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ENCYCLOPEDIA OF
FOOD GRAINS
Second Edition
This page intentionally left blank
 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF
FOOD GRAINS
Second Edition
VOLUME 1
THE WORLD OF FOOD GRAINS
EDITORS
COLIN WRIGLEY
University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia

HAROLD CORKE
University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, People’s Republic of China

KOUSHIK SEETHARAMAN{

JON FAUBION
Kansas State University, Manhattan KS, USA

{
deceased

AMSTERDAM • BOSTON • HEIDELBERG • LONDON

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Academic Press is an imprint of Elsevier
Academic Press is an imprint of Elsevier
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First edition 2004 (as Encyclopedia of Grain Science)

Copyright © 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved

The following articles are US government works in the public domain and are not subject to copyright:

Grain Crops, Overview; Maize Overview.

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Notice
Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience broaden our understanding, changes in
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A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress

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A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

SET ISBN 978-0-12-394437-5

VOLUME 1 ISBN 978-0-12-803537-5
VOLUME 2 ISBN 978-0-12-803536-8
VOLUME 3 ISBN 978-0-12-803535-1
VOLUME 4 ISBN 978-0-12-803538-2

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visit our website at http://store.elsevier.com

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Designer: Victoria Pearson Esser
CONTENTS

Preface xvii
Tributes to Former Co-Editors xix
Editors‘ Biography xxiii
Editorial Advisory Board xxv
Contributors xxvii

VOLUME 1

THE WORLD OF FOOD GRAINS 1

The Basics 1
The Grains that Feed the World 1
CW Wrigley, H Corke, and J Faubion

Course Structures: Based on EFG Articles 13

H Corke

The Grain Crops: An Overview 16

RA Graybosch

The Grain Chain: The Route from Genes to Grain-Based Products 22

CW Wrigley

Taxonomic Classification of Grain Species 31

LA Morrison and CW Wrigley

Grain: Morphology of Internal Structure 41

H Corke

Grain and Plant Morphology of Cereals and how characters can be used to identify varieties 51
J Wyatt

The Cereal Grains 73

An Overview of the Family of Cereal Grains Prominent in World Agriculture 73
CW Wrigley

Cereals: Domestication of the Cereal Grains 86

LA Morrison

Maize: Overview 99
MP Scott and M Emery

Wheat: An Overview of the Grain That Provides ‘Our Daily Bread’ 105
CW Wrigley

v
vi Contents

Durum Wheat: Overview 117

GP Kadkol and M Sissons

Rice: Overview 125

BO Juliano

Wildrice, Zizania: Overview 130

EA Oelke and RA Porter

African Rice (Oryza glaberrima): A Brief History and Its Growing Importance in Current
Rice Breeding Efforts 140
JT Manful and S Graham-Acquaah

Barley: An Overview of a Versatile Cereal Grain with Many Food and Feed Uses 147
AM Stanca, A Gianinetti, F Rizza, and V Terzi

Sorghum Grain, Its Production and Uses: Overview 153

A Cruickshank

Rye Grain: Its Genetics, Production, and Utilization 159

HD Sapirstein and W Bushuk

Triticale: Overview 168

BJ Furman

Oats: Overview 173

PK Zwer

Coix: Overview 184

H Corke, Y Huang, and JS Li

Millet Pearl: Overview 190

JRN Taylor

Millet Minor: Overview 199

GK Chandi and GA Annor

Teff: Overview 209

G Bultosa

The Oilseeds 221

Oilseeds: Overview 221
RJ Mailer

Soybean: Overview 228

K Liu

Canola: Overview 237

VJ Barthet

Cottonseed: Overview 242

E Hernandez

Sunflower: Overview 247

GJ Seiler and TJ Gulya

Overview of the Oilseed Safflower (Carthamus tinctorius L.) 254

C Hall III

Linseed: Overview 259

S Cloutier

The Legumes and Pseudocereals 265

Grain Legumes and Their Dietary Impact: Overview 265
TE Michaels
 Contents vii

Pseudocereals: Overview 274

RJ Fletcher

Lupin: Overview 280

DS Petterson

Amaranth: Overview 287

H Corke, YZ Cai, and HX Wu

Beans: Overview 297

SK Sathe

Buckwheat: Overview 307

YZ Cai, H Corke, D Wang, and WD Li

Chickpea: Overview 316

EJ Knights and KB Hobson

Pea: Overview 324

TN Khan, A Meldrum, and JS Croser

Peanuts: Overview 334

RCN Rachaputi and G Wright

Quinoa: Overview 341

SA Valencia-Chamorro

Grains Around the World 349

Grain Production and Consumption: Overview 349
T Beta and C Isaak

Grain Production and Consumption: Africa 359

JRN Taylor

Production and Consumption of Grains: India 367

BS Khatkar, N Chaudhary, and P Dangi

Grain Production and Consumption: China and South-East Asia 374

H Corke and YZ Cai

Grain Production and Consumption: Europe 383

MG Lindhauer

Grain Production and Consumption: Cereal Grains in North America 391

JA Fox and LL Ward

Grain Production and Consumption: Oilseeds in North America 401

PBE McVetty, OM Lukow, LM Hall, I Rajcan, and H Rahman

Grain Production and Consumption in Oceania: Australia and Pacific Countries 409
CW Wrigley and RJ French

Grain Production and Consumption: South America 420

OR Larroque and JC Catullo

Scientific Organizations Related to Grains 429

Research Organizations of the World: CGIAR 429
JH Skerritt

Research Organizations of the World: Europe and North America 436

JH Skerritt

Research Organizations of the World: Asia-Pacific, Central–South America, and Africa–Middle East 444
JH Skerritt
viii Contents

Research Organizations of the World: Global Trends and the Commercial Sector 451
JH Skerritt

Scientific Societies Associated with Grain Science 457

SC Nelson and CW Wrigley

VOLUME 2

NUTRITION AND FOOD GRAINS 1

Food Grains and Well-Being 1

Functional Foods: Overview 1
G Bultosa

Functional Foods: Dietary Fibers, Prebiotics, Probiotics, and Synbiotics 11

G Bultosa

Nutrition: Soy-Based Foods 17

AM Fehily

Food Grains and the Consumer 23

Grains and Health: Misinformation and Misconceptions 23
DB Sheats and JM Jones

Consumer Trends in Grain Consumption 29

JM Jones and DB Sheats

Cultural Differences in Processing and Consumption 35

AMR Hayes and JM Jones

Fortification of Grain-Based Foods 43

CM Rosell

Genetically Modified Grains and the Consumer 50

A Mathiowetz and JM Jones

Labelling of Grain-Based Foods 57

JM Jones

Grains and Health 63

R Korczak, D Hauge, B Maschoff, L Marquart, P Jacques, R Lindberg, and R Menon

Food Grains: Intolerance, Allergy and Diseases 72

Cereal Allergens 72
AS Tatham

Nutrition: Beriberi, A Deficiency Related to Grains 77

KJ Carpenter

Celiac Disease 83
P Koehler, H Wieser, and KA Scherf

The Gluten-Free Diet 91

V Zevallos and I Herencia

Proteins 98
The Protein Chemistry of Cereal Grains 98
F Békés and CW Wrigley

The Protein Chemistry of Dicotyledonous Grains 109

PR Shewry
 Contents ix

Protein Synthesis and Deposition 115

PR Shewry and P Tosi

Nitrogen Metabolism 123

CA Atkins

Nitrogen in Grain Production Systems 129

XM Zhou, BL Ma, and DL Smith

The Enzymes Associated with Food Grains and Their Functions in Processing 138
DJ Mares, K Mrva, and GB Fincher

Proteomic Analysis Relevant to Cereal Grains 146

A Juhász, R Haraszi, F Békés, DJ Skylas, and CW Wrigley

Thiolomics of the Gluten Protein Network of Wheat Dough 154

F Bonomi and S Iametti

Carbohydrates 161
Carbohydrate Metabolism 161
RN Chibbar, S Jaiswal, M Gangola, and M Båga

Starch: Chemistry 174

FL Stoddard

Starch: Synthesis 181

A Regina, S Rahman, Z Li, and MK Morell

Starch: Starch Architecture and Structure 190

V Vamadevan and Q Liu

Starch: Analysis of Quality 198

A Gunaratne and H Corke

Cereals: Chemistry and Physicochemistry of Non-starchy Polysaccharides 208

GB Fincher

Grains other than Cereals: Non-starch Polysaccharides 224

L Ramsden

Resistant Starch and Health 230

A Evans

Health Effects of b-Glucans Found in Cereals 236

SM Tosh and S Shea Miller

Glycemic Index, Glycemic Load, and Their Health Benefits 241

D Dan Ramdath

Fats 248
Lipid Chemistry 248
L Day

Healthy Fats and Oils 257

SM Ghazani and AG Marangoni

Bioactives and Toxins 268

Bioactive Compounds in Wheat Bran 268
HD Sapirstein

Bioactives: Antioxidants 277

T Beta and KG Duodu
x Contents

The Antinutritional Components of Grains 283

CK Madsen and H Brinch-Pedersen

Mycotoxins 290
MT Fletcher and BJ Blaney

Grain Composition and Analysis 297

The Composition of Food Grains and Grain-Based Products 297
CW Wrigley

Standardized Test Methods for Grains and Grain-Based Products 300

AR Bridges and CW Wrigley

Units of Grain Science and Trade: Equivalence between the US, Chinese, and Metric Units 308
W Huang and CW Wrigley

VOLUME 3

GRAIN-BASED PRODUCTS AND THEIR PROCESSING 1

Wheat-Based Foods 1
Cereals: Overview of Uses: Accent on Wheat Grain 1
CF Morris

Breads 8
TR Moore

Flatbreads of the World 19

KJ Quail

Sour Dough Technology 25

SP Cauvain

Cakes, Muffins and Bagels 30

DE Ortiz

Cookies, Biscuits and Crackers: Formulation, Processing and Characteristics 37

SP Cauvain

Cookies: A Diverse Family of Baked Goods 44

S Zydenbos, V Humphrey-Taylor, and CW Wrigley

Wafers: Methods of Manufacture 51

K Tiefenbacher and CW Wrigley

Cookies and Crackers: Commercial Production 59

LC Paulson and CW Wrigley

Noodles: Starch 64
LS Collado and H Corke

Noodles: Asian Wheat Flour Noodles 72

GB Crosbie and AS Ross

Pasta 79
M Sissons

Tortillas 90
LW Rooney and SO Serna-Saldivar

Non-wheat Foods 97
Maize: Foods from Maize 97
SO Serna-Saldivar
 Contents xi

Rice: Chinese Food Uses 110

S Lu

Sorghum: Utilization 116

RD Waniska, LW Rooney, and CM McDonough

Soybean: Soy-Based Fermented Foods 124

DK O’Toole

Soybean: Soymilk, Tofu, and Okara 134

DK O’Toole

Food-quality Testing 144

The Application of Sensory Science to the Evaluation of Grain-Based Foods 144
LM Duizer and SB Walker

Noodles: Testing for Quality 154

VA Solah and GB Crosbie

Pasta: Quality Testing Methods 161

A Marti, MG D’Egidio, and MA Pagani

Rice: Eating Quality 166

JS Bao

Beverages from Grains 176

Fermentation: Origins and Applications 176
BJB Wood

Fermentation: Foods and Nonalcoholic Beverages 183

JRN Taylor

Beverages: Distilled 193

GH Palmer

Beverages: Asian Alcoholic Beverages 206

DK O’Toole

Non-food Products from Grains 215

Cereal Grains as Animal Feed 215
JL Black

Pet Foods 223

RCE Guy

Utilization of the Whole Cereal Plant to Maximize its Value 228

L Munck

Fuel Alcohol Production 235

YN Guragain, KV Probst, and PV Vadlani

Biodiesel 245
Y Yan

Processing of Grains 251

Evaluation of Wheat-Grain Quality Attributes 251
CF Morris

Grain Quality Attributes for Cereals Other than Wheat 257

CF Morris
xii Contents

Cereals: Breakfast Cereals 262

EF Caldwell, JD McKeehen, and RS Kadan

Extrusion Technologies 268

RCE Guy

Starch: Uses of Native Starch 274

JW Lawton

Starch: Modification 282

JN BeMiller

b-Glucans: Measurement and Processing 287

MS Izydorczyk

Wheat Processing 299

Milling and Baking: History 299
CE Walker and WD Eustace

Wheat: Dry Milling 307

AK Sarkar and JE Dexter

Wet Milling of Wheat 320

R Velicogna and S Shea Miller

Oven Technologies 325

CE Walker

Bakeries: The Source of Our Unique Wheat-Based Food, Bread 335

JE Bock, CW Wrigley, and CE Walker

Analysis of Dough Rheology in Breadmaking 343

B Dobraszczyk

Frozen Dough 354

D Domingues and C Dowd

Refrigerated Dough 359

D Domingues, C Dowd, and W Atwell

Chemistry of Cake Manufacturing 367

TS Palav

The Gluten Proteins of the Wheat Grain in Relation to Flour Quality 375
F Békés, MC Gianibelli, and CW Wrigley

Ultrastructure of the Wheat Grain, Flour, and Dough 384

S Grundas and CW Wrigley

Cereal Food Production with Low Salt 396

L Day

Baked Product Staling: Mechanisms, Determinations, and Anti-staling Strategies 403

