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Building the Classical World
Building
the Classical World
Bauforschung as a Contemporary Approach
Edited by
D O R IA N B O R B O N U S
AND
E L I SHA A N N DUM SE R
Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers
the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education
by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trade mark of Oxford University
Press in the UK and certain other countries.
ISBN 978–0–19–069052–6
DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780190690526.001.0001
1 3 5 7 9 8 6 4 2
Printed by Integrated Books International, United States of America
Contents
Index 271
List of Figures
To locate the full citation for a publication, please refer to the bibliography of the chapter
in which the illustration appears.
Cover: Baalbek, Temple of Jupiter, view from the south. Photograph by Daniel Lohmann.
Figure 0.1 Athens, Acropolis, Erechtheion as drawn by Stuart and Revett. From Stuart
and Revett 1787, pl. 21. 4
Figure 0.2 Athens, Acropolis, Erechtheion as drawn by Stuart and Revett. From Stuart
and Revett 1787, pl. 18. 5
Figure 0.3 Edfoù (Apollinopolis Magna). From Description de l’Egypte 1821, I. pl. 48. 6
Figure 0.4 Babylon, “The Trench West of the South Citadel under Excavation.” From
Koldewey 1913, 132 fig. 83. 8
Figure 1.1 Rome, Upper Subura with Clivus Suburanus. a: Porticus Liviae, b: Sanctuary
of Juno Lucina, c: Anio Vetus, d: Porta Esquilina, e: Lacus Orphei, f: Shrine
of Mercury. Drawing by author. 26
Figure 1.2 Rome, Porta Esquilina, west face. Photograph by author. 32
Figure 1.3 Rome, Shrine of Mercury, state plan. Drawing by author. 33
Figure 1.4 Rome, Shrine of Mercury, hypothetical reconstruction of the Republican
shrine. Drawing by author. 34
Figure 1.5 The three known inscriptions belonging to Augustan New Year’s
dedications. Drawing by author. 35
Figure 1.6 Detail of statue base with unfinished mortise on upper face.
Photograph by author. 36
Figure 1.7 Rome, Shrine of Mercury, reconstruction drawing of the Augustan shrine
with game boards visible on the precinct floor adjacent to the statue base.
Drawing by author. 37
Figure 2.1 Minturnae, aerial photograph taken after the main excavation in 1932.
Courtesy of the Penn Museum, image #3671. 44
Figure 2.2 Minturnae, façade of the area sacra as seen from the Via Appia in the 2nd
century ce. Author’s reconstruction drawn by V. Hinz and S. Franz. 44
Figure 2.3 Sketch of the aqueduct at Minturnae by J. W. von Goethe in 1787 (inv. no.
GGz/0346, Bestand Museen, Klassik Stiftung Weimar). Courtesy of the
Klassik Stiftung Weimar, Bestand Museen, Inv-Nr.: GGz/0346. 45
Figure 2.4 Minturnae, castellum aquae above the city gate. Author’s reconstruction
drawn by V. Hinz and S. Franz. 46
Figure 2.5 Minturnae, aqueduct piers with brick markers indicated by an arrow.
Illustration by T. Strellen. 47
viii List of Figures
Figure 6.7 Athens, Tower of the Winds, general scheme of the roof which had an
octagonal pyramid on the exterior and a dome-like cone on the interior.
Drawing by author. 113
Figure 6.8 Athens, Tower of the Winds, upper zone of the chamber with an interior
epistyle as shown in a physical model of the tower. Drawing by author. 114
Figure 6.9 Athens, Tower of the Winds, diagram showing both the distinct joints of
final slab (no. 24) as well as its divergence from the center point of the roof.
Drawing by author. 115
Figure 7.1 Rome, Pantheon, section of entry hall drawn by Palladio. From Palladio
1570, 77. 119
Figure 7.2 Rome, Pantheon, longitudinal section of the entry hall drawn by Palladio.
From Palladio 1570, 76. 120
Figure 7.3 Rome, Pantheon, detail of entry hall truss as drawn by Palladio. From
Palladio 1570, 77. 121
Figure 7.4 Kibyra, Odeion, demolition material of the truss. Photograph by author. 122
Figure 7.5 Kibyra, Odeion. Drawing by author based on documentation by Burdur
University. 122
Figure 7.6 Kibyra, Odeion, roof covering. Photograph by author. 123
Figure 7.7 Kibyra, Odeion, large iron belt. Photograph by author. 124
Figure 7.8 Kibyra, Odeion, large iron belt. Drawing by author. 125
Figure 7.9 Kibyra, Odeion, function of the large iron belt. Drawing by author. 125
Figure 7.10 Kibyra, Odeion, smaller iron belt. Photograph by author. 126
Figure 7.11 Kibyra, Odeion, function of the small iron belt. Drawing by author. 127
Figure 7.12 Kibyra, Odeion, fragments of a U-shaped iron belt. Photograph by author. 127
Figure 7.13 Kibyra, Odeion, reconstruction of a U-shaped iron belt. Drawing by author. 128
Figure 7.14 Kibyra, Odeion, fragments of bands and fittings. Photograph by author. 128
Figure 7.15 Athens, Odeion of Herodes Atticus, reconstruction of the main roof
construction. Courtesy of the Technische Universität Braunschweig. 129
Figure 7.16 Rome, Temple of Mars Ultor drawn by Palladio. From Palladio 1570, 19. 130
Figure 7.17 Rome, Pantheon, entry hall truss as drawn by Angiolo Pasinelli. From
Pasinelli 1747, pl. II–III. 131
Figure 8.1 Drawings of the two vaulting systems discussed. A: nozzle-type vaulting
tubes. B: ribs of armchair voussoirs spanned by tiles. Drawing by author. 135
Figure 8.2 Map showing distribution of vaulting tubes and vaulting pots in kilns. Map
by author. 135
Figure 8.3 Plans of bath buildings mentioned in the text (drawn to the same scale). a:
Fregellae. b: Morgantina. c: Cabrera de Mar. d: Baetulo. e: Olbia. f: Gaujac.
