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ENCYCLOPEDIA OF
FOOD GRAINS
Second Edition
This page intentionally left blank
 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF
FOOD GRAINS
Second Edition
VOLUME 1
THE WORLD OF FOOD GRAINS
EDITORS
COLIN WRIGLEY
University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia

HAROLD CORKE
University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, People’s Republic of China

KOUSHIK SEETHARAMAN{

JON FAUBION
Kansas State University, Manhattan KS, USA

{
deceased

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Academic Press is an imprint of Elsevier
Academic Press is an imprint of Elsevier
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First edition 2004 (as Encyclopedia of Grain Science)

Copyright © 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved

The following articles are US government works in the public domain and are not subject to copyright:

Grain Crops, Overview; Maize Overview.

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Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience broaden our understanding, changes in
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SET ISBN 978-0-12-394437-5

VOLUME 1 ISBN 978-0-12-803537-5
VOLUME 2 ISBN 978-0-12-803536-8
VOLUME 3 ISBN 978-0-12-803535-1
VOLUME 4 ISBN 978-0-12-803538-2

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CONTENTS

Preface xvii
Tributes to Former Co-Editors xix
Editors‘ Biography xxiii
Editorial Advisory Board xxv
Contributors xxvii

VOLUME 1

THE WORLD OF FOOD GRAINS 1

The Basics 1
The Grains that Feed the World 1
CW Wrigley, H Corke, and J Faubion

Course Structures: Based on EFG Articles 13

H Corke

The Grain Crops: An Overview 16

RA Graybosch

The Grain Chain: The Route from Genes to Grain-Based Products 22

CW Wrigley

Taxonomic Classification of Grain Species 31

LA Morrison and CW Wrigley

Grain: Morphology of Internal Structure 41

H Corke

Grain and Plant Morphology of Cereals and how characters can be used to identify varieties 51
J Wyatt

The Cereal Grains 73

An Overview of the Family of Cereal Grains Prominent in World Agriculture 73
CW Wrigley

Cereals: Domestication of the Cereal Grains 86

LA Morrison

Maize: Overview 99
MP Scott and M Emery

Wheat: An Overview of the Grain That Provides ‘Our Daily Bread’ 105
CW Wrigley

v
vi Contents

Durum Wheat: Overview 117

GP Kadkol and M Sissons

Rice: Overview 125

BO Juliano

Wildrice, Zizania: Overview 130

EA Oelke and RA Porter

African Rice (Oryza glaberrima): A Brief History and Its Growing Importance in Current
Rice Breeding Efforts 140
JT Manful and S Graham-Acquaah

Barley: An Overview of a Versatile Cereal Grain with Many Food and Feed Uses 147
AM Stanca, A Gianinetti, F Rizza, and V Terzi

Sorghum Grain, Its Production and Uses: Overview 153

A Cruickshank

Rye Grain: Its Genetics, Production, and Utilization 159

HD Sapirstein and W Bushuk

Triticale: Overview 168

BJ Furman

Oats: Overview 173

PK Zwer

Coix: Overview 184

H Corke, Y Huang, and JS Li

Millet Pearl: Overview 190

JRN Taylor

Millet Minor: Overview 199

GK Chandi and GA Annor

Teff: Overview 209

G Bultosa

The Oilseeds 221

Oilseeds: Overview 221
RJ Mailer

Soybean: Overview 228

K Liu

Canola: Overview 237

VJ Barthet

Cottonseed: Overview 242

E Hernandez

Sunflower: Overview 247

GJ Seiler and TJ Gulya

Overview of the Oilseed Safflower (Carthamus tinctorius L.) 254

C Hall III

Linseed: Overview 259

S Cloutier

The Legumes and Pseudocereals 265

Grain Legumes and Their Dietary Impact: Overview 265
TE Michaels
 Contents vii

Pseudocereals: Overview 274

RJ Fletcher

Lupin: Overview 280

DS Petterson

Amaranth: Overview 287

H Corke, YZ Cai, and HX Wu

Beans: Overview 297

SK Sathe

Buckwheat: Overview 307

YZ Cai, H Corke, D Wang, and WD Li

Chickpea: Overview 316

EJ Knights and KB Hobson

Pea: Overview 324

TN Khan, A Meldrum, and JS Croser

Peanuts: Overview 334

RCN Rachaputi and G Wright

Quinoa: Overview 341

SA Valencia-Chamorro

Grains Around the World 349

Grain Production and Consumption: Overview 349
T Beta and C Isaak

Grain Production and Consumption: Africa 359

JRN Taylor

Production and Consumption of Grains: India 367

BS Khatkar, N Chaudhary, and P Dangi

Grain Production and Consumption: China and South-East Asia 374

H Corke and YZ Cai

Grain Production and Consumption: Europe 383

MG Lindhauer

Grain Production and Consumption: Cereal Grains in North America 391

JA Fox and LL Ward

Grain Production and Consumption: Oilseeds in North America 401

PBE McVetty, OM Lukow, LM Hall, I Rajcan, and H Rahman

Grain Production and Consumption in Oceania: Australia and Pacific Countries 409
CW Wrigley and RJ French

Grain Production and Consumption: South America 420

OR Larroque and JC Catullo

Scientific Organizations Related to Grains 429

Research Organizations of the World: CGIAR 429
JH Skerritt

Research Organizations of the World: Europe and North America 436

JH Skerritt

Research Organizations of the World: Asia-Pacific, Central–South America, and Africa–Middle East 444
JH Skerritt
viii Contents

Research Organizations of the World: Global Trends and the Commercial Sector 451
JH Skerritt

Scientific Societies Associated with Grain Science 457

SC Nelson and CW Wrigley

VOLUME 2

NUTRITION AND FOOD GRAINS 1

Food Grains and Well-Being 1

Functional Foods: Overview 1
G Bultosa

Functional Foods: Dietary Fibers, Prebiotics, Probiotics, and Synbiotics 11

G Bultosa

Nutrition: Soy-Based Foods 17

AM Fehily

Food Grains and the Consumer 23

Grains and Health: Misinformation and Misconceptions 23
DB Sheats and JM Jones

Consumer Trends in Grain Consumption 29

JM Jones and DB Sheats

Cultural Differences in Processing and Consumption 35

AMR Hayes and JM Jones

Fortification of Grain-Based Foods 43

CM Rosell

Genetically Modified Grains and the Consumer 50

A Mathiowetz and JM Jones

Labelling of Grain-Based Foods 57

JM Jones

Grains and Health 63

R Korczak, D Hauge, B Maschoff, L Marquart, P Jacques, R Lindberg, and R Menon

Food Grains: Intolerance, Allergy and Diseases 72

Cereal Allergens 72
AS Tatham

Nutrition: Beriberi, A Deficiency Related to Grains 77

KJ Carpenter

Celiac Disease 83
P Koehler, H Wieser, and KA Scherf

The Gluten-Free Diet 91

V Zevallos and I Herencia

Proteins 98
The Protein Chemistry of Cereal Grains 98
F Békés and CW Wrigley

The Protein Chemistry of Dicotyledonous Grains 109

PR Shewry
 Contents ix

Protein Synthesis and Deposition 115

PR Shewry and P Tosi

Nitrogen Metabolism 123

CA Atkins

Nitrogen in Grain Production Systems 129

XM Zhou, BL Ma, and DL Smith

The Enzymes Associated with Food Grains and Their Functions in Processing 138
DJ Mares, K Mrva, and GB Fincher

