Principles of Electronic Communication

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 Fo u rt h E d i t i o n

Principles of

Electronic
Communication Systems
Louis E. Frenzel Jr.
 Electronic
Principles of

Communication
Systems
Fourth Edition

Louis E. Frenzel Jr.

PRINCIPLES OF ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS, FOURTH EDITION

Published by McGraw-Hill Education, 2 Penn Plaza, New York, NY 10121. Copyright © 2016 by McGraw-Hill
Education. All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. Previous editions © 2008, 2003, and
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Frenzel, Louis E., Jr., 1938–

Principles of electronic communication systems / Louis E. Frenzel Jr. —Fourth edition.
pages cm
Includes index.
ISBN 978-0-07-337385-0 (alk. paper) — ISBN 0-07-337385-0 (alk. paper)
1. Telecommunication—Textbooks. 2. Wireless communication systems—Textbooks.
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Contents

Preface viii

Chapter 1 Introduction to Electronic

Communication 1
1-1 The Significance of Human 1-6 Bandwidth 18
Communication 3 1-7 A Survey of
1-2 Communication Systems 3 Communication
1-3 Types of Electronic Applications 21
Communication 6 1-8 Jobs and Careers in
1-4 Modulation and Multiplexing 8 the Communication
Industry 23
1-5 The Electromagnetic
Spectrum 12

Chapter 2 Electronic Fundamentals

for Communications 30
2-1 Gain, Attenuation, 2-3 Filters 56
and Decibels 31 2-4 Fourier Theory 77
2-2 Tuned Circuits 41

Chapter 3 Amplitude Modulation

Fundamentals 92
3-1 AM Concepts 93 3-4 AM Power 104
3-2 Modulation Index and 3-5 Single-Sideband
Percentage of Modulation 95 Modulation 108
3-3 Sidebands and the Frequency 3-6 Classification of Radio
Domain 98 Emissions 112

Chapter 4 Amplitude Modulator and

Demodulator Circuits 117
4-1 Basic Principles of Amplitude 4-4 Balanced
Modulation 118 Modulators 134
4-2 Amplitude Modulators 121 4-5 SSB Circuits 141
4-3 Amplitude Demodulators 129

iii
 Chapter 5 Fundamentals of Frequency
Modulation 150
5-1 Basic Principles of Frequency 5-4 Noise Suppression
Modulation 151 Efects of FM 163
5-2 Principles of Phase 5-5 Frequency Modulation
Modulation 153 Versus Amplitude
5-3 Modulation Index and Modulation 167
Sidebands 156

Chapter 6 FM Circuits 172

6-1 Frequency Modulators 173
6-2 Phase Modulators 180
6-3 Frequency Demodulators 183

Chapter 7 Digital Communication

Techniques 192
7-1 Digital Transmission 7-4 Pulse Modulation 222
of Data 193 7-5 Digital Signal
7-2 Parallel and Serial Processing 228
Transmission 194
7-3 Data Conversion 197

Chapter 8 Radio Transmitters 236

8-1 Transmitter Fundamentals 237 8-4 Impedance-Matching
8-2 Carrier Generators 241 Networks 276
8-3 Power Amplifiers 259 8-5 Typical Transmitter
Circuits 286

Chapter 9 Communication Receivers 291

9-1 Basic Principles of Signal 9-5 Noise 314
Reproduction 292 9-6 Typical Receiver
9-2 Superheterodyne Circuits 325
Receivers 295 9-7 Receivers and
9-3 Frequency Conversion 297 Transceivers 334
9-4 Intermediate Frequency
and Images 306

iv Contents
Chapter 10 Multiplexing and
Demultiplexing 347
10-1 Multiplexing Principles 348 10-4 Pulse-Code
10-2 Frequency-Division Modulation 365
Multiplexing 349 10-5 Duplexing 371
10-3 Time-Division Multiplexing 357

Chapter 11 Digital Data Transmission 374

11-1 Digital Codes 375 11-6 Broadband Modem
11-2 Principles of Digital Techniques 412
Transmission 377 11-7 Error Detection and
11-3 Transmission Eiciency 383 Correction 416
11-4 Modem Concepts and 11-8 Protocols 426
Methods 389
11-5 Wideband Modulation 403

Chapter 12 Fundamentals of Networking, Local-

Area Networks, and Ethernet 434
12-1 Network Fundamentals 435 12-3 Ethernet LANs 449
12-2 LAN Hardware 441 12-4 Advanced Ethernet 458

Chapter 13 Transmission Lines 462

13-1 Transmission Line 13-3 Transmission Lines as
Basics 463 Circuit Elements 485
13-2 Standing Waves 476 13-4 The Smith Chart 490

Chapter 14 Antennas and Wave

Propagation 504
14-1 Antenna Fundamentals 505 14-3 Radio Wave
14-2 Common Antenna Types 513 Propagation 538

Chapter 15 Internet Technologies 556

15-1 Internet Applications 557 15-3 Storage-Area
15-2 Internet Transmission Networks 577
Systems 561 15-4 Internet Security 580

Contents v
 Chapter 16 Microwave and Millimeter-Wave
Communication 588
16-1 Microwave Concepts 589 16-5 Microwave Tubes 621
16-2 Microwave Lines 16-6 Microwave
and Devices 596 Antennas 625
16-3 Waveguides and Cavity 16-7 Microwave and
Resonators 605 Millimeter-Wave
16-4 Microwave Semiconductor Applications 642
Diodes 617

Chapter 17 Satellite Communication 655

17-1 Satellite Orbits 656 17-5 Satellite
17-2 Satellite Communication Applications 680
Systems 663 17-6 Global Navigation
17-3 Satellite Subsystems 667 Satellite Systems 685
17-4 Ground Stations 673

Chapter 18 Telecommunication Systems 695

18-1 Telephones 696 18-3 Facsimile 714
18-2 Telephone System 708 18-4 Internet Telephony 720

Chapter 19 Optical Communication 726

19-1 Optical Principles 727 19-5 Wavelength-Division
19-2 Optical Communication Multiplexing 762
Systems 731 19-6 Passive Optical
19-3 Fiber-Optic Cables 736 Networks 764
19-4 Optical Transmitters and 19-7 40/100-Gbps Networks
Receivers 747 and Beyond 767

Chapter 20 Cell Phone Technologies 775

20-1 Cellular Telephone 20-4 Long Term Evolution
Systems 776 and 4G Cellular
20-2 A Cellular Industry Systems 792
Overview 782 20-5 Base Stations and
20-3 2G and 3G Digital Cell Small Cells 803
Phone Systems 785

vi Contents
Chapter 21 Wireless Technologies 815
21-1 Wireless LAN 817 21-6 Radio-Frequency
21-2 PANs and Bluetooth 824 Identification
and Near-Field
21-3 ZigBee and Mesh Wireless Communications 834
Networks 827
21-7 Ultrawideband
21-4 WiMAX and Wireless Wireless 839
Metropolitan-Area
Networks 829 21-8 Additional Wireless
Applications 843
21-5 Infrared Wireless 830

Chapter 22 Communication Tests and

Measurements 849
22-1 Communication Test Equipment 850
22-2 Common Communication Tests 866
22-3 Troubleshooting Techniques 883
22-4 Electromagnetic Interference Testing 888

Answers to Selected Problems 896

Glossary 898
Credits 918
Index 919

Contents vii
 Preface

This new fourth edition of Principles of Electronic Communication Systems is fully

revised and updated to make it one of the most current textbooks available on wireless,
networking, and other communications technologies. Because the ield of electronic
communications changes so fast, it is a never-ending challenge to keep a textbook up to
date. While principles do not change, their emphasis and relevance do as technology
evolves. Furthermore, students need not only a irm grounding in the fundamentals but
also an essential understanding of the real world components, circuits, equipment, and
systems in everyday use. This latest edition attempts to balance the principles with an
overview of the latest techniques.
A continuing goal of this latest revision is to increase the emphasis on the system
level understanding of wireless, networking, and other communications technologies.
Because of the heavy integration of communications circuits today, the engineer and the
technician now work more with printed circuit boards, modules, plug-in cards, and equip-
ment rather than component level circuits. As a result, older obsolete circuits have been
removed from this text and replaced with more integrated circuits and block diagram level
analysis. Modern communications engineers and technicians work with speciications and
standards and spend their time testing, measuring, installing, and troubleshooting. This
edition moves in that direction. Detailed circuit analysis is still included in selected areas
where it proves useful in understanding the concepts and issues in current equipment.
In the past, a course in communications was considered an option in many elec-
tronic programs. Today, communications is the largest sector of the electronics ield
with the most employees and the largest equipment sales annually. In addition, wire-
less, networking, or other communications technologies are now contained in almost
every electronic product. This makes a knowledge and understanding of communica-
tion a must rather than an option for every student. Without at least one course in
communications, the student may graduate with an incomplete view of the products
and systems so common today. This book can provide the background to meet the
needs of such a general course.
As the Communications Editor for Electronic Design Magazine (Penton), I have
observed the continuous changes in the components, circuits, equipment, systems, and
applications of modern communications. As I research the ield, interview engineers and
executives, and attend the many conferences for the articles and columns I write, I have
come to see the growing importance of communications in all of our lives. I have tried
to bring that perspective to this latest edition where the most recent techniques and
technologies are explained. That perspective coupled with the feedback and insight from
some of you who teach this subject has resulted in a textbook that is better than ever.

New to this Edition

Here is a chapter-by-chapter summary of revisions and additions to this new edition.
Chapters 1–6 Updating of circuits. Removing obsolete circuits and adding current
circuits.
Chapter 7 Updated section on data conversion, including a new section on overs-
ampling and undersampling.

viii
Chapter 8 Expanded coverage of the I/Q architecture for digital data transmis-
sion. New section on phase noise. Addition of broadband linear
power ampliiers using feedforward and adaptive predistortion tech-
niques. New coverage of Doherty ampliiers and envelope tracking
ampliiers for improved power eficiency. Addition of new IC trans-
mitters and transceivers. New coverage of LDMOS and GaN RF
power transistors.
Chapter 9 Expanded coverage of receiver sensitivity and signal-to-noise ratio, its
importance and calculation. Addition of AWGN and expanded coverage
of intermodulation distortion. Increased coverage of the software-
deined radio (SDR). New IC receiver circuits and transceivers.
Chapter 10 Updated coverage of multiplexing and access techniques.
Chapter 11 Expanded coverage of digital modulation and spectral eficiency.
Increased coverage of digital modulation schemes. New coverage of
DSL, ADSL, and VDSL. Addition of cable TV system coverage.
Improved coverage of the OSI model. Addition of an explanation of
how different digital modulation schemes affect the bit error rate
(BER) in communications systems. Updated sections on spread spec-
trum and OFDM. A new section on convolutional and turbo coding
and coding gain.
Chapter 12 Heavily revised to emphasize fundamentals and Ethernet. Dated mate-
rial removed. Expanded and updated to include the latest Ethernet stan-
dards for iber-optic and copper versions for 100 Gbps.
Chapter 13 Minor revisions and updates.
Chapter 14 Minor revisions and updates.
Chapter 15 Fully updated. Addition of coverage of IPv6 and the Optical Transport
Network standard.
Chapter 16 Updated with new emphasis on millimeter waves. Updated circuitry.
Chapter 17 Revised and updated.
Chapter 18 Removal of dated material and updating.
Chapter 19 Expanded section on MSA optical transceiver modules, types and
speciications. OM iber added. Addition of coverage of 100-Gbps
techniques, including Mach-Zehnder modulators and DP-QPSK
modulation.
Chapter 20 Extensively revisions on cell phone technologies. New coverage on
HSPA and Long Term Evolution (LTE) 4G systems. Analysis of a
smartphone. Backhaul. A glimpse of 5G including small cells.
Chapter 21 Updates include addition of the latest 802.11ac and 802.11ad Wi-Fi
standards. New coverage on machine-to-machine (M2M), the Internet
of Things (IoT), and white space technology.
Chapter 22 Revisions and updates include a new section on vector signal analyzers
and generators.
One major change is the elimination of the ineffective chapter summaries. Instead,
new Online Activity sections have been added to give students the opportunity to
further explore new communications techniques, to dig deeper into the theory, and to
become more adept at using the Internet to ind needed information. These activities
show students the massive stores of communications information they can tap for free
at any time.
In a large book such as this, it’s dificult to give every one what he or she wants. Some
want more depth, others greater breadth. I tried to strike a balance between the two. As
always, I am always eager to hear from those of you who use the book and welcome your
suggestions for the next edition.