Drawing by author, based on (a) Tsiolis 2013, fig. 2; (b) Lucore 2013, fig. 6;
(c) Martín 2000, fig. 1; (d) Guitart Durán 1976; (e) Bouet 2006, fig. 2; and (f)
Charmasson 2003, fig. 6 and Bouet 2003, fig. 78. 136
Figure 8.4 Chart showing development of vaulting tube typology and vaulting pots.
Place names underlined indicate Christian contexts. Illustration by author. 137
List of Figures xi
Figure 8.5 Map showing distribution of armchair voussoirs. Map by author. 138
Figure 8.6 Vault made of terracotta bars with detail of bars found at the Republican
baths at Fregellae, Italy (3rd–2nd century bce) and a similar type bar found
at a workshop in Massa (late 2nd–mid 1st century bce). All measurements
indicated in meters. Drawing by author, based on Tsiolis 2001; Tsiolis 2006;
details of Massa bar provided by E. J. Shepherd. 139
Figure 8.7 Cabrera de Mar, Bath, author’s reconstruction of the caldarium ceiling of
vaulting tubes (mid-2nd century bce). Rendering by author. 141
Figure 8.8 Baetulo, Baths, reconstruction of terracotta ceiling of the caldarium (first
half of 1st century bce). All measurements indicated in meters. Drawing
by author, based on Guitart Durán 1976, fig. 9; photographs by author, with
permission of Museum of Badalona, Badalona, Spain. 142
Figure 8.9 Baetulo, Baths, details of the ribs formed of terracotta tiles from the
caldarium ceiling (first half of 1st century bce), showing alterations to
notches in the H-shaped rib tiles required by the inappropriate angle of
the voussoirs (top left). Drawing by author; photographs by author, with
permission of Museum of Badalona, Badalona, Spain. 143
Figure 8.10 Early examples of armchair voussoirs. A: Terracotta workshop at Vingone,
Italy. B: Bath B at Gaujac, France. C: North Baths at Olbia. Drawing by
author, based on (A) Shepherd 2008, fig. 182; (B) Bouet 1999, fig. 50d; and
(C) Bouet 1999, fig. 54c. 144
Figure 9.1 Side, Temple of Dionysus, west side of the podium seen from the northwest.
Photograph by author. 153
Figure 9.2 Map of Side indicating the position of the Temple of Dionysus between
the theater in the southeast, the colonnaded street in the west, and the
monumental arch in the northeast. Drawing by author, based on Mansel
1963 and Mansel 1978. 153
Figure 9.3 Side, Temple of Dionysus, schematic plan of the architectural finds with
the four main phases: (1) initial Late Hellenistic temple in dark gray;
(2) extension of the podium to the north due to the construction of the
theater in the first half of the 2nd century ce in medium gray; (3) Late
Roman flight of stairs in the north in light gray; and (4) Early Byzantine
installations in very light gray. Plan by author. 155
Figure 9.4 Side, Temple of Dionysus, schematic site plan illustrating how the temple
was affected by the construction of the theater. Left: Late Hellenistic temple
mapped onto the theater’s substructures. Right: possible rebuilding in the
2nd century ce. Drawing by author, based on Büyükkolancı 2008, fig. 1. 156
Figure 9.5 Side, Temple of Dionysus, trench 1/10 at the east side of the podium.
The white arrow indicates a mark on the theater’s substructure left by the
podium’s foot profile. Photograph by author. 157
Figure 9.6 Side, Temple of Dionysus, well-crafted antique repairs of the podium.