A Goldstein and K Seetharaman

Gluten and Modified Gluten 408

IL Batey and W Huang

Snack Foods: Processing 414

MN Riaz

Barley, Rice and Maize Processing 423

Barley: Malting 423
L MacLeod and E Evans

Barley: Milling and Processing 434

MS Izydorczyk and JE Dexter
 Contents xiii

Rice Processing: Beyond the Farm Gate 446

L Pallas

Oil from Rice and Maize 453

JS Godber

Maize: Dry Milling 458

KD Rausch and SR Eckhoff

Maize: Wet Milling 467

KD Rausch and SR Eckhoff

Oilseed and Legume Processing 482

Soybean: Soy Concentrates and Isolates 482
C-Y Ma

Soybean: Processing 489

T Wang

Canola: Processing 497

JK Daun and EH Unger

VOLUME 4

THE PRODUCTION AND GENETICS OF FOOD GRAINS 1

Grain Marketing and Grading 1

Wheat: Grading and Segregation 1
RL Cracknell and RM Williams

Wheat: Marketing 9
RL Cracknell and RM Williams

Barley: Grading and Marketing 16

A MacLeod, M Edney, and MS Izydorczyk

Soybean: Grading and Marketing 25

EG Hammond, LA Johnson, and PA Murphy

Identification of Varieties of Food Grains 29

DM Miskelly and CW Wrigley

Grain Harvest, Storage and Transport 42

Wheat: Harvesting, Transport, and Storage 42
S Grundas and CW Wrigley

Barley: Harvesting, Storage, and Transport 50

RJ Henry

Sorghum: Harvest, Storage, and Transport 54

T Beta, M Chisi, and ES Monyo

Canola: Harvest, Transport, and Storage 62

JJ Mayko

Cereals: Grain Defects 68

SA Barton

The Nature, Causes, and Control of Grain Diseases in the Major Cereal Species 74
RA McIntosh, PM Williamson, and CW Wrigley

Contaminants of Grain 83
J McLean and CW Wrigley
xiv Contents

Chemicals for Grain Production and Protection 99

PC Annis

Handling from Farm to Storage Terminal 105

D Richard-Molard and CW Wrigley

Stored Grain: Invertebrate Pests 110

PC Annis

Postharvest Operations for Quality Preservation of Stored Grain 117

F Fleurat-Lessard

Stored-Grain Pest Management 126

F Fleurat-Lessard

Agronomy of Grain Growing 140

Implication of Climate Changes 140
S Ceccarelli

Sustainable Grain Production and Utilization 144

L Munck

Organic Grain Production and Food Processing 154

P Gélinas and C David

Precision Agriculture 162

EC Leonard

Plants: Diseases and Pests 168

SA Barton

Wheat: Agronomy 176

GM Paulsen, JP Shroyer, and KJ Shroyer

Barley: Agronomy 186

RD Horsley and M Hochhalter

Maize: Agronomy 194

ED Nafziger

Sorghum: Production and Improvement Practices 201

WL Rooney

Canola: Agronomy 207

NJ Mendham and MJ Robertson

Chickpea: Agronomy 216

KHM Siddique and L Krishnamurthy

Lentil: Agronomy 223

T Nleya, A Vandenberg, FL Walley, and D Deneke

Lupin: Agronomy 231

RJ French

Field Pea: Agronomy 240

RJ French

Soybean: Agronomy 251

ED Nafziger

Natural Disease Control in Cereal Grains 257

WK Mousa and MN Raizada

Wheat: Biotrophic Pathogen Resistance 264

RF Park
 Contents xv

Necrotrophic Pathogens of Wheat 273

RP Oliver, K-C Tan, and CS Moffat

Breeding of Grains 279

Wheat Breeding: Exploiting and Fixing Genetic Variation by Selection and Evaluation 279
R DePauw and L O’Brien

Barley: Genetics and Breeding 287

A Cuesta-Marcos, JG Kling, AR Belcher, T Filichkin, SP Fisk, R Graebner, L Helgerson, D Herb, B Meints, AS Ross,
PM Hayes, and SE Ulrich

Maize: Breeding 296

EA Lee and LW Kannenberg

Rice: Breeding 304

Qingyao Shu and Dianxing Wu

Canola/Rapeseed: Genetics and Breeding 311

PBE McVetty and RW Duncan

Lentil: Breeding 317

W Erskine, A Sarker, and S Kumar

Lupin: Breeding 325

LC Trugo, E von Baer, and D von Baer

Soybean: Germplasm, Breeding, and Genetics 333

RG Palmer and T Hymowitz

Genetics of Grains 343

Development of Genetically Modified Grains 343
L Privalle

Detection of Genetically Modified Grains 350

RD Shillito

Genomics of Food Grains 360

RJ Henry

Genome Mapping 365

VK Tiwari, JD Faris, B Friebe, and BS Gill

Wheat Genetics 376

RA McIntosh

Wheat Genetics and Genomics 382

E Akhunov

Biotic Stress Resistance Genes in Wheat 388

J Singla and SG Krattinger

Abiotic Stress Genes and Mechanisms in Wheat 393

SJ Roy, NC Collins, and R Munns

Rice: Genetics 398

JS Bao and H Corke

Maize: Genetics 407

EA Lee

Maize: Quality Protein Maize 420

JS Li and SK Vasal

Maize: Other Maize Mutants 425

MH Blanco, H Yangcheng, and J Jane
xvi Contents

Appendix 1. Nutrient-Composition Tables for Grains and for Grain-Based Products 433
SF Schakel, N Van Heel, and J Harnack

Appendix 2. Lists of Standardized Testing Methods for the Analysis of Grain and Grain-Based Foods 450
AR Bridges and CW Wrigley

Appendix 3. Grains, Foods, and Ingredients Suiting Gluten-Free Diets for Celiac Disease 460
JM Jones, V Zevallos, and CW Wrigley

Glossary 467
Index 491
PREFACE

The grain-producing plants are essential to life on earth. They are the primary means by which sunlight, the
primary source of the earth’s energy, is captured via photosynthesis to turn carbon dioxide and water into
carbohydrates and thus into the wider range of the biochemicals needed by all life forms.
The summary is simple:
The sun’s energy þ CO2 þ H2O
#
Grain-bearing plants
which provide:
Food, Fats, Fuel and Fiber for ourselves
Feed, Forage, Fodder for our animals
Food for Fish Farms

Directly, grains supply over half of humanity’s energy and protein.

Indirectly, grains contribute to our food supply via the feeding of grains and grain by-products to animals,
birds and fish.
Grains are increasingly a renewable source of fuels (ethanol and oils).
Grain species, such as cottonseed, contribute fiber for our clothing.

Grains to Feed and Fuel our World

As its title indicates, the Encyclopedia of Food Grains concentrates on the food uses of grains, but details are also
provided about the wider roles of grains. Greater detail about the use of grains for animal feeding is already
available via the on-line Feedipedia encyclopedia (http://www.feedipedia.org/).
Worldwide, however, it is our food that is our obsession – first and foremost. We see our health (or
otherwise) to be intimately related to our diet. Therefore nutrition is a major accent of this second edition,
occupying the whole of the second volume, following the first volume’s description of the basic aspects of the
world of grains. The third and fourth volumes work their ways back up the value-added grain chain to describe
grain processing and production, thence to breeding and genetics.
The sequence of articles in the first edition (the Encyclopedia of Grain Science, 2004) followed an alphabetical
order. In contrast, the distinct ordering of articles in the second edition assembles fundamental concepts in
Volume 1 – The World of Food Grains. Moving into the later volumes, greater complexity and erudition are
evident. Thus, unusual terms such as “Transcriptomics”, “Aeciospore” and “Allelopathy” are more likely to be
found in later volumes than in the first. In any case, reference to the glossary and the index should help in
elucidating such terms.

The First and Second Editions - Editors

This second edition is a considerable expansion on the content of the first edition, with its three print volumes
and 168 articles. Now, some twelve years later, the four print volumes of the Encyclopedia of Food Grains provide

xvii
xviii Preface

216 articles, many newly written for the new edition. Those articles that have been reprinted from the first
edition have been updated. In all cases, authors and reviewers are world renowned experts in their respective
fields.
This second edition has been more than three years in its development. In the early stages, the editors were
Harold Corke, Chuck Walker and Colin Wrigley (the three editors of the first edition). Sadly in 2012, Chuck
Walker passed away, leaving a gap that was difficult to fill.
Chuck was replaced by Koushik Seetharaman, who worked avidly in developing the concepts for this second
edition, including his contributions to a meeting of the editors and Elsevier staff in Sydney, January, 2013.
Sadly, Koushik suffered a heart attack in June, 2014. However, his contributions to the second edition during
this critical development stage were such that Elsevier decided that his name should remain as a co-editor.
Tributes to Professors Walker and Seetharaman are provided below.
In July, 2014, Professor Jon Faubion was appointed as a co-editor. Dr Faubion is the Charles Singleton
Professor of Baking and Cereal Science in the Department of Grain Science, Kansas State University. He is a
more than worthy replacement under such tragic circumstances.

Acknowledgement to All Involved

The production of an encyclopedia involves a wide range of experts with expertise in a diversity of areas of
knowledge. We acknowledge with grateful thanks the groups of contributors:
• Members of the Editorial Advisory Board;
• Authors who have shared their special knowledge and experience;
• Elsevier staff who have provided extensive advice and administrative services, especially Donna de
Weerd-Wilson, Simon Holt and Rachel Gerlis (successive Supervisory Staff) and Gemma Tomalin,
Gemma Taft, Joanne Williams and Mark Harper (successive Content Project Managers).
The Editors
Harold Corke, Jon Faubion, Koushik Seetharaman, and Colin Wrigley
TRIBUTES TO FORMER CO-EDITORS

Professor Emeritus Charles (‘Chuck’) E. Walker

Chuck Walker was one of the three editors of the first edition of Elsevier’s Grains
Encyclopedia (the Encyclopedia of Grain Science, 2004). He was again appointed
as an editor of this second edition. He participated in the planning stages for the
second edition until his untimely death on 26 April 2012. At the time of his
death, Chuck was a Professor Emeritus at the Department of Grain Science and
Industry at Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, USA.
Charles Eugene Walker was born on 17 December 1936, in Winterset, Mad-
ison county, IA, USA, during the great depression. He was the eldest child of
Albert Cecil and Bessie Irene Headley Walker, poor farmers in Winterset, Mad-
ison county, IA, USA. He walked more than a mile to attend rural one-room
grammar schools in Warren county and graduated from high school in New
Virginia, IA, USA.
Better known as ‘Chuck’ in later life, Dr Walker received a BS degree in
Chemical Engineering from Iowa State University, Ames, IA, USA, in May 1959. At a ‘mixer’ party in the fall
of 1957, he met Shannon Rose Philp, a pretty freshman student from Loup city, NE, USA. This was just after a
summer spent working alone on a fire-lookout tower for the US Forest Service, in the wilds of Clearwater
National Forest, in Northern Idaho. They were married on 1 June 1958 and she became his wife of 54 years. She
later rewarded him with two sons, Alan Eugene and Tomas Charles, and they adopted a daughter, Bekianne.
Upon graduation, Chuck worked in flour milling research at the General Mills Central Research Laboratories
in the Minneapolis area from 1959 to 1962. He then accepted a fellowship to graduate school at North Dakota
State University in Fargo from 1962 to 1965, majoring in Cereal Chemistry. Chuck received his PhD in
Chemistry in the summer of 1966. For his PhD dissertation, he developed a micro brewery and studied barley
proteins and their influence on beer quality – a rather ironic choice of topics, considering he remained a strict
teetotaler all his life.
While finishing his thesis, he joined the faculty of the North Dakota State College, Valley city, ND, USA
(1965–1974), teaching various physical science and chemistry courses to undergraduate students. Feeling the
pull of industry, he moved south to work for the Fairmont Foods Central Research Laboratory in Omaha, NE,
USA (1974–1980), where he did research, product development, and technical assistance on baking, pizza,
snack, and dairy products, eventually reaching the position of Associate Director of Research.
Dismemberment and sale of this Fortune-500 company provided him an opportunity to return to academia
at the University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE, USA (1980–1987), where he developed a Cereal Technology
Program within the Department of Food Technology. He developed and taught various food science and
technology courses to both undergraduate and graduate students, and developed a vigorous research program.
He became Interim Department Head and Food Processing Center Director.
In December 1987, Chuck joined the Department of Grain Science and Industry at Kansas State University as
the Bakers National Educational Foundation’s Baking Science Professor. There he maintained a busy program

xix
xx Tributes to Former Co-Editors

in research, teaching, graduate student advising, publishing, traveling and consulting, specializing in baking
technology.
During his career, Chuck published more than 100 technical papers, and advised about 50 MS and PhD
graduate students. He was heavily involved in applied rheology (mixing and flow characteristics) of flour
products. In recognition of his commitment to international graduate students, Mr Roland Temme, TMCO,
Lincoln, NE, USA, established an international graduate student fellowship in his honor.
Chuck entered 50% phased-in retirement at age 65 þ in 2002 and retired in 2005, only to be hired back 1/
10-time afterward to assist with seminars and the department’s centennial recognition in 2010. He continued
to support the department’s activities on a volunteer basis.
Chuck’s research and consulting travels took him to more than a dozen countries, including many extended
trips to Australia, eventually earning permanent resident status in Australia – a country which had fascinated
him since childhood. Most of his time in Australia was spent with the Bread Research Institute in Sydney. He
also made several extended trips to China, serving as guest lecturer at ShanDong Agricultural University, Tai’An,
and at Henan University of Technology, Zhengzhou.
Chuck always commented that “the best legacy a person could leave is the knowledge he has shared.” A
significant way in which his knowledge has been shared is represented by his contributions to the first and
second editions of Elsevier’s Encyclopedia of Food Grains.

Colin Wrigley on behalf of the Editors.