Preface ix
 Learning Features
Principles of Electronic Communication Systems, fourth edition, has an attractive and
accessible page layout. To guide readers and provide an integrated learning approach,
each chapter contains the following features:
● Chapter Objectives
● Key Terms
● Good to Know margin features
● Examples with solutions
● Online Activities
● Questions
● Problems
● Critical Thinking

Student Resources
Experiments and Activities Manual
The Experiments and Activities Manual has been minimally revised and updated. Building
a practical, affordable but meaningful lab is one of the more dificult parts of creating a
college course in communications. This new manual provides practice in the principles
by using the latest components and methods. Affordable and readily available components
and equipment have been used to make it easy for professors to put together a commu-
nications lab that validates and complements the text. A new section listing sources of
communications laboratory equipment has been added.
The revised Experiments and Activities Manual includes some new projects that
involve Web access and search to build the student’s ability to use the vast resources of
the Internet and World Wide Web. The practical engineers and technicians of today have
become experts at inding relevant information and answers to their questions and solutions
to their problems this way. While practicing this essential skill of any communications
engineer or technician knowledge, the student will be able to expand his or her knowl-
edge of any of the subjects in this book, either to dig deeper into the theory and practice
or to get the latest update information on chips and other products.

® Connect Engineering
The online resources for this edition include McGraw-Hill Connect®, a Web-based
assignment and assessment platform that can help students to perform better in their
coursework and to master important concepts. With Connect®, instructors can deliver
assignments, quizzes, and tests easily online. Students can practice important skills at
their own pace and on their own schedule. Ask your McGraw-Hill Representative for
more detail and check it out at www.mcgrawhillconnect.com.

McGraw-Hill LearnSmart®
McGraw-Hill LearnSmart® is an adaptive learning system designed to help students learn
faster and study more eficiently, and retain more knowledge for greater success. Through
a series of adaptive questions, LearnSmart® pinpoints concepts the student does not
understand and maps out a personalized study plan for success. It also lets instructors
see exactly what students have accomplished, and it features a built-in assessment tool
for graded assignments. Ask your McGraw-Hill Representative for more information, and
visit www.mhlearnsmart.com for a demonstration.

McGraw-Hill SmartBook™
Powered by the intelligent and adaptive LearnSmart engine, SmartBook is the irst and
only continuously adaptive reading experience available today. Distinguishing what students
know from what they don’t, and honing in on concepts they are most likely to forget,

x Preface
SmartBook personalizes content for each student. Reading is no longer a passive and
linear experience but an engaging and dynamic one, where students are more likely to
master and retain important concepts, coming to class better prepared. SmartBook includes
powerful reports that identify speciic topics and learning objectives students need to study.
These valuable reports also provide instructors insight into how students are progressing
through textbook content, and they are useful for identifying class trends, focusing precious
class time, providing personalized feedback to students, and tailoring assessment.

How does SmartBook work? Each SmartBook contains four

components: Preview, Read, Practice, and Recharge. Starting with an initial
preview of each chapter and key learning objectives, students read the material and are
guided to topics for which they need the most practice based on their responses to a
continuously adapting diagnostic. Read and Practice continue until SmartBook directs
students to recharge important material they are most likely to forget to ensure concept
mastery and retention.

Electronic Textbooks
This textbook is available as an eBook at www.CourseSmart.com. At CourseSmart, your
students can take advantage of signiicant savings off the cost of a print textbook, reduce
their impact on the environment, and gain access to powerful Web tools for learning.
CourseSmart eBooks can be viewed online or downloaded to a computer. The eBooks
allow students to do full text searches, add highlighting and notes, and share notes with
classmates. CourseSmart has the largest selection of eBooks available anywhere. Visit
www.CourseSmart.com to learn more and to try a sample chapter.

McGraw-Hill Create™
With McGraw-Hill Create, you can easily rearrange chapters, combine material from
other content sources, and quickly upload content you have written, like your course
syllabus or teaching notes. Find the content you need in Create by searching through
thousands of leading McGraw-Hill textbooks. Arrange your book to it your teaching
style. Create even allows you to personalize your book’s appearance by selecting the
cover and adding your name, school, and course information. Order a Create book, and
you’ll receive a complimentary print review copy in 3–5 business days or a complimentary
electronic review copy (eComp) via e-mail in minutes. Go to www.mcgrawhillcreate.com
today, and register to experience how McGraw-Hill Create empowers you to teach your
students your way.

The Connect site for this textbook includes a number of instructor and student resources,
including:
● A MultiSim Primer for those who want to get up and running with this popular
simulation software. The section is written to provide communications examples and
applications.
● MultiSim circuit iles for communications electronics.
● Answers and solutions to the text problems and lab activities and instructor Power-
Point slides, under password protection.
To access the Instructor Resources through Connect, you must irst contact your McGraw-
Hill Learning Technology Representative to obtain a password. If you do not know your
McGraw-Hill representative, please go to www.mhhe.com/rep, to ind your representative.
Once you have your password, go to connect.mheducation.com, and log in. Click
on the course for which you are using this textbook. If you have not added a course,
click “Add Course,” and select “Engineering Technology” from the drop-down menu.
Select Principles of Electronic Communication Systems, 4e and click “Next.”
Once you have added the course, Click on the “Library” link, and then click
“Instructor Resources.”

Preface xi
 Acknowledgments

My special thanks to McGraw-Hill editor Raghu Srinivasan for his continued support and
encouragement to make this new edition possible. Thanks also to Vincent Bradshaw and
the other helpful McGraw-Hill support staff, including Kelly Lowery and Amy Hill. It has
been a pleasure to work with all of you.
I also want to thank Nancy Friedrich of Microwaves & RF magazine and Bill
Baumann from Electronic Design magazine, both of Penton Media Inc., for permission
to use sections of my articles in updating chapters 20 and 21.
And my appreciation also goes out to those professors who reviewed the book and
offered your feedback, criticism, and suggestions. Thanks for taking the time to provide
that valuable input. I have implemented most of your recommendations. The following
reviewers looked over the manuscript in various stages, and provided a wealth of good
suggestions for the new edition:
Norman Ahlhelm Richard Fornes
Central Texas College Johnson College
David W. Astorino Billy Graham
Lorain County Community College Northwest Technical Institute
Noureddine Bekhouche Thomas Henderson
Jacksonville State University Tulsa Community College
Katherine Bennett Paul Hollinshead
The University of the Arts Cochise Community College
DeWayne R. Brown Joe Morales
North Carolina A&T State University Dona Ana Community College
Jesus Casas Jeremy Spraggs
Austin Community College Fulton-Montgomery Community College
Dorina Cornea Hasegan Yun Liu
Portland Community College Baltimore City Community College
Kenneth P. De Lucca
Millersville University

With the latest input from industry and the suggestions from those who use the book,
this edition should come closer than ever to being an ideal textbook for teaching current
day communications electronics.

Lou Frenzel
Austin, Texas
2014

xii
Guided Tour

Learning Features
The fourth edition of Principles of Electronic Communication Systems retains many of the popular
learning elements featured in previous editions, as well as a few new elements. These include:

chapter

2
Electronic Fundamentals
for Communications
Chapter Introduction
T o understand communication electronics as presented in this book, you
need a knowledge of certain basic principles of electronics, including the
Each chapter begins with a brief fundamentals of alternating-current (ac) and direct-current (dc) circuits,
semiconductor operation and characteristics, and basic electronic circuit
introduction setting the stage for what operation (amplifiers, oscillators, power supplies, and digital logic circuits).
Some of the basics are particularly critical to understanding the chapters
the student is about to learn. that follow. These include the expression of gain and loss in decibels, LC
tuned circuits, resonance and filters, and Fourier theory. The purpose of
this chapter is to briefly review all these subjects. If you have studied the
material before, it will simply serve as a review and reference. If, because
of your own schedule or the school’s curriculum, you have not previously
covered this material, use this chapter to learn the necessary information
before you continue.

Chapter Objectives Objectives

Chapter Objectives provide a concise After completing this chapter, you will be able to:
■ Calculate voltage, current, gain, and attenuation in decibels and
statement of expected learning out- apply these formulas in applications involving cascaded circuits.
■ Explain the relationship between Q, resonant frequency, and bandwidth.
comes. ■ Describe the basic configuration of the different types of filters that
are used in communication networks and compare and contrast
active filters with passive filters.
■ Explain how using switched capacitor filters enhances selectivity.
■ Explain the benefits and operation of crystal, ceramic, and SAW filters.
dBm. When ■theCalculate
gain or attenuation
bandwidth of aby
circuit
usingis Fourier
expressedanalysis.
in decibels, implicit is a
comparison between two values, the output and the input. When the ratio is computed,
the units of voltage or power are canceled, making the ratio a dimensionless, or relative,
30 figure. When you see a decibel value, you really do not know the actual voltage or
power values. In some cases, this is not a problem; in others, it is useful or necessary
to know the actual values involved. When an absolute value is needed, you can use Reference value
a reference value to compare any other value.
dBm
An often used reference level in communication is 1 mW. When a decibel value is
computed by comparing a power value to 1 mW, the result is a value called the dBm. It
Good To Know is computed with the standard power decibel formula with 1 mW as the denominator of
the ratio:
GOOD TO KNOW
Pout (W )
dBm 5 10 log
Good To Know statements, found in margins, 0.001(W )
From the standpoint of sound
measurement, 0 dB is the least
Here Pout is the output power, or some power value you want to compare to 1 mW, and
provide interesting added insights to topics 0.001 is 1 mW expressed in watts.
perceptible sound (hearing
threshold), and 120 dB equals the
The output of a 1-W ampliier expressed in dBm is, e.g.,
being presented. 1
pain threshold of sound. This list
shows intensity levels for com-
dBm 5 10 log 5 10 log 1000 5 10(3) 5 30 dBm
0.001 mon sounds. (Tippens, Physics,
Sometimes the output of a circuit or device is given in dBm. For example, if a micro- 6th ed., Glencoe/McGraw-Hill,
phone has an output of 250 dBm, the actual output power can be computed as follows: 2001, p. 497)
Pout Intensity
250 dBm 5 10 log
0.001 Sound level, dB
250 dBm Pout Hearing threshold 0
5 log
10 0.001 Rustling leaves 10
Therefore Whisper 20
Quiet radio 40
Pout
5 10250 dBm/10 5 1025 5 0.00001 Normal conversation 65

Examples 0.001
Pout 5 0.001 3 0.00001 5 1023 3 1025 5 1028 W 5 10 3 1029 5 10 nW
Busy street corner
Subway car
Pain threshold
80
100
120
Jet engine 140–160
Each chapter contains worked-out Examples
that demonstrate important concepts or circuit Example 2-10
operations, including circuit analysis, A power ampliier has an input of 90 mV across 10 kV. The output is 7.8 V across
an 8-V speaker. What is the power gain, in decibels? You must compute the input and
output power levels irst.
applications, troubleshooting, and basic design. 2