Left: A broken podium panel was fixed with an extra set of clamps; the white
arrows indicate additional clamp holes. Right: Two blocks of the euthynteria
that have apparently been replaced by new ones. Photographs by author. 158
xii List of Figures
Figure 9.7 Side, Temple of Dionysus, extension of the podium to the north. Left: trench
2/11. A white arrow highlights where the initial eastern corner panel of the
podium has an anathyrosis where the initial northern panel was attached
to it. Right: Two podium panels of the extension with deep primary and
shallow secondary clamp holes. Photographs by author. 159
Figure 9.8 Side, Temple of Dionysus, hypothetical reconstruction of the rebuilding in
the first half of the 2nd century ce. Plan by author. 160
Figure 9.9 Side, Temple of Dionysus, trench 1/12. Photograph by author. 162
Figure 10.1 Baalbek, Temple of Jupiter, view from the south. Photograph by Daniel
Lohmann. 171
Figure 10.2 Baalbek, Sheikh Abdallah quarry. During a recent joint excavation project
between the German Archaeological Institute and Lebanese University
underneath the “Hajjar el-Hibla” megalith, another megalith weighing
c. 1,600 tons was discovered. Photograph by J. Abdul Massih. 173
Figure 10.3 Baalbek, Sanctuary of Jupiter, architectural development. Phase I: time of
Herod; Phase II: early imperial; Phase III: 2nd century ce; Phase IV: late
2nd–3rd century ce. After Lohmann 2014b, figs. 163, 171, 178 and 188. 174
Figure 10.4 Baalbek, Temple of Jupiter, building elements with their weights in tons.
After Wiegand 1921, pl. 22. 176
Figure 10.5 Baalbek, Temple of Bacchus, doorway with 120-ton lateral lintel blocks.
After Wiegand 1923, 19 fig. 35k. 178
Figure 10.6 Baalbek, map of quarries with proposed transportation route for the huge
megaliths. Photograph by author, after de Jong 2014, 47 fig. 53. 179
Figure 10.7 Baalbek, Sheikh Abdallah quarry, second megalith. Photograph by author. 179
Figure 10.8 Baalbek, map of Sheikh Abdallah quarry with the hypothetical
relocation of large blocks from the Temple of Jupiter. Map from Abdul
Massih 2014, 55 fig. 67. 180
Figure 10.9 Ragette’s proposed machinery to lower the blocks at the building site with
lewises, pulleys, and capstans. Drawing from Ragette 1980, 118–19. 181
Figure 10.10 Hypothetical reconstruction of a mechanism to lower blocks at the building
site using sandbags. a: Block arriving at building site on sledges and rollers.
Preparing of rectangular peg holes. b: Transferring the load of the blocks
by ropes and beams to lateral sand baskets. Smoothing of the lower surface
after sledges and rollers were removed. c: Lowering the blocks by carefully
opening the sand baskets. Drawing by author. 182
Figure 11.1 Early plans. The Toumba building is highlighted and labeled “Lefkandi.”
Drawing by authors. 191
Figure 11.2 Doric temple plans. The temple at Corfu is highlighted and labeled
“Kerkyra, Artemis.” Drawing by authors. 192
Figure 11.3 Lefkandi, Toumba building, plan, projection, and section.
After J.J. Coulton, in Popham et al. 1993, Pl. 28, fig. 1, with the plan as
presented in Herdt 2015, fig. 2. 193
Figure 11.4 Lefkandi, Toumba building, sections (a) after Coulton and (b) authors’
alternative proposal. Drawing by G. Herdt. 194
List of Figures xiii
Figure 11.5 Greek architectural models. From Wilson Jones 2014a, fig. 2.9. 196
Figure 11.6 Lefkandi, Toumba building, 3D reconstruction.
Reconstruction by G. Herdt and J. Tredinnick. 197
Figure 11.7 Nikoleika, apsidal building. Drawing by Kolia 2011, fig. 46; used with
permission. 198
Figure 11.8 Corfu, Temple of Artemis, octastyle front with 15 triglyphs as restored by
Hans Schleif. From Schleif 1940, Taf. 26. 200
Figure 11.9 Corfu, Temple of Artemis, octastyle front with 15 triglyphs as restored by
Hans Schleif, with surviving elements shaded in blue. Drawing by G. Herdt
after Schleif 1940, Taf. 26. 201
Figure 11.10 Corfu, Temple of Artemis, excavation documentation: section and state
plan. From Schleif 1940, section from Abb. 6 and plan from Taf. 22. 201
Figure 11.11 Corfu, Temple of Artemis, plan as restored by Schleif. From Schleif 1940,
Abb. 39. 202
Figure 11.12 Corfu, Temple of Artemis, sections through pediment and roof:
(a) according to Schleif; (b) extrapolated from Schleif in another part
of the pediment; (c) alternative reconstruction proposed by the authors.
(a) From Schleif 1940, Abb. 92; (b) and (c) drawings by G. Herdt. 202
Figure 11.13 Corfu, Temple of Artemis, section through krepis and pteron:
(top) according to Schleif; (bottom) alternative proposed by the authors.
