers had, like Alfred Maury
[1857], much knowledge of the myths and faiths of the lower races,
but they often seem on the point of anticipating the ethnological
method.” (L.c., p. 23.)
Folklore. The mythological aspect of the subject was
illuminated by the researches of the brothers
Grimm (J. L. K., 1785-1863; W. K., 1786-1859), whose collections of
Märchen (1812-5) were found to contain Teutonic myths, and by their
resemblance to Norse, Greek, and Vedic mythology suggested that
in German folklore were remains of a common Indo-Germanic
tradition. This was the beginning of the intelligent study of Folklore.
Mannhardt (1865) and others investigated popular, and especially
peasant, customs and beliefs connected with agriculture and
vegetation; and showed that here, in what Christianity had reduced
to superstition, were to be found survivals of the religions that
Christianity had supplanted. Thenceforward the study of Folklore,
and of the “lower mythology” of beliefs, customs, and superstitions,
gradually developed into a science, which is now recognised as the
valuable ally of Anthropology. Meanwhile the anthropological
signification of religion was emerging from the mass of materials
collected from all over the globe. Anthropology established its
universality, and made many attempts to find a common factor, first
in astral worship, then in Euhemerism (Banier, 1738), Fetishism (De
Brosses, 1709-1777), Nature-worship (Max Müller, etc.), Ancestor-
worship (Herbert Spencer, Lippert [1866], etc.), and later in
Totemism. These hypotheses were based on the erroneous
assumption that savage religion represented the primitive mode of
thought, out of which civilised religions had evolved. Later it was
realised that “The Australian black or the Andaman Islander is
separated by as many generations from the beginning of religion as
his most advanced contemporaries; and in these tens or hundreds of
thousands of years there has been constant change, growth, and
decay—and decay is not a simple return to the primal state. We can
learn a great deal from the lowest existing religions, but they cannot
tell us what the beginning of religion was, any more than the history
of language can tell us what was the first human speech.”[116]
116. G. F. Moore, “The Hist. of Religions in the Nineteenth Cent.,” Congress Arts
and Sci., St. Louis, 1904, p. 440.
Comparative The study of comparative religion, though not
Religion. originated by Max Müller (1823-1900), owed much
to his energy. His lectures on Comparative Mythology (1856) were
followed by lectures on the Science of Religion (1870), and on the
religions of the world (1873). He inaugurated the annual series of the
Hibbert Lectures with a study of the origin and growth of Religion, as
illustrated by the religions of India; and as Gifford lecturer at
Glasgow (1888-1892), discussed Natural Religion, Physical Religion,
Anthropological Religion, and Theosophy or Psychological Religion.
His Contributions to the Science of Mythology appeared in 1897. His
method of investigation was almost entirely linguistic, based on
phonetic laws which later research has discredited; and his theory of
“mythology as the disease of language” is no longer tenable.
The charm of the writings of Max Müller, and the interest which
they awakened in Vedic studies, gave a new impulse to the study of
the history of religions. The hymns of the Rig-Veda are by no means
the product of a simple society, as he supposed; in his view hymns
and myths were dissociated from ritual religion, and gods were
identified with natural objects. The death-blow to this method of
studying religion in our country was given by the keen criticism of
Andrew Lang (1884, 1887). The too-narrow basis of Max Müller’s
theories was overthrown by arguments derived from comparative
ethnology; “the silly, senseless, and savage element” (as he termed
it) in classical mythology proved to be the stumbling-block over
which he fell.
A firmer foundation for the study was laid by Tylor and Lubbock.
Though Max Müller originated the name Science of Religion, it was
Tylor who first introduced into it a scientific method, and so laid the
foundations for future investigation.
Later workers in the field fall naturally into two groups. Some make
intensive studies of particular forms of religion, either historical, such
as Robertson Smith (1846-1894), or living, such as Codrington in
Melanesia, J. O. Dorsey[117] in America, Spencer and Gillen in
Australia, and many others.
117. “Omaha Sociology,” Ann. Rep. Bur. Am. Ethn. Rep. iii., 1884; “Siouan
Sociology,” xv., 1897.

Other workers attempt, by correlating the mass of material, to

discover the fundamental religious conceptions of man, and to trace
their subsequent development. Among these may be noted Grant
Allen, Crawley, Frazer, Hartland, Jevons, Andrew Lang, Marett, and
many others.
To those who are acquainted with the modern study of
comparative religion in this country it is unnecessary to point out the
influence of such workers as Mannhardt, Tylor, and Robertson Smith
on subsequent writers; nor is it needful to draw attention to the vast
erudition and eloquent writing of Professor J. G. Frazer, whose
monumental work on The Golden Bough has become a classic, or to
the memorable Legend of Perseus by E. S. Hartland.
The study of the myths of various peoples is receiving the
attention of numerous students, and in Germany certain
ethnologists, such as Ehrenreich, Foy,[118] and Frobenius,[119] find sun
and moon gods in the most unlikely places. There is, however,
considerable danger that this nature-mythology is being carried too
far.
118. Archiv für Religionswissenschaft, x., 1907, etc.