The Transmission of Binary Data in Communications Systems xiii


Online Activities
These sections give students the opportunity
to further explore new communications
techniques, to dig deeper into the theory,
and to become more adept at using the
Internet to ind needed information.
Problems
Students can obtain critical feedback by
performing the Practice Problems at the end
of the chapter. Answers to selected problems
are found at the end of the book.
Critical Thinking
A wide variety of questions and problems
are found at the end of each chapter; over
30 percent are new or revised in this edition.
Those include circuit analysis, trouble
shooting, critical thinking, and job interview
questions.
xiv ChapterTour
Guided 11
CHAPTER REVIEW
Online Activity
2-1 Exploring Filter Options
Objective: Examine several alternatives to LC and crystal
ilters.
Procedure:
1. Search on the terms dielectric resonator, mechanical
ilter, and ceramic ilter.
2. Look at manufacturer websites and examine speciic
products.
3. Print out data sheets as need to determine ilter types
and speciications.
4. Answer the following questions.
Questions
1. What happens to capacitive reactance as the frequency
of operation increases?
2. As frequency decreases, how does the reactance of a
coil vary?
3. What is skin effect, and how does it affect the Q of a
coil?
4. What happens to a wire when a ferrite bead is placed
around it?
5. What is the name given to the widely used coil form
that is shaped like a doughnut?
6. Describe the current and impedance in a series RLC
circuit at resonance.
7. Describe the current and impedance in a parallel RLC
circuit at resonance.
Problems
1. What is the gain of an ampliier with an output of
1.5 V and an input of 30 µV? ◆
2. What is the attenuation of a voltage divider like
that in Fig. 2-3, where R1 is 3.3 kV and R2 is
5.1 kV?
3. What is the overall gain or attenuation of the com-
bination formed by cascading the circuits described
in Problems 1 and 2? ◆
4. Three ampliiers with gains of 15, 22, and 7 are
cascaded; the input voltage is 120 µV. What are the
overall gain and the output voltages of each stage?
5. A piece of communication equipment has two
stages of ampliication with gains of 40 and 60 and
two loss stages with attenuation factors of 0.03 and
0.075. The output voltage is 2.2 V. What are the
overall gain (or attenuation) and the input volt-
age? ◆
Critical Thinking
90 Chapter 2
1. Explain how capacitance and inductance can exist in a
circuit without lumped capacitors and inductor compo-
nents being present.
2. How can the voltage across the coil or capacitor in a
series resonant circuit be greater than the source volt-
age at resonance?
3. What type of ilter would you use to prevent the harmon-
ics generated by a transmitter from reaching the antenna?
4. What kind of ilter would you use on a TV set to pre-
vent a signal from a CB radio on 27 MHz from interfer-
ing with a TV signal on channel 2 at 54 MHz?
5. Explain why it is possible to reduce the effective Q of a
parallel resonant circuit by connecting a resistor in par-
allel with it.
6. A parallel resonant circuit has an inductance of 800 nH,
a winding resistance of 3 V, and a capacitance of 15 pF.
Questions:
1. Name one manufacturer for each of the types of ilters
you studied.
2. What kinds of ilters did you ind? (LPF, HPF,
BPF, etc.)
3. What frequency range does each type of ilter cover?
4. Deine insertion loss and give typical loss factors for
each ilter type.
5. What are typical input and output impedances for each
ilter type?
8. State in your own words the relationship between Q
and the bandwidth of a tuned circuit.
9. What kind of ilter is used to select a single signal fre-
quency from many signals?
10. What kind of ilter would you use to get rid of an an-
noying 120-Hz hum?
11. What does selectivity mean?
12. State the Fourier theory in your own words.
13. Deine the terms time domain and frequency domain.
14. Write the irst four odd harmonics of 800 Hz.
15. What waveform is made up of even harmonics only?
What waveform is made up of odd harmonics only?
16. Why is a nonsinusoidal signal distorted when it passes
through a ilter?
6. Find the voltage gain or attenuation, in decibels, for
each of the circuits described in Problems 1
through 5.
7. A power ampliier has an output of 200 W and an
input of 8 W. What is the power gain in decibels? ◆
8. A power ampliier has a gain of 55 dB. The input
power is 600 mW. What is the output power?
9. An ampliier has an output of 5 W. What is its gain
in dBm? ◆
10. A communication system has ive stages, with
gains and attenuations of 12, 245, 68, 231, and
9 dB. What is the overall gain?
11. What is the reactance of a 7-pF capacitor at 2 GHz?
12. What value of capacitance is required to produce
50 V of reactance at 450 MHz?
13. Calculate the inductive reactance of a 0.9-µH coil
at 800 MHz.
Calculate (a) resonant frequency, (b) Q, (c) bandwidth,
(d) impedance at resonance.
7. For the previous circuit, what would the bandwidth be
if you connected a 33-kV resistor in parallel with the
tuned circuit?
8. What value of capacitor would you need to produce a
high-pass ilter with a cutoff frequency of 48 kHz with
a resistor value of 2.2 kV?
9. What is the minimum bandwidth needed to pass a peri-
odic pulse train whose frequency is 28.8 kHz and duty
cycle is 20 percent? 50 percent?
10. Refer to Fig. 2-60. Examine the various waveforms and
Fourier expressions. What circuit do you think might
make a good but simple frequency doubler?
 chapter

1
Introduction to Electronic
Communication
Objectives
After completing this chapter, you will be able to:
■ Explain the functions of the three main parts of an electronic com-
munication system.
■ Describe the system used to classify diferent types of electronic
communication and list examples of each type.
■ Discuss the role of modulation and multiplexing in facilitating signal
transmission.
■ Define the electromagnetic spectrum and explain why the nature of
electronic communication makes it necessary to regulate the electro-
magnetic spectrum.
■ Explain the relationship between frequency range and bandwidth
and give the frequency ranges for spectrum uses ranging from voice
to ultra-high-frequency television.
■ List the major branches of the field of electronic communication and
describe the qualifications necessary for diferent jobs.
■ State the benefit of licensing and certification and name at least
three sources.

1
Figure 1-1 Milestones in the history of electronic communication.

When? Where or Who? What?

1837 Samuel Morse Invention of the telegraph (patented

in 1844).
1843 Alexander Bain Invention of facsimile.
1866 United States and England The irst transatlantic telegraph cable laid.
1876 Alexander Bell Invention of the telephone.
1877 Thomas Edison Invention of the phonograph.
1879 George Eastman Invention of photography.
1887 Heinrich Hertz Discovery of radio waves.
(German)
1887 Guglielmo Marconi Demonstration of “wireless”
(Italian) communications by radio waves.
1901 Marconi (Italian) First transatlantic radio contact made.
1903 John Fleming Invention of the two-electrode vacuum tube
rectiier.
1906 Reginald Fessenden Invention of amplitude modulation;
irst electronic voice communication
demonstrated.
1906 Lee de Forest Invention of the triode vacuum tube.
1914 Hiram P. Maxim Founding of American Radio Relay League,
the irst amateur radio organization.
1920 KDKA Pittsburgh First radio broadcast.
1923 Vladimir Zworykin Invention and demonstration of television.
1933–1939 Edwin Armstrong Invention of the superheterodyne
receiver and frequency modulation.
1939 United States First use of two-way radio (walkie-talkies).
1940–1945 Britain, United Invention and perfection of radar
States (World War II).
1948 John von Neumann Creation of the irst stored program
and others electronic digital computer.
1948 Bell Laboratories Invention of transistor.
1953 RCA/NBC First color TV broadcast.
1958–1959 Jack Kilby (Texas Invention of integrated circuits.
Instruments) and
Robert Noyce
(Fairchild)
1958–1962 United States First communication satellite tested.
1961 United States Citizens band radio irst used.
1973–1976 Metcalfe Ethernet and irst LANs.
1975 United States First personal computers.
1977 United States First use of iber-optic cable.
1982 United States TCP/IP protocol adopted.
1982–1990 United States Internet development and irst use.
1983 United States Cellular telephone networks.
1993 United States First browser Mosaic.
1995 United States Global Positioning System deployed.
1996–2001 Worldwide First smartphones by BlackBerry, Nokia, Palm.
1997 United States First wireless LANs.
2000 Worldwide Third-generation digital cell phones.
2009 Worldwide First fourth-generation LTE cellular networks.
2009 Worldwide First 100 Gb/s iber optical networks.

2 Chapter 1
1-1 The Significance of Human
Communication
Communication is the process of exchanging information. People communicate to convey Communication
their thoughts, ideas, and feelings to others. The process of communication is inherent
to all human life and includes verbal, nonverbal (body language), print, and electronic
processes.
Two of the main barriers to human communication are language and distance.
Language barriers arise between persons of different cultures or nationalities.
Communicating over long distances is another problem. Communication between
early human beings was limited to face-to-face encounters. Long-distance communi-
cation was irst accomplished by sending simple signals such as drumbeats, horn
blasts, and smoke signals and later by waving signal lags (semaphores). When mes-
sages were relayed from one location to another, even greater distances could be
covered.
The distance over which communication could be sent was extended by the written
word. For many years, long-distance communication was limited to the sending of verbal
GOOD TO KNOW
or written messages by human runner, horseback, ship, and later trains. Marconi is generally credited with
Human communication took a dramatic leap forward in the late nineteenth century inventing radio, but he did not.
when electricity was discovered and its many applications were explored. The telegraph Although he was a key developer
was invented in 1844 and the telephone in 1876. Radio was discovered in 1887 and
and the first deployer of radio, the
demonstrated in 1895. Fig. 1-1 is a timetable listing important milestones in the history
real credit goes to Heinrich Hertz,
of electronic communication.
Well-known forms of electronic communication, such as the telephone, radio, TV, who first discovered radio waves,
and the Internet, have increased our ability to share information. The way we do things and Nicola Tesla, who first
and the success of our work and personal lives are directly related to how well we com- developed real radio applications.
municate. It has been said that the emphasis in our society has now shifted from that of
manufacturing and mass production of goods to the accumulation, packaging, and
exchange of information. Ours is an information society, and a key part of it is com-
munication. Without electronic communication, we could not access and apply the avail-
able information in a timely way.
This book is about electronic communication, and how electrical and electronic
principles, components, circuits, equipment, and systems facilitate and improve our abil-
ity to communicate. Rapid communication is critical in our very fast-paced world. It is
also addictive. Once we adopt and get used to any form of electronic communication,
we become hooked on its beneits. In fact, we cannot imagine conducting our lives or
our businesses without it. Just imagine our world without the telephone, radio, e-mail,
television, cell phones, tablets, or computer networking.

1-2 Communication Systems

All electronic communication systems have a transmitter, a communication channel or
medium, and a receiver. These basic components are shown in Fig. 1-2. The process of
communication begins when a human being generates some kind of message, data, or
other intelligence that must be received by others. A message may also be generated by
a computer or electronic current. In electronic communication systems, the message is Electronic communication systems
referred to as information, or an intelligence signal. This message, in the form of an Information
electronic signal, is fed to the transmitter, which then transmits the message over the
communication channel. The message is picked up by the receiver and relayed to another
human. Along the way, noise is added in the communication channel and in the receiver.
Noise is the general term applied to any phenomenon that degrades or interferes with Noise
the transmitted information.

Introduction to Electronic Communication 3

 Figure 1-2 A general model of all communication systems.

Free space (radio),

wire, fiber-optic cable, etc.
Information
or
Transmitter Communications Receiver
intelligence
(TX) channel or medium (RX)
(audio, video,
computer data, etc.)
Recovered
information and
intelligence

Transmitter
The irst step in sending a message is to convert it into electronic form suitable for
transmission. For voice messages, a microphone is used to translate the sound into an
Audio electronic audio signal. For TV, a camera converts the light information in the scene to
a video signal. In computer systems, the message is typed on a keyboard and converted
to binary codes that can be stored in memory or transmitted serially. Transducers convert
physical characteristics (temperature, pressure, light intensity, and so on) into electrical
signals.
Transmitter The transmitter itself is a collection of electronic components and circuits designed
to convert the electrical signal to a signal suitable for transmission over a given com-
munication medium. Transmitters are made up of oscillators, ampliiers, tuned circuits
and ilters, modulators, frequency mixers, frequency synthesizers, and other circuits. The
original intelligence signal usually modulates a higher-frequency carrier sine wave
generated by the transmitter, and the combination is raised in amplitude by power ampli-
iers, resulting in a signal that is compatible with the selected transmission medium.