(Top) from Schleif 1940: Abb. 12; (bottom) drawing by G. Herdt. 204
Figure 11.14 Corfu, Temple of Artemis, detail of the krepis, with corner and part
of the middle shown in plan and in elevation. Plan from Schleif 1940,
detail of Taf. 22; and elevation by G. Herdt. 205
Figure 11.15 Corfu, Temple of Artemis, possible front elevations with narrower width
than supposed by Schleif: (a) option with eight columns and 13 triglyphs;
(b) option with six columns; and (c) option with seven columns. Drawings
by G. Herdt. 206
Figure 11.16 Early Doric temples with triglyphs not aligning over columns:
(a) Temple of Apollo at Syracuse; (b) old Tholos at Delphi; and
(c) Monopteros at Delphi revised to show likely relationship between
the epistyle blocks and column axes. (a) and (b) Drawings by G. Herdt;
(c) drawing by M. Wilson Jones. 208
Figure 11.17 Corfu, Temple of Artemis, comparative plans, all drawn at the same
scale: (a) plan with eight-column front and central nave after Schleif;
(b) plan with seven-column front and central nave; (c) plan with seven-
column front and double nave; (d) Temple of Hera I at Paestum. (a) Plan
from Schleif 1940, Abb. 39; (b), (c) and (d) plans by authors. 209
Figure 11.18 Votive columns and temple fronts compared. Drawing by G. Herdt. 211
Figure 12.1 Babylon, reconstructions of the so-called Gewölbebau as a hanging
garden. (a) From Robert Koldewey 1931, Taf. 7; and (b) from Fritz
Krischen 1956, Taf. 8. 219
xiv List of Figures
Figure 12.2 Nineveh, North Palace of Assurbanipal, Assyrian wall relief showing part
of the royal garden. Drawing by Terry Ball, © Stephanie Dalley, used with
permission. 220
Figure 12.3 Maarten van Heemskerck, “Babylonis Muri,” 1572, with the
“hanging gardens” on the right (NGA 2011.139.92).
Courtesy of the National Gallery of Art, Washington. 221
Figure 12.4 Rome, Palatine, view of the so-called Domus Severiana.
Photograph by author. 222
Figure 12.5 Pompeii, Villa of Diomedes, reconstruction of the ‘sunken garden.’
From Maiuri and Pane 1947, Taf. 9. 223
Figure 12.6 Rome, Domus Aurea, hypothetical reconstruction.
Drawing by J. Denkinger, Architekturreferat DAI Berlin. 225
Figure 12.7 Rome, Palatine, hypothetical reconstruction of the Flavian phase.
Rendering by Lengyel Toulouse Architects, Berlin,
www.lengyeltoulouse.com. 226
Figure 12.8 Rome, Palatine, hypothetical reconstruction of the Flavian phase.
Drawing by J. Denkinger, Architekturreferat DAI Berlin. 227
Figure 12.9 Rome, Palatine, Domus Augustana, hypothetical reconstruction of a
Flavian peristyle with a huge water basin. Rendering by Lengyel Toulouse
Architects, Berlin, www.lengyeltoulouse.com. 227
Figure 12.10 Rome, Palatine, hypothetical reconstruction of the Flavian garden in the
Vigna Barberini. Rendering by A. Müller, Architekturreferat DAI Berlin. 228
Figure 12.11 Rome, Palatine, Domus Severiana (Flavian), hypothetical
reconstruction of a water basin. Rendering by Lengyel Toulouse
Architects, Berlin, www.lengyeltoulouse.com. 229
Figure 12.12 Rome, Palatine, “Garden Stadium,” hypothetical reconstruction of the
Flavian phase. Drawing by J. Denkinger, Architekturreferat DAI Berlin. 230
Figure 13.1 Rome, Trajan’s Column (113 ce). © Matthias Kabel /Wikimedia
Commons /CC-BY-SA 3.0. 238
Figure 13.2 Luigi Valadier, “Replica of Trajan’s Column. Detail of gilded relief band,”
1774–1780 (Kat. 1221, Residenz München, Schatzkammer). © Bayerische
Schlösserverwaltung, Christian Quaeitzsch, München. 239
Figure 13.3 Louis Noguet, “Forum d’Auguste et temple de Mars vengeur.
Restauration, façade principale,” 1868 (inv. no. ENV60-05, École
nationale supérieure des Beaux-Arts, Paris). © bpk /RMN -Grand
Palais/image Beaux-arts de Paris. 242
Figure 13.4 Romolo Augusto Staccioli, “The Temple of Mars Ultor, Rome” with
reconstruction drawing superimposed on a photograph of the ruin
(Staccioli 2001, p. 53). Reconstruction © Vision s.r.l. 243
Figure 13.5 Studio Inklink, “Reconstruction of the Forum of Augustus with the
Temple of Mars Ultor, Rome,” 2007. From Meneghini and Santangeli
Valenzani 2007, fig. 36. 243
List of Figures xv
Figure 13.6 Rome, Forum of Augustus, “Aula del Colosso,” original painted marble
fragment (108 x 83 x 12cm; Ungaro 2004, fig. 387). Courtesy of the
Sovrintendenza Capitolina Beni Culturali—Museo dei Fori Imperiali—
Archivio Fotografico. 244
Figure 13.7 Studio Inklink, “Reconstruction of the ‘Aula del Colosso’ in the Forum
of Augustus, Rome,” 2007 (Ungaro 2007, fig. 188). Courtesy of the
Sovrintendenza Capitolina Beni Culturali—Museo dei Fori Imperiali—
Archivio Fotografico; autori: Studio InkLink, Lucrezia Ungaro. 245
Figure 13.8 Josef Bühlmann and Friedrich von Thiersch, “Daily life on the Forum
Romanum at the beginning of the third century,” 1901. © akg-images. 246
Figure 13.9 “Digitales Forum Romanum” Project, “The Forum Romanum at
the time of Septimius Severus (c. 210 ce), View from the East,” 2014.