Professor Koushik Seetharaman

In August 2012, Koushik Seetharaman was appointed as the third editor of this
second edition of Elsevier’s Grains Encyclopedia, replacing Professor Walker.
Tragically, Koushik’s many contributions to the Encyclopedia of Food Grains were
cut short by his untimely death at 48 years in June 2014.
Koushik received his BS at the Gujarat Agricultural University, Anand, Guja-
rat, India. His MS training was at Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA, and his
PhD research was carried out at Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, USA.
At the time of Koushik’s appointment as encyclopedia editor (August 2012),
he was Associate Professor and Cereals Chair in the Department of Food Science
at the University of Guelph, Canada. Research in his laboratory spanned the
cereal-grain value chain, focusing on grain quality, processing and ingredient
interactions, and on consumer acceptability and health.
His research on grain quality at Guelph involved collaboration with cereal-breeding companies, grain
farmers of Ontario and local processors, by analyzing Ontario wheats for functionality and nutritional
attributes. Special accents were on antioxidant activity, and on fiber and phenolics contents. Interactions
with breeders and processor related to the chemistry, sensory properties and consumer acceptance of whole
grain products, with specific focus on red versus white wheats in different product matrices.
Koushik had a special interest in the behavior of starch in water-poor systems, such as dough and baked
products. His research group had demonstrated that the constituent polymers of wheat starch are a series of
biopolymers ranging from linear to branched, depending on several factors including genetics and growth
environment. Moreover, the proportion of these polymers further defines their functional properties.
Research funding had been provided by the Canadian Agricultural Adaptation Council with contributions
from the Ontario Cereal Industry Research Council, Kellogg, Kraft, Kraft Canada Mill, Dow AgroSciences, C&M
Seeds, Grain Farmers of Ontario and Brabender GmbH.
Several months before his death, Koushik had been appointed as an Associate Professor to the Department
of Food Science and Nutrition at the University of Minnesota, St Paul, MN, USA, there taking the position of
General Mills Cereal Chair. In that capacity, Koushik had again initiated collaborations with breeders and
geneticists, millers and processors, with a focus on what product quality means for the consumer. His research
focused on interactions of grain biopolymers – starch and gluten in particular – and the impact on processing,
product attributes and consumer health.
 Tributes to Former Co-Editors xxi

His group included three postdoctoral research associates, five doctoral students and one MS student. They
were collaborating extensively with research groups around the world including University of Milan, Italy;
University of Copenhagen, Denmark; Lille University, France; ONIRIS, France; Tamilnadu Agricultural Uni-
versity, India; Iowa State University, USA; African Rice Research Institute, Benin; University of Guelph, Canada;
and Memorial University, Newfoundland, Canada.
Koushik’s research background and his collaborations placed him well to contribute to the preparation of
the grains encyclopedia, both by his our writing and via his contacts to engage world-authority contributors.
The grain-science community world-wide was shocked by Koushik’s sudden passing. Koushik left a wife
Debra Freedman and an eight-year-old son, Samuel.
Koushik’s contribution to the encyclopedia was such that Elsevier decided that his name should remain as a
co-editor even though he did not live to see the end result of his contributions.

Colin Wrigley on behalf of the Editors.

This page intentionally left blank
EDITORS’ BIOGRAPHY

Colin W. Wrigley’s 55 years in grain-science research have earned him international recognition in
the form of several international and Australian research awards. His work is described in about
600 research publications, including several patents, a series of eight books on Australian cereal
varieties, and many edited books. He was Editor-in-Chief of the first edition of the Encyclopedia of
Grain Science (2004).
His research interests have centered on the characterization of cereal-grain proteins in relation to
processing quality. This has involved developing new methods of protein fractionation, including
gel isoelectric focusing and its 2D combination with gel electrophoresis, leading into proteomic
mapping. Other diagnostic methods developed relate to the evaluation of grain quality in wheat
and barley, such as better methods for variety identification and for characterizing quality in starch
and sprouted grain (as co-patentee of the Rapid ViscoAnalyser). Research involvement has also
included elucidation of grain-quality variation due to environmental factors (heat stress, fertilizer
use, CO2 levels and storage conditions).
In 2009, Wrigley was appointed a Member of the Order of Australia (AM) ‘for service to primary
industry, particularly to grain science as a researcher, and to the development of methods for
improving wheat quality.’
He is currently an Honorary Professor at the University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia.

Harold Corke is a professor in the Food and Nutritional Sciences program at The University of
Hong Kong, and a Chutian Scholar Distinguished Foreign Professor in the Glyn O. Phillips
Hydrocolloid Research Center at HUT, Hubei University of Technology, Wuhan, China. In more
than 22 years in Hong Kong, he has had responsibility for teaching a diverse array of food science
courses, including the major courses Grain Production and Utilization, Food Safety and Quality
Management, Food Product Development, and general education courses Feeding the World, and
Food: Technology, Trade and Culture. He is author or co-author of 180 refereed journal articles,
and his 22 PhD graduates have gone on to successful careers in academia and industry around the
world. He is on the editorial boards of Journal of Food Composition and Analysis, LWT Food Science and
Technology and Journal of Cereal Science, and with Colin Wrigley and Chuck Walker was one of the
editors of the first edition of Encyclopedia of Grain Science, published in 2004. Corke is active in
consulting in grain processing and food safety in Asia and Eastern Europe.

Jon Faubion is the Charles Singleton Professor of Baking and Cereal Science in the Department of
Grain Science, Kansas State University. Over his 35þ year career, he has had the sole or shared
responsibility for teaching nine different cereal or food science courses at Texas A&M University,
The University of Minnesota and Kansas State. In 2011, he received the Excellence in Teaching
Award from the American Association of Cereal Chemists International. He is a senior editor of
Cereal Chemistry, and a member of the Board of Directors of the American Association of Cereal
Chemists International and an executive editor of Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture. Prior
to rejoining the department faculty in 2005, he directed the Applied Technology and Sensory
Science Groups for the research and development arm of The Schwan Food Company.

xxiii
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EDITORIAL ADVISORY BOARD

Jinsong Bao Bob French

Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, PR China
Frank Bekes
Director R&D FBFD Pty Ltd, Beecroft, NSW, Australia
Trust Beta
University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB, Canada
Stanley Cauvain
BakeTran, Witney, United Kingdom; Curtin University,
Perth, WA, Australia
Robert Cracknell
Crackers Consulting, Mount Eliza, VIC, Australia
Yapeng Fang
Hubei University of Technology, Wuhan, PR China
Jon Faubion
Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, USA
Department of Agriculture and Food, Western Australia,
Merredin, WA, Australia
Robert Graybosch
Agricultural Research Service, USDA, Lincoln, NE, USA
Robert Henry
University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
Barry V. McCleary
Megazyme International Ireland, Bray, Wicklow, Ireland
Lindsay O’Brien
University of Sydney, Narrabri, NSW, Australia
Paul Scott
USDA-ARS Corn Insects and Crop Genetics Research
Unit, Ames, IA, USA
John Reginald Nuttall Taylor
University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa

xxv
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CONTRIBUTORS

E Akhunov BJ Blaney
Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, USA The University of Queensland, St Lucia, Australia
PC Annis JE Bock
CSIRO Entomology, Canberra, ACT, Australia University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada
GA Annor F Bonomi
University of Ghana, Accra, Ghana University of Milan, Milan, Italy
CA Atkins AR Bridges
The University of Western Australia, Crawley, WA, AACC International, St Paul, MN, USA
Australia
H Brinch-Pedersen
W Atwell Aarhus University, Slagelse, Denmark
Bill Atwell Consulting, Champlin, MN, USA
G Bultosa
M Båga Haramaya University, Dire Dawa, Ethiopia; Botswana
University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, Canada College of Agriculture, Gaborone, Botswana
JS Bao W Bushuk
Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, PR China University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB, Canada
VJ Barthet YZ Cai
Canadian Grain Commission, Winnipeg, MB, Canada China National Seed Group, Beijing, PR China;
SA Barton Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, PR China;
Oxford Agricultural Trials Ltd, Oxford, UK The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, PR China;
Hubei University of Technology, Wuhan, PR China
IL Batey
Sunset Cereal Services, Meadowbank, NSW, Australia EF Caldwell
AACC International, Roseville, MN, USA
F Békés
FBFD PTY LTD, Beecroft, NSW, Australia KJ Carpenter
University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA
AR Belcher
Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR, USA JC Catullo
INTA, Buenos Aires, Argentina
JN BeMiller
Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA SP Cauvain
BakeTran, Witney, OX, UK
T Beta
University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada S Ceccarelli
Via delle Begonie 2, Ascoli Piceno, Italy
JL Black
John L Black Consulting, Warrimoo, NSW, Australia GK Chandi
University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada
MH Blanco
(Retired) Plant Breeder and Geneticist, Encinitas, N Chaudhary
CA, USA G. J. University of Science and Technology, Hisar, India

xxvii
xxviii Contributors

RN Chibbar JE Dexter
University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, Canada Canadian Grain Commission, Winnipeg, MB, Canada
M Chisi B Dobraszczyk
Golden Valley Research Station, Chisamba, Zambia Reading Science Centre, Reading, UK
S Cloutier D Domingues
Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Ottawa, ON, General Mills Inc., Minneapolis, MN, USA
Canada
C Dowd
LS Collado General Mills Inc., Minneapolis, MN, USA
The University of the Philippines Los Banos, Laguna,
LM Duizer
Philippines
University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada
NC Collins
RW Duncan
School of Agriculture Food and Wine, The University of
University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB, Canada
Adelaide, Glen Osmond, SA, Australia
KG Duodu
H Corke
University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, Pokfulam,
PR China; Hubei University of Technology, Wuhan, SR Eckhoff
PR China (Retired) University of Illinois, Urbana, IL, USA
RL Cracknell M Edney
Crackers Consulting, Mount Eliza, VIC, Australia Canadian Grain Commission, Winnipeg, MB, Canada
GB Crosbie M Emery
Crosbie Grain Quality Consulting, East Fremantle, WA, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, USA
Australia
W Erskine
JS Croser University of Western Australia, Crawley, WA, Australia
University of Western Australia, Crawley, WA, Australia
WD Eustace
A Cruickshank (Retired) Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, USA
DAFF Queensland, Warwick, QLD, Australia
A Evans
A Cuesta-Marcos Tate and Lyle, Hoffman Estates, IL, USA
Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR, USA
E Evans
MG D’Egidio The Tassie Beer Dr, Lindisfarne, TAS, Australia
Unità di ricerca per la Valorizzazione Qualitativa dei
JD Faris
Cereali, Rome, Italy
USDA-ARS Cereal Crops Research Unit, Fargo, ND,
D Dan Ramdath USA
Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Guelph, ON, Canada
J Faubion
P Dangi Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, USA
G. J. University of Science and Technology, Hisar, India
AM Fehily
JK Daun Tinuviel Software, Warrington, UK
(Deceased)
T Filichkin
C David Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR, USA
ISARA Lyon, Lyon, France
GB Fincher
L Day Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence in Plant
AgResearch Ltd., Palmerston North, New Zealand Cell Walls, University of Adelaide, Glen Osmond, SA,
Australia
D Deneke
South Dakota State University, Brookings, SD, USA SP Fisk
Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR, USA
R DePauw
Agriculture and AgriFood Canada, Swift Current, SK, MT Fletcher
Canada The University of Queensland, St Lucia, Australia
 Contributors xxix

RJ Fletcher A Gunaratne
University of Queensland, Gatton, QLD, Australia The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, PR China
F Fleurat-Lessard YN Guragain
INRA, Mycology and Food Safety Research Unit, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, USA
Villenave d’Ornon, France
RCE Guy
JA Fox Campden and Chorleywood Food Research Association,
Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, USA Chipping Campden, UK
RJ French C Hall III
The University of Western Australia, Crawley, WA, North Dakota State University, Fargo, ND, USA
Australia
LM Hall
B Friebe University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada
Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, USA
EG Hammond
BJ Furman Iowa State University, Ames, IA, USA
San Jose State University, San Jose, CA, USA
R Haraszi
M Gangola Campden BRI, Gloucestershire, UK
University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, Canada
J Harnack
P Gélinas University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA
Food Research and Development Centre, Agriculture and
D Hauge
Agri-Food Canada, Saint-Hyacinthe, QC, Canada
Grains for Health Foundation, St. Louis Park, MN, USA
SM Ghazani
AMR Hayes
University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada
St. Catherine University, Lafayette, MN, USA
MC Gianibelli
PM Hayes
(Retired)
Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR, USA
A Gianinetti
L Helgerson
Consiglio per la ricerca in agricoltura e l’analisi
Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR, USA
dell’economia agraria, CRA-GPG, Fiorenzuola d’Arda,
Italy RJ Henry
University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
BS Gill
Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, USA D Herb
Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR, USA
JS Godber
LSU Agricultural Center, Baton Rouge, LA, USA I Herencia
Universidad Politecnica de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
A Goldstein
University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN, USA E Hernandez
Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, USA
R Graebner
Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR, USA KB Hobson
New South Wales Department of Primary Industries,
S Graham-Acquaah
Tamworth, NSW, Australia
Africa Rice Center, Cotonou, Republic of Benin
M Hochhalter
RA Graybosch
North Dakota State University, Fargo, ND, USA
USDA-ARS, University of Nebraska Lincoln, Lincoln,
NE, USA RD Horsley
North Dakota State University, Fargo, ND, USA
S Grundas
Bohdan Dobrzanski Institute of Agrophysics of the Polish W Huang
Academy of Sciences, Lublin, Poland Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Nanjing,
PR China; Jiangnan University, Wuxi, Jiangsu, PR China
TJ Gulya
USDA-ARS, Northern Crop Science Laboratory, Fargo, Y Huang
ND, USA China Agricultural University, Beijing, PR China
xxx Contributors

V Humphrey-Taylor P Koehler
(Retired) New Zealand Institute for Crop Food Research Deutsche Forschungsanstalt für Lebensmittelchemie,
Limited, Christchurch, New Zealand Leibniz Institut, Freising, Germany
T Hymowitz R Korczak
University of Illinois at Champaign-Urbana, Urbana, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN, USA
IL, USA
SG Krattinger
S Iametti University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
University of Milan, Milan, Italy
L Krishnamurthy
C Isaak International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid
University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB, Canada Tropics, Patancheru, Andhra Pradesh, India
MS Izydorczyk S Kumar
Canadian Grain Commission, Winnipeg, MB, Canada International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry
Areas (ICARDA), Rabat, Morocco
P Jacques
Tufts University, Boston, MA, USA OR Larroque
CSIRO Agriculture Flagship, Canberra, Australia
S Jaiswal
University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, Canada JW Lawton
J Jane (Retired) ARS-USDA
Iowa State University, Ames, IA, USA EA Lee
LA Johnson University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada
Iowa State University, Ames, IA, USA EC Leonard
JM Jones AgriKnowHow, Maitland, SA, Australia
St. Catherine University, Arden Hills, MN, USA JS Li
A Juhász China Agricultural University, Beijing, PR China
Centre for Agricultural Research of the Hungarian WD Li
Academy of Sciences, Martonvásár, Hungary Shanxi University, Taiyuan, PR China
BO Juliano Z Li
Philippine Rice Research Institute Los Baños, Laguna, CSIRO Food Futures National Research Flagship,
Philippines Canberra, ACT, Australia; CSIRO Plant Industry,
RS Kadan Canberra, ACT, Australia
(Deceased)
R Lindberg
GP Kadkol Minneapolis Heart Institute Foundation, Minneapolis,
NSW Department of Primary Industries, Calala, NSW, MN, USA
Australia
MG Lindhauer
LW Kannenberg Max Rubner-Institut (MRI), Detmold, Germany
University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada
K Liu
TN Khan Agricultural Research Service, US Department of
University of Western Australia, Crawley, WA, Australia Agriculture, Aberdeen, ID, USA