Communication Channel
Communication channel The communication channel is the medium by which the electronic signal is sent from
one place to another. Many different types of media are used in communication systems,
including wire conductors, iber-optic cable, and free space.

Electrical Conductors. In its simplest form, the medium may simply be a pair of
wires that carry a voice signal from a microphone to a headset. It may be a coaxial cable
such as that used to carry cable TV signals. Or it may be a twisted-pair cable used in a
local-area network (LAN).

Optical Media. The communication medium may also be a fiber-optic cable or “light
pipe” that carries the message on a light wave. These are widely used today to carry
long-distance calls and all Internet communications. The information is converted to digi-
tal form that can be used to turn a laser diode off and on at high speeds. Alternatively,
audio or video analog signals can be used to vary the amplitude of the light.

Free Space. When free space is the medium, the resulting system is known as radio.
Wireless radio Also known as wireless, radio is the broad general term applied to any form of wireless
communication from one point to another. Radio makes use of the electromagnetic spec-
trum. Intelligence signals are converted to electric and magnetic fields that propagate
nearly instantaneously through space over long distances. Communication by visible or
infrared light also occurs in free space.

4 Chapter 1
Other Types of Media. Although the most widely used media are conducting cables
and free space (radio), other types of media are used in special communication systems.
For example, in sonar, water is used as the medium. Passive sonar “listens” for under-
water sounds with sensitive hydrophones. Active sonar uses an echo-reflecting technique
similar to that used in radar for determining how far away objects under water are and
in what direction they are moving.
The earth itself can be used as a communication medium, because it conducts elec-
tricity and can also carry low-frequency sound waves.
Alternating-current (ac) power lines, the electrical conductors that carry the power
to operate virtually all our electrical and electronic devices, can also be used as
communication channels. The signals to be transmitted are simply superimposed on or
added to the power line voltage. This is known as carrier current transmission or power Carrier current transmission
line communications (PLC). It is used for some types of remote control of electrical
equipment and in some LANs.

Receivers
A receiver is a collection of electronic components and circuits that accepts the Receiver
transmitted message from the channel and converts it back to a form understandable by
humans. Receivers contain ampliiers, oscillators, mixers, tuned circuits and ilters, and
a demodulator or detector that recovers the original intelligence signal from the modu-
lated carrier. The output is the original signal, which is then read out or displayed. It
may be a voice signal sent to a speaker, a video signal that is fed to an LCD screen for
display, or binary data that is received by a computer and then printed out or displayed
on a video monitor.

Transceivers
Most electronic communication is two-way, and so both parties must have both a
transmitter and a receiver. As a result, most communication equipment incorporates
circuits that both send and receive. These units are commonly referred to as transceivers. Transceiver
All the transmitter and receiver circuits are packaged within a single housing and
usually share some common circuits such as the power supply. Telephones, handheld
radios, cellular telephones, and computer modems are examples of transceivers.

Attenuation
Signal attenuation, or degradation, is inevitable no matter what the medium of transmis- Attenuation
sion. Attenuation is proportional to the square of the distance between the transmitter and
receiver. Media are also frequency-selective, in that a given medium will act as a low-pass
ilter to a transmitted signal, distorting digital pulses in addition to greatly reducing
signal amplitude over long distances. Thus considerable signal ampliication, in both the GOOD TO KNOW
transmitter and the receiver, is required for successful transmission. Any medium also Solar flares can send out storms of
slows signal propagation to a speed slower than the speed of light. ionized radiation that can last for a
day or more. The extra ionization in
Noise the atmosphere can interfere with
Noise is mentioned here because it is the bane of all electronic communications. Its effect communication by adding noise.
is experienced in the receiver part of any communications system. For that reason, we It can also interfere because the ion-
cover noise at that more appropriate time in Chapter 9. While some noise can be iltered ized particles can damage or even
out, the general way to minimize noise is to use components that contribute less noise disable communication satellites.
and to lower their temperatures. The measure of noise is usually expressed in terms of
The most serious X-class flares can
the signal-to-noise (S/N ) ratio (SNR), which is the signal power divided by the noise
power and can be stated numerically or in terms of decibels (dB). Obviously, a very high cause planetwide radio blackouts.
SNR is preferred for best performance.

Introduction to Electronic Communication 5

 1-3 Types of Electronic Communication
Electronic communications are classiied according to whether they are (1) one-way
(simplex) or two-way (full duplex or half duplex) transmissions and (2) analog or digital
signals.

Simplex
The simplest way in which electronic communication is conducted is one-way com-
Simplex communication munications, normally referred to as simplex communication. Examples are shown in
Fig. 1-3. The most common forms of simplex communication are radio and TV broad-
casting. Another example of one-way communication is transmission to a remotely con-
trolled vehicle like a toy car or an unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV or drone).

Figure 1-3 Simplex communication.

TV
set
TV
transmitter

(a ) TV broadcasting

Propeller Antenna

Motor

Camera

Radio control box

(b) Remote control

6 Chapter 1
Figure 1-4 Duplex communication. (a) Full duplex (simultaneous two-way). (b) Half duplex (one way at a time).

Transceiver Transceiver
Earphone
Microphone Microphone

Telephone system TX TX

Telephone Telephone

The medium or channel

RX RX

Microphone Speaker Speaker

(a) Full duplex (simultaneous, two-way) (b) Half duplex (one way at a time)

Full Duplex
The bulk of electronic communication is two-way, or duplex communication. Typical Duplex communication
duplex applications are shown in Fig. 1-4. For example, people communicating with one
another over the telephone can talk and listen simultaneously, as Fig. 1-4(a) illustrates.
This is called full duplex communication. Full duplex communication

Half Duplex
The form of two-way communication in which only one party transmits at a time is
known as half duplex communication [see Fig. 1-4(b)]. The communication is two-way, Half duplex communication
but the direction alternates: the communicating parties take turns transmitting and receiv-
ing. Most radio transmissions, such as those used in the military, ire, police, aircraft,
marine, and other services, are half duplex communication. Citizens band (CB), Family
Radio, and amateur radio communication are also half duplex.

Analog Signals
An analog signal is a smoothly and continuously varying voltage or current. Some Analog signal
typical analog signals are shown in Fig. 1-5. A sine wave is a single-frequency analog
signal. Voice and video voltages are analog signals that vary in accordance with the sound
or light variations that are analogous to the information being transmitted.

Digital Signals
Digital signals, in contrast to analog signals, do not vary continuously, but change in Digital signal
steps or in discrete increments. Most digital signals use binary or two-state codes. Some

Figure 1-5 Analog signals. (a) Sine wave “tone.” (b) Voice. (c) Video (TV) signal.

(a) (b) Sync pulse

Sync pulse
Light variation
along one
scan line
of video
(c)

Introduction to Electronic Communication 7


ASCII
Modulation
Multiplexing
GOOD TO KNOW
Multiplexing has been used in the
music industry to create stereo
sound. In stereo radio, two signals
are transmitted and received—
one for the right and one for the
left channel of sound. (For more
information on multiplexing,
see Chap. 10.)
8 Chapter 1
Figure 1-6 Digital signals. (a) Telegraph (Morse code). (b) Continuous-wave (CW)
code. (c) Serial binary code.
Mark Mark Mark
Space Mark ⫽ on; Space ⫽ off Space
(a )
Dot Dash Dot
The letter R
(b )
⫹5 V
1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1
0V
(c)
examples are shown in Fig. 1-6. The earliest forms of both wire and radio communica-
tion used a type of on/off digital code. The telegraph used Morse code, with its system of
short and long signals (dots and dashes) to designate letters and numbers. See Fig. 1-6(a).
In radio telegraphy, also known as continuous-wave (CW) transmission, a sine wave
signal is turned off and on for short or long durations to represent the dots and dashes.
Refer to Fig. 1-6(b).
Data used in computers is also digital. Binary codes representing numbers, letters, and
special symbols are transmitted serially by wire, radio, or optical medium. The most com-
monly used digital code in communications is the American Standard Code for Information
Interchange (ASCII, pronounced “ask key”). Fig. 1-6(c) shows a serial binary code.
Many transmissions are of signals that originate in digital form, e.g., telegraphy
messages or computer data, but that must be converted to analog form to match the
transmission medium. An example is the transmission of digital data over the tele-
phone network, which was designed to handle analog voice signals only. If the digi-
tal data is converted to analog signals, such as tones in the audio frequency range, it
can be transmitted over the telephone network.
Analog signals can also be transmitted digitally. It is very common today to take
voice or video analog signals and digitize them with an analog-to-digital (A /D) converter.
The data can then be transmitted eficiently in digital form and processed by computers
and other digital circuits.
1-4 Modulation and Multiplexing
Modulation and multiplexing are electronic techniques for transmitting information efi-
ciently from one place to another. Modulation makes the information signal more
compatible with the medium, and multiplexing allows more than one signal to be trans-
mitted concurrently over a single medium. Modulation and multiplexing techniques are
basic to electronic communication. Once you have mastered the fundamentals of these
techniques, you will easily understand how most modern communication systems work.
Baseband Transmission
Before it can be transmitted, the information or intelligence must be converted to an
electronic signal compatible with the medium. For example, a microphone changes voice
signals (sound waves) into an analog voltage of varying frequency and amplitude. This
signal is then passed over wires to a speaker or headphones. This is the way the telephone
system works.
A video camera generates an analog signal that represents the light variations along one
scan line of the picture. This analog signal is usually transmitted over a coaxial cable. Binary
data is generated by a keyboard attached to a computer. The computer stores the data and
processes it in some way. The data is then transmitted on cables to peripherals such as a
printer or to other computers over a LAN. Regardless of whether the original information
or intelligence signals are analog or digital, they are all referred to as baseband signals.
In a communication system, baseband information signals can be sent directly and
unmodiied over the medium or can be used to modulate a carrier for transmission over
the medium. Putting the original voice, video, or digital signals directly into the medium
is referred to as baseband transmission. For example, in many telephone and intercom Baseband transmission
systems, it is the voice itself that is placed on the wires and transmitted over some dis-
tance to the receiver. In most computer networks, the digital signals are applied directly
to coaxial or twisted-pair cables for transmission to another computer.
In many instances, baseband signals are incompatible with the medium. Although it
is theoretically possible to transmit voice signals directly by radio, realistically it is
impractical. As a result, the baseband information signal, be it audio, video, or data, is
normally used to modulate a high-frequency signal called a carrier. The higher-frequency Carrier
carriers radiate into space more eficiently than the baseband signals themselves. Such
wireless signals consist of both electric and magnetic ields. These electromagnetic sig-
nals, which are able to travel through space for long distances, are also referred to as
radio-frequency (RF) waves, or just radio waves. Radio-frequency (RF) wave

Broadband Transmission
Modulation is the process of having a baseband voice, video, or digital signal modify
another, higher-frequency signal, the carrier. The process is illustrated in Fig. 1-7. The
information or intelligence to be sent is said to be impressed upon the carrier. The carrier
is usually a sine wave generated by an oscillator. The carrier is fed to a circuit called a
modulator along with the baseband intelligence signal. The intelligence signal changes
the carrier in a unique way. The modulated carrier is ampliied and sent to the antenna
for transmission. This process is called broadband transmission. Broadband transmission
Consider the common mathematical expression for a sine wave:
υ 5 Vp sin (2πft 1 θ) or υ 5 Vp sin (ωt 1 θ)
where υ 5 instantaneous value of sine wave voltage
Vp 5 peak value of sine wave
f 5 frequency, Hz
ω 5 angular velocity 5 2πf
t 5 time, s
ωt 5 2π ft 5 angle, rad (360° 5 2π rad)
θ 5 phase angle

Figure 1-7 Modulation at the transmitter.