© digitales forum romanum: Susanne Muth, Armin Müller (2014). 246
Figure 13.10 Gilbert Gorski and James Packer, “The Forum Romanum at the time
of Septimius Severus (c. 210 ce),” 2015. From Gorski and Packer 2015,
fig. 21.23, with permission. 247
Figure 13.11 Gilbert Gorski, “Hypothetical color renderings of the southeast corner of
the Arch of Septimius Severus,” 2015. Proposal 1 (left) has discrete coloring,
and Proposal 2 (right) features full-fledged coloring. From Gorski and
Packer 2015, figs. 7.12 and 7.13, with permission. 248
Figure 13.12 Fausto Niccolini and Felice Niccolini, “Casa della Reg. VIII, Isola 2,
Pompeii,” 1896. From Niccolini and Niccolini vol. IV, 1896, Tav. V,
courtesy of the Universitätsbibliothek Heidelberg. 249
Figure 13.13 Fausto Niccolini and Felice Niccolini, “Temple of Venus, Pompeii,” 1896.
From Niccolini and Niccolini vol. IV, 1896, Tav. XIII, courtesy of the
Universitätsbibliothek Heidelberg. 250
Figure 13.14 Théodore Labrouste, “Temple de Castor et Pollux à Cora. Elévation
restaurée,” 1831 (inv.no. ENV25-09, École nationale supérieure des
Beaux-Arts, Paris). © bpk /RMN -Grand Palais/Agence Bulloz. 251
Figure 13.15 Henri-Adolphe Auguste Deglane, detail of “Palais des Césars sur le
Mont Palatin,” 1887, showing the Temple of Jupiter Victor on the Palatine
(inv.no. ENV76-04, École nationale supérieure des Beaux-Arts, Paris).
© bpk /RMN -Grand Palais/image Beaux-arts de Paris. 252
Figure 13.16 Replica of the Late Republican Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus for the set
of HBO’s “Rome” at Cinecittà Studios, 2005–2007. Cinecittà Shows Off
© Erma Pictures. 253
Figure 13.17 Gottfried Semper, “Reconstruction of a Tuscanic (or Etruscan) temple,”
1860. From Semper 1860, Pl. XIII. 254
Figure 13.18 Adolfo Cozza, “ ‘Modello al vero’ of the late 3rd or early 2nd century bce
temple at Altari,” 1891 (Museo Nazionale Etrusco di Villa Giulia, Rome).
Photograph by author. 256
Figure 13.19 Giulio Ferrari, “Reconstruction of a canonical Etruscan temple,” 1925.
From Ferrari 1925, Pl. XVI. 257
Figure 13.20 Stefano Sarri, “Reconstruction model of the Tomba Ildebranda (first half
of 3rd century bce) at Sovana,” early 1990s. Photograph © Jim Forest. 258
xvi List of Figures
Table
The chapters in this book originated as papers delivered as invited plenary lectures at
the March 2015 symposium “Against Gravity: Building Practices in the Pre-Industrial
World.” The conference celebrated the work and achievements of Dr.-Ing. Lothar
Haselberger, the Morris Russell Williams and Josephine Chidsey Williams Professor in
Roman Architecture at the University of Pennsylvania from 1991 to 2015. This book is
dedicated to Professor Haselberger by his students and colleagues who have contributed
to its contents. It both recognizes and demonstrates the impact that he has had on the
discipline, and especially on its practice in the United States.
The volume was made possible by a generous publication subvention from the 1984
Foundation. We especially wish to acknowledge the support that we received from Mr.
Charles K. Williams II. Bob Ousterhout and John Humphrey were early supporters
of the project; without their inspiration, this volume would not have come into exist-
ence. Many committed people helped us to obtain original images and secure publi-
cation permissions; we thank especially the staff of the Fisher Fine Arts library and the
Kislak Center for Special Collections, Rare Books and Manuscripts at the University
of Pennsylvania; the Penn Museum Archives; the British School in Rome; the British
Museum; Klassik Stiftung Weimar; as well as Univ.-Prof. Dipl.-Ing. Dominik Lengyel,
Dipl.-Ing. Catherine Toulouse, Dr. Erofili Iris Kolia, and Professor Stephanie Dalley.
Last, but not least, we have benefited tremendously from the tireless efforts of the ded-
icated staff at Oxford University Press, especially Stefan Vranka and Sarah Pirovitz
Humphreville.