BS Khatkar Q Liu
G. J. University of Science and Technology, Hisar, India Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Guelph, ON, Canada

JG Kling S Lu
Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR, USA National Chung Hsing University, Taichung, Taiwan
EJ Knights OM Lukow
New South Wales Department of Primary Industries, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Winnipeg, MB,
Tamworth, NSW, Australia Canada
 Contributors xxxi

BL Ma NJ Mendham
Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Ottawa, ON, University of Tasmania, Hobart, TAS, Australia
Canada
R Menon
C-Y Ma The General Mills Bell Institute of Health and Nutrition,
The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, PR China Minneapolis, MN, USA
A MacLeod TE Michaels
Canadian Grain Commission, Winnipeg, MB, Canada University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN, USA
L MacLeod DM Miskelly
Dairy Innovation Australia, Werribee, VIC, Australia Westcott Consultants P/L, Goulburn, NSW, Australia
CK Madsen
CS Moffat
Aarhus University, Slagelse, Denmark
Curtin University, Bentley, WA, Australia
RJ Mailer
ES Monyo
Australian Oils Research, Lambton, NSW, Australia
ICRISAT, Nairobi, Kenya
JT Manful
Africa Rice Center, Cotonou, Republic of Benin TR Moore
AIB International, Manhattan, KS, USA
AG Marangoni
University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada MK Morell
International Rice Research Institute, Los Baños,
DJ Mares Philippines
University of Adelaide, Glen Osmond, SA, Australia
CF Morris
L Marquart USDA-ARS Western Wheat Quality Laboratory,
University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN, USA; Grains for Pullman, WA, USA
Health Foundation, St. Louis Park, MN, USA
LA Morrison
A Marti
Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR, USA
Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy
B Maschoff WK Mousa
Grains for Health Foundation, St. Louis Park, MN, USA University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada; Mansoura
University, Mansoura, Egypt
A Mathiowetz
University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN, USA; Rochester, K Mrva
MN, USA University of Adelaide, Glen Osmond, SA, Australia

JJ Mayko L Munck
Canola Council of Canada, Mundare, AB, Canada University of Copenhagen, Frederiksberg C, Denmark
CM McDonough R Munns
Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, USA CSIRO Agriculture, Canberra, ACT, Australia; The
University of Western Australia, Crawley, WA, Australia
RA McIntosh
The University of Sydney, Cobbitty, NSW, Australia PA Murphy
Iowa State University, Ames, IA, USA
JD McKeehen
Cereal Partners Worldwide, Minneapolis, MN, USA ED Nafziger
J McLean University of Illinois, Urbana, IL, USA
The University of Newcastle, Callaghan, NSW, Australia SC Nelson
PBE McVetty AACC International (AACCI), St. Paul, MN, USA
University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB, Canada T Nleya
B Meints South Dakota State University, Brookings, SD, USA
Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR, USA
L O’Brien
A Meldrum The University of Sydney, Narrabri, NSW, Australia;
Pulse Australia, Perth, WA, Australia Solheimar Pty Ltd, Narrabri, NSW, Australia
xxxii Contributors

DK O’Toole I Rajcan
City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, PR China University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada
EA Oelke L Ramsden
University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN, USA University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, PR China
RP Oliver KD Rausch
Curtin University, Bentley, WA, Australia University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign, Urbana, IL,
USA
DE Ortiz
W. K. Kellogg Institute, Battle Creek, MI, USA A Regina
MA Pagani CSIRO Food Futures National Research Flagship,
Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy Canberra, ACT, Australia; CSIRO Plant Industry,
Canberra, ACT, Australia
TS Palav
Rich Products Corporation, Buffalo, NY, USA MN Riaz
Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, USA
L Pallas
Yanco Agricultural Institute, Yanco, NSW, Australia D Richard-Molard
(Retired) INRA, Nantes, France
GH Palmer
Heriot-Watt University, Edinburgh, UK F Rizza
Consiglio per la ricerca in agricoltura e l’analisi
RG Palmer dell’economia agraria, CRA-GPG, Fiorenzuola d’Arda,
Iowa State University, Ames, IA, USA Italy
RF Park MJ Robertson
The University of Sydney, Narellan, NSW, Australia CSIRO Sustainable Ecosystems, St. Lucia, QLD,
GM Paulsen Australia
Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, USA LW Rooney
LC Paulson Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, USA
The Bama Companies, Tulsa, OK, USA WL Rooney
DS Petterson Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, USA
Department of Agriculture, Nedlands, WA, Australia CM Rosell
RA Porter Institute of Agrochemistry and Food Technology (IATA-
University of Minnesota-NCROC, Grand Rapids, CSIC), Paterna, Valencia, Spain
MN, USA AS Ross
L Privalle Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR, USA
Bayer CropScience, Research Triangle Park, Durham, SJ Roy
NC, USA School of Agriculture Food and Wine, The University of
KV Probst Adelaide, Glen Osmond, SA, Australia
Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, USA; Grain HD Sapirstein
Processing Corporation, Muscatine, IA, USA University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB, Canada
KJ Quail AK Sarkar
Grain Growers Limited, North Ryde, NSW, Australia Canadian International Grains Institute, Winnipeg, MB,
RCN Rachaputi Canada
University of Queensland, Kingaroy, QLD, Australia
A Sarker
H Rahman International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry
University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada Areas (ICARDA), New Delhi, India
S Rahman SK Sathe
Monash University Malaysia, Bandar Sunway, Malaysia Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL, USA
MN Raizada SF Schakel
University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA
 Contributors xxxiii

KA Scherf VA Solah
Deutsche Forschungsanstalt für Lebensmittelchemie, Curtin University, Perth, WA, Australia
Leibniz Institut, Freising, Germany
AM Stanca
MP Scott University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Reggio Emilia,
Iowa State University, Ames, IA, USA Italy
K Seetharaman FL Stoddard
(Deceased) University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
GJ Seiler K-C Tan
USDA-ARS, Northern Crop Science Laboratory, Fargo, Curtin University, Bentley, WA, Australia
ND, USA
AS Tatham
SO Serna-Saldivar Cardiff Metropolitan University, Cardiff, UK
Centro de Biotecnologı´a FEMSA, Escuela de Ingenierı´a y
JRN Taylor
Ciencias, Monterrey, Mexico
University of Pretoria, Hatfield, South Africa
S Shea Miller
V Terzi
Eastern Cereals and Oilseeds Research Centre,
Consiglio per la ricerca in agricoltura e l’analisi
Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Ottawa, ON,
dell’economia agraria, CRA-GPG, Fiorenzuola d’Arda,
Canada
Italy
DB Sheats
K Tiefenbacher
St. Catherine University, St. Paul, MN, USA
(Retired)
PR Shewry
VK Tiwari
Rothamsted Research, Harpenden, UK; University of
Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, USA
Reading, Reading, UK
SM Tosh
RD Shillito
Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Guelph, ON, Canada
Bayer CropScience, Durham, NC, USA
P Tosi
JP Shroyer
University of Reading, Reading, UK
Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, USA
LC Trugo
KJ Shroyer
Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, USA
SE Ulrich
Qingyao Shu
Washington State University, Pullman, WA, USA
Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, PR China
EH Unger
KHM Siddique
Eagle Rock Solutions, Inc., Idaho Falls, ID, USA
University of Western Australia, Crawley, WA, Australia
PV Vadlani
J Singla
Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, USA
University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
SA Valencia-Chamorro
M Sissons
Escuela Politécnica Nacional, Quito, Ecuador
NSW Department of Primary Industries, Calala, NSW,
Australia; Tamworth Agricultural Institute, Tamworth, V Vamadevan
NSW, Australia University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN, USA; Agriculture
and Agri-Food Canada, Guelph, ON, Canada
JH Skerritt
University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD, Australia N Van Heel
University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA
DJ Skylas
Grain Growers Limited, North Ryde, NSW, A Vandenberg
Australia University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, Canada
DL Smith SK Vasal
McGill University, Ste-Anne-de-Bellevue, QC, Canada BISA, Punjab, India
xxxiv Contributors

R Velicogna BJB Wood

Archer Daniels Midland, Montreal, QC, Canada Strathclyde University, Glasgow, UK
D von Baer G Wright
Seeds Baer, Temuco, Chile Peanut Company of Australia, Kingaroy, QLD, Australia

E von Baer CW Wrigley

CAMPEX Semillas Baer, Temuco, Chile
CE Walker
(Deceased)
SB Walker
University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada
FL Walley
University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, Canada
D Wang
Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, PR China
T Wang
Iowa State University, Ames, IA, USA
RD Waniska
Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, USA
LL Ward
Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, USA
H Wieser
Deutsche Forschungsanstalt für Lebensmittelchemie,
Leibniz Institut, Freising, Germany
RM Williams
CBH Group, West Perth, WA, Australia
PM Williamson
(Retired) Leslie Research Centre, Toowoomba, QLD,
Australia; CBH Group, West Perth, WA, Australia
Honorary Professor, QAAFI; The University of
Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
Dianxing Wu
Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, PR China
HX Wu
Wuhan Chortle Biotechnology Company Limited,
Wuhan, PR China
J Wyatt
NIAB, Cambridge, UK
Y Yan
Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan,
PR China
H Yangcheng
Iowa State University, Ames, IA, USA
V Zevallos
Johannes Gutenberg Mainz, Mainz, Germany; University
Medical Center, Mainz, Germany
XM Zhou
McGill University, Ste-Anne-de-Bellevue, QC, Canada
PK Zwer
South Australian Research and Development Institute
(SARDI), Urrbrae, SA, Australia
S Zydenbos
(Retired) New Zealand Institute for Crop Food Research
Limited, Christchurch, New Zealand
 THE WORLD OF FOOD GRAINS
The Basics
Contents
The Grains that Feed the World
Course Structures: Based on EFG Articles
The Grain Crops: An Overview
The Grain Chain: The Route from Genes to Grain-Based Products
Taxonomic Classification of Grain Species
Grain: Morphology of Internal Structure
Grain and Plant Morphology of Cereals and how characters can be used to identify varieties
The Grains that Feed the World
CW Wrigley, University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
H Corke, University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, Pokfulam, China
J Faubion, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, USA
ã 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Topic Highlights
• Grains are the source of half of our food and protein
consumption.
• Current world production for all grains equals 1 kg per
person per day.
• Grains also contribute to the wider range of foods via
animals.
• Major media claims about grains and health are presented
in this article.
• Some myths about grain-based foods are busted.
• Some claims are supported, at least in part.
Learning Objectives
• To understand the significance of grains in feeding the
growing human population
• To adopt a critical attitude to production and nutritional
information about grains presented in the media and to
know how to seek and research authentic information
• To be motivated to pursue further topics in depth, starting
with investigating relevant articles in the Encyclopedia of
Food Grains and going back where necessary to primary
scientific research articles.
Encyclopedia of Food Grains, Second Edition http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-394437-5.00003-6
Introduction
Grains are responsible directly or indirectly for most of the
food we eat. The big three cereal grains (rice, wheat, and
maize) have roles as staple foods (major daily sources of
carbohydrate-based energy) and for processing into animal
feeds and other diverse uses such as fuel bioethanol. There
has been an explosive growth in meat consumption globally,
as more and more people come out of poverty and enter into a
growing middle class. This is most apparent in China, where
demand for meat and other animal products (eggs and milk)
drives the production of maize domestically and production of
soy beans in major exporting countries (the United States,
Argentina, and Brazil).
A billion people worldwide are obese; a third of the food
produced in industrialized countries is thrown away uneaten.
In this exuberant excess of food production lie many serious
problems – a billion people worldwide are chronically mal-
nourished, food production competes with industry and
domestic usage for scarce resources of energy and water,
human populations continue to increase, and food production
impacts on the environment in ways that may not be sustain-
able. People care about what they eat, about their health, about
longevity, and about fitness.
In the news media, nutrition sells; there is thus a constant
output of information on topics such as gluten-free diets,
1
2 THE BASICS | The Grains that Feed the World

obesity, genetically modified organisms (GMOs), and organic

agriculture. Unfortunately, much of the popular media report-
ing on grains and health is wrong, sometimes the result of
journalistic carelessness or ignorance, sometimes from
demand for an ideological spin on knowledge, and sometimes
out of a crass calculation that hysteria sells better than truth.
This encyclopedia sets out to redress the balance and rectify
these popular misconceptions. What do you expect from an
encyclopedia? Obviously, everything you want to know about
the general topic. Just as importantly, you expect correct infor-
mation, provided by world-recognized authorities, knowing
that all facts have been checked. These expectations are fulfilled
in this encyclopedia, in its four print volumes, in its hundreds
of articles, in its broad-ranging website, and in its extension as
part of Elsevier’s Food Science Reference Module, as a general
source of advice to the food industry worldwide.
Often, the expectation of an encyclopedia is to check
whether what-I-have-heard is actually so. This introductory
article explores some of those what-I-have-heard sayings, listed
in groups of dot points, with commentary, plus referral to
relevant encyclopedia articles. The authors of the encyclopedia
articles are recognized as world authorities in their respective
fields. The articles have all undergone peer review by members
of the editorial advisory board and the editors, thereby ensur-
ing that the information is correct and free from the many
myths, misconceptions, and misinformation that have been
spread by nefarious advertising and unbridled websites.