Baseband signal

Microphone Amplifier Modulated carrier

Voice Modulator
or Antenna
other
intelligence
High-frequency carrier
oscillator

Power amplifier

Introduction to Electronic Communication 9

Figure 1-8 Types of modulation. (a) Amplitude modulation. (b) Frequency modulation.

Sinusoidal modulating wave (intelligence)

V Sinusoidal modulating signal (intelligence)

0
Time

Time

Amplitude-modulated wave

Time Time

Varying
Sinusoidal frequency Frequency-
unmodulated sinusoidal modulated
carrier wave carrier wave

(a) (b)

Amplitude modulation (AM)
Frequency modulation (FM)
Phase modulation (PM)
Frequency-shift keying (FSK)
Phase-shift keying (PSK)
Modems
The three ways to make the baseband signal change the carrier sine wave are to vary
its amplitude, vary its frequency, or vary its phase angle. The two most common meth-
ods of modulation are amplitude modulation (AM) and frequency modulation (FM). In
AM, the baseband information signal called the modulating signal varies the amplitude
of the higher-frequency carrier signal, as shown in Fig. 1-8(a). It changes the Vp part of
the equation. In FM, the information signal varies the frequency of the carrier, as shown
in Fig. 1-8(b). The carrier amplitude remains constant. FM varies the value of f in the
irst angle term inside the parentheses. Varying the phase angle produces phase modula-
tion (PM). Here, the second term inside the parentheses (θ) is made to vary by the
intelligence signal. Phase modulation produces frequency modulation; therefore, the PM
signal is similar in appearance to a frequency-modulated carrier. Two common examples
of transmitting digital data by modulation are given in Fig. 1-9. In Fig. 1-9(a), the data
is converted to frequency-varying tones. This is called frequency-shift keying (FSK). In
Fig. 1-9(b), the data introduces a 180º-phase shift. This is called phase-shift keying
(PSK). Devices called modems (modulator-demodulator) translate the data from digital
to analog and back again. Both FM and PM are forms of angle modulation.
At the receiver, the carrier with the intelligence signal is ampliied and then demod-
ulated to extract the original baseband signal. Another name for the demodulation process
is detection. (See Fig. 1-10.)

Figure 1-9 Transmitting binary data in analog form. (a) FSK. (b) PSK.

Binary data 1 0 1

High-frequency
Low-frequency tone
sine wave or tone
(a)

180° phase shifts

(b)

10 Chapter 1
Figure 1-10 Recovering the intelligence signal at the receiver.

Modulated
signal

AF power
RF amplifier
Demodulator amplifier
or
detector
Speaker

Multiplexing
The use of modulation also permits another technique, known as multiplexing, to be used.
Multiplexing is the process of allowing two or more signals to share the same medium
or channel; see Fig. 1-11. A multiplexer converts the individual baseband signals to a
composite signal that is used to modulate a carrier in the transmitter. At the receiver, the
composite signal is recovered at the demodulator, then sent to a demultiplexer where the
individual baseband signals are regenerated (see Fig. 1-12).
There are three basic types of multiplexing: frequency division, time division, and
code division. In frequency-division multiplexing, the intelligence signals modulate sub- Frequency-division multiplexing
carriers on different frequencies that are then added together, and the composite signal
is used to modulate the carrier. In optical networking, wavelength division multiplexing
(WDM) is equivalent to frequency-division multiplexing for optical signal.
In time-division multiplexing, the multiple intelligence signals are sequentially sam- Time-division multiplexing
pled, and a small piece of each is used to modulate the carrier. If the information signals
are sampled fast enough, suficient details are transmitted that at the receiving end the
signal can be reconstructed with great accuracy.
In code-division multiplexing, the signals to be transmitted are converted to digital
data that is then uniquely coded with a faster binary code. The signals modulate a carrier
on the same frequency. All use the same communications channel simultaneously. The
unique coding is used at the receiver to select the desired signal.

Figure 1-11 Multiplexing at the transmitter.

Composite or Antenna
multiplexed
signal
Multiple
baseband Multiplexer Modulator
intelligence (MUX)
signals
RF
Carrier power
oscillator amplifier

TX

Figure 1-12 Demultiplexing at the receiver.

Antenna
Recovered
RF composite
amplifier signal
Recovered
Demultiplexer baseband
Demodulator (DEMUX) signals

RX

Introduction to Electronic Communication 11

 1-5 The Electromagnetic Spectrum
Electromagnetic waves are signals that oscillate; i.e., the amplitudes of the electric and
magnetic ields vary at a speciic rate. The ield intensities luctuate up and down, and
the polarity reverses a given number of times per second. The electromagnetic waves
vary sinusoidally. Their frequency is measured in cycles per second (cps) or hertz (Hz).
These oscillations may occur at a very low frequency or at an extremely high frequency.
The range of electromagnetic signals encompassing all frequencies is referred to as the
Electromagnetic spectrum electromagnetic spectrum.
All electrical and electronic signals that radiate into free space fall into the electro-
magnetic spectrum. Not included are signals carried by cables. Signals carried by cable
may share the same frequencies of similar signals in the spectrum, but they are not radio
signals. Fig. 1-13 shows the entire electromagnetic spectrum, giving both frequency and
wavelength. Within the middle ranges are located the most commonly used radio fre-
quencies for two-way communication, TV, cell phones, wireless LANs, radar, and other
applications. At the upper end of the spectrum are infrared and visible light. Fig. 1-14
is a listing of the generally recognized segments in the spectrum used for electronic
communication.

Frequency and Wavelength

A given signal is located on the frequency spectrum according to its frequency and
wavelength.

Frequency Frequency. Frequency is the number of times a particular phenomenon occurs in a

given period of time. In electronics, frequency is the number of cycles of a repetitive
wave that occurs in a given time period. A cycle consists of two voltage polarity rever-
sals, current reversals, or electromagnetic field oscillations. The cycles repeat, forming a
continuous but repetitive wave. Frequency is measured in cycles per second (cps). In
electronics, the unit of frequency is the hertz, named for the German physicist Heinrich
Hertz, who was a pioneer in the field of electromagnetics. One cycle per second is equal
to one hertz, abbreviated (Hz). Therefore, 440 cps 5 440 Hz.
Fig. 1-15(a) shows a sine wave variation of voltage. One positive alternation and one
negative alternation form a cycle. If 2500 cycles occur in 1 s, the frequency is 2500 Hz.

Figure 1-13 The electromagnetic spectrum.

1026 m (violet)

Radio waves
1026 m (red)
1026 m (1 micron)

Wavelength
1021 m

1022 m

1023 m

1024 m

1025 m
107 m

106 m

105 m

104 m

103 m

102 m

10 m

1m

0.7

0.4

X-rays,
gamma rays,
ELF VF VLF LF MF HF VHF UHF SHF EHF
cosmic rays,
etc.
300 MHz

300 GHz

3 THz

30 THz

Infrared Ultraviolet
300 kHz

30 MHz

30 GHz
300 Hz

30 kHz

3 MHz

3 GHz

Visible
30 Hz

3 kHz

light

The optical
Frequency spectrum
Millimeter
waves

12 Chapter 1
Figure 1-14 The electromagnetic spectrum used in electronic communication.

Name Frequency Wavelength

Extremely low frequencies
(ELFs) 30–300 Hz 107⫺106 m
Voice frequencies (VFs) 300–3000 Hz 106⫺105 m
Very low frequencies (VLFs) 3–30 kHz 105⫺104 m
Low frequencies (LFs) 30–300 kHz 104⫺103 m
Medium frequencies (MFs) 300 kHz–3 MHz 103⫺102 m
High frequencies (HFs) 3–30 MHz 102⫺101 m
Very high frequencies (VHFs) 30–300 MHz 101⫺1 m
Ultra high frequencies (UHFs) 300 MHz–3 GHz 1⫺10⫺1 m
Super high frequencies (SHFs) 3–30 GHz 10⫺1⫺10⫺2 m
Extremely high frequencies
(EHFs) 30–300 GHz 10⫺2⫺10⫺3 m PIONEERS
Infrared — 0.7⫺10 ␮m
OF ELECTRONICS
The visible spectrum (light) — 0.4⫺0.8 ␮m
In 1887 German physicist
Units of Measure and Abbreviations:
kHz ⫽ 1000 Hz Heinrich Hertz was the first to
6
MHz ⫽ 1000 kHz ⫽ 1 ⫻ 10 ⫽ 1,000,000 Hz demonstrate the effect of
6
GHz ⫽ 1000 MHz ⫽ 1 ⫻ 10 ⫽ 1,000,000 kHz
9
⫽ 1 ⫻ 10 ⫽ 1,000,000,000 Hz electromagnetic radiation through
m ⫽ meter
1 space. The distance of trans-
␮m ⫽ micrometer ⫽ m ⫽ 1 ⫻ 10⫺6 m
1,000,000 mission was only a few feet, but
this transmission proved that
radio waves could travel from one
Preixes representing powers of 10 are often used to express frequencies. The most place to another without the need
frequently used preixes are as follows:
for any connecting wires. Hertz
k 5 kilo 5 1000 5 103 also proved that radio waves,
M 5 mega 5 1,000,000 5 106 although invisible, travel at the
G 5 giga 5 1,000,000,000 5 109 same velocity as light waves.
T 5 tera 5 1,000,000,000,000 5 1012 (Grob/Schultz, Basic Electronics,
9th ed., Glencoe/McGraw-Hill,
Thus, 1000 Hz 5 1 kHz (kilohertz). A frequency of 9,000,000 Hz is more commonly
expressed as 9 MHz (megahertz). A signal with a frequency of 15,700,000,000 Hz is 2003, p. 4)
written as 15.7 GHz (gigahertz).

Wavelength. Wavelength is the distance occupied by one cycle of a wave, and it Wavelength
is usually expressed in meters. One meter (m) is equal to 39.37 in (just over 3 ft, or

Figure 1-15 Frequency and wavelength. (a) One cycle. (b) One wavelength.

Positive alteration
1 wavelength

0
Time (t), seconds Distance, meters

⫺
Negative alteration
1 cycle 1 wavelength
(a) (b)

Introduction to Electronic Communication 13

 1 yd). Wavelength is measured between identical points on succeeding cycles of a
wave, as Fig. 1-15(b) shows. If the signal is an electromagnetic wave, one wavelength
is the distance that one cycle occupies in free space. It is the distance between adjacent
peaks or valleys of the electric and magnetic fields making up the wave.
Wavelength is also the distance traveled by an electromagnetic wave during the time
of one cycle. Electromagnetic waves travel at the speed of light, or 299,792,800 m/s.
The speed of light and radio waves in a vacuum or in air is usually rounded off to
300,000,000 m/s (3 3 108 m /s), or 186,000 mi/s. The speed of transmission in media
such as a cable is less.
The wavelength of a signal, which is represented by the Greek letter λ (lambda), is
computed by dividing the speed of light by the frequency f of the wave in hertz:
λ 5 300,000,000/f. For example, the wavelength of a 4,000,000-Hz signal is
λ 5 300,000,000/4,000,000 5 75 m
If the frequency is expressed in megahertz, the formula can be simpliied to
λ(m) 5 300/f (MHz) or λ(ft) 5 984 f (MHz).
The 4,000,000-Hz signal can be expressed as 4 MHz. Therefore λ 5 300/4 5 75 m.
A wavelength of 0.697 m, as in the second equation in Example 1-1, is known as
Very high frequency signal a very high frequency signal wavelength. Very high frequency wavelengths are
wavelength sometimes expressed in centimeters (cm). Since 1 m equals 100 cm, we can express the
wavelength of 0.697 m in Example 1-1 as 69.7, or about 70 cm.