Proteomic Analysis Relevant to Cereal Grains 146

A Juhász, R Haraszi, F Békés, DJ Skylas, and CW Wrigley

Thiolomics of the Gluten Protein Network of Wheat Dough 154

F Bonomi and S Iametti

Carbohydrates 161
Carbohydrate Metabolism 161
RN Chibbar, S Jaiswal, M Gangola, and M Båga

Starch: Chemistry 174

FL Stoddard

Starch: Synthesis 181

A Regina, S Rahman, Z Li, and MK Morell

Starch: Starch Architecture and Structure 190

V Vamadevan and Q Liu

Starch: Analysis of Quality 198

A Gunaratne and H Corke

Cereals: Chemistry and Physicochemistry of Non-starchy Polysaccharides 208

GB Fincher

Grains other than Cereals: Non-starch Polysaccharides 224

L Ramsden

Resistant Starch and Health 230

A Evans

Health Effects of b-Glucans Found in Cereals 236

SM Tosh and S Shea Miller

Glycemic Index, Glycemic Load, and Their Health Benefits 241

D Dan Ramdath

Fats 248
Lipid Chemistry 248
L Day

Healthy Fats and Oils 257

SM Ghazani and AG Marangoni

Bioactives and Toxins 268

Bioactive Compounds in Wheat Bran 268
HD Sapirstein

Bioactives: Antioxidants 277

T Beta and KG Duodu
x Contents

The Antinutritional Components of Grains 283

CK Madsen and H Brinch-Pedersen

Mycotoxins 290
MT Fletcher and BJ Blaney

Grain Composition and Analysis 297

The Composition of Food Grains and Grain-Based Products 297
CW Wrigley

Standardized Test Methods for Grains and Grain-Based Products 300

AR Bridges and CW Wrigley

Units of Grain Science and Trade: Equivalence between the US, Chinese, and Metric Units 308
W Huang and CW Wrigley

VOLUME 3

GRAIN-BASED PRODUCTS AND THEIR PROCESSING 1

Wheat-Based Foods 1
Cereals: Overview of Uses: Accent on Wheat Grain 1
CF Morris

Breads 8
TR Moore

Flatbreads of the World 19

KJ Quail

Sour Dough Technology 25

SP Cauvain

Cakes, Muffins and Bagels 30

DE Ortiz

Cookies, Biscuits and Crackers: Formulation, Processing and Characteristics 37

SP Cauvain

Cookies: A Diverse Family of Baked Goods 44

S Zydenbos, V Humphrey-Taylor, and CW Wrigley

Wafers: Methods of Manufacture 51

K Tiefenbacher and CW Wrigley

Cookies and Crackers: Commercial Production 59

LC Paulson and CW Wrigley

Noodles: Starch 64
LS Collado and H Corke

Noodles: Asian Wheat Flour Noodles 72

GB Crosbie and AS Ross

Pasta 79
M Sissons

Tortillas 90
LW Rooney and SO Serna-Saldivar

Non-wheat Foods 97
Maize: Foods from Maize 97
SO Serna-Saldivar
 Contents xi

Rice: Chinese Food Uses 110

S Lu

Sorghum: Utilization 116

RD Waniska, LW Rooney, and CM McDonough

Soybean: Soy-Based Fermented Foods 124

DK O’Toole

Soybean: Soymilk, Tofu, and Okara 134

DK O’Toole

Food-quality Testing 144

The Application of Sensory Science to the Evaluation of Grain-Based Foods 144
LM Duizer and SB Walker

Noodles: Testing for Quality 154

VA Solah and GB Crosbie

Pasta: Quality Testing Methods 161

A Marti, MG D’Egidio, and MA Pagani

Rice: Eating Quality 166

JS Bao

Beverages from Grains 176

Fermentation: Origins and Applications 176
BJB Wood

Fermentation: Foods and Nonalcoholic Beverages 183

JRN Taylor

Beverages: Distilled 193

GH Palmer

Beverages: Asian Alcoholic Beverages 206

DK O’Toole

Non-food Products from Grains 215

Cereal Grains as Animal Feed 215
JL Black

Pet Foods 223

RCE Guy

Utilization of the Whole Cereal Plant to Maximize its Value 228

L Munck

Fuel Alcohol Production 235

YN Guragain, KV Probst, and PV Vadlani

Biodiesel 245
Y Yan

Processing of Grains 251

Evaluation of Wheat-Grain Quality Attributes 251
CF Morris

Grain Quality Attributes for Cereals Other than Wheat 257

CF Morris
xii Contents

Cereals: Breakfast Cereals 262

EF Caldwell, JD McKeehen, and RS Kadan

Extrusion Technologies 268

RCE Guy

Starch: Uses of Native Starch 274

JW Lawton

Starch: Modification 282

JN BeMiller

b-Glucans: Measurement and Processing 287

MS Izydorczyk

Wheat Processing 299

Milling and Baking: History 299
CE Walker and WD Eustace

Wheat: Dry Milling 307

AK Sarkar and JE Dexter

Wet Milling of Wheat 320

R Velicogna and S Shea Miller

Oven Technologies 325

CE Walker

Bakeries: The Source of Our Unique Wheat-Based Food, Bread 335

JE Bock, CW Wrigley, and CE Walker

Analysis of Dough Rheology in Breadmaking 343

B Dobraszczyk

Frozen Dough 354

D Domingues and C Dowd

Refrigerated Dough 359

D Domingues, C Dowd, and W Atwell

Chemistry of Cake Manufacturing 367

TS Palav

The Gluten Proteins of the Wheat Grain in Relation to Flour Quality 375
F Békés, MC Gianibelli, and CW Wrigley

Ultrastructure of the Wheat Grain, Flour, and Dough 384

S Grundas and CW Wrigley

Cereal Food Production with Low Salt 396

L Day

Baked Product Staling: Mechanisms, Determinations, and Anti-staling Strategies 403

A Goldstein and K Seetharaman

Gluten and Modified Gluten 408

IL Batey and W Huang

Snack Foods: Processing 414

MN Riaz

Barley, Rice and Maize Processing 423

Barley: Malting 423
L MacLeod and E Evans

Barley: Milling and Processing 434

MS Izydorczyk and JE Dexter
 Contents xiii

Rice Processing: Beyond the Farm Gate 446

L Pallas

Oil from Rice and Maize 453

JS Godber

Maize: Dry Milling 458

KD Rausch and SR Eckhoff

Maize: Wet Milling 467

KD Rausch and SR Eckhoff

Oilseed and Legume Processing 482

Soybean: Soy Concentrates and Isolates 482
C-Y Ma

Soybean: Processing 489

T Wang

Canola: Processing 497

JK Daun and EH Unger

VOLUME 4

THE PRODUCTION AND GENETICS OF FOOD GRAINS 1

Grain Marketing and Grading 1

Wheat: Grading and Segregation 1
RL Cracknell and RM Williams

Wheat: Marketing 9
RL Cracknell and RM Williams

Barley: Grading and Marketing 16

A MacLeod, M Edney, and MS Izydorczyk

Soybean: Grading and Marketing 25

EG Hammond, LA Johnson, and PA Murphy

Identification of Varieties of Food Grains 29

DM Miskelly and CW Wrigley

Grain Harvest, Storage and Transport 42

Wheat: Harvesting, Transport, and Storage 42
S Grundas and CW Wrigley

Barley: Harvesting, Storage, and Transport 50

RJ Henry

Sorghum: Harvest, Storage, and Transport 54

T Beta, M Chisi, and ES Monyo

Canola: Harvest, Transport, and Storage 62

JJ Mayko

Cereals: Grain Defects 68

SA Barton

The Nature, Causes, and Control of Grain Diseases in the Major Cereal Species 74
RA McIntosh, PM Williamson, and CW Wrigley