Contributors List
Hansgeorg Bankel was a professor of architectural history and documentation at the University
of Applied Sciences in Munich, Germany, from 1993 to 2014. He has documented and studied the
Temple of Aphaia on Aegina, resulting in the monograph Der spätarchaische Tempel der Aphaia
auf Aegina (1993). His publications extend across a broad range of other topics as well, including
the architectural refinements, metrology, polychromy of Greek temple architecture, and the
19th-century German architects Carl Haller von Hallerstein and Leo Klenze. Aside from his cur-
rent work on Minturnae, he is also carrying out architectural research at Priene and Knidos in
Western Turkey.
Dorian Borbonus is an associate professor at the University of Dayton where he teaches Greek
and Roman history. He studied classical archaeology at the Freie Universität Berlin and re-
ceived his PhD in the art and archaeology of the Mediterranean World from the University of
Pennsylvania. His research treats the funerary culture of ancient Rome and in particular the phe-
nomenon of organized collective burial. His monograph, Columbarium Tombs and Collective
Identity in Augustan Rome (2014), was published by Cambridge University Press. He was a Rome
Prize fellow in 2016–17, pursuing a project that traces the development of funerary culture in im-
perial Rome.
Elisha Ann Dumser is an associate professor in the Myers School of Art at the University of Akron
where she teaches art history. Her research focuses on imperial architecture in late antique Rome
and on issues related to the reuse of architectural materials and building sites. Her publications
include Mapping Augustan Rome (2002, reprinted 2008), a chapter on the urban topography of
Rome for The Cambridge Companion to Ancient Rome (2013), and a chapter on visual literacy and
reuse for Reuse and Renovation in Roman Material Culture (2019). Currently, she is working on a
monograph devoted to the architectural patronage of Maxentius in Rome.
Georg Herdt received his architecture degree from the Technische Universität Carolo-
Wilhelmina zu Braunschweig and TU Munich, before taking a research position at the University
of Bath on a project investigating the development of the Ionic capital in the Archaic period. He
went on to earn a PhD at the University of Bath, with a thesis focused on Greek votive columns.
He has participated in the investigation, documentation, and reconstruction of ancient structures
on several excavations around the Eastern Mediterranean.
xx Contributors List
Hermann J. Kienast is an architect and Bauforscher who served as deputy director of the German
Archaeological Institute in Athens from 1984 until his retirement in 2005. During this time,
he directed the excavations and projects of the institute on Samos and published the city walls
(Die Stadtmauer von Samos, 1978), the tunnel of Eupalinos (Die Wasserleitung des Eupalinos auf
Samos, 1995) and the Heraion (resulting in numerous articles in the Athenische Mitteilungen and
Archäologischer Anzeiger). In Athens, he has studied the Tower of the Winds, a unique architec-
tural monument of science, which is the subject of his latest monograph (Der Turm der Winde in
Athen, 2014).
Alexander von Kienlin is a professor of architectural history, structural analysis, and cultural
heritage at the Technische Universität Munich. His research focuses on the architectural history
of the ancient world, the reception of ancient architecture, and Jewish architectural and cultural
history. His dissertation focuses on the Agora at Priene (Die Agora von Priene, 2004) and more
recently he has written and edited numerous books on a variety of subjects, ranging from an-
cient wooden trusses (Holztragwerke der Antike, 2011), the Anatolian city of Kelainai (Kelainai-
Apameia Kibotos: eine achämenidische, hellenistische und römische Metropole, 2016), and Swiss
and Jewish architecture (Jewish Architecture—New Sources and Approaches, 2015).
Lynne C. Lancaster was a professor at Ohio University in the Department of Classics and World
Religions from 1997 until her retirement in 2021. She served as the Mellon Professor in Charge
of the Humanities at the American Academy in Rome from 2018 to 2021. She is currently a
Rawson Visiting Scholar in the Department of Classics at the University of Cincinnati. Her re-
search interests focus on ancient Roman construction and technology. She has published widely
on major monuments in Rome, such as the Colosseum, Trajan’s Column, Trajan’s Markets, and
the Pantheon as well as on Roman monuments in Greece, Turkey, and Britain. She is the author
of two books, Concrete Vaulted Construction in Imperial Rome: Innovations in Context (2005) and
Innovative Vaulting in the Architecture of the Roman Empire: 1st to 4th c. C.E. (2015).
Katja Piesker is an architectural historian and Bauforscher. Trained as an architect, she has
done extensive fieldwork in Turkey (Patara, Göbekli Tepe, Side, Pergamon, and Istanbul). Since
November 2019 she has served as the head of the Division of Building Archaeology and deputy
director of the Head Office of the German Archaeological Institute, Berlin. Prior to that, she
worked at the Istanbul Department of the German Archaeological Institute; the Head office of the
German Archaeological Institute, Berlin; the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology in Zurich; and
at the University of Hanover. She has held fellowships at the Istanbul Department of the German
Archaeological Institute and at the University of Cincinnati.
Klaus Rheidt is a Bauforscher and, since 2004, a professor of building history at the Brandenburg
University of Technology Cottbus-Senftenberg. Beginning in 2002, he has worked at Baalbek as
the director of architectural fieldwork within a joint German-Lebanese project on the archae-
ology and history of Heliopolis/Baalbek conducted by the German Archaeological Institute.