Example 1-1
Find the wavelengths of (a) a 150-MHz, ( b) a 430-MHz, (c) an 8-MHz, and
(d) a 750-kHz signal.
300,000,000 300
a. λ 5 5 52m
150,000,000 150
300
b. λ 5 5 0.697 m
430
300
c. λ 5 5 37.5 m
8
d. For Hz (750 kHz 5 750,000 Hz):
300,000,000
λ5 5 400 m
750,000
For MHz (750 kHz 5 0.75 MHz):
300
λ5 5 400 m
0.75

If the wavelength of a signal is known or can be measured, the frequency of the

signal can be calculated by rearranging the basic formula f 5 300/λ. Here, f is in mega-
hertz and λ is in meters. As an example, a signal with a wavelength of 14.29 m has a
frequency of f 5 300/14.29 5 21 MHz.

14 Chapter 1
Another random document with
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on the mainland, near Littleton Island. The figures proved to be
Eskimos; and through the agency of Eskimo Joe, who was on board
the Tigress, it was soon ascertained that Captain Buddington had
deserted the Polaris on the day after her separation from the floe;
that he and his companions had erected a house on the mainland,
and wintered therein; had fitted it up with sleeping-berths for fourteen
men, the full number, and furnished it with stove, table, chairs, and
other articles removed from the abandoned ship; that during the
winter the party had built and equipped a couple of sailing-boats; and
that “about the time when the ducks begin to hatch” they had
departed for the south.
 SAVED!
The Eskimo chief, or leader, added that Captain Buddington had
made him a present of the Polaris; but that the gift proved of no
effect, for in a violent gale she broke loose from the ice, drifted out
into the channel, and foundered.
Further search brought the crew of the Tigress to the winter-
camp of the Polaris crew. It was situated in lat. 78° 23’ N., and long.
73° 46’ W. Some manuscripts were found there, with the log-book,
the medical stores, and remains of instruments; and these, with
whatever else that seemed of intrinsic value, having been removed
on board the Tigress, the expedition bore away to the southward,
and on the 16th of October reached St. John’s, Newfoundland,
where they received the welcome intelligence of the rescue of the
Polaris party under the circumstances we shall now relate.
We return to the eventful night of the 15th of October 1872.
During the tremendous gale that then raged along the Arctic coast,
the bow-hawser of the Polaris snapped like a “pack-thread,” the
anchors slipped, and the ship drifted away into the darkness. The
wind forced her in a north-easterly direction; and next morning those
on board found her “a little north of Littleton Island, in Smith Sound,
having been exactly abreast of Sutherland Island during a portion of
the night.”
As she was leaking rapidly the pumps were set to work; and the
fires with much difficulty being lighted, the ship was got to obey her
helm. It was then found that the following officers and men remained
on board:—Captain Buddington; Mr. Chester, chief mate; William
Merton, second mate; Emil Schuman, chief engineer; Odell,
assistant-engineer; Campbell and Booth, firemen; Coffin, carpenter;
Sieman, Hobby, Hays, and Manch, seamen; Dr. Emil Bessel,
meteorologist; and Mr. Bryan, astronomer and chaplain.
A look-out was kept, it is said, for the nineteen who were missing,
but no signs of them being discovered, Captain Buddington came to
the comfortable conclusion that they had saved themselves in the
boats. Doubting the feasibility of carrying the Polaris to the
southward, he determined to abandon her, and winter on shore. With
this view she was run in as near land as possible, and finally
grounded in Kane’s Life-boat Cove, lat. 78° 23’ 30″ N., and long. 73°
21’ W. Here, on the 17th of October, Captain Buddington prepared to
establish a winter-camp; and the next few days were occupied in
removing from the stranded vessel all the food and fuel, and such
articles as could conduce to the comfort and sustenance of the party
through the ensuing winter.
With spars, bulk-heads, and canvas brought from the Polaris a
commodious house was erected, measuring twenty-two feet in
length, and fourteen feet in width. It was thoroughly water-tight;
warmed inside by a stove; and banked outside with masses of
compact snow. In the interior the sides were lined with fourteen
sleeping-berths. A table and chairs and lamps added to the general
comfort; so that our explorers were prepared to brave a Polar winter
under more favourable conditions than those experienced by most
Arctic navigators.
In the course of a few days a party of native Eskimos, with five
sledges, made their appearance, and their friendly labours were
found of no little value. They considered themselves amply repaid by
a few presents of knives, needles, and the like, and after a short stay
returned to their settlement at Etah. However, others soon took their
place; and eventually two or three families built their igloes in the
neighbourhood of the American camp. The Eskimo women made
themselves very useful by making and repairing clothing, and
rendering other feminine courtesies; while the men, when game
became plentiful, supplied the little settlement with a welcome
abundance of fresh meat. Nor was this the only advantage derived
from the presence of the Eskimos; on the contrary, it had an
excellent effect on the morale of the men, who did not feel that utter
isolation, that sense of being cut off from human companionship, and
separated from the rest of the world, which is one of the severest
trials of wintering in the Arctic regions. The heavy pressure of the
long, dark Polar night was wonderfully lightened by the kindly
attentions and mirthful society of the Eskimos.
It is probable that some of the Polaris crew never spent a happier
winter. There was no want of food, no suffering from cold; their
quarters were warm, cheerful, and well-lighted. Time did not hang
heavily on their hands; for when the house-work was done, when the
fires were replenished, the lamps trimmed, and the day’s provisions
cooked, they amused themselves with reading or writing, or played
at chess, draughts, and cards. It is true they had no communication
with the world without, and no intelligence could reach them from
friends or kinsmen; but, surgit amari aliquid—in the cup of human
happiness a bitter drop is always found!
 When the worst of the winter was past, they began, under the
direction of the carpenter, to construct a couple of boats, with the
view of returning homeward as soon as the ice broke up. Each was
twenty-five feet long, square fore and aft, and five feet beam;
capable, that is, of carrying seven men, with provisions for about two
months, in which time they might reasonably calculate on reaching
the civilized settlements. It was the end of May before the condition
of the ice enabled them to set out. Then they broke up their camp,
rewarded their Eskimo friends, carried on board stores and
provisions; and, finally, early on the morning of the 1st of June they
bade farewell to their winter-home, and sailed out into the waters of
Smith Sound.
Their voyage was unmarked by any disastrous incident, and
presents a strange contrast to the dangerous experiences of Tyson
and his companions. Wherever they landed, they obtained an
abundant supply of aquatic birds, seal, and other game. They were
all in good health, well-fed, well-clothed. Their boats were sound and
strong. The winter had long passed away, and the glorious summer
sun poured its full radiance on the calm surface of the Arctic sea.
Sailing pleasantly along, they touched at Hakluyt Island, and
subsequently landed on the west shore of Northumberland Island.
The pack-ice detained them there until the 10th. They then entered a
water-way toward Cape Parry, but were subsequently forced back by
the ice to the place whence they had started. On the 12th the
channel was clearer. They set sail again; crossed the southern part
of Murchison Sound; doubled Cape Parry; and halted for rest and
refreshment on Blackwood Point, near Fitz Clarence Rock. Thence
they made, in due succession, for Wolstenholme Island, and Cape
York,—names which recall the adventures of the earlier explorers.
Their course now assumed a more difficult character, as they had
come face to face with the ice of Melville Bay,—that great expanse of
Arctic waters which is surrounded by glacier-loaded shores, and has
always been a favourite “whaling-ground.” Here they encountered
some difficulty with the “pack;” the “leads,” or water-ways, curiously
intersecting one another, and striking far into the ice, and so closing
up that it was often necessary to haul their boats across a kind of
promontory, or tongue, from one lead to another. Their troubles,
however, were of brief duration. On the twentieth day after leaving
Life-boat Cove, they sighted a steamer, beset in the ice, at a
distance of thirty or thirty-five miles from Cape York. She could not
come to them, it was true, but they could go to her; and this they
prepared to do. They had not traversed half the distance, however,
before they met a body of eighteen men from the ship; for they too
had been seen, and recognized as white men, and relief immediately
despatched. The friendly vessel proved to be the Ravenscraig of
Dundee, Captain Allen, lying in lat. 75° 38’ N., and long. 65° 35’ W.
It was now found, according to the narrative of the expedition,
that the relief did not come much too soon, for the boats had been
considerably injured by contact with the rough hummocky ice. And
the fatigue of hauling them over such a surface may be inferred from
the fact that it took the Polaris crew, with their eighteen relief-men
from the Ravenscraig, six hours to reach the latter vessel. The
difficulty was increased by a deep slushy snow, which lay thick upon
the ice, and which was not only heavy and disagreeable to the
wayfarer, but exceedingly dangerous, as more than one found by
sinking into the pitfalls it treacherously concealed.
But they reached the Ravenscraig at midnight, and received a
hearty welcome from Captain Allen, who was able also to
communicate the grateful intelligence that their comrades, the little
company sent adrift on the ice-raft, were all in safety.
It has been well said that the Polaris expedition proved curiously
prolific of startling and exciting incidents. From the time when
Captain Bartlett of the Tigress rescued the “exhausted waifs” of the
ice-floe, until the last scene in this romantic drama was enacted, the
public mind had been kept in a condition of continual expectancy by
the progress of events connected with the story of these Arctic
explorers. The lamentable death of Captain Hall,—the long voyage
on the ice-floe through the gloom of the Polar night,—the return of
the nineteen castaways after so many hairbreadth escapes and
wonderful adventures,—the departure of the Tigress,—the discovery
of Buddington’s winter-camp,—and now the rescue of him and his
crew by the Dundee whaler, formed a series of surprising and
exciting events, which, if not of epical interest, would certainly seem
to furnish matter for a poet’s song. Even the early annals of Arctic
exploration, with their narratives of the achievements and sufferings
of Hudson, Davis, Barentz, present no incidents of a more
remarkable character. As men dwelt upon them, they came to
acknowledge that the “age of romance” was not ended yet.
On the 18th of September 1873, the Arctic whaling-steamer
arrived at Dundee with eleven of the Polaris survivors, who had been
transferred to her from the Ravenscraig, as the latter was not
homeward bound. Three others reached America in the Intrepid; and
thus the expedition of the Polaris terminated without any loss of life,
if we except the unfortunate death of her enthusiastic commander,
Captain Hall.
It added nothing, it is true, to our geographical knowledge of the
Arctic World; and yet it was not without some useful results. The
Polaris, at all events, approached nearer to the North Pole than any
one of her predecessors; and men of science were thenceforth
justified in asserting that the hope of complete success was no
longer chimerical. The distance to the pole from the point reached by
the Polaris was comparatively so trivial, as to afford good reason for
believing that it would not long baffle human resolution and
enterprise. Then, again, it was established as a fact beyond doubt
that Europeans could securely winter in a latitude of 81° 38’; that a
ship well built and well equipped might push northward as far as 82°
16’; and that no insuperable obstacles to its further advance could
then be detected. It was also shown that the temperature, even in
lat. 82°, was not of a nature to overcome the energy and enthusiasm
of men accustomed to life and adventure in the Arctic World. These
data, so conclusively established by experience, constituted a
source of great encouragement to future navigators, and permit the
conclusion that the Polaris expedition, with all its disasters and
mismanagement, helped forward the great work of discovering the
North Pole.
“We now know,” says Mr. Markham, “that the American vessel
commanded by Captain Hall passed up the strait, in one working
season, for a direct distance of two hundred and fifty miles, without a
check of any kind, reaching lat. 82° 16’ N.; and that at her furthest
point the sea was still navigable, with a water-sky to the northward.”
The Polaris, however, was nothing better than a river-steamer of
small power, ill adapted for encountering the perils of Arctic
navigation,—with a crew, all told, of thirty men, women, and children,
including eight Eskimos. If she could accomplish such a voyage
without difficulty, and could attain so high a latitude, it was
reasonable to anticipate that a properly equipped English expedition,
under equally favourable circumstances, would do, not only as
much, but much more, and carry the British flag into the waters of
the circumpolar sea, if such existed. With this view, the Admiralty
fitted out the Alert and the Discovery, under Captains Nares and
Stephenson. Every precaution that science could suggest was
adopted to ensure the completeness of their equipment; and the two
ships, accompanied as far as Disco by H.M.S. Valorous as a tender,
left England on the 29th May 1875.