Grains and Our Future

• Climate change will lead to less grain production. Not

necessarily!
• We have become so dependent upon eating cereal grains
(grass seeds) that it has prompted at least one author to say
that we have become ‘canaries.’ Yes, we are dependent on
grains, but ‘canaries,’ no!
• ‘Cereal grains literally stand between humankind and
starvation.’ Maybe.
• Humankind will run out of food in the foreseeable future.
Probably not.
– What ultimately is the source of our food? How vulnerable
are we?
Our Dependence on Grains as Food
The 1960s were a time of great pessimism about the future of
humanity and the possibility of massive famines due to popu-
lation increases, especially in Asia and Africa, and the failure of
national agricultural to produce enough to feed these growing
populations. The Green Revolution was spearheaded by the
research of Dr. Norman Borlaug (Figure 1) on dwarf wheat at
CIMMYT in Mexico and was complemented by similar work
on dwarf rice at International Rice Research Institute in the
Philippines. These advances led to rapid increases in grain
production. India went from being a chronic major importer
of wheat to avert famine to being a significant exporter of grain.
The relative abundance in grain production today, the
power of biotechnology, and the excesses in consumption we
often see around us (wastage of food and increasing meat
consumption) may make us forget how tenuous is our ability
to produce the grains we need year after year. Humankind
has certainly become dependent upon eating cereal grains.
Figure 1 Norman Borlaug was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in
1970 for his work to end world hunger by creating new strains
of drought-resistant wheat. This statue was placed in the US Capitol
Building’s National Statuary Hall in 2014 to celebrate the 100th
anniversary of Borlaug’s birth.
This dependence is inevitable, given our vast population and
the contribution of grains to food and feed production. Grains
provide over half our protein and energy needs. But it is hardly
justified to claim that, as a result, we have become ‘canaries.’
A recurring theme of this encyclopedia is the great diversity of
ways in which we prepare grains in our diet – not only as ‘our
daily bread’ (Bible, Matthew 4:4) and not only as the staple
food of boiled rice. A complete volume is devoted to the great
diversity of grain-based products and their processing.
What Ultimately Is the Source of Our Food on Earth?
This question was addressed in 1648 by a Belgian scientist, Jan
Baptist van Helmont, with respect to plants in general. He
planted a tree in a pot of soil. He first weighed the soil (after
drying it) and also the small tree. For 5 years, he added water
only to the pot. He then weighed the remaining soil and the
tree, which had grown considerably. There was negligible
weight loss from the soil, so he concluded that all the weight
gain of the tree had come from the water that he added: thus,
wood is made from water! (Figure 2).

Today, we know that Jan did not control two important
factors: the sun and the air (CO2), which together produce all
plant life via photosynthesis according to the following reactions:
CO2 þ H2 O þ light ! O2 þ glucose ða simple sugarÞ
Glucose ! carbohydrates, lignin, and cellulose
ðplant componentsÞ
Jan Baptist lived in an age of the Aristotelian belief in four
elements: water, earth, air, and fire. Even considering these
elements, he took into account the first two, but neglected air
(CO2) and fire (sunlight).
Thus, all our food comes from these sources – sunlight,
CO2, and water – either directly in the cases of grains,
vegetables, and fruit or indirectly in the cases of animals who
eat the grain and plants. In addition, the soil does contribute
In 1648, a scientist
provided water only
to a small tree
... for 5 years
Thus, he concluded
that trees are made from
water! He neglected the
roles of light and CO2
Figure 2 The experiment of Belgian scientist, Jan Baptist van Helmont,
seeking to determine what plants are made from.
Cereal production, utilization and stocks
Million tonnes
2600
2400
2200
2000
1800
2004/05 2006/07 2008/09
Production (left axis)
Stocks (right axis)
Figure 3 The past decade of production and utilization of cereal grains. Source: FAOSTAT.
THE BASICS | The Grains that Feed the World 3
the wide range of elements described later in this article, espe-
cially nitrogen for protein synthesis. When grain is harvested,
these elements are removed from the field, and they must
ultimately be replaced by some form of fertilizer.
However, the other essentials – sunlight, CO2, and water – are
readily available for free on an ongoing basis. Of course, that
might not be claimed for water in many dry climates. The free
claim can certainly be made for CO2 given the rising levels of
this component of our atmosphere. In fact, the sequestration of
CO2 by plants is one of the many solutions for mitigating the
rising levels of CO2. There needs to be a realization of the
essential nature of CO2 as the source of all plant life and thus
of all our food, thereby to reverse the bad press attributed to CO2.
Will We Run Out of Food in the Foreseeable Future?
Our reliance on the grains of cereal plants (especially wheat,
rice, and corn) is so great that they supply nearly 60% of our
food energy and 50% of the protein consumed on Earth. Thus,
grains really do ‘stand between us and starvation.’ Grains offer
the great advantages that they can be stored safely for long
periods and thus transported far from their growth sites. Grains
are adaptable with respect to the wide range of foods made
from them. Grains are also important as animal food and for
various forms of industrial processing.
But will we run out of food in the foreseeable future? Efforts
continue to improve methods of breeding, agronomy, harve-
sting, and processing, showing good signs that grain produc-
tion and quality will continue to increase, providing for a
world of hungry people. The production and yield of wheat
have tripled in the past 40 years, as explained in the Wheat
Overview article (The Cereal Grains: Wheat: An Overview of
the Grain That Provides ‘Our Daily Bread’). Furthermore,
Figure 3 shows how there is an ongoing increase in the
Million tonnes
800
600
400
200
0
2010/11 2012/13 2014/15
f’cast
Utilization (left axis)
4 THE BASICS | The Grains that Feed the World
Earth’s atmospheric CO2 concentration and temperature
390
370
350
ppm 330
CO2
310 CO2
290
270
250
1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000
Year
Figure 4 Increasing temperatures and levels of carbon dioxide promise increasing grain yields due to the carbon-fertilizer effect.
worldwide production of cereal grains, also including maize,
rice, barley, and other grass-related grains. The future therefore
looks hopeful.
However, we still have great inequalities in food supply in
terms of grains. Although current world production for all
grains is equivalent to 1 kg per person per day, there is still
hunger because some of this great volume of grain serves alter-
native important nonfood purposes, such as animal feed and
industrial uses. The greatest problem, however, is that the major
sites of production are distant from the major sites of need, and
those in need lack the resources to access the excess grain.
Increasing levels of carbon dioxide (Figure 4) offer the
promise of increasing grain yields, but with growth conditions
changing, breeders and agronomists need to focus research on
adapting to a changing world scene.
Climate Change and the Future of Grain Production
Predictions of global climate change include increased levels of
carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, causing warmer tempera-
tures (especially the daily minima), changed patterns of rain-
fall, and increased frequency and severity of heat-stress
episodes, together with decreased frost frequency and rising
sea levels. These trends imply a future of fluctuations in grain
yield and quality, but overall increases in grain yield are pre-
dicted. Rising sea levels have serious implications for many
low-lying rice-growing areas in Asia.
Irrespective of arguments about causes, increases in atmo-
spheric levels in carbon dioxide have been clearly demon-
strated, rising from ancient levels of 150–280 to 400 ppm
and beyond, with a predicted doubling in a century or so.
One consequence is the provision of carbon fertilizer, leading
in the future to more efficient biomass production and greater
yields for many grain species. However, the yield increases may
be largely in carbohydrate, potentially leaving reduced grain-
protein levels. The fertilizing effects of carbon dioxide are
more significant at higher temperatures, the other major effect
predicted to accompany the global climate challenge. For
wheat, the increases in temperature are also expected to affect
potential dough-forming properties. Temperatures in the range
15–30  C during grain filling have been shown to provide
optimal dough strength, but grain with weaker dough quality
is produced when plants are subjected to a few days of heat
14.5
14.3
14.1
°C
°C 13.9
13.7
13.5
stresses of over 35  C during grain filling. However, there are
indications that some wheat genotypes are available that
provide stable grain quality despite such heat-stress condi-
tions, thereby opening up promising research directions. So,
considerable research effort is concentrated on breeding for
changed growth conditions (see articles Agronomy of Grain
Growing: Implication of Climate Changes; Sustainable Grain
Production and Utilization; Wheat: Biotrophic Pathogen Resis-
tance; Genetics of Grains: Abiotic Stress Genes and Mecha-
nisms in Wheat; The Cereal Grains: An Overview of the Family
of Cereal Grains Prominent in World Agriculture).
Growing Our Grains
• Organic-grown grain is superior nutritionally to other
grain. Wrong!
• GMO grain is hazardous to your health. Wrong!
Organic Growing
Organic is an adjective used with the whole range of foods and
even fibers. The term is associated with a higher price and
presumed higher value. It should also indicate products of
such quality and composition as are expected from growing
these products in the absence of chemicals, instead using nat-
ural means of farm management. Are organically grown grains,
for example, any different nutritionally from other sources of
grain? The answer is generally no. Organic grain will look the
same as conventionally grown grain and will not likely to have
more favorable nutritional content.
Organic grain is likely to have a protein content similar to
that of other grains grown under similar conditions. With
respect to chemicals, the levels of pesticides and herbicides of
organic grain may be less than those for conventionally grown
grain, but the latter are still required to have such compounds
at levels below the minimum residue levels. A report by the UK
Crop Protection Association found “lower levels of pesticide
residues in organic produce when compared to conventional”
but “these differences are relatively small, for example, a typical
residue of 0.1 mg/kg is equivalent to a fly on a ten-ton truck.”
The encyclopedia’s article on organic grain points out that
the great advantage of organic farming is the benefit to land
 THE BASICS | The Grains that Feed the World 5

use and the environment (see articles Agronomy of Grain Grow- on the actual composition of GM food and the actual effects
ing: Organic Grain Production and Food Processing; Sustainable of GM plant and animal agricultural practices (see articles
Grain Production and Utilization; Food Grains and the Con- Food Grains and the Consumer: Genetically Modified Grains
sumer: Labelling of Grain-Based Foods). and the Consumer; Genetics of Grains: Detection of Geneti-
cally Modified Grains; Development of Genetically Modified
Grains; The Cereal Grains: Maize: Overview; The Oilseeds:
Genetically Modified Organisms Cottonseed: Overview; Canola: Overview; Soybean:
It is well over a century since grain scientists commenced the Overview).
now usual practice of cross pollination to combine the benefits of
one parental line with those of another. Previously, plant
improvements had involved the selection of promising plants Grains, Our Health, and the Media
(by appearance) from the common mix of plants in the field.
Cross pollination greatly extended the genetic variability of popu- What can we believe? We all know that the French queen Marie
lations from which to select promising new genotypes for use in Antoinette (Figure 5) famously declared “Let them eat cake”
developing new improved varieties. However, this approach to when she was told that her starving subjects were clamoring for
plant breeding is limited because cross pollination is generally bread. Wrong!
restricted to plants of the same genus, perhaps even the same The saying is stuck in historical tradition because it has been
species. Thus, for example, it is not possible to source genetic a convenient précis of the aristocratic arrogance of the times
resistance to a disease from beyond the target grain species. preceding the French revolution (1789–99). However, the line
In recent decades, this limitation has been removed by the about eating cake was actually written in the mid-1760s when
introduction of genetic engineering techniques, permitting not Marie Antoinette was a young girl living in Austria. It appears in
only very precise inter-genus transfer of genes but also the target- a work entitled Confessions written by Jean-Jacques Rousseau.
ing of single genes or groups of genes for transfer from unrelated Furthermore, much has been lost in translation. The word
genera (which could, e.g., be as distant as a fish and a different ‘cake’ is a mistranslation of the French brioche that is a pastry
plant). The improved plant or animal that carries functional with tender crumb made with generous inclusion of egg and
genes from an unrelated genus (a gene transfer that could not butter, hardly like our general concept of ‘cake.’ The linkage to
happen in nature) is termed genetically modified (GM). Many Marie Antoinette has been attributed to Jean-Baptiste Alphonse
improved grain genotypes have been introduced into agricul- Karr (1808–90), who wrote it 50 years after her death.
tural production on a very large scale. Such improvements may How does it happen that society accepts the authenticity of
include not only agronomic and disease benefits but also a phrase or story even though it is just plain wrong? The ‘Let
improvements in nutritional value. The major crops involved them eat cake’ story may be no more than a trivial error of
for large-scale production are maize, soybean, canola, and cot- history. More important are the multitude of other errors and
ton. In the case of GMO cotton especially, there has been great misconceptions in the public mind. To the extent that this
environmental benefit of reduced use of insecticides. There are misinformation affects our way of life and our personal well
GMO variations of many other grain crops, such as golden rice,
GM to contain beta-carotene, a source of vitamin A.
There has been political/philosophical/activist and con-
sumer resistance to the benefits offered by GMO technology,
such that the range of GMO grains has been restricted and the
potential benefits have not yet become available. For example,
there is thus no widespread cultivation of GMO wheat, barley,
or rice. Much of the scientific evidence presented on the poten-
tial harm of GM foods is simply spurious, generated with
disregard to normal experimental practices, and with results
predetermined by a bias on the part of the authors. In conse-
quence of consumer resistance, the spread of GMO grains has
been restricted to some countries and regions – mainly to the
Americas. In Argentina, for example, many farmers grow two
crops a year – wheat and GMO soy. As the soy is herbicide-
resistant, weeds are eliminated during the soy-growth phase,
and the subsequent wheat crop is harvested free of weed seeds.
Much of Europe and Africa has been far more circumspect
about permitting introduction of GM grains. There is a valid
and essential ongoing public debate to be made about the
ownership or intellectual property basis of genetic resources
that underpin GMO production. There is valid unease about
the potentially excess control that a few biotechnology compa-
nies may exert on world agriculture. There are also arguments
to be made about the environmental impacts – both positive
and negative – of all forms of agriculture, including that
involving GM plants and animals. But these arguments should Figure 5 The peasants of France were starving for lack of bread. Marie
be made on the basis of accurate and apolitical information Antoinette responded: “No bread? Then let them eat cake.” Did she?
6 THE BASICS | The Grains that Feed the World
being, there is a serious need for authentic information to be
offered and adopted.
There may be no combination of issues where this need is
more apparent than in the matter of nutrition, our diet being
closely allied to our health, quality of life, and our death, thus
prompting sayings such as the following:
• What we eat today walks and talks tomorrow.
• Digging our graves with our teeth.
• We are what we eat.
• Mens sana in corpore sano (a healthy mind in a healthy
body).
The Encyclopedia of Food Grains: A Source of
Authentic Information
This encyclopedia offers authentic information about all
aspects of food grains as they relate to us – and about all
sorts of grains: chickpeas, rice, maize, barley, quinoa, soya,
plus buckwheat, and the real wheat (the last two grains are
unrelated!). The encyclopedia’s coverage takes us through the
various stages of the breeding of grains, their growth, produc-
tion, processing, and the retailing of the wide range of grain-
based foods. All these issues impact us as consumers, situated
as we are at the culmination of the ‘grain chain’ (see article The
Basics: The Grain Chain: The Route from Genes to Grain-Based
Products). Veracity for the articles is assured due to authorship
by world authorities, followed by peer review by members of
the editorial advisory board, the editors, and external experts.
Some Popular Mythconceptions About Food Grains
In this opening article, we examine and correct some of the
myths and misconceptions (mythconceptions) about grain-
related nutrition and grain production. These errors appear in
popular books and on questionable websites and inferred in
advertising, in general gossip, and in popular concepts. Beyond
this article, more mythconceptions are addressed in detail
throughout the encyclopedia. How about the following ideas?
• Bread makes you fat. Wrong!
• The fat you eat goes straight to your hips. Wrong!
• Eat fat-free products and you won’t get fat. Wrong!
• Trans fats, produced in fats from oilseeds, are bad for you.
Maybe!
• Food additives are all badditives! Wrong!
• New types of oilseeds have fats that are nutritionally bene-
ficial. True!
• Only children get celiac disease and they can grow out of it
anyway. No and no!
• A gluten-free diet will make you feel better. Wrong or not
necessarily.
• A gluten-free diet is damaging to your health. Wrong!
• A gluten-free diet will cause you to miss essential nutrients.
Maybe.
• A gluten-free diet means that I cannot eat buckwheat.
Wrong!
Figure 6 This type of corn dolly is not made from corn (maize); they are
usually made from the stalks and heads of wheat, rye, triticale, and
barley. This apparent misnomer arises from the use of corn to signify any
grain species; this connotation is still prevalent in parts of Britain,
whereas corn is used in North America to signify maize.
• At least we know that milk and coffee are gluten-free. Not
necessarily.
• Corn dollies are made from corn (maize). No, not usually!
(See Figure 6.)
• There are dietary imbalances in the cereal grains. Partly true!
• Spinach is the best source of iron in our diet; we know that
because we grew up with Popeye the Sailor Man who ate all
his spinach. Wrong!
• Wild flax growing in New Zealand differs from cultivated
flax. Correct! (See Figure 7.)
• Organic-grown grain is superior nutritionally to other
grain. Wrong!
• GMO grain is hazardous to your health. Wrong!
Authentic information is needed on the aforementioned topics
and on many more. Ask a question about grains and seek an
authentic answer via the hypertext features or the conventional
index of this encyclopedia. The assurance of authenticity of this
encyclopedia is that world authorities have been sought to
write every chapter, and subsequently, all articles have been
peer-reviewed. None of those involved have any commercial
interest in the topic about which they have written. Those
assurances cannot be made for the authors of many popular
books, magazine articles, or websites.
What Do Our Bodies Need and How Much?
Let’s get to the facts of our nutrition. Our bodies are composed
of carbon (C), hydrogen (H), oxygen (O), nitrogen (N), cal-
cium (Ca), phosphorus (P), and the wide range of other chem-
ical elements illustrated in Figure 8. These then are the
elements that are essential in our diet. Their distribution varies
across the various foods we eat, as illustrated for breakfast time
in Figure 9. The importance of the grain-based foods is evident
as a source of an important combination of these elements. In
addition to the trace elements, there are the compounds that
we cannot make ourselves, including vitamins, essential amino
acids (forming proteins), and essential fatty acids.
This information is thus the starting point for good nutri-
tion. Beyond these essential components is the matter of how