He also directs the “Cultural and Technological Significance of Historic Buildings” Research
Training Group, and heads architectural survey projects in Azanoi, Assos, Pompeii, and Santiago
de Compostela.
Contributors List xxi
Mark Wilson Jones is an architect and architectural historian who teaches at the University of
Bath in the Department of Architecture and Civil Engineering. His research covers varied aspects
of classical architecture, concentrating on that of ancient Greece and Rome. Aside from studies
on proportion, geometry, and design principles, often based on comparative analysis, he has
worked on the design of monumental buildings, especially the Pantheon (The Pantheon in Rome
from Antiquity to the Present, 2015) and the architectural orders in both Roman (Principles of
Roman Architecture, 2000) and Greek contexts (Origins of Classical Architecture: Temples, Orders
and Gifts to the Gods in Ancient Greece, 2014).
Ulrike Wulf-Rheidt earned her PhD in 1997 from the University of Karlsruhe. In 1998, she be-
came a formative member of an interdisciplinary group studying the Domus Severiana on the
Palatine, work that resulted in many publications, including Die Kaiserpaläste auf dem Palatin
in Rom, co-written with Adolf Hoffman (2014). In 2004 she was appointed director of the
Architecture Department at the German Archaeological Institute, Berlin, and from that vantage
point edited several volumes of the important Diskussionen zur archäologischen Bauforschung se-
ries. In June 2018, she passed away following a tragic accident on the Acropolis in Athens.
Stephan Zink is an independent scholar in Berlin and was Wissenschaftlicher Referent at the
German Archaeological Institute in Berlin in the division of Bauforschung from 2017 to 2022. His
research focuses on the documentation and historical analysis of Roman architecture, especially
Octavian’s sanctuary of Apollo on the Palatine in Rome, the topic of his 2011 dissertation. More
recently, he has worked on the documentation of Temple A at Largo Argentina in Rome, offered
two summer schools at the American Academy in Rome on architectural documentation, and
has published several journal articles and book chapters on ancient polychromy.
Abbreviations
This book follows the bibliographic abbreviations established by the American Journal
of Archaeology (https://www.ajaonline.org/submissions/journals-series) for modern
sources and by the Oxford Classical Dictionary (https://oxfordre.com/classics/page/
ocdabbreviations) for ancient sources.
Building the Classical World
Introduction
Bauforschung as a Contemporary Approach
This volume brings together 13 chapters examining various aspects of structure and
construction in the monuments of ancient Greece and Rome, written by a mixture of
established and emerging scholars from American, British, and German academic
institutions. Taken together they constitute a representative cross-section of the inter-
disciplinary methodologies that are used in Bauforschung, the scientific, analytical, and
often archaeological study of historic buildings.1
In theory, the focus of this discipline is on historical buildings of all periods,
types, and regions. In practice, however, all of these aspects often lead to disciplinary
emphases on, or even divisions between, classical, medieval, and modern subfields;
analytical approaches to official and vernacular architecture; and the treatment of dis-
tinct building traditions. In this collection, we aim to counterbalance such fragmen-
tation by advocating a view of the discipline that emphasizes the unity of its different
manifestations.
Such a view is not altogether new. The same broad perspective was taken in 2010 by
Uta Hassler who defines the main questions in the field like this:
Introduction In: Building the Classical World. Edited by: Dorian Borbonus and Elisha Ann Dumser, Oxford University Press. © Oxford
University Press 2022. DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780190690526.003.0001
2 Building the Classical World
If Hassler’s questions and Gruben’s process capture both the broad spectrum and
the fundamental unity of the field of inquiry, the same is true for the more specific
methodologies that its practitioners employ. Many of the methods overlap with those
of related historical and technical disciplines, such as classical studies (regarding the
analysis of historical texts), art history (regarding visual acuity and recognition), field
archaeology (regarding the identification of stratigraphy and contexts), historic pres-
ervation (regarding conservation, restoration, and re-erection), museology (regarding
questions of presentation and educational outreach), mathematics (regarding the quan-
tification of calculations), and the natural sciences (regarding the scientific analysis of
finds). The bewildering methodological range, in which research questions and aca-
demic training unsurprisingly produce individual preferences, is still bound together
by the fundamental goal of producing some sort of historical reconstruction.4
Doing so means perceiving built works not as piles of dead matter, or as mere bearers
of decoration and sculpture but as dynamic organisms—bodies full of inner tension to
defy gravity. By documenting, analyzing, and visualizing complex spatial settings, we
are better able to situate architecture in its historical contexts. In fact, buildings should
be understood as historic documents in their own right, reflecting both the efforts of
their designers and builders, the aspirations of their patrons and communities, and the
implications for those who used them and whose actions were structured by them.
This realization requires a holistic analysis that brings together technical and human-
istic perspectives in order to visualize buildings as complete systems rather than a sum
of their parts. Even if the analysis targets specific problems of construction, architec-
tural components, or the use and reuse of buildings, these aspects must be understood
in relation to the remainder of the structure and its environment in order to produce
authentic reconstructions.