The British Expedition, consisting of the Alert and the Discovery,

did not succeed in all it was intended to accomplish; and yet it can
hardly be spoken of as a failure. It did not reach that conventional
point of geographers, the North Pole, but it penetrated within four
hundred miles of it; and it ascertained the exact nature of the
obstacles which render access impossible, except under conditions
not at present in existence. We agree with a thoughtful writer in the
Spectator that this was a most important service rendered both to
Science and the State. We now know that by the Smith Sound route
a ship may attain to within 450 miles of the Pole; and that,
afterwards, a journey about as long as from London to Edinburgh
must be undertaken, in a rigorous climate, with the thermometer 50°
below zero, over ice packed up into hillocks and hummocks which
render sledge-travelling almost impracticable, or practicable only by
hewing out a path with the pickaxe at the rate of a mile and a half a
day. And further: the work would have to be begun and completed in
four months, or, from lack of light and warmth, it could not be done at
all. These are serious difficulties, and whether it is worth while for
men to encounter them, where the gain would be problematical, we
need not here inquire. Before any attempt can be made, some
provision must be discovered for protecting those who make it
against the excessive cold, and for a surer and swifter mode of
conveyance than the sledge affords. The journalist to whom we have
referred speculates that science may furnish future expeditions with
undreamt-of resources,—with portable light and heat, for instance,
from the newly-discovered mines at Disco; preventives against
scurvy; electric lights; supplies of dynamite for blowing up the ice;
and a traction-engine to traverse the road thus constructed; but, in
the meantime, these appliances are not at our command. We must
be content with the measure of success achieved by Captain Nares
and his gallant followers.
And these well deserve the gratitude of all who think the fame
and honour of a nation are precious possessions. They have shown
clearly that the “race” has not degenerated; that Englishmen can do
and suffer now as they did and suffered in the old time. They
displayed a courage and a fortitude of truly heroic proportions. And
the experiences of Arctic voyaging are always of a nature to require
the highest courage and the sternest fortitude. The long Arctic night
is in itself as severe a test of true manhood as can well be devised.
The miner works under conditions for less laborious than those to
which the Arctic explorer submits, for he enjoys an alternation of light
and darkness; his underground toil lasts but for a few hours at a
time. Yet we know that it tries a man’s manly qualities sorely! What,
then, must it be to keep brave and cheerful and true throughout a
prolonged night of one hundred and forty-two days—that apparently
endless darkness, almost the darkness of a sunless world?
We know, too, that continuous work, without relaxation, for month
after month, will break down the nerves and shatter the intellect of
the strongest. Yet we read that the men of the Alert toiled like slaves,
on one occasion, for seventy-two days, in cold so extreme that the
reader can form no conception of its severity, and with the dread
constantly hanging over them of that terrible and most depressing
disease, scurvy. Owing to their inability to procure any fresh game,
as most former expeditions had done, each of the extended sledge-
parties, when at their farthest distance from any help, was attacked
by it. The return-journeys were, therefore, a prolonged homeward
struggle of men who grew weaker at every step, the available force
to draw the sledge continually decreasing, and the weight to be
dragged as steadily increasing, as, one after another, the men
stricken down had to be carried by their enfeebled comrades.
It has been well said that in such exploits as these there is a
sustained heroism which we cannot fully appreciate, because we
cannot fully realize the terrible character of the sacrifices involved.
But it is comparatively easy for us to understand, and therefore to
admire, the courage of Lieutenant Parr, when he started alone on a
journey of thirty-five miles, with no other guide for his adventurous
steps than the fresh track of a wandering wolf over the ice and snow,
in order to carry help and comfort to his failing comrades. It is easy
to understand, and therefore to admire, the devotion of Mr. Egerton
and Lieutenant Rawson, when, at the imminent risk of their own
lives, they nursed Petersen, the interpreter, while travelling from the
Alert to the Discovery, with the temperature 40° below zero.
Petersen, who had accompanied them with the dog-sledge, fell ill;
and with a noble unselfishness they succeeded in retaining heat in
the poor fellow’s body by alternately lying one at a time alongside of
him, while the other by exercise was recovering his own vital
warmth. We can also acknowledge and admire the constancy of
Captain Nares, who, in that horrible climate, lived thirty-six days in
the “crow’s-nest,” while his ship laboured among the grinding,
shivering, crushing ice, until exhaustion overcame him. And we can
acknowledge and admire the bravery and faithfulness of the men of
the sledge-parties who, for days and weeks, drew the sledges and
their comrades, with gloom above and around them, ice and snow
everywhere bounding the prospect, and in a temperature which
seemed to freeze the blood and benumb the heart.
What a tale, says a writer in the Times, what a tale of unrequited
suffering it is! Surely not “unrequited;” for those who suffered,
suffered at the call of duty, and have been rewarded by the approval
of their countrymen, and by the consciousness of having done
something great, of not having lived in vain. “How lightly do all talk of
glory; how little do they know what it means! The little army had to
cut its way through the ice-barriers, dragging heavily-laden sledges,
and going to and fro, the whole force being often required for each
sledge, content to make a mile and a quarter a day, in pursuit of an
object still four hundred miles off, through increasing difficulties, and
with barely five months, or one hundred and fifty days, wherein to go
and return. The labour is a dreadful reality; the scheme itself a
nightmare, the phantasy of a disordered brain. Even the smaller and
subsidiary expedition for planting a depôt last autumn cost three
amputations. The cold was beyond all former experience for intensity
and length, and the physical effect of a long winter spent in the ships
under such conditions is particularized as one reason why the men
were less able to endure cold, labour, and the want of proper food.
Every one of the expeditions, whatever the direction, came back in
the saddest plight,—some dragging the rest, and in one case only
reaching the ship through the heroism of an officer pushing on many
miles alone to announce his returning comrades, and to procure the
aid by which alone they were saved from destruction. These are
episodes, but they are the matter which redeems the story and
makes its truest value. They tell us what Englishmen will do on
occasions beyond our feeble home apprehensions, when once they
have accepted a call, and are in duty bound.”

At the time we write no elaborate record of the expedition has

been published, and the materials of the following sketch are
collected therefore from various narratives which have appeared in
the daily journals. We shall begin by endeavouring to place before
the reader, with the assistance of Mr. Clements R. Markham, a rapid
summary of what the expedition accomplished. And then we shall
describe its more interesting incidents.
 The object of Captain Nares and his followers was to discover
and explore as considerable a portion of the unknown area in the
Polar Regions as was possible with reference to the means at their
disposal, and to the positions the vessels succeeded in reaching as
starting-points. The theories about open Polar basins and navigable
waters which once obtained have long been discarded by practical
Arctic geographers. A coast-line, however, is needful as a means of
progress to “the threshold of work;” and it is needful, too, in order to
secure the desired results of Arctic discovery in the various
departments of scientific inquiry.
The expedition, then, in the first place, had to force its way
through the ice-encumbered channel which connects Baffin Bay with
the Polar Ocean; a channel which successively bears the names of
Smith Sound, Kane Basin, Kennedy Channel, Hall Basin, and
Robeson Strait. Smith Sound opens out of Baffin Bay between
Capes Alexander and Isabella. The Alert and the Discovery passed
these famous headlands and entered the Sound on July 29, 1875;
and from that date until September 1, when the Alert crossed the
Threshold of the Unknown Region, they fought one continuous battle
with the ice. The Polaris, it is true, had made a rapid passage on the
occasion of its memorable voyage; but the circumstances were
exceptional. Generally the Sound is blocked up by heavy floes, with
winding waters caused by the action of wind and tide. With great
difficulty our two ships forced the barrier; but their success was due
in no small measure to the skill and vigilance of Captain Nares, who
allowed himself no rest until they were out of danger. At length, after
many hairbreadth escapes, and many laborious nights and days,
and much energy and devotion on the part of the officers, and equal
courage and industry on the part of the men, the expedition reached
the north shore of Lady Franklin Inlet, and found a safe, commodious
harbour in lat. 81° 44’ N. Here the Discovery took up her winter
quarters, as had previously been arranged; and the Alert, after a
brief interval of repose, continued her northward progress.
This she was enabled to do through the opportune opening up of
a water-lane between the shore and the ice. Bravely she dashed
ahead, rounded Cape Union, so named by the men of the Polaris
expedition, and entered the open Polar Ocean. Then, in lat. 82° 20’
N., the white ensign was hoisted on board a British man-of-war in a
latitude further north than the ship of any nation had reached before.
Soon afterwards the solid masses of the Polar pack-ice began to
close around the adventurous vessel; and on the 3rd of September
1875, the Alert was fast fixed in her winter quarters, on the ice-bound
shore of the inhospitable Polar Sea in lat. 82° 27’ N.
This, says Mr. Markham,[11] was the first grand success; and it
assured the eventual completion of the work. For, owing to the
admirable seamanship of Captain Nares, and to the zeal and
devotion of the officers and crew, the Alert had been carried across
the Threshold, and was within the Unknown Region. A point of
departure was thus obtained, which rendered certain the
achievement of complete success; inasmuch as in whatever
direction the sledge-parties travelled, valuable discoveries could not
fail to be the result.
The autumnal excursions, during which depôts of provisions were
established for use in the work of the coming spring, were not
performed without a very considerable amount of suffering.
Lieutenant May and two seamen were so severely frost-bitten, that,
to save their lives, amputation was found necessary.
As will be seen from the latitude given, the ships wintered further
north than any ships had ever previously wintered. The cold
exceeded anything previously registered, and darkness extended
over a dreary period. The winter, however, was not spent idly:
observatories were erected, and a mass of valuable scientific data
industriously accumulated.
“But the crowning glories of this ever-memorable campaign
were,” as Mr. Markham exclaims, “achieved during the spring.” Three
main sledge-expeditions were organized: one, under Commander
Markham and Lieutenant Parr, instructed to keep due north, as far as
possible, into the newly-discovered Polar Ocean; another, under
Lieutenant Aldrich, to explore the American coast, westward; and the
third, under Lieutenant Beaumont of the Discovery, to survey the
north coast of Greenland, facing eastward. Each party consisted of
two sledges; and the six, with their gallant crews, set out on the 3rd
of April 1876, determined to vindicate and maintain the reputation of
British seamen. They separated at Cape Joseph Henry; and before
they again met, this was what they achieved:—
Commander Markham and Lieutenant Parr pushed northward as
far as lat. 83° 20’ 26″ N.; being the most northerly point which any
explorers have attained. They may therefore be fairly and justly
regarded as “the Champions” of Arctic Discovery, until some
successors, more fortunate than they, shall surpass their glorious
feat.
Lieutenant Aldrich struck westward; rounded Cape Colombia in
lat. 83° 7’ N.; and explored 220 miles of the American coast-line,
previously not laid down on any map.
Lieutenant Beaumont crossed Robeson Strait, and surveyed the
northern coast of Greenland for about seventy miles.
“In order,” it is said, “that these three main parties might do their
work successfully, every soul in the two ships was actively
employed. The depôt and relieving parties did most arduous work,
and the officers vied with each other in promoting the objects of the
expedition, while the most perfect harmony and unanimity prevailed.
Captain Feilden and Mr. Hart were especially active in making
natural history collections; and Lieutenants Giffard, Archer, Rawson,
Egerton, and Conybeare did admirable work in exploring and
keeping open communications.” When the sledge-parties returned to
the ships, Captain Nares found that they had suffered terribly; but he
also found that their success had been complete. They had solved a
geographical problem; no open sea surrounded the Pole, as so
many sanguine spirits had anticipated. The way northward was over
a waste of ice—of ice broken up into hummocks and ponderous
masses. And with the appliances they possessed further progress
was impossible; the expedition had reached its ne plus ultra.
The work was done, and Captain Nares perceived that nothing
more could be gained, while valuable lives might be lost by
remaining longer in the Polar Ocean. He decided upon returning to
England, with the following rich results to show as the reward of an
heroic enterprise:—
First, the expedition had discovered a great Polar Ocean, a
knowledge of which cannot fail to prove of exceeding value to the
hydrographer. Next, the shores of this ocean had been explored
along fifty degrees of longitude, and important collections formed of
specimens of the Arctic fauna, flora, and geology. The channel
connecting the Polar Ocean with Smith Sound had also been
carefully surveyed, and an accurate delineation effected of either
shore. Geological discoveries of high value had also been made; as,
for example, that of the former existence of an evergreen forest in
lat. 82° 44’ N.,—a fact significant of vast climatic changes. And,
lastly, interesting observations in meteorology, magnetism, tidal and
electric phenomena, and spectrum analysis had been carefully
recorded. The expedition of 1875–76 must, therefore, in view of
these results, be classed among the most successful which ever
adventured into Arctic waters; though it failed, like its predecessors,
to gain the North Pole.