Figure 7 (a) This is flax. It is wild flax growing in New Zealand, a form
of lily (Phormium tenax and Phormium colensoi). It is used by the
Maoris to make fabrics. (b) This is flax. It is seed from cultivated flax
(Linum usitatissimum). This flax or linseed is valuable for its oil content.
In addition, the leaves are used to produce linen. The genus name
was adapted for the floor covering linoleum (informally abbreviated to
lino), which is made from solidified linseed oil (linoxyn). Flax seed is
reputed to assist in lowering serum cholesterol levels.
much of them and in what proportions. This topic has been
addressed in many countries by the provision of nutritional
guidelines, such as those in Figures 10 and 11. They empha-
size the quantitative importance of the grain-based foods in
our diets, either as the base of the pyramid or as the largest
sector of the dinner plate. In fact, the major cereal grains
(wheat, maize, rice, barley, sorghum, oats, rye, and millet)
provide about half the protein needs of mankind and over
half of our food energy consumption. Additional contribu-
tions are made by the noncereal grains, including soy, canola,
sunflower, and legumes. Worldwide, annual grain production
exceeds 2.5 billion tonnes. This equates to about 1 kg of grain
person per day for the whole world’s population! Why is
there hunger anywhere?
THE BASICS | The Grains that Feed the World 7
Finally, there is the important factor of how much food we
should consume. While an excess of food consumption is a
critical health factor in many countries, elsewhere, hunger is
still present. How can this contrast exist when grain production
is so great?
Correcting Misinformation
Overlaying the elementary recommendations coming from
Figures 8 and 9, there are many, many points of discussion,
various arguments, and gross issues of misinformation about
our nutrition. The points listed in the preceding text are cov-
ered in the succeeding text.
Grains, Fats, and Weight Loss
• The fat you eat goes straight to your hips. Wrong!
• Eat fat-free products and you won’t get fat. Wrong!
• Bread makes you fat. Wrong!
• Food additives are all badditives! Wrong!
• Trans fats, produced in fats from oilseeds, are bad for you.
Maybe!
• New types of oilseeds have fats that are nutritionally extra
beneficial. True!
The Fat We Eat: Where Does It Go?
All the food we eat is broken down to simpler components in
our stomach and intestine before it is absorbed. Starch is
hydrolyzed and absorbed as glucose. Fats are absorbed as the
fatty acids. These simpler compounds are metabolized to
acetyl coenzyme A, which in turn is digested via the Krebs
cycle (Figure 12) to carbon dioxide and compounds that
store the resulting energy. Subsequently, these metabolites
provide energy to our muscles and replace almost all of the
material in our bodies in regular turnover activities. Some
excess will be laid down as fat deposits (maybe in the hips),
but these fat deposits come indirectly from any of the compo-
nents in our diet, not only from fats. Thus, eating fat-free
foods does not necessarily relate to weight loss or gain any
more than any other food source (see article Food Grains and
the Consumer: Grains and Health: Misinformation and
Misconceptions).
Bread as a Food
Bread provides good proportions of protein, starch, fiber, and
fat. But watch what goes onto the bread as a spread or as
sandwich filling!
Flour and ground grain are obviously the main ingredients
in bread and baked goods generally. In addition, there are
various ingredients (some sugar, salt, and fat, plus rising agents
such as yeast and baking powder), including some ingredients
that may be classed as ‘additives.’ The added ingredients have
the functions of enhancing the quality and nutritional value of
the baked foods. But they certainly cannot be labeled as
8 THE BASICS | The Grains that Feed the World

OTHERS
ABUNDANT ELEMENTS

1.5%
PHOSPHORUS RARE
SULFUR
1.0%
POTASSIUM
SODIUM
CHLORINE
CALCIUM
MAGNESIUM
1.5% VERY RARE
IRON
FLUORINE
NITROGEN SILICON

3.0% ZINC
STRONTIUM
RUBIDIUM
LEAD
HYDROGEN
MANGANESE
10% COPPER
ULTRA RARE
ALUMINUM
CARBON CADMIUM
TIN
18% BARIUM
MERCURY
SELENIUM
IODINE
OXYGEN
MOLYBDENUM
65% NICKEL
BORON
CHROMIUM
ARSENIC
COBALT
VANADIUM
= MINERALS

Figure 8 The proportions of the chemical elements that make up our bodies. Reproduced from Bunpei Y (2012) Wonderful Life with the Elements. San
Francisco, CA: No Starch Press.

badditives. All such ingredients must be approved by the
respective government agencies (see articles Food Grains and
the Consumer: Fortification of Grain-Based Foods; Wheat-
Based Foods: Breads; Cookies, Biscuits and Crackers: Formu-
lation, Processing and Characteristics; Flatbreads of the World;
Sour Dough Technology).
sourced from fish; they are now becoming available in grains
via new genotypes of oilseeds such as canola (Figure 13) (see
articles Breeding of Grains: Canola/Rapeseed: Genetics and
Breeding; Fats: Healthy Fats and Oils; Lipid Chemistry; The
Oilseeds: Canola: Overview).

Celiac Disease: Going Gluten-Free or Not

Different Types of Fats
The various species of oilseeds provide edible oils for many of
our food sources. An example is margarine. In its processing,
some trans fats may be produced; being unnatural, trans fats
are suspect and thus discouraged. Polyunsaturated fatty acids
in our diet are considered superior to fully saturated fats, which
come mainly from animal sources. Grains are major sources of
polyunsaturated fatty acids, such as oleic acid, linoleic acid,
and linolenic acid. Some of these are essential in our diet.
Especially desirable in our diet are the long-chain omega-3
oils (eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid), mainly
• Only children get celiac disease and they can grow out of it
anyway. No and no!
• A gluten-free diet will make you feel better. Wrong or not
necessarily.
• A gluten-free diet is damaging to your health. Wrong!
• A gluten-free diet will cause you to miss essential nutrients.
Maybe.
• A gluten-free diet means that I cannot eat buckwheat. Wrong!
• At least we know that coffee and milk are gluten-free. Not
necessarily.
 SALAD FRUIT YOGURT

Ca K Fe YOGURT

Zn Mg Mn Ca Mo K Mg
BREAD

P P I Co Na
P K Fe
FRUITS
Na CI Ca
K Mg Cu Zn
Mn
P

BUTTER

Ca Mg Na

K Co P

Se Cu

BACON AND Ca Fe K
EGGS
Na P Zn
BACON

P Cl Mg Cu

Na K S EGGS
COFFEE
BLACK PEPPER Se Fe Ca P Cr
K
Cr K S Zn Co K

EUROPEAN AND AMERICAN BREAKFAST

Figure 9 Sources of the chemical elements in breakfast. The elements carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen are not included because they are in all
these foods. Reproduced from Bunpei Y (2012) Wonderful Life with the Elements. San Francisco, CA: No Starch Press.

Fats, Oils & Sweets KEY

Fat (naturally occurring and added)
USE SPARINGLY
Sugars (added)
These symbols show fats and added sugars in foods.

Milk, Yogurt & Meat, Poultry, Fish, Dry Beans,

Cheese Group Eggs & Nuts Group
2-3 SERVINGS 2-3 SERVINGS

Vegetable Group Fruit Group

3-5 SERVINGS 2-4 SERVINGS

Bread, Cereal,
Rice & Pasta
Group
6-11
SERVINGS

Figure 10 Nutritional guide pyramid provided by the US Department of Agriculture.

10 THE BASICS | The Grains that Feed the World

Why the Gluten-Free Diet?
People who are diagnosed with celiac disease must adhere to a
gluten-free diet. Celiac disease is a disease affecting all ages; the
only treatment, a gluten-free diet, is a lifelong commitment.
There are other conditions, less well characterized, for which
benefit has been obtained by the omission of gluten from the
diet. In these cases, perhaps, a gluten-free diet will make you
feel better. However, beyond these cases, gluten-free diet has
become a dietary fad with many adherents. The inferior quality
of much of the gluten-free bread available is a testament to the
value of gluten in bread making. Nevertheless, there are many
substitutes for the function of gluten in the production of
gluten-free foods (Figure 14).
Strict adherence to a gluten-free is difficult given the use of
wheat, rye, triticale, and barley in many processed foods. In the
process of avoiding gluten, it may be possible that some normal
nutrient sources are also avoided with the consequent risk of
missing out on some essential nutrients. But overall, it is unlikely
that eating gluten-free diets will be damaging to your health (see
articles Appendix 3: Grains, Foods, and Ingredients Suiting

Figure 11 Nutritional guidelines as a dinner plate provided by the

Australian government. Figure 13 Canola in flower in Scotland.

sugars, fats

Acetyl-CoA

more oxaloacetate citrate more

oxidized reduced

malate [cis-aconitate]

fumarate isocitrate

succinate [oxalosuccinate]

succinyl-coA α–ketoglutarate

Figure 12 The Krebs cycle via which fats and sugars are broken down to CO2 releasing energy that is stored in compounds such as adenosine
triphosphate.
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
 The Faithless Lover 182
Elegy 182
The Farewell 183
Sing, O sing again, lovely lark of mine 184
Wedding Gear 185
The Sale of the Braid 185
Marriage Song 186
Beggars’ Song 186
An Orphan’s Wailing 187
Conjuration of a Mother 188
Fairy Tales 189
Frost 190
The Cat, the Goat and the Ram 195
The Fox and the Peasant 198
Proverbs 199
The Eighteenth Century 203
Pososhkóv (1670-1726) 205
On Merchants 205
On the Peasantry 209
Prokopóvich (1681-1763) 211
The Spiritual Reglement 212
Funeral Sermon on Peter the Great 214
Tatíshchev (1686-1750) 218
From the “Russian History” 219
Kantemír (1708-1744) 223
To my Mind 224
Tredyakóvski (1703-1769) 230
Ode on the Surrender of Dantzig 230
Princess Dolgorúki (1714-1771) 233
From her “Memoirs” 234
Lomonósov (1711-1765) 241
Letters to I. I. Shuválov 242
Ode on the Capture of Khotín 246
Morning Meditations 252
Evening Meditations 253
Sumarókov (1718-1777) 254
The False Demetrius 255
Instruction to a Son 257
To the Corrupters of Language 260
The Helpful Gnat 260
Four Answers 261
Vasíli Máykov (1728-1778) 263
The Battle of the Zimogórans and Valdáyans 263
The Cook and the Tailor 267
Danílov (1722-1790) 269
From his “Memoirs” 269
Catherine the Great (1729-1796) 272
O Tempora 272
Prince Khlor 276
Shcherbátov (1733-1790) 287
On the Corruption of Manners in Russia 287
Petróv (1736-1799) 291
On the Victory of the Russian over the Turkish Fleet 291
Kheráskov (1733-1807) 298
The Rossiad 298
Metropolitan Platón (1737-1812) 300
 What are Idolaters? 300
Address upon the Accession of Alexander I. 304
Khémnitser (1745-1784) 306
The Lion’s Council of State 306
The Metaphysician 307
Knyazhnín (1742-1791) 308
Vadím of Nóvgorod 309
Odd People 311
Princess Dáshkov (1743-1810) 316
The Establishment of a Russian Academy 316
Poroshín (1741-1769) 321
From his “Diary” 321
The Satirical Journals (1769-1774), and Nóvikov (1744- 326
1818)
From All Kinds of Things 328
Sound Reasoning Adorns a Man 329
From the Drone 332
Recipe for His Excellency Mr. Lacksense 332
The Laughing Democritos 333
From Hell’s Post 335
From the Painter 337
Fon-Vízin (1744-1792) 341
The Minor 342
An Open-Hearted Confession 351
Letters to Count Pánin 355
Kostróv (1750-1796) 358
Letter to the Creator of the Ode in Praise of Felítsa 359
Radíshchev (1749-1802) 361
 Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow 362
Ablesímov (1742-1783) 370
The Miller 370
Bogdanóvich (1743-1803) 374
Psyche. From Book I. 374
” ” ” II. 375
Derzhávin (1743-1816) 377
Ode to the Deity 379
Monody on Prince Meshchérski 382
Felítsa 385
The Waterfall 390
The Storm 391
The Stream of Time 392
Neledínski-Melétski (1752-1829) 392
To the Streamlet I’ll Repair 392
He whose Soul from Sorrow Dreary 394
Muravév (1757-1807) 395
To the Goddess of the Nevá 395
Kapníst (1757-1824) 397
The Pettifoggery 398
Obúkhovka 402
On Julia’s Death 404
Gribóvski (1766-1833) 405
From his “Memoirs” 405
Kámenev (1772-1803) 411
Gromvál 412
Ózerov (1770-1816) 418
Dimítri Donskóy 419
 Prince Dolgorúki (1764-1823) 422
The Legacy 422
My Moscow Fireplace 425
Dmítriev (1760-1837) 428
The Little Dove 429
During a Thunder-Storm 430
Ermák 431
What Others Say 436
Index 441
A SKETCH OF RUSSIAN LITERATURE