Contaminants of Grain 83
J McLean and CW Wrigley
xiv Contents

Chemicals for Grain Production and Protection 99

PC Annis

Handling from Farm to Storage Terminal 105

D Richard-Molard and CW Wrigley

Stored Grain: Invertebrate Pests 110

PC Annis

Postharvest Operations for Quality Preservation of Stored Grain 117

F Fleurat-Lessard

Stored-Grain Pest Management 126

F Fleurat-Lessard

Agronomy of Grain Growing 140

Implication of Climate Changes 140
S Ceccarelli

Sustainable Grain Production and Utilization 144

L Munck

Organic Grain Production and Food Processing 154

P Gélinas and C David

Precision Agriculture 162

EC Leonard

Plants: Diseases and Pests 168

SA Barton

Wheat: Agronomy 176

GM Paulsen, JP Shroyer, and KJ Shroyer

Barley: Agronomy 186

RD Horsley and M Hochhalter

Maize: Agronomy 194

ED Nafziger

Sorghum: Production and Improvement Practices 201

WL Rooney

Canola: Agronomy 207

NJ Mendham and MJ Robertson

Chickpea: Agronomy 216

KHM Siddique and L Krishnamurthy

Lentil: Agronomy 223

T Nleya, A Vandenberg, FL Walley, and D Deneke

Lupin: Agronomy 231

RJ French

Field Pea: Agronomy 240

RJ French

Soybean: Agronomy 251

ED Nafziger

Natural Disease Control in Cereal Grains 257

WK Mousa and MN Raizada

Wheat: Biotrophic Pathogen Resistance 264

RF Park
 Contents xv

Necrotrophic Pathogens of Wheat 273

RP Oliver, K-C Tan, and CS Moffat

Breeding of Grains 279

Wheat Breeding: Exploiting and Fixing Genetic Variation by Selection and Evaluation 279
R DePauw and L O’Brien

Barley: Genetics and Breeding 287

A Cuesta-Marcos, JG Kling, AR Belcher, T Filichkin, SP Fisk, R Graebner, L Helgerson, D Herb, B Meints, AS Ross,
PM Hayes, and SE Ulrich

Maize: Breeding 296

EA Lee and LW Kannenberg

Rice: Breeding 304

Qingyao Shu and Dianxing Wu

Canola/Rapeseed: Genetics and Breeding 311

PBE McVetty and RW Duncan

Lentil: Breeding 317

W Erskine, A Sarker, and S Kumar

Lupin: Breeding 325

LC Trugo, E von Baer, and D von Baer

Soybean: Germplasm, Breeding, and Genetics 333

RG Palmer and T Hymowitz

Genetics of Grains 343

Development of Genetically Modified Grains 343
L Privalle

Detection of Genetically Modified Grains 350

RD Shillito

Genomics of Food Grains 360

RJ Henry

Genome Mapping 365

VK Tiwari, JD Faris, B Friebe, and BS Gill

Wheat Genetics 376

RA McIntosh

Wheat Genetics and Genomics 382

E Akhunov

Biotic Stress Resistance Genes in Wheat 388

J Singla and SG Krattinger

Abiotic Stress Genes and Mechanisms in Wheat 393

SJ Roy, NC Collins, and R Munns

Rice: Genetics 398

JS Bao and H Corke

Maize: Genetics 407

EA Lee

Maize: Quality Protein Maize 420

JS Li and SK Vasal

Maize: Other Maize Mutants 425

MH Blanco, H Yangcheng, and J Jane
xvi Contents

Appendix 1. Nutrient-Composition Tables for Grains and for Grain-Based Products 433
SF Schakel, N Van Heel, and J Harnack

Appendix 2. Lists of Standardized Testing Methods for the Analysis of Grain and Grain-Based Foods 450
AR Bridges and CW Wrigley

Appendix 3. Grains, Foods, and Ingredients Suiting Gluten-Free Diets for Celiac Disease 460
JM Jones, V Zevallos, and CW Wrigley

Glossary 467
Index 491
PREFACE

The grain-producing plants are essential to life on earth. They are the primary means by which sunlight, the
primary source of the earth’s energy, is captured via photosynthesis to turn carbon dioxide and water into
carbohydrates and thus into the wider range of the biochemicals needed by all life forms.
The summary is simple:
The sun’s energy þ CO2 þ H2O
#
Grain-bearing plants
which provide:
Food, Fats, Fuel and Fiber for ourselves
Feed, Forage, Fodder for our animals
Food for Fish Farms

Directly, grains supply over half of humanity’s energy and protein.

Indirectly, grains contribute to our food supply via the feeding of grains and grain by-products to animals,
birds and fish.
Grains are increasingly a renewable source of fuels (ethanol and oils).
Grain species, such as cottonseed, contribute fiber for our clothing.

Grains to Feed and Fuel our World

As its title indicates, the Encyclopedia of Food Grains concentrates on the food uses of grains, but details are also
provided about the wider roles of grains. Greater detail about the use of grains for animal feeding is already
available via the on-line Feedipedia encyclopedia (http://www.feedipedia.org/).
Worldwide, however, it is our food that is our obsession – first and foremost. We see our health (or
otherwise) to be intimately related to our diet. Therefore nutrition is a major accent of this second edition,
occupying the whole of the second volume, following the first volume’s description of the basic aspects of the
world of grains. The third and fourth volumes work their ways back up the value-added grain chain to describe
grain processing and production, thence to breeding and genetics.
The sequence of articles in the first edition (the Encyclopedia of Grain Science, 2004) followed an alphabetical
order. In contrast, the distinct ordering of articles in the second edition assembles fundamental concepts in
Volume 1 – The World of Food Grains. Moving into the later volumes, greater complexity and erudition are
evident. Thus, unusual terms such as “Transcriptomics”, “Aeciospore” and “Allelopathy” are more likely to be
found in later volumes than in the first. In any case, reference to the glossary and the index should help in
elucidating such terms.

The First and Second Editions - Editors

This second edition is a considerable expansion on the content of the first edition, with its three print volumes
and 168 articles. Now, some twelve years later, the four print volumes of the Encyclopedia of Food Grains provide

xvii
xviii Preface

216 articles, many newly written for the new edition. Those articles that have been reprinted from the first
edition have been updated. In all cases, authors and reviewers are world renowned experts in their respective
fields.
This second edition has been more than three years in its development. In the early stages, the editors were
Harold Corke, Chuck Walker and Colin Wrigley (the three editors of the first edition). Sadly in 2012, Chuck
Walker passed away, leaving a gap that was difficult to fill.
Chuck was replaced by Koushik Seetharaman, who worked avidly in developing the concepts for this second
edition, including his contributions to a meeting of the editors and Elsevier staff in Sydney, January, 2013.
Sadly, Koushik suffered a heart attack in June, 2014. However, his contributions to the second edition during
this critical development stage were such that Elsevier decided that his name should remain as a co-editor.
Tributes to Professors Walker and Seetharaman are provided below.
In July, 2014, Professor Jon Faubion was appointed as a co-editor. Dr Faubion is the Charles Singleton
Professor of Baking and Cereal Science in the Department of Grain Science, Kansas State University. He is a
more than worthy replacement under such tragic circumstances.