119. “Die Weltanschauung der Naturvölker,” Beitr. z. Volks-und Völkerkunde, vi.,

1898; Das Zeitalter des Sonnengottes, i., 1904; The Childhood of Man, 1909.

The origin of the moral idea has also been discussed from the
ethnological point of view, as Hobhouse (1906) and Westermarck
(1906) have exemplified in their great books.
Magic, religion, and morality have, as we have seen, especially of
late years, been regarded almost entirely from the anthropological
standpoint. But a new school of French students has arisen who
maintain that these are essentially social phenomena. The writings
of Durkheim, Hubert and Mauss[120] have initiated a new method of
study which promises to have far-reaching results.
120. The work of this school is mainly to be found in L’Année sociologique (1898).
 Chapter XI.

LINGUISTICS

Linguistics as a department of Anthropology may be regarded from

many points of view. To the evolutionist language forms one of the
tests dividing the Hominidæ from the other anthropoids; the
somatologist is interested in correlating the phonetic system with the
structure of the organs connected with the mechanism of speech;
and the ethnologist studies language for the evidence it affords of
ethnic affinity or social contact, or as a means of determining the
grade of culture to which a particular people has attained, or, again,
as a reflection of their character or psychology. The linguistic
classifications of Gallatin, Humboldt, and Müller are referred to later.
The Aryan The connection between linguistics and
Controversy. anthropology assumed its greatest importance in
the middle of the nineteenth century, when the discoveries and
theories of philologists were adopted wholesale to explain the
problems of European ethnology, and the Aryan controversy became
the locus of disturbance throughout the Continent. “No other
scientific question, with the exception, perhaps, of the doctrine of
evolution, was ever so bitterly discussed or so infernally confounded
at the hands of Chauvinistic or otherwise biassed writers.”[121]
121. Ripley, 1899, p. 453.

In 1786 Sir William Jones had pointed out the relationship

between Sanskrit, Greek, Latin, German, and Celtic, and suggested
a common parentage, which was confirmed by Bopp in 1835.
Unfortunately, a primitive unity of speech was held to imply a
primitive unity of race.
Among the ethnological papers read at the meeting of the British
Association in 1847 was one “On the Results of the recent Egyptian
Researches in reference to Asiatic and African Ethnology, and the
Classification of Languages,” in which Baron Bunsen sought to show
that the whole of mankind could be classified according to language.
In fact, it was taken for granted in 1847 that the study of comparative
philology would be in future the only safe foundation for the study of
anthropology.[122] The spread of this fallacy is usually attributed to
Max Müller, whose charm of style and high reputation as a Sanskrit
scholar did much to popularise the new science of philology. He
invented the term “Aryan,” which in itself contains two erroneous
assumptions—one linguistic, that the Indo-Iranian group of
languages is older than its relatives; and the other geographical, that
its “cradle” was in ancient Ariana, in Central Asia. Moreover, in his
lectures he not only spoke of an Aryan language, but of an “Aryan
race.” He is credited with having made “heroic reparation” for these
errors when he wrote later: “To me an ethnologist who speaks of an
Aryan race, Aryan blood, Aryan eyes and hair, is as great a sinner as
a linguist who speaks of a dolichocephalic dictionary or a
brachycephalic grammar. It is worse than a Babylonian confusion of
tongues—it is downright theft.” But, as he pointed out,[123] he himself
never shared the misconception that he was accused of launching
on the world. He admits that he was not entirely without blame, as he
allowed himself occasionally the freedom to speak of the Aryan or
the Semitic race, meaning the people who spoke Aryan or Semitic
languages; but as early as 1853 he had protested against the
intrusion of linguistics into ethnology, and
called, if not for a complete divorce, at least for a judicial separation
between the study of Philology and the study of Ethnology.... The
phonologist should collect his evidence, arrange his classes, divide and
combine as if no Blumenbach had ever looked at skulls, as if no Camper
had ever measured facial angles, as if no Owen had ever examined the
base of a cranium. His evidence is the evidence of language, and nothing
else; this he must follow, even though in the teeth of history, physical or
 political.... There ought to be no compromise between ethnological and
phonological science. It is only by stating the glaring contradictions
between the two that truth can be elicited.[124]