I.—THE OLDEST PERIOD

Of the many Slavic nations and tribes that at one time occupied
the east of Europe from the Elbe and the headwaters of the Danube
to Siberia, and from the Ionic Sea to the Baltic and White Seas,
some have entirely disappeared in the ruthless struggle with a
superior German civilisation; others, like the Bulgarians and
Servians, have paled into insignificance under the lethargic influence
of the Crescent, to be fanned to life again within the memory of the
present generation by a breath of national consciousness, which is
the result of the Romantic Movement in European literature; others
again like the Bohemians and Poles, rent asunder by fraternal
discord and anarchy, have forfeited their national existence and are
engaged in an unequal battle to regain it. Of all the Slavs, Russia
alone has steadily gathered in the lands of the feudal lords, to shine
at last as a power of the first magnitude among the sisterhood of
states, and to scintillate hope to its racial brothers as the “Northern
Star.”
The unity of the Russian land was ever present to the minds of the
writers in the earliest days of the appanages. The bard of the Word
of Ígor’s Armament and Daniel the Palmer made appeals to the
whole country and prayed for all the princes in the twelfth century,
and for upwards of four centuries Moscow has been the centre
towards which the outlying districts have been gravitating. Yet, in
spite of so continuous and well-defined a political tendency, Russia
is the last of the Slavic nations to have evolved a literature worthy of
the name. Bohemia had a brilliant literature of the Western stamp as
early as the thirteenth century; Bulgaria had made a splendid start
three centuries before, under the impulse of the newly introduced
religion; the Servian city of Ragusa, receiving its intellectual leaven
from its Italian vicinage, invested Petrarch and Dante with Servian
citizenship in the fifteenth century, and, shortly after, gloried in an
epic of a Gundulić, and in a whole galaxy of writers; Poland
borrowed its theology from Bohemia, took an active part in the
medieval Latin literature, and boasted a golden age for its native
language in the sixteenth century. Russia produced an accessible
literature only in the second half of the eighteenth century, became
known to Western Europe not earlier than the second quarter of the
next, and had not gained universal recognition until within the last
twenty-five years.
In the case of the Western and Southern Slavs, a community of
interests, whether religious or social, has led to an intellectual
intercourse with their neighbours, from whom they have received
their models for imitation or adaptation. Without a favourable
geographical position, or some common bond with the external
world, no nation can have a healthy development, especially in the
incipient stage of its political existence. Blatant Slavophiles of fifty
years ago heaped reproach on the reforms of Peter the Great, on the
ground that they were fashioned upon Western ideals, and that he
had retarded the evolution of Russia according to its inherent Slavic
idea. There still survive men of that persuasion, though a
comparative study of Russian literature long ago demonstrated that
every step in advance has been made by conscious or unconscious
borrowings from abroad. If there was a Russian literature previous to
the introduction of Christianity, it certainly stood in some kind of
relation to the literatures of the neighbours. The few extant treaties
with the Greeks for that period show unmistakable Byzantine
influences, and the Russian Code of Yarosláv, with its purely Norse
laws, dates from a time when the Varyágs had not yet disappeared
in the mass of the Slavic majority.
With the introduction of Christianity, Russia, instead of entering
into closer communion with the rest of the world, was separated from
it even more securely than before, and soon after, an intellectual
stagnation began that lasted very nearly to the end of the
seventeenth century. Various causes combined to produce this
singular effect. Chief of these was its geographical position. Living in
the vast eastern plain of Europe, which in itself would have been
productive of a larger life, the Russian tribes had civilised neighbours
on one side only. On the north they were separated from the Swedes
by rude Finnish tribes; on the south, they had for centuries to
contend against all the nomads, Pechenyégs, Cumanians, Khazars,
who slowly proceeded from Asia to central Europe to become lost in
the nations to the south of the Carpathians and in the Balkan
peninsula; in the east the Finns of the north met the Tartars of the
south, and behind them lay unprofitable Asia. On the north-west, it is
true, was the civilised Teutonic Order, but the inveterate hatred
between these Germans and the Slavs prevented any
intercommunication from that quarter. There was left Poland, through
which Russia might issue into Europe; but savage Lithuania was
wedged in between the two, so as to reduce still more the line of
contact with the West. When Lithuania became civilised, and a part
of Poland, the latter had grown suspicious of the youthful Ilyá of
Múrom who “had sat thirty years upon the oven,” and enunciated a
political maxim that either Russia would have to become Polish, or
else Poland Russian. Knowing that there was no other exit for
Russia, Poland permitted no light to reach it from the West. When
England began to communicate with Russia in the sixteenth century,
King Sigismund made an earnest appeal to Queen Elizabeth to stop
sending skilled mechanics, lest the Colossus should awaken and
become a danger to Europe.
These external causes of Russia’s aloofness were still more
intensified by a systematic determination of Russia to keep out the
Catholic contamination that would come from intercourse with
Europe. This was a direct outgrowth of its adoption of Christianity
from Byzantium, instead of Rome. Cyril and Methodius, the apostles
to the Slavs, were themselves Bulgarians from Macedonia. When
they first carried the new religion to Moravia and later to Bulgaria,
they, no doubt, preached and wrote in the dialect with which they
were most familiar. This innovation of preaching the gospel in
another than one of the three sacred languages was a necessary
departure, in order to win over the troublesome Slavs to the north of
Byzantium. Though at the end of the ninth century the various
dialects were already sufficiently dissimilar to constitute separate
languages, yet they were not so distant from each other as to be a
hindrance to a free intercommunication. When, a century later,
Christianity was introduced into Russia from Constantinople,
Bulgarian priests and bookmen were the natural intermediaries, and
the Bulgarian language at once became the literary medium, to the
exclusion of the native tongue. Soon after, the Eastern Church
separated from Rome, and the Greek-Catholic clergy inculcated
upon their neophytes an undying hatred of the Latins, as the
Romanists were called. In Moscow, the slightest deviation from the
orthodox faith was sufficient cause for suspecting a Romanist
heresy, and anathemas against Roman-Catholics were frequent, but
at Kíev, where the contact with Poland was inevitable, the disputes
with the Latins form a prominent part of ecclesiastical literature. To
guard the country against any possible contagion, the punishment of
Russians who crossed the border, in order to visit foreign parts, was
so severe, that few ever ventured out of the country. The seclusion
of Russia was complete.
Even under these difficulties, literature and the arts might have
flourished, if Constantinople had been able to give to the new
converts even its degraded Byzantine culture, or if there had not
been other powerful causes that militated against a development
from within. In the west of Europe the Latin language of the Church
did not interfere with an early national literature. Latin was the
language of the learned, whether clerical or lay, and mediated an
intellectual intercourse between the most distant members of the
universal faith. At the same time, the native dialects had received an
impulse before the introduction of Christianity, often under the
influence of Rome, and they were left to shift for themselves and to
find their votaries. The case was quite different in Russia. The
Bulgarian language, which was brought in with the gospel, at once
usurped on the native Russian to the great disadvantage of the
latter. Being closely related to the spoken Russian, Bulgarian was
easily acquired by the clergy, but it was not close enough to become
the literary language of the people. On the one hand, this new
gospel language could at best connect Russia with Byzantium by
way of Bulgaria; on the other, Russian was looked down upon as a
rude dialect and was discouraged, together with every symptom of
the popular creation which was looked upon as intimately connected
with ancient paganism.
This Bulgarian language was not long preserved in its purity.
Detached from its native home, it was immediately transformed in
pronunciation, so as to conform to the spoken Russian; thus, for
example, it at once lost its nasals, which were not familiar to the
Russian ear. In the course of time, words and constructions of the
people’s language found their way into the Church-Slavic, as the
Bulgarian was then more properly called. Naturally, many words,
referring to abstract ideas and the Church, passed from the
Bulgarian into the spoken tongue. Thus, the two dialects, one the
arbitrary literary language, the other, the language of every-day life,
approached each other more and more. At the present time, the
Russian of literature contains a large proportion of these Church-
Slavic words; the language of the Bible and the liturgy is the Church-
Slavic of the sixteenth century, which differs so much from the
original Bulgarian that, though a Russian reads with comparative
ease this Church-Slavic, he has to study Bulgarian as a German
would study Old German. This Church-Slavic of the Russian
redaction has also been, and still is, in part, the ecclesiastical
language of the other Greek-Catholic countries of the Slavs.
Some time passed before Russia could furnish its own clergy. All
the leading places in the Church were at first filled with Bulgarians
and Greeks who were steeped in Byzantine religious lore. The
Church at Constantinople stood in direct opposition to the classical
traditions of Greece. These were not separated from the old
heathenism, and to the luxury and voluptuousness of medieval
Greece, which was ascribed to classical influences, the Church
opposed asceticism and self-abnegation. Monasticism was preached
as the ideal of the religious life, and arts and sciences had no place
in the scheme of the Church. Theology and rhetoric were the only
sciences which the hermit practised in his cell, in the moments that
were free from prayer and self-castigation. And it is only the
Church’s sciences that ancient Russia inherited from Byzantium. The
civil intercourse between the two countries was very slight, and the
few Russian ecclesiastics who visited Mount Athos and the Holy
Land brought back with them at best a few legends and apocryphal
writings. The Byzantine influence at home showed itself in a verbal
adherence to the Bible and the Church Fathers, and an occasional
attempt at pulpit oratory in the bombastic diction of contemporary
Greece.
Not a science penetrated into ancient Russia. Historically the rest
of the world did not exist for it, and geographically it was only of
interest in so far as it came into contact with Russia: Russia knew
more of Tartars and Cumanians than of Germany or France.
Arithmetic, not to speak of mathematics, and physics, medicine and
engineering, were unknown before the sixteenth century, and then
only when a few foreigners practised these arts in the capital and at
the Court. The only literature that reached Russia was the legendary
lore of the South and West, through Bulgaria and Poland, generally
at a time when it had long been forgotten elsewhere: thus, the
Lucidarius and Physiologus were accepted as genuine bits of
zoölogical and botanical science, long after sober knowledge had
taken possession of the universities of the world. The literature of
Russia before Peter the Great is by no means meagre or
uninteresting, but it lacks an important element of historical
continuity; in fact, it is devoid of every trace of chronology. What was
written in the twelfth century might with equal propriety be the
product of the sixteenth, and vice versa, and the productions of the
earliest time were copied out as late as the seventeenth century, and
relished as if they had just been written. Where a certain literary
document has come down to us in a later copy, it is not possible to
date it back, unless it contains some accidental indication of
antiquity. In short, there was no progress in Russia for a period of six
or seven centuries, from the tenth century to the seventeenth.
In this achronism of literary history, there may, however, be
discerned two periods that are separated from each other by the first
invasion of the Tartars. Previous to that momentous event, Kíev
formed the chief intellectual and political centre of the Russian
principalities. Here the Norse traditions, which had been brought by
the Varyág warriors, had not entirely faded away in the century
following the introduction of Christianity, and the Court maintained
certain relations with the rest of the world, as in the case of Yarosláv,
who was related, by the marriage of his children, to the Courts of
Norway, France, Germany and Hungary. On the other hand,
Vladímir’s heroes were celebrated abroad, and Ilyá of Múrom is not
unknown to German tradition and the Northern saga. Not only its
favourable geographical position, but its climate as well, inspired the
inhabitants of Kíev with a greater alacrity, even as the Little-Russians
of to-day have developed less sombre characteristics than the
Great-Russians of the sterner north. It is sufficient to compare the
laconic instructions of Luká Zhidyáta in the commercial Nóvgorod
with the flowery style of Serapión’s sermon, or the dry narrative of
the northern chronicles with the elaborate adornment of the stories in
the chronicles of Néstor and Sylvester, to become aware of the
fundamental difference between the two sections of Russia. The
twelfth century, rich in many aspects of literature, including that
beautiful prose poem of popular origin, the Word of Ígor’s Armament,
gave ample promise of better things to come. Similarly, the bylínas of
the Vladímir cycle, the best and most numerous of all that are
preserved, point to an old poetic tradition that proceeded from Kíev.
The fact that these bylínas have been lately discovered in the
extreme north-east, in the Government of Olónetsk, while not a trace
of them has been found in their original home, has divided the
scholars of Russia into two camps. Some assert that all the
Russians of Kíev belonged to the Great-Russian division, and that
the Tartar invasion destroyed most of them, and caused the rest to
migrate to the north, whither they carried their poetry. The Little-
Russians that now occupy the south of Russia are supposed by
these scholars to have come from Galicia to repeople the
abandoned places. The Little-Russians themselves claim, with
pardonable pride, to be the direct descendants of the race that gave
Russia its Néstor and the bard of the Word of Ígor’s Armament.
There are weighty arguments on both sides, and both the Great-
Russians, with whom we are at present concerned, and the Little-
Russians, or Ruthenians, who have developed a literature in their
own dialect, claim that old literature as their own.
 The terrible affliction of the Mongol invasion marks, on the one
hand, the beginning of the concentration of Russia around Moscow,
and, on the other, accentuates more strongly the barren activities of
the Russian mind for the next few centuries. Historians have been
wont to dwell on the Tartar domination as the chief cause of Russian
stagnation, but the calmer judgment of unbiassed science must
reject that verdict. It is true, the Tartars carried ruin to all the Russian
land, but after every successful raid, they withdrew to their distant
camps, ruling the conquered land merely by exacting tribute and
homage from its princes. The Tartars in no way interfered with the
intellectual and religious life of the people; on the contrary, they