Acknowledgement to All Involved

The production of an encyclopedia involves a wide range of experts with expertise in a diversity of areas of
knowledge. We acknowledge with grateful thanks the groups of contributors:
• Members of the Editorial Advisory Board;
• Authors who have shared their special knowledge and experience;
• Elsevier staff who have provided extensive advice and administrative services, especially Donna de
Weerd-Wilson, Simon Holt and Rachel Gerlis (successive Supervisory Staff) and Gemma Tomalin,
Gemma Taft, Joanne Williams and Mark Harper (successive Content Project Managers).
The Editors
Harold Corke, Jon Faubion, Koushik Seetharaman, and Colin Wrigley
TRIBUTES TO FORMER CO-EDITORS

Professor Emeritus Charles (‘Chuck’) E. Walker

Chuck Walker was one of the three editors of the first edition of Elsevier’s Grains
Encyclopedia (the Encyclopedia of Grain Science, 2004). He was again appointed
as an editor of this second edition. He participated in the planning stages for the
second edition until his untimely death on 26 April 2012. At the time of his
death, Chuck was a Professor Emeritus at the Department of Grain Science and
Industry at Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, USA.
Charles Eugene Walker was born on 17 December 1936, in Winterset, Mad-
ison county, IA, USA, during the great depression. He was the eldest child of
Albert Cecil and Bessie Irene Headley Walker, poor farmers in Winterset, Mad-
ison county, IA, USA. He walked more than a mile to attend rural one-room
grammar schools in Warren county and graduated from high school in New
Virginia, IA, USA.
Better known as ‘Chuck’ in later life, Dr Walker received a BS degree in
Chemical Engineering from Iowa State University, Ames, IA, USA, in May 1959. At a ‘mixer’ party in the fall
of 1957, he met Shannon Rose Philp, a pretty freshman student from Loup city, NE, USA. This was just after a
summer spent working alone on a fire-lookout tower for the US Forest Service, in the wilds of Clearwater
National Forest, in Northern Idaho. They were married on 1 June 1958 and she became his wife of 54 years. She
later rewarded him with two sons, Alan Eugene and Tomas Charles, and they adopted a daughter, Bekianne.
Upon graduation, Chuck worked in flour milling research at the General Mills Central Research Laboratories
in the Minneapolis area from 1959 to 1962. He then accepted a fellowship to graduate school at North Dakota
State University in Fargo from 1962 to 1965, majoring in Cereal Chemistry. Chuck received his PhD in
Chemistry in the summer of 1966. For his PhD dissertation, he developed a micro brewery and studied barley
proteins and their influence on beer quality – a rather ironic choice of topics, considering he remained a strict
teetotaler all his life.
While finishing his thesis, he joined the faculty of the North Dakota State College, Valley city, ND, USA
(1965–1974), teaching various physical science and chemistry courses to undergraduate students. Feeling the
pull of industry, he moved south to work for the Fairmont Foods Central Research Laboratory in Omaha, NE,
USA (1974–1980), where he did research, product development, and technical assistance on baking, pizza,
snack, and dairy products, eventually reaching the position of Associate Director of Research.
Dismemberment and sale of this Fortune-500 company provided him an opportunity to return to academia
at the University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE, USA (1980–1987), where he developed a Cereal Technology
Program within the Department of Food Technology. He developed and taught various food science and
technology courses to both undergraduate and graduate students, and developed a vigorous research program.
He became Interim Department Head and Food Processing Center Director.
In December 1987, Chuck joined the Department of Grain Science and Industry at Kansas State University as
the Bakers National Educational Foundation’s Baking Science Professor. There he maintained a busy program

xix
xx Tributes to Former Co-Editors

in research, teaching, graduate student advising, publishing, traveling and consulting, specializing in baking
technology.
During his career, Chuck published more than 100 technical papers, and advised about 50 MS and PhD
graduate students. He was heavily involved in applied rheology (mixing and flow characteristics) of flour
products. In recognition of his commitment to international graduate students, Mr Roland Temme, TMCO,
Lincoln, NE, USA, established an international graduate student fellowship in his honor.
Chuck entered 50% phased-in retirement at age 65 þ in 2002 and retired in 2005, only to be hired back 1/
10-time afterward to assist with seminars and the department’s centennial recognition in 2010. He continued
to support the department’s activities on a volunteer basis.
Chuck’s research and consulting travels took him to more than a dozen countries, including many extended
trips to Australia, eventually earning permanent resident status in Australia – a country which had fascinated
him since childhood. Most of his time in Australia was spent with the Bread Research Institute in Sydney. He
also made several extended trips to China, serving as guest lecturer at ShanDong Agricultural University, Tai’An,
and at Henan University of Technology, Zhengzhou.
Chuck always commented that “the best legacy a person could leave is the knowledge he has shared.” A
significant way in which his knowledge has been shared is represented by his contributions to the first and
second editions of Elsevier’s Encyclopedia of Food Grains.

Colin Wrigley on behalf of the Editors.

Professor Koushik Seetharaman

In August 2012, Koushik Seetharaman was appointed as the third editor of this
second edition of Elsevier’s Grains Encyclopedia, replacing Professor Walker.
Tragically, Koushik’s many contributions to the Encyclopedia of Food Grains were
cut short by his untimely death at 48 years in June 2014.
Koushik received his BS at the Gujarat Agricultural University, Anand, Guja-
rat, India. His MS training was at Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA, and his
PhD research was carried out at Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, USA.
At the time of Koushik’s appointment as encyclopedia editor (August 2012),
he was Associate Professor and Cereals Chair in the Department of Food Science
at the University of Guelph, Canada. Research in his laboratory spanned the
cereal-grain value chain, focusing on grain quality, processing and ingredient
interactions, and on consumer acceptability and health.
His research on grain quality at Guelph involved collaboration with cereal-breeding companies, grain
farmers of Ontario and local processors, by analyzing Ontario wheats for functionality and nutritional
attributes. Special accents were on antioxidant activity, and on fiber and phenolics contents. Interactions
with breeders and processor related to the chemistry, sensory properties and consumer acceptance of whole
grain products, with specific focus on red versus white wheats in different product matrices.
Koushik had a special interest in the behavior of starch in water-poor systems, such as dough and baked
products. His research group had demonstrated that the constituent polymers of wheat starch are a series of
biopolymers ranging from linear to branched, depending on several factors including genetics and growth
environment. Moreover, the proportion of these polymers further defines their functional properties.
Research funding had been provided by the Canadian Agricultural Adaptation Council with contributions
from the Ontario Cereal Industry Research Council, Kellogg, Kraft, Kraft Canada Mill, Dow AgroSciences, C&M
Seeds, Grain Farmers of Ontario and Brabender GmbH.
Several months before his death, Koushik had been appointed as an Associate Professor to the Department
of Food Science and Nutrition at the University of Minnesota, St Paul, MN, USA, there taking the position of
General Mills Cereal Chair. In that capacity, Koushik had again initiated collaborations with breeders and
geneticists, millers and processors, with a focus on what product quality means for the consumer. His research
focused on interactions of grain biopolymers – starch and gluten in particular – and the impact on processing,
product attributes and consumer health.
 Tributes to Former Co-Editors xxi

His group included three postdoctoral research associates, five doctoral students and one MS student. They
were collaborating extensively with research groups around the world including University of Milan, Italy;
University of Copenhagen, Denmark; Lille University, France; ONIRIS, France; Tamilnadu Agricultural Uni-
versity, India; Iowa State University, USA; African Rice Research Institute, Benin; University of Guelph, Canada;
and Memorial University, Newfoundland, Canada.
Koushik’s research background and his collaborations placed him well to contribute to the preparation of
the grains encyclopedia, both by his our writing and via his contacts to engage world-authority contributors.
The grain-science community world-wide was shocked by Koushik’s sudden passing. Koushik left a wife
Debra Freedman and an eight-year-old son, Samuel.
Koushik’s contribution to the encyclopedia was such that Elsevier decided that his name should remain as a
co-editor even though he did not live to see the end result of his contributions.