The Alert and the Discovery left the shores of England in May
1875. After a voyage of five weeks’ duration they arrived at Lievely,
the port of Disco Island, on the west coast of Greenland. This small
settlement numbers about ninety-six inhabitants, Danes and
Eskimos,—generally speaking, a mixed race. The Danish Inspector
of North Greenland resides here, and he received the expedition with
a salute from three brass cannon planted in front of his house. There
is a well-conducted school, attended by about sixteen children; and a
small church, where the schoolmaster reads the Lutheran service on
Sundays,—the priest coming over from Upernavik occasionally, to
perform marriages, christenings, and other religious services.
The Alert having taken on board thirty Eskimo dogs and a driver,
the expedition left Disco at one o’clock on July 16th, and next
morning reached Kiltenbunto, about thirty miles further north.
 Kiltenbunto is a little island in the Strait of Weigattet, between
Disco and the mainland. Here the Discovery took on board thirty
dogs; and shooting-parties from both ships made a descent on a
“loomery,” or “bird-bazaar,” frequented by guillemots, kittiwakes, and
other ocean-birds. Two or three days later the expedition arrived at a
settlement named Proven, where it was joined by the Eskimo dog-
driver, Hans Christian, the attendant of Kane, Hayes, and Hall, in
their several expeditions. At Proven the adventurers received and
answered their last letters from “home.”
Striking northward through Baffin Bay, they reached Cape York
on the 25th of July, and met with a company of the misnamed Arctic
Highlanders, who traversed the ice-floes in their dog-sledges, and
soon fraternized with the seamen. A narwhal having been
harpooned, a quantity of the skin and blubber was given to these
Eskimos. Mr. Hodson, the chaplain of the Discovery, describes them
as exceedingly greedy and barbarous, eating whatever fell in their
way, but living chiefly upon seals. They were not so far advanced in
civilization as to be able to construct kayacks, and apparently they
had never before seen Europeans. They wore trousers of bear-skin,
and an upper garment of seal-skin.
Proceeding northward by Dr. Kane’s Crimson Cliffs, they soon
reached that brave explorer’s celebrated winter quarters, Port
Foulke, and took advantage of a day’s delay to visit the Brother John
Glacier. They found Dr. Kane’s journal, but no relics; shot a reindeer,
and a large number of birds.
Between Melville Bay and the entrance to Smith Sound no ice
was met with; but on the 30th of July the “pack” was sighted, off
Cape Sabine, in lat. 78° 41´ N. Here, at Port Payer, the ships were
fast held by the ice for several days. An attempt to proceed further
northward was made to the west of the islands in Hayes Sound; but
the water-way not leading in the right direction, the ships returned.
On the 6th of August they made a fresh start, and thenceforward
maintained an uninterrupted struggle with the ice. The Alert led the
way, with Captain Nares in her “crow’s-nest,” anxiously looking out
for practicable channels. At Cape Frazer the huge solid mass again
delayed them. Then they succeeded in crossing Kennedy Channel to
the east side, and taking shelter in Petermann Fiord—so named
after the great German geographer. After a few days they again
pushed northward; and on the 25th of August, after many narrow
escapes from being crushed in the ice, a well-sheltered harbour
received them, on the west side of Hall Basin, north of Lady Franklin
Sound, in lat. 81° 44´ N. This was at once selected as the winter
quarters of the Discovery. Her sister-ship, continuing her course,
rounded the north-east point of Grant Land; but instead of falling in
with a continuous coast-line, stretching one hundred miles further
towards the north, as all had anticipated, found herself on the border
of what was evidently a very extensive sea, with impenetrable ice on
every side. As no harbour could be found, the ship was secured as
far north as possible, inside a kind of embankment of grounded ice
close to the land. There she passed the winter; and during the
eleven months of her detention no navigable water-way, through
which she could move further to the north, presented itself.
Far from meeting with the “great Polar Sea” dreamed of by Kane
and Hayes, our adventurers discovered that the ice-barrier before
them was unusually thick and solid. It looked as if composed of
floating icebergs which had gradually been jammed and welded
together. Henceforth it will be known on our maps as the
Palæocrystic Sea, or Sea of Ancient Ice; and a stranded mass of ice
disrupted from an ice-floe is to be termed a floeberg.
Ordinary ice does not exceed ten feet in thickness; but in the
Polar Sea, generation after generation, layer has been
superimposed on layer, until the whole mass measures from eighty
feet to one hundred and twenty feet; it floats with its surface nowhere
less than fifteen feet above the water-line. It was this wonderful
thickness which prevented the Alert from driving ashore. Owing to its
great depth of flotation, sixty feet to one hundred feet, the mass
grounded on coming into shallow water, and formed a breakwater
within which the ship was comparatively secure. “When two pieces
of ordinary ice are driven one against the other, and the edges
broken up, the crushed pieces are raised by the pressure into a high,
long, wall-like hedge of ice. When two of the ancient floes of the
Polar Sea meet, the intermediate lighter broken-up ice which may
happen to be floating about between them alone suffers; it is
pressed up between the two closing masses to a great height,
producing a chaotic wilderness of angular blocks of all shapes and
sizes, varying in height up to fifty feet above water, and frequently
covering an area upwards of a mile in diameter.”

We must now return to the Discovery. As soon as she had taken

up her winter quarters, her crew began to unload her, landing the
boats, stores, and spare spars, and otherwise preparing for the
winter. The first day ashore they shot a herd of eleven musk-oxen. A
few days afterwards the sea was frozen all round the ship, so that
they could freely move to and fro about the ice. A week later they
saw a large number of musk-oxen, and shot about forty—thus laying
in a considerable supply of provisions.
Their winter port, which was surrounded by snow-clad hills, about
two thousand feet high, they christened Discovery Harbour.
As soon as the sea was completely frozen over, the sledging-
parties were organized and duly despatched; but as the autumn was
rapidly passing, very little could be done in this direction. The usual
preparations on the part of Arctic explorers were then made for
“hybernating.” Houses were built; also a magnetic observatory and a
theatre of ice—recalling the glittering edifice constructed by
Catherine II. of Russia on the Neva, and celebrated by Cowper in the
well-known lines,—
“No forest fell
When thou wouldst build, no quarry sent its stores
To enrich thy walls; but thou didst hew the floods,
And make thy marble of the glassy wave.”

A smithy was erected on the 11th of November, being the first the
Arctic ice had ever borne. Its roof was made of coal-bags, cemented
with ice. The ship’s stoker reigned supreme in it as blacksmith; and
when we consider the accessories,—the ice, the snow, the darkness,
—we must admit that his blazing forge must have made a curious
picture. The chaplain tells us, humorously, that the smith adorned the
interior wall with a good many holes, as each time that his iron
wanted cooling he simply thrust it into the ice!
As for the theatre, which, as we know, has always been a
favourite source of amusement with Arctic explorers when winter-
bound, it was sixty feet long and twenty-seven feet broad; and, in
honour of the Princess of Wales, was named “The Alexandra.” Her
birthday was selected as the day of opening—December 1st; and
the opening piece was a popular farce—“My Turn Next.” As sailors
are generally adepts at dramatic personations, we may conceive that
the piece “went well,” and that the different actors received the
applause they merited. It is recorded that foremost among them was
the engineer, Mr. Miller, who appears to have been, emphatically, the
Polar Star. Several of the men sung songs; and recitations, old and
new, were occasionally introduced; the result of the whole being to
divert the minds and keep up the spirits of the ship’s company during
the long, long Arctic night.
The Fifth of November and its time-honoured associations were
not forgotten. A huge bonfire blazed on the ice; a “Guy Fawkes” was
manufactured and dressed in the most approved fashion; and the
silence of the frozen solitudes was broken by the sounds of a grand
display of fireworks and the cheering of the spectators.
A fine level promenade had been constructed on the ice, about a
mile in length, by sweeping away the snow; and this served as a
daily exercise ground. A skating-rink was also constructed. A free
hole in the ice, for the sake of better ventilation, was carefully kept
up. Whenever it closed, through a process of gradual congelation,
the ice-saws were set in motion to open it up again, or it was blasted
with gunpowder. The dogs lived on the ice-floe all the winter. It must
not be thought that the cold was uniform day after day. Probably it is
not the low temperature so much as the variable temperature that
makes an Arctic winter so very trying to the European. In a few hours
the change would be no less than 60°. The cold reached its height—
or depth—in winter, when the thermometer marked 70½° below zero;
the greatest cold ever experienced by any Polar expedition. It is
difficult for the human frame to bear up against this excess of rigour,
even with the help of good fires, good food, and good clothing. Not
only the physical but the mental faculties are debilitated and
depressed.
Our ice-bound seamen, however, managed to keep Christmas
merrily. Early on the day so dear to Christian memories “the waits”
went their usual rounds,—a sergeant of marines, the chief
boatswain’s mates, and three other volunteers,—singing Christmas
carols, and making “a special stay outside the captain’s cabin.” In the
forenoon prayers were said on the lower deck; after which the
captain and officers visited the men’s mess, tasting the Christmas
pudding, and examining the tasteful decorations which had been
improvised. Then the gifts which, in anticipation of the day, had been
sent out by kindly English hearts, were distributed by the captain,—
to each gift the name of the recipient having been previously
attached. This was an affecting scene; and hearty, though not
without a touch of pathos in them, were the cheers given as the
distribution took place; a distribution recalling so many “old familiar
faces,” and all the sweet associations and gentle thoughts of home!
Cheers were also raised for the captain and men of the far-away
Alert. Next, a choir was formed, and echo resounded with the strains
of “O the Roast Beef of Old England!” of which, no doubt, many of
the singers entertained a very affectionate remembrance. The men
dined at twelve and the officers at five, and the day seems in every
respect to have been most successful as a festival.
A few particulars of the “situation” may here be given in the
chaplain’s own words:—“We had brought fish, beef, and mutton from
England,” he says, “all of which we hung up on one of the masts,
and it was soon as hard as a brick, and perfectly preserved. We had
also brought some sheep from England with us, and they were killed
from time to time. When we arrived in Discovery Bay, as we called it,
six of them were alive; but on being landed they were worried by the
dogs, and had to be slaughtered. During the winter the men had to
fetch ice from a berg about half a mile distant from the ship, in order
to melt it for fresh water.”