mingled freely with the subject nation, and intermarriages were
common. It has already been pointed out that the germ of
unprogressiveness was older than the invasion, that the Byzantine
religious culture was the real cause of it. That Moscow was even
less progressive than Kíev is only natural. All its energies were bent
on political aggrandisement, on throwing off the hated Tartar yoke,
and it was farther removed from Europe than the more fortunate
southern metropolis. All these conditions were unfavourable to the
practice of the gentler arts.
The religious lore of ancient Russia was derived from the gospel,
which was hardly ever accessible in continuous form, but only as an
aprakos, i. e., as a manual in which it was arranged according to the
weekly readings. This was supplemented by two peculiar versions of
the Old Testament, the palæas, in which passages of the Bible were
intermingled with much apocryphal matter, and which originally had
served as controversial literature against the Jews, and to prove the
coming of Christ; there was no translation of the whole Old
Testament, and as late as the eighteenth century a priest referred to
the palæa as to Holy Writ. Prayers to saints, lives and legends of
saints, with moral instructions, complete the list of the religious
equipment that Russia received from Byzantium. One of the oldest
Russian manuscripts, the Collection of Svyatosláv, made for
Svyatosláv of Chernígov in 1073, is a copy of a similar production,
translated from the Greek for Simeón of Bulgaria. It is an
encyclopedia of ecclesiastic and moral themes, culled from the
Church Fathers, among whom John Chrysostom is most prominent.
Later, there were many similar collections, known under the names
of The Golden Beam, Emerald, Golden Chain, and so forth.
By the aid of this literature and such Greek models as were
accessible to the priests, were produced the sermons that have
come down to us in a large number, and a few of which, like those of
Cyril of Túrov and Serapión, do not lack literary polish, and are not
inferior to Western pulpit oratory of the same period. Whenever the
preachers turned to praise the princes, as in the case of Ilarión who
eulogised Vladímir, they had in mind only their orthodox Christianity,
for religion was the all-absorbing question. Similarly, when Vladímir
Monomákh wrote his Instruction to his children, he composed it
according to the model given in Svyatosláv’s Collection. Sermons
and Instructions, from the introduction of Christianity to the middle of
the eighteenth century, form one of the most important ingredients of
Collections, and served as models for Spiritual Testaments even in
the eighteenth century. Sylvester’s Domostróy belongs to the same
type, though what in Vladímir was the enthusiasm and earnestness
of the new faith, has in this later document become a series of
external observances. Formalism and adherence to the dead letter
characterise the whole period of Russian unprogressiveness, and
remained the characteristic of the Church at a much later time, in
spite of the enlightened labours of a Feofán or Platón; and it was the
same formalism that caused the schism of the raskólniks, who saw
in Nikón’s orthographical corrections of the corrupt Bible text an
assault upon the orthodox religion.
Only a small proportion of the literature of ancient Russia was
produced outside the ranks of the clergy. There were few literate
persons who were not priests or monks; for there hardly existed any
schools during this whole period, and even princes could not sign
their names. The influence of the lettered priest was paramount, and
if he was at all equal to the task of composing readable sermons,
these were eagerly sought for by all who could read them. When, in
the sixteenth, and still more in the seventeenth century, rays of light
began to penetrate into Moscow, the chief and most dangerous task
of instruction fell to the share of those preachers who had come in
contact with Polish learning at Kíev; in the days of Peter the Great,
Feofán Prokopóvich was an important factor in the civilisation of
Russia, and in the beginning of the nineteenth century the sermons
of Platón still form an integral part of literature.
To the student of comparative literature the semi-religious lore,
which finds its expression in the apocrypha, is of vastly greater
interest. The poetical creative activity of the people, combining with
the knowledge of religious lore, has ever been active in producing
spurious legendary accounts of matters biblical. The book of Enoch
and the Talmud disseminated such legends in regard to the Old
Testament long before the birth of Christianity. The Russian
apocryphal literature is rich in legendary accounts of the creation of
the world, the confession of Eve, the lives of Adam, Melchisedec,
Abraham, Lot, Moses, Balaam, the twelve patriarchs, David, and
particularly Solomon. Much more extensive is the store of legends
from the New Testament. The birth of the Holy Virgin is dilated upon
in the gospel of Jacob, the childhood of Christ is told in the gospel of
Thomas, while a fuller story of Pilate’s judgment of Christ and of
Christ’s descent into Hell is given in the old gospel of Nicodemus.
Lazarus, Judas, and the twelve apostles have all their group of
legends, but the Assumption of the Virgin Mary and the Judgment-
day were the most popular. The list is far from being exhausted, and
only a small part of the material has been scientifically investigated
and located. Most of these stories travelled by the customary road
over Bulgaria from Byzantium. As they have also reached the west
of Europe, the investigator of their Western forms has to look into
Byzantine sources; but as many of the legends have been preserved
in the Slavic form, and when they have disappeared from the Greek,
or as fuller redactions are to be met with in the North, he cannot well
afford to overlook the Slavic sources. The index librorum
prohibitorum of Russia, fashioned after the Greek, includes all such
apocrypha as were current at the time of the composition of the first
index. The clergy were continually preaching against them, yet their
efforts were useless, especially since they themselves were at the
same time drawing extensively on the apocryphal accounts of the
palæas, lives of saints, etc.
 There is this vast difference in the literature of this kind as it was
current in Russia and in the West. Elsewhere the legends were early
seized upon by the fancy of the poets, were clothed in the
conventional garb of verse, remodelled, combined, beautified, until
they became the stock in trade of literature, while the memory of the
unadorned story had entirely faded from the popular consciousness.
Dante’s Divine Comedy is an illustration of how transformed the
legends had become at a very early date. In Russia nothing of the
kind has taken place. With the usual achronism of its literature,
legends of the eleventh and eighteenth centuries live side by side, or
mingle in the same version, and they have undergone no other
change than corruption of misunderstood passages, transposition of
motives, modernisation of language. The religious songs that a
mendicant may be heard singing at the present time in front of a
church are nothing but these old legends, almost in their primitive
form.
Nearly allied to the apocryphal stories are the profane legends that
form the subject-matter of so much of European medieval literature.
The stories of Alexander the Great, the Trojan War, Digenis Akritas,
Barlaam and Josaphat, Calilah-wa-Dimnah, are as common in
Russian literature as in that of France or Germany. Byzantium is the
immediate source of most of these legends both for the East and the
West, but there are also many motives in the Russian stories that
were derived from the West through Servia and Bulgaria. It is not yet
quite clear how these stories came to travel in a direction opposite to
the customary route of popular tales; no doubt the crusades did
much to bring about an interchange of the oral literature of the
nations. In the West, these stories have furnished the most beautiful
subjects for medieval poetry, but as before, the Russian stories have
not found their way into polite literature. They have either remained
unchanged in their original form, or, being of a more popular
character than the religious legends, have adapted themselves to
the style of folktales, as which they have been preserved.
It is not unlikely that many of these tales were brought back from
Palestine, the common camping-ground of the Christian nations
during the crusades. Pilgrimages to the Holy Land began soon after
the introduction of Christianity into Russia, and in the twelfth century
we have the first account of such a journey, from the pen of the
abbot Daniel. None of the later accounts of Palestine and
Constantinople compare in interest with the simple narrative of
Daniel the Palmer, after whose Pilgrimage they are fashioned and
whose very words they often incorporated in their Travels. The
purpose of all these was to serve as incitements to religious
contemplation. There is but one account of a journey to the west of
Europe. It was undertaken by the metropolitan Isidor who, in 1437,
attended the Council of Florence. A few years later Afanási Nikítin
described his journey to India, which was one of the earliest
undertaken by Westerners in the same century; but while Vasco de
Gama and Columbus were revolutionising the knowledge of
geography, and were making the discovery of a route to India the
object of mercantile development, Nikítin’s report, important though it
was, had absolutely no effect upon dormant Russia.
As there existed no external geography, so there was no external
history. But fortunately for Russia, a long series of chronicles have
saved historical events from oblivion. The earliest chronicle, that of
Néstor, was the model for all that followed. Excepting the history of
Kúrbski, who had come into contact with Western science through
the Polish, and Krizhánich, who was not a Russian, there was no
progress made in the chronological arrangement of historical facts
from Néstor to Tatíshchev, while in style and dramatic diction there is
a decided retrogression. The promise held out by the historian of the
twelfth century was not made good for six hundred years. Néstor and
Sylvester, the continuator, were of the clerical profession, and
naturally the religious element, richly decked out with legend, folktale
and reports of eye-witnesses, is the prevailing tone throughout the
whole production. The Bible and the Byzantines, Hamartolos and
John Malalas, serve as models for the fluent style of this production,
but the vivid, dramatic narrative bears witness to considerable talent
in the author. At first only the cities of Kíev, Nóvgorod and Súzdal,
and Volhynia seem to have possessed such chronicles; but those
that are preserved show traces of being composed of shorter
accounts of other individual places. In the following centuries, most
of the larger cities and monasteries kept chronological records of
important events, and with the centralisation of Russia about
Moscow there also appeared a species of Court chroniclers whose
dry narration is often coloured in favour of the tsarate.
All this mass of literature is essentially ecclesiastic, and hardly any
other could raise its head against the constant anathemas of the
Church. No prohibition of the priests was strong enough to obliterate
the craving for a popular literature, for no school, no science, was
opposed to the superstition of the people, which therefore had full
sway. The best the Church was able to do for the masses was to
foster a “double faith,” in which Christianity and paganism lived side
by side. We shall see later how this state of affairs has been
favourable to the preservation of an oral tradition up to the present
time. Yet, but for the Word of Ígor’s Armament, and its imitation, the
Zadónshchina, no one could have suspected that the elements of a
natural, unecclesiastic literature were present in ancient Russia.
This Word of Ígor’s Armament is unique. It was composed at a
time when Russia was already well Christianised, yet the references
to Christianity are only sporadic, whereas the ancient pagan
divinities and popular conceptions come in for a goodly share of
attention. There are some who are inclined to see in this production
a forgery, such as Hanka concocted for Bohemian literature, or
Macpherson for Celtic, for the absence of any later works of the kind
seems to be inexplicable. But this absence need not surprise us, for
no such work could have been written at a later time outside the
Church, which alone was in possession of a modicum of learning. It
must be assumed that the bard of the Word represents the last of a
bygone civilisation that had its firm footing in the people, but stood in
a literary relation to the singers of the Norsemen; for there is much in
the Word that reminds one of the Northern sagas. The tradition of
the bard came to an end with this last production, but his manner,
corrupted and twisted by a wrongly understood Christianity, lived on
in the folksong of the people; hence the remarkable resemblance
between the two.
But for the inertia of the Russian Church and people, it would not
have been necessary to wait until a Peter the Great violently shook
the country into activity, for long before his time glimpses of
European civilisation reached Moscow. In the fifteenth century, we
have found metropolitan Isidor travelling to the Council of Florence,
to cast his vote in favour of a union of the Churches under Rome. In
the same century foreigners began to arrive in Moscow to practise
medicine or architecture, or to serve in the Russian army; in the time
of Iván the Terrible there was already a considerable foreign colony
in Moscow, and its influences upon individual Russians were not
rare. Iván the Terrible himself made several attempts to get skilled
mechanics from the West, but his efforts were generally frustrated by
Poland and the Germans of the Baltic provinces.
The most important points of contact with the West were in the
Church itself, through Kíev and Western Russia. These outlying
parts of Russia had early come into relation with Poland, and their
unyielding orthodoxy had been mellowed by the prevailing
scholasticism of the Polish theology. In the academy of Kíev, Greek
and Latin grammar, theology and rhetoric were taught, while these
sciences—especially grammar, even though it were Slavic grammar
—were looked upon at Moscow as certain expressions of heresy.
The correction of the corrupt church books, which in itself was
advocated by priests who had imbibed the Kíev culture, made the
presence of learned men—that is, of such as knew grammar enough
to discover orthographical mistakes—an absolute necessity. In the
reign of Alexis Mikháylovich, Kíev monks were called out for the
purpose of establishing a school, and only in 1649 was the first of
the kind opened. This innovation divided the churchmen into two
camps,—those who advocated the Greek grammar, and those who
advocated the Latin,—that is, those who would hear of nothing that
distantly might remind them of the Latins, and those who were for a
Western culture, even though it was to be only the scholastic
learning already abandoned in the rest of Europe. The battle
between the two was fought to the death. Those who were in favour
of the Latin were generally worsted, and some of the most promising
of them were imprisoned and even capitally punished; but men like
Medvyédev, and later Simeón Pólotski, laid the foundation for an
advancement, however gradual, which culminated in the reforms of
Peter the Great.
 Where a few individuals gained some semblance of Western
culture, they could not write freely at home, and had to develop their
activities abroad. Kúrbski, who for a long time stands alone as an
historian, wrote his History in Poland, and it remained without any
influence whatsoever at home; its very existence was not known
before our own times. The same thing happened with Kotoshíkhin,
whose description of Russia was known to the learned of Sweden,
but the original of which was unknown until its accidental discovery
by a Russian scholar of the nineteenth century. So, while the ferment
of reform began much earlier than the eighteenth century, it would
have been indefinitely delayed, causing many a bloody battle, if the
Gordian knot had not been cut by Peter the Great in favour of the
West.