Colin Wrigley on behalf of the Editors.

This page intentionally left blank
EDITORS’ BIOGRAPHY

Colin W. Wrigley’s 55 years in grain-science research have earned him international recognition in
the form of several international and Australian research awards. His work is described in about
600 research publications, including several patents, a series of eight books on Australian cereal
varieties, and many edited books. He was Editor-in-Chief of the first edition of the Encyclopedia of
Grain Science (2004).
His research interests have centered on the characterization of cereal-grain proteins in relation to
processing quality. This has involved developing new methods of protein fractionation, including
gel isoelectric focusing and its 2D combination with gel electrophoresis, leading into proteomic
mapping. Other diagnostic methods developed relate to the evaluation of grain quality in wheat
and barley, such as better methods for variety identification and for characterizing quality in starch
and sprouted grain (as co-patentee of the Rapid ViscoAnalyser). Research involvement has also
included elucidation of grain-quality variation due to environmental factors (heat stress, fertilizer
use, CO2 levels and storage conditions).
In 2009, Wrigley was appointed a Member of the Order of Australia (AM) ‘for service to primary
industry, particularly to grain science as a researcher, and to the development of methods for
improving wheat quality.’
He is currently an Honorary Professor at the University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia.

Harold Corke is a professor in the Food and Nutritional Sciences program at The University of
Hong Kong, and a Chutian Scholar Distinguished Foreign Professor in the Glyn O. Phillips
Hydrocolloid Research Center at HUT, Hubei University of Technology, Wuhan, China. In more
than 22 years in Hong Kong, he has had responsibility for teaching a diverse array of food science
courses, including the major courses Grain Production and Utilization, Food Safety and Quality
Management, Food Product Development, and general education courses Feeding the World, and
Food: Technology, Trade and Culture. He is author or co-author of 180 refereed journal articles,
and his 22 PhD graduates have gone on to successful careers in academia and industry around the
world. He is on the editorial boards of Journal of Food Composition and Analysis, LWT Food Science and
Technology and Journal of Cereal Science, and with Colin Wrigley and Chuck Walker was one of the
editors of the first edition of Encyclopedia of Grain Science, published in 2004. Corke is active in
consulting in grain processing and food safety in Asia and Eastern Europe.

Jon Faubion is the Charles Singleton Professor of Baking and Cereal Science in the Department of
Grain Science, Kansas State University. Over his 35þ year career, he has had the sole or shared
responsibility for teaching nine different cereal or food science courses at Texas A&M University,
The University of Minnesota and Kansas State. In 2011, he received the Excellence in Teaching
Award from the American Association of Cereal Chemists International. He is a senior editor of
Cereal Chemistry, and a member of the Board of Directors of the American Association of Cereal
Chemists International and an executive editor of Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture. Prior
to rejoining the department faculty in 2005, he directed the Applied Technology and Sensory
Science Groups for the research and development arm of The Schwan Food Company.

xxiii
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EDITORIAL ADVISORY BOARD

Jinsong Bao Bob French

Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, PR China
Frank Bekes
Director R&D FBFD Pty Ltd, Beecroft, NSW, Australia
Trust Beta
University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB, Canada
Stanley Cauvain
BakeTran, Witney, United Kingdom; Curtin University,
Perth, WA, Australia
Robert Cracknell
Crackers Consulting, Mount Eliza, VIC, Australia
Yapeng Fang
Hubei University of Technology, Wuhan, PR China
Jon Faubion
Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, USA
Department of Agriculture and Food, Western Australia,
Merredin, WA, Australia
Robert Graybosch
Agricultural Research Service, USDA, Lincoln, NE, USA
Robert Henry
University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
Barry V. McCleary
Megazyme International Ireland, Bray, Wicklow, Ireland
Lindsay O’Brien
University of Sydney, Narrabri, NSW, Australia
Paul Scott
USDA-ARS Corn Insects and Crop Genetics Research
Unit, Ames, IA, USA
John Reginald Nuttall Taylor
University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa

xxv
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CONTRIBUTORS

E Akhunov BJ Blaney
Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, USA The University of Queensland, St Lucia, Australia
PC Annis JE Bock
CSIRO Entomology, Canberra, ACT, Australia University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada
GA Annor F Bonomi
University of Ghana, Accra, Ghana University of Milan, Milan, Italy
CA Atkins AR Bridges
The University of Western Australia, Crawley, WA, AACC International, St Paul, MN, USA
Australia
H Brinch-Pedersen
W Atwell Aarhus University, Slagelse, Denmark
Bill Atwell Consulting, Champlin, MN, USA
G Bultosa
M Båga Haramaya University, Dire Dawa, Ethiopia; Botswana
University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, Canada College of Agriculture, Gaborone, Botswana
JS Bao W Bushuk
Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, PR China University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB, Canada
VJ Barthet YZ Cai
Canadian Grain Commission, Winnipeg, MB, Canada China National Seed Group, Beijing, PR China;
SA Barton Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, PR China;
Oxford Agricultural Trials Ltd, Oxford, UK The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, PR China;
Hubei University of Technology, Wuhan, PR China
IL Batey
Sunset Cereal Services, Meadowbank, NSW, Australia EF Caldwell
AACC International, Roseville, MN, USA
F Békés
FBFD PTY LTD, Beecroft, NSW, Australia KJ Carpenter
University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA
AR Belcher
Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR, USA JC Catullo
INTA, Buenos Aires, Argentina
JN BeMiller
Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA SP Cauvain
BakeTran, Witney, OX, UK
T Beta
University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada S Ceccarelli
Via delle Begonie 2, Ascoli Piceno, Italy
JL Black
John L Black Consulting, Warrimoo, NSW, Australia GK Chandi
University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada
MH Blanco
(Retired) Plant Breeder and Geneticist, Encinitas, N Chaudhary
CA, USA G. J. University of Science and Technology, Hisar, India

xxvii
xxviii Contributors

RN Chibbar JE Dexter
University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, Canada Canadian Grain Commission, Winnipeg, MB, Canada
M Chisi B Dobraszczyk
Golden Valley Research Station, Chisamba, Zambia Reading Science Centre, Reading, UK
S Cloutier D Domingues
Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Ottawa, ON, General Mills Inc., Minneapolis, MN, USA
Canada
C Dowd
LS Collado General Mills Inc., Minneapolis, MN, USA
The University of the Philippines Los Banos, Laguna,
LM Duizer
Philippines
University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada
NC Collins
RW Duncan
School of Agriculture Food and Wine, The University of
University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB, Canada
Adelaide, Glen Osmond, SA, Australia
KG Duodu
H Corke
University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, Pokfulam,
PR China; Hubei University of Technology, Wuhan, SR Eckhoff
PR China (Retired) University of Illinois, Urbana, IL, USA
RL Cracknell M Edney
Crackers Consulting, Mount Eliza, VIC, Australia Canadian Grain Commission, Winnipeg, MB, Canada
GB Crosbie M Emery
Crosbie Grain Quality Consulting, East Fremantle, WA, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, USA
Australia
W Erskine
JS Croser University of Western Australia, Crawley, WA, Australia
University of Western Australia, Crawley, WA, Australia
WD Eustace
A Cruickshank (Retired) Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, USA
DAFF Queensland, Warwick, QLD, Australia
A Evans
A Cuesta-Marcos Tate and Lyle, Hoffman Estates, IL, USA
Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR, USA
E Evans
MG D’Egidio The Tassie Beer Dr, Lindisfarne, TAS, Australia
Unità di ricerca per la Valorizzazione Qualitativa dei
JD Faris
Cereali, Rome, Italy
USDA-ARS Cereal Crops Research Unit, Fargo, ND,
D Dan Ramdath USA
Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Guelph, ON, Canada
J Faubion
P Dangi Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, USA
G. J. University of Science and Technology, Hisar, India
AM Fehily
JK Daun Tinuviel Software, Warrington, UK
(Deceased)
T Filichkin
C David Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR, USA
ISARA Lyon, Lyon, France
GB Fincher
L Day Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence in Plant
AgResearch Ltd., Palmerston North, New Zealand Cell Walls, University of Adelaide, Glen Osmond, SA,
Australia
D Deneke
South Dakota State University, Brookings, SD, USA SP Fisk
Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR, USA
R DePauw
Agriculture and AgriFood Canada, Swift Current, SK, MT Fletcher
Canada The University of Queensland, St Lucia, Australia
 Contributors xxix