122. Rep. Brit. Assoc. (Cardiff), 1891, p. 787.

123. Rep. Brit. Assoc. (Cardiff), 1891, p. 787.

124. Rep. Brit. Assoc. (Cardiff), 1891, p. 787.

The protest was in vain. The belief in an “Aryan race” became an
accepted fact both in linguistics and in ethnology, and its influence
vitiates the work of many anthropologists even at the present day.
Naturally the question of the identity of the Aryan race was soon a
subject of keen debate. The French and German schools at once
assumed opposite sides, the Germans claiming that the Aryans were
tall, fair, and long-headed, the ancestors of the modern Teutons; and
the French, mainly on cultural evidence, claiming that the language,
together with civilisation, came into Europe with the Alpine race,
which forms such a large element in the modern French population.
There are two ways in which linguistics may be studied as an aid
to Anthropology—first, with regard to structural analysis, by which
linguistic affinities may be proved; secondly, by what has been called
“linguistic palæontology,” or the study of root words, by means of
which the original culture of a people may be ascertained. Philology
pushed both these methods too far. It claimed the right, by proof of
structural analysis, to link up the racial relationships of the European
and Asiatic peoples, and, by linguistic palæontology, to determine
the culture of the original “Aryans,” and to identify their original
home. It was over the question of the “Aryan cradle” that they were
forced to relinquish their too ambitious claims.
At the beginning of the nineteenth century it was generally
believed that our first ancestors were created in 4004 B.C. and
spoke Hebrew, and that the origin of the European languages dated
from the migration of Japhet from the plains of Shinar, cir. 2247. The
Asiatic origin of race and language was for long unchallenged. But in
1839 Omalius d’Halloy, followed by Latham in 1851, began to cast
doubts on the Asiatic “cradle,” noting that the Asiatic languages had
no real claim to be considered older than those of Europe, and that
in many ways the Lithuanian and Armenian were the most archaic in
the family. More important still was the work of Benfey,[125] who may
be regarded as the originator of linguistic palæontology, and who
used its evidence to shift the original dispersal from Asia to Europe.
Various philologists followed, employing different methods to prove
different theories; and the Aryan cradle was located in many parts of
Europe and Asia, ranging from the Pamir plateau to the Baltic plains.
Max Müller confessed in 1888 that “the evidence is so pliant that it is
possible to make out a more or less plausible case” for almost any
part of the world.
125. T. Benfey, in preface to Fick’s Vergleichendes Wörterbuch der
Indogermanischen Sprachen, 1868.
Language and From claiming too much the swing of the
Race. pendulum brought linguistics into disrepute with
ethnologists, and for a time the evidence of language was looked
upon with suspicion. Even philologists were accused of going too far
in this direction.
Professor Sayce[126] says: “Identity or relationship of language can
prove nothing more than social contact.... Language is an aid to the
historian, not to the ethnologist.” But, as Professor Keane points out,
there are many cases in which language infallibly proves the
existence of ethnic elements which would otherwise have been
unsuspected—as, for example, in the case of the Basques of
Europe. “Language used with judgment is thus seen to be a great
aid to the ethnologist in determining racial affinities, and in solving
many anthropological difficulties” (1896, p. 205).
Although Max Müller wrote nearly twenty years ago, “I believe the
time will come when no anthropologist will venture to write on
anything concerning the inner life of man without having himself
acquired a knowledge of the language in which that inner life finds its
truest expression,” we are obliged still to echo his lament: “How few
of the books in which we trust with regard to the characteristics or
peculiarities of savage races have been written by men ... who have
learnt their languages until they could speak them as well as the
natives themselves!”[127]
126. Science of Language, ii., p. 317.

127. Rep. Brit. Assoc. (Cardiff), 1891, p. 792.

 Chapter XII.

CULTURAL CLASSIFICATION AND THE INFLUENCE OF

ENVIRONMENT

We have seen that in its beginning the science of man was little
more than a branch of zoology, and that his structural characters
were the first to attract attention and to form the material of study;
hence all the earlier classifications were based on physical features.
Gallatin was one of the first to classify mankind rather by what they
do than by what they are.
Gallatin. Albert Gallatin (1761-1849) was born at
Geneva, emigrated to America before he was
twenty, and rose rapidly to the position of one of the foremost of
American statesmen, becoming United States Minister to France,
and later to England. He noted the unsatisfactoriness of groupings
by colour, stature, head-form, etc., in the case of the races of
America, and made a preliminary classification of the native tribes on
the basis of language. Major J. W. Powell (1834-1902) and Dr.
Brinton (1837-1899) elaborated the linguistic classification of the
American Indians.
Wilhelm von Classification by language had already been
Humboldt. utilised by Wilhelm von Humboldt (1767-1835) in
the introduction to his great work on the Kawi language of Java,
entitled Ueber die Verschiedenheit des menschlichen Sprachbaues
und ihren Einfluss auf die geistige Entwickelung des
Menschengeschlechts, which was published posthumously, 1836-40.