Because of its reliance on material culture and its pragmatic focus on issues of de-
sign, construction, and use, Bauforschung is, at its heart, an evidence-driven practice.
The built structure itself, along with its archaeological context and historical sources
about architecture, are thus the indispensable starting points for technical and histor-
ical analysis. Despite the primacy of careful documentation, a broader narrative is just
as essential if the analysis is not to become a positivistic description that excessively
concentrates on minutiae. The quintessential (but not the only) format that facilitates
capturing both the evidence and its significance is the case study that describes indi-
vidual examples while identifying comparative links to other scenarios—a format that
unsurprisingly also dominates the chapters in the present collection. The potential
downside of this format is that case studies favor the particular over the general and
thus need to be integrated with overarching considerations in order to be successful.5
The chapters in this collection are also characterized by their simultaneous use of
visual and verbal argumentation. The balance between the two poles varies with the
subject of the contribution and the training and disposition of its author, but images and
words remain fundamental in all of them. This is why the graphic representation of the
evidence and reconstructions is not meant just to illustrate the written argumentation.
Rather, the drawings and photographs are themselves tools of documentation and anal-
ysis—and thus are integral components of this volume.
The collection not only provides a series of case studies, however, but it highlights
the central questions, practices, and insights that define the architectural and historical
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
"Kun nainen sanoo vihaavansa miestä —"
Kymmenes luku.
"Aivan varma."
"Teillä näyttää olevan niin kovin kiire", sanoi hän epäröiden. "Minä
luulin — niin — ehkä teillä sittenkin oli jotakin määrättyä
mielessänne. Vai kuinka?"
"Brannon", sanoi hän, "kun te lähditte äsken ulos, oli teillä aikomus
etsiä Denver käsiinne ja tappaa hänet!"
"Enpä luule."
Yhdestoista luku.
Denver oli tappanut Brannonin, siitä hän oli varma. Sillä hän oli
lähettänyt Brannonin pois aseettomana, hyvin tietäen, että Denverillä
yhä oli sama ase vyöllään, jota hän oli yrittänyt käyttää Brannonin
ilmestyttyä akkunaan. Brannonista oli nyt tullut hänen järjettömän,
aseita kohtaan tuntemansa ennakkoluulon uhri. Hän tiesi nyt, että
hänen katsantokantansa oli ollut aivan väärä, sillä koska kaikki
Lännen miehet kantoivat asetta, niin oli Brannonkin siihen pakoitettu
jo itsepuolustuksenkin kannalta. Nyt saattoi Josephine käsittää
arvoituksellisen katseen, jonka hän Brannonin silmissä oli nähnyt
hänen jättäessään pistoolinsa pöydälle. Vallitseva sävy siinä oli ollut
jonkinlainen häikäilemätön vaaran halveksunta.
Josephine hätkähti sielussaan nousevaa kuvaa, kuinka Denver oli
ampunut Brannonin. Hän ei vähääkään epäillyt, että Brannon yhtä
kylmän tyynesti oli ottanut vastaan kuolettavan luodin kuin hän oli
jättänyt aseensakin pöydälle.
Kahdestoista luku.
Denveriä ei näkynyt.
Sittenkin Brannon odotti, sillä hän tunsi Denverin. Jos hän oli
päättänyt käyttää rihlaansa, jota hän erinomaisesti olisi voinut
käsitellä esimerkiksi asuntolan akkunassa, niin olisi rakennusten
välinen kenttä tullut hyvin vaaralliseksi liikkumapaikaksi.
Hän ei itse ollut varma, pitikö hän tytöstä. Ainakin hän häntä sääli
— sääli sen vuoksi, että jos tyttö yritti muuttaa sen seudun tapoja ja
tottumuksia, johon hän sattumalta oli tullut, niin oli hän varmasti
epäonnistuva aikeissaan. Hänellä oli rohkeutta puolustaa
mielipiteitään ja mielipiteethän ovat vallan paikallaan aatteina, vaikka
useimmat ihmiset pitävät mielipiteensä hämärässä puolitajussa ja
seuraavat jatkuvasti vain hetken mielijohteita. Sehän se tekeekin
ihmiset inhimillisiksi.
"Hän noudattaa omaa päätään liian paljon", oli Brannonin
seuraava ajatus. "Hän koettaa istuttaa tänne Idän ajatustapoja,
toivoen hävittävänsä meikäläiset, joko sitten tahdomme tai emme.
Hän olisi sietämätön, ellei —."
"Mutta Itä ei ole Länsi", ajatteli hän taas, "ja minä luulen että hän
pian pääsee siitä perille."
Brannon sai tämän käsityksen siitä, että miehen oikea polvi oli
vedetty eteenpäin ja oikea käsi oli aivan polven vieressä velttona ja
vääntyneenä.
Hän oli ilmeisesti juuri tullut tajuihinsa ja mietti mitä oli tapahtunut.