RJ Fletcher A Gunaratne
University of Queensland, Gatton, QLD, Australia The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, PR China
F Fleurat-Lessard YN Guragain
INRA, Mycology and Food Safety Research Unit, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, USA
Villenave d’Ornon, France
RCE Guy
JA Fox Campden and Chorleywood Food Research Association,
Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, USA Chipping Campden, UK
RJ French C Hall III
The University of Western Australia, Crawley, WA, North Dakota State University, Fargo, ND, USA
Australia
LM Hall
B Friebe University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada
Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, USA
EG Hammond
BJ Furman Iowa State University, Ames, IA, USA
San Jose State University, San Jose, CA, USA
R Haraszi
M Gangola Campden BRI, Gloucestershire, UK
University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, Canada
J Harnack
P Gélinas University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA
Food Research and Development Centre, Agriculture and
D Hauge
Agri-Food Canada, Saint-Hyacinthe, QC, Canada
Grains for Health Foundation, St. Louis Park, MN, USA
SM Ghazani
AMR Hayes
University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada
St. Catherine University, Lafayette, MN, USA
MC Gianibelli
PM Hayes
(Retired)
Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR, USA
A Gianinetti
L Helgerson
Consiglio per la ricerca in agricoltura e l’analisi
Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR, USA
dell’economia agraria, CRA-GPG, Fiorenzuola d’Arda,
Italy RJ Henry
University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
BS Gill
Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, USA D Herb
Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR, USA
JS Godber
LSU Agricultural Center, Baton Rouge, LA, USA I Herencia
Universidad Politecnica de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
A Goldstein
University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN, USA E Hernandez
Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, USA
R Graebner
Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR, USA KB Hobson
New South Wales Department of Primary Industries,
S Graham-Acquaah
Tamworth, NSW, Australia
Africa Rice Center, Cotonou, Republic of Benin
M Hochhalter
RA Graybosch
North Dakota State University, Fargo, ND, USA
USDA-ARS, University of Nebraska Lincoln, Lincoln,
NE, USA RD Horsley
North Dakota State University, Fargo, ND, USA
S Grundas
Bohdan Dobrzanski Institute of Agrophysics of the Polish W Huang
Academy of Sciences, Lublin, Poland Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Nanjing,
PR China; Jiangnan University, Wuxi, Jiangsu, PR China
TJ Gulya
USDA-ARS, Northern Crop Science Laboratory, Fargo, Y Huang
ND, USA China Agricultural University, Beijing, PR China
xxx Contributors

V Humphrey-Taylor P Koehler
(Retired) New Zealand Institute for Crop Food Research Deutsche Forschungsanstalt für Lebensmittelchemie,
Limited, Christchurch, New Zealand Leibniz Institut, Freising, Germany
T Hymowitz R Korczak
University of Illinois at Champaign-Urbana, Urbana, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN, USA
IL, USA
SG Krattinger
S Iametti University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
University of Milan, Milan, Italy
L Krishnamurthy
C Isaak International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid
University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB, Canada Tropics, Patancheru, Andhra Pradesh, India
MS Izydorczyk S Kumar
Canadian Grain Commission, Winnipeg, MB, Canada International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry
Areas (ICARDA), Rabat, Morocco
P Jacques
Tufts University, Boston, MA, USA OR Larroque
CSIRO Agriculture Flagship, Canberra, Australia
S Jaiswal
University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, Canada JW Lawton
J Jane (Retired) ARS-USDA
Iowa State University, Ames, IA, USA EA Lee
LA Johnson University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada
Iowa State University, Ames, IA, USA EC Leonard
JM Jones AgriKnowHow, Maitland, SA, Australia
St. Catherine University, Arden Hills, MN, USA JS Li
A Juhász China Agricultural University, Beijing, PR China
Centre for Agricultural Research of the Hungarian WD Li
Academy of Sciences, Martonvásár, Hungary Shanxi University, Taiyuan, PR China
BO Juliano Z Li
Philippine Rice Research Institute Los Baños, Laguna, CSIRO Food Futures National Research Flagship,
Philippines Canberra, ACT, Australia; CSIRO Plant Industry,
RS Kadan Canberra, ACT, Australia
(Deceased)
R Lindberg
GP Kadkol Minneapolis Heart Institute Foundation, Minneapolis,
NSW Department of Primary Industries, Calala, NSW, MN, USA
Australia
MG Lindhauer
LW Kannenberg Max Rubner-Institut (MRI), Detmold, Germany
University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada
K Liu
TN Khan Agricultural Research Service, US Department of
University of Western Australia, Crawley, WA, Australia Agriculture, Aberdeen, ID, USA

BS Khatkar Q Liu
G. J. University of Science and Technology, Hisar, India Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Guelph, ON, Canada

JG Kling S Lu
Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR, USA National Chung Hsing University, Taichung, Taiwan
EJ Knights OM Lukow
New South Wales Department of Primary Industries, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Winnipeg, MB,
Tamworth, NSW, Australia Canada
 Contributors xxxi

BL Ma NJ Mendham
Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Ottawa, ON, University of Tasmania, Hobart, TAS, Australia
Canada
R Menon
C-Y Ma The General Mills Bell Institute of Health and Nutrition,
The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, PR China Minneapolis, MN, USA
A MacLeod TE Michaels
Canadian Grain Commission, Winnipeg, MB, Canada University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN, USA
L MacLeod DM Miskelly
Dairy Innovation Australia, Werribee, VIC, Australia Westcott Consultants P/L, Goulburn, NSW, Australia
CK Madsen
CS Moffat
Aarhus University, Slagelse, Denmark
Curtin University, Bentley, WA, Australia
RJ Mailer
ES Monyo
Australian Oils Research, Lambton, NSW, Australia
ICRISAT, Nairobi, Kenya
JT Manful
Africa Rice Center, Cotonou, Republic of Benin TR Moore
AIB International, Manhattan, KS, USA
AG Marangoni
University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada MK Morell
International Rice Research Institute, Los Baños,
DJ Mares Philippines
University of Adelaide, Glen Osmond, SA, Australia
CF Morris
L Marquart USDA-ARS Western Wheat Quality Laboratory,
University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN, USA; Grains for Pullman, WA, USA
Health Foundation, St. Louis Park, MN, USA
LA Morrison
A Marti
Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR, USA
Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy
B Maschoff WK Mousa
Grains for Health Foundation, St. Louis Park, MN, USA University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada; Mansoura
University, Mansoura, Egypt
A Mathiowetz
University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN, USA; Rochester, K Mrva
MN, USA University of Adelaide, Glen Osmond, SA, Australia

JJ Mayko L Munck
Canola Council of Canada, Mundare, AB, Canada University of Copenhagen, Frederiksberg C, Denmark
CM McDonough R Munns
Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, USA CSIRO Agriculture, Canberra, ACT, Australia; The
University of Western Australia, Crawley, WA, Australia
RA McIntosh
The University of Sydney, Cobbitty, NSW, Australia PA Murphy
Iowa State University, Ames, IA, USA
JD McKeehen
Cereal Partners Worldwide, Minneapolis, MN, USA ED Nafziger
J McLean University of Illinois, Urbana, IL, USA
The University of Newcastle, Callaghan, NSW, Australia SC Nelson
PBE McVetty AACC International (AACCI), St. Paul, MN, USA
University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB, Canada T Nleya
B Meints South Dakota State University, Brookings, SD, USA
Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR, USA
L O’Brien
A Meldrum The University of Sydney, Narrabri, NSW, Australia;
Pulse Australia, Perth, WA, Australia Solheimar Pty Ltd, Narrabri, NSW, Australia
xxxii Contributors

DK O’Toole I Rajcan
City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, PR China University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada
EA Oelke L Ramsden
University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN, USA University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, PR China
RP Oliver KD Rausch
Curtin University, Bentley, WA, Australia University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign, Urbana, IL,
USA
DE Ortiz
W. K. Kellogg Institute, Battle Creek, MI, USA A Regina
MA Pagani CSIRO Food Futures National Research Flagship,
Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy Canberra, ACT, Australia; CSIRO Plant Industry,
Canberra, ACT, Australia
TS Palav
Rich Products Corporation, Buffalo, NY, USA MN Riaz
Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, USA
L Pallas
Yanco Agricultural Institute, Yanco, NSW, Australia D Richard-Molard
(Retired) INRA, Nantes, France
GH Palmer
Heriot-Watt University, Edinburgh, UK F Rizza
Consiglio per la ricerca in agricoltura e l’analisi
RG Palmer dell’economia agraria, CRA-GPG, Fiorenzuola d’Arda,
Iowa State University, Ames, IA, USA Italy
RF Park MJ Robertson
The University of Sydney, Narellan, NSW, Australia CSIRO Sustainable Ecosystems, St. Lucia, QLD,
GM Paulsen Australia
Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, USA LW Rooney
LC Paulson Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, USA
The Bama Companies, Tulsa, OK, USA WL Rooney
DS Petterson Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, USA
Department of Agriculture, Nedlands, WA, Australia CM Rosell
RA Porter Institute of Agrochemistry and Food Technology (IATA-
University of Minnesota-NCROC, Grand Rapids, CSIC), Paterna, Valencia, Spain
MN, USA AS Ross
L Privalle Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR, USA
Bayer CropScience, Research Triangle Park, Durham, SJ Roy
NC, USA School of Agriculture Food and Wine, The University of
KV Probst Adelaide, Glen Osmond, SA, Australia
Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, USA; Grain HD Sapirstein
Processing Corporation, Muscatine, IA, USA University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB, Canada
KJ Quail AK Sarkar
Grain Growers Limited, North Ryde, NSW, Australia Canadian International Grains Institute, Winnipeg, MB,
RCN Rachaputi Canada
University of Queensland, Kingaroy, QLD, Australia
A Sarker
H Rahman International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry
University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada Areas (ICARDA), New Delhi, India
S Rahman SK Sathe
Monash University Malaysia, Bandar Sunway, Malaysia Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL, USA
MN Raizada SF Schakel
University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA
 Contributors xxxiii

KA Scherf VA Solah
Deutsche Forschungsanstalt für Lebensmittelchemie, Curtin University, Perth, WA, Australia
Leibniz Institut, Freising, Germany
AM Stanca
MP Scott University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Reggio Emilia,
Iowa State University, Ames, IA, USA Italy
K Seetharaman FL Stoddard
(Deceased) University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
GJ Seiler K-C Tan
USDA-ARS, Northern Crop Science Laboratory, Fargo, Curtin University, Bentley, WA, Australia
ND, USA
AS Tatham
SO Serna-Saldivar Cardiff Metropolitan University, Cardiff, UK
Centro de Biotecnologı´a FEMSA, Escuela de Ingenierı´a y
JRN Taylor
Ciencias, Monterrey, Mexico
University of Pretoria, Hatfield, South Africa
S Shea Miller
V Terzi
Eastern Cereals and Oilseeds Research Centre,
Consiglio per la ricerca in agricoltura e l’analisi
Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Ottawa, ON,
dell’economia agraria, CRA-GPG, Fiorenzuola d’Arda,
Canada
Italy
DB Sheats
K Tiefenbacher
St. Catherine University, St. Paul, MN, USA
(Retired)
PR Shewry
VK Tiwari
Rothamsted Research, Harpenden, UK; University of
Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, USA
Reading, Reading, UK
SM Tosh
RD Shillito
Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Guelph, ON, Canada
Bayer CropScience, Durham, NC, USA
P Tosi
JP Shroyer
University of Reading, Reading, UK
Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, USA
LC Trugo
KJ Shroyer
Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, USA
SE Ulrich
Qingyao Shu
Washington State University, Pullman, WA, USA
Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, PR China
EH Unger
KHM Siddique
Eagle Rock Solutions, Inc., Idaho Falls, ID, USA
University of Western Australia, Crawley, WA, Australia
PV Vadlani
J Singla
Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, USA
University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
SA Valencia-Chamorro
M Sissons
Escuela Politécnica Nacional, Quito, Ecuador
NSW Department of Primary Industries, Calala, NSW,
Australia; Tamworth Agricultural Institute, Tamworth, V Vamadevan
NSW, Australia University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN, USA; Agriculture
and Agri-Food Canada, Guelph, ON, Canada
JH Skerritt
University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD, Australia N Van Heel
University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA
DJ Skylas
Grain Growers Limited, North Ryde, NSW, A Vandenberg
Australia University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, Canada
DL Smith SK Vasal
McGill University, Ste-Anne-de-Bellevue, QC, Canada BISA, Punjab, India
xxxiv Contributors

R Velicogna BJB Wood

Archer Daniels Midland, Montreal, QC, Canada Strathclyde University, Glasgow, UK
D von Baer G Wright
Seeds Baer, Temuco, Chile Peanut Company of Australia, Kingaroy, QLD, Australia

E von Baer CW Wrigley

CAMPEX Semillas Baer, Temuco, Chile
CE Walker
(Deceased)
SB Walker
University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada
FL Walley
University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, Canada
D Wang
Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, PR China
T Wang
Iowa State University, Ames, IA, USA
RD Waniska
Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, USA
LL Ward
Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, USA
H Wieser
Deutsche Forschungsanstalt für Lebensmittelchemie,
Leibniz Institut, Freising, Germany
RM Williams
CBH Group, West Perth, WA, Australia
PM Williamson
(Retired) Leslie Research Centre, Toowoomba, QLD,
Australia; CBH Group, West Perth, WA, Australia
Honorary Professor, QAAFI; The University of
Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
Dianxing Wu
Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, PR China
HX Wu
Wuhan Chortle Biotechnology Company Limited,
Wuhan, PR China
J Wyatt
NIAB, Cambridge, UK
Y Yan
Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan,
PR China
H Yangcheng
Iowa State University, Ames, IA, USA
V Zevallos
Johannes Gutenberg Mainz, Mainz, Germany; University
Medical Center, Mainz, Germany
XM Zhou
McGill University, Ste-Anne-de-Bellevue, QC, Canada
PK Zwer
South Australian Research and Development Institute
(SARDI), Urrbrae, SA, Australia
S Zydenbos
(Retired) New Zealand Institute for Crop Food Research
Limited, Christchurch, New Zealand
 THE WORLD OF FOOD GRAINS
The Basics
Contents
The Grains that Feed the World
Course Structures: Based on EFG Articles
The Grain Crops: An Overview
The Grain Chain: The Route from Genes to Grain-Based Products
Taxonomic Classification of Grain Species
Grain: Morphology of Internal Structure
Grain and Plant Morphology of Cereals and how characters can be used to identify varieties
The Grains that Feed the World
CW Wrigley, University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
H Corke, University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, Pokfulam, China
J Faubion, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, USA
ã 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Topic Highlights
• Grains are the source of half of our food and protein
consumption.
• Current world production for all grains equals 1 kg per
person per day.
• Grains also contribute to the wider range of foods via
animals.
• Major media claims about grains and health are presented
in this article.
• Some myths about grain-based foods are busted.
• Some claims are supported, at least in part.
Learning Objectives
• To understand the significance of grains in feeding the
growing human population
• To adopt a critical attitude to production and nutritional
information about grains presented in the media and to
know how to seek and research authentic information
• To be motivated to pursue further topics in depth, starting
with investigating relevant articles in the Encyclopedia of
Food Grains and going back where necessary to primary
scientific research articles.
Encyclopedia of Food Grains, Second Edition http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-394437-5.00003-6
Introduction
Grains are responsible directly or indirectly for most of the
food we eat. The big three cereal grains (rice, wheat, and
maize) have roles as staple foods (major daily sources of
carbohydrate-based energy) and for processing into animal
feeds and other diverse uses such as fuel bioethanol. There
has been an explosive growth in meat consumption globally,
as more and more people come out of poverty and enter into a
growing middle class. This is most apparent in China, where
demand for meat and other animal products (eggs and milk)
drives the production of maize domestically and production of
soy beans in major exporting countries (the United States,
Argentina, and Brazil).
A billion people worldwide are obese; a third of the food
produced in industrialized countries is thrown away uneaten.
In this exuberant excess of food production lie many serious
problems – a billion people worldwide are chronically mal-
nourished, food production competes with industry and
domestic usage for scarce resources of energy and water,
human populations continue to increase, and food production
impacts on the environment in ways that may not be sustain-
able. People care about what they eat, about their health, about
longevity, and about fitness.
In the news media, nutrition sells; there is thus a constant
output of information on topics such as gluten-free diets,
1
2 THE BASICS | The Grains that Feed the World

obesity, genetically modified organisms (GMOs), and organic

agriculture. Unfortunately, much of the popular media report-
ing on grains and health is wrong, sometimes the result of
journalistic carelessness or ignorance, sometimes from
demand for an ideological spin on knowledge, and sometimes
out of a crass calculation that hysteria sells better than truth.
This encyclopedia sets out to redress the balance and rectify
these popular misconceptions. What do you expect from an
encyclopedia? Obviously, everything you want to know about
the general topic. Just as importantly, you expect correct infor-
mation, provided by world-recognized authorities, knowing
that all facts have been checked. These expectations are fulfilled
in this encyclopedia, in its four print volumes, in its hundreds
of articles, in its broad-ranging website, and in its extension as
part of Elsevier’s Food Science Reference Module, as a general
source of advice to the food industry worldwide.
Often, the expectation of an encyclopedia is to check
whether what-I-have-heard is actually so. This introductory
article explores some of those what-I-have-heard sayings, listed
in groups of dot points, with commentary, plus referral to
relevant encyclopedia articles. The authors of the encyclopedia
articles are recognized as world authorities in their respective
fields. The articles have all undergone peer review by members
of the editorial advisory board and the editors, thereby ensur-
ing that the information is correct and free from the many
myths, misconceptions, and misinformation that have been
spread by nefarious advertising and unbridled websites.

Grains and Our Future

• Climate change will lead to less grain production. Not

necessarily!
• We have become so dependent upon eating cereal grains
(grass seeds) that it has prompted at least one author to say
that we have become ‘canaries.’ Yes, we are dependent on
grains, but ‘canaries,’ no!
• ‘Cereal grains literally stand between humankind and
starvation.’ Maybe.
• Humankind will run out of food in the foreseeable future.
Probably not.
– What ultimately is the source of our food? How vulnerable
are we?
Our Dependence on Grains as Food
The 1960s were a time of great pessimism about the future of
humanity and the possibility of massive famines due to popu-
lation increases, especially in Asia and Africa, and the failure of
national agricultural to produce enough to feed these growing
populations. The Green Revolution was spearheaded by the
research of Dr. Norman Borlaug (Figure 1) on dwarf wheat at
CIMMYT in Mexico and was complemented by similar work
on dwarf rice at International Rice Research Institute in the
Philippines. These advances led to rapid increases in grain
production. India went from being a chronic major importer
of wheat to avert famine to being a significant exporter of grain.
The relative abundance in grain production today, the
power of biotechnology, and the excesses in consumption we
often see around us (wastage of food and increasing meat
consumption) may make us forget how tenuous is our ability
to produce the grains we need year after year. Humankind
has certainly become dependent upon eating cereal grains.
Figure 1 Norman Borlaug was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in
1970 for his work to end world hunger by creating new strains
of drought-resistant wheat. This statue was placed in the US Capitol
Building’s National Statuary Hall in 2014 to celebrate the 100th
anniversary of Borlaug’s birth.
This dependence is inevitable, given our vast population and
the contribution of grains to food and feed production. Grains
provide over half our protein and energy needs. But it is hardly
justified to claim that, as a result, we have become ‘canaries.’
A recurring theme of this encyclopedia is the great diversity of
ways in which we prepare grains in our diet – not only as ‘our
daily bread’ (Bible, Matthew 4:4) and not only as the staple
food of boiled rice. A complete volume is devoted to the great
diversity of grain-based products and their processing.
What Ultimately Is the Source of Our Food on Earth?
This question was addressed in 1648 by a Belgian scientist, Jan
Baptist van Helmont, with respect to plants in general. He
planted a tree in a pot of soil. He first weighed the soil (after
drying it) and also the small tree. For 5 years, he added water
only to the pot. He then weighed the remaining soil and the
tree, which had grown considerably. There was negligible
weight loss from the soil, so he concluded that all the weight
gain of the tree had come from the water that he added: thus,
wood is made from water! (Figure 2).

Today, we know that Jan did not control two important
factors: the sun and the air (CO2), which together produce all
plant life via photosynthesis according to the following reactions:
CO2 þ H2 O þ light ! O2 þ glucose ða simple sugarÞ
Glucose ! carbohydrates, lignin, and cellulose
ðplant componentsÞ
Jan Baptist lived in an age of the Aristotelian belief in four
elements: water, earth, air, and fire. Even considering these
elements, he took into account the first two, but neglected air
(CO2) and fire (sunlight).
Thus, all our food comes from these sources – sunlight,
CO2, and water – either directly in the cases of grains,
vegetables, and fruit or indirectly in the cases of animals who
eat the grain and plants. In addition, the soil does contribute
In 1648, a scientist
provided water only
to a small tree
... for 5 years
Thus, he concluded
that trees are made from
water! He neglected the
roles of light and CO2
Figure 2 The experiment of Belgian scientist, Jan Baptist van Helmont,
seeking to determine what plants are made from.
Cereal production, utilization and stocks
Million tonnes
2600
2400
2200
2000
1800
2004/05 2006/07 2008/09
Production (left axis)
Stocks (right axis)
Figure 3 The past decade of production and utilization of cereal grains. Source: FAOSTAT.
THE BASICS | The Grains that Feed the World 3
the wide range of elements described later in this article, espe-
cially nitrogen for protein synthesis. When grain is harvested,
these elements are removed from the field, and they must
ultimately be replaced by some form of fertilizer.
However, the other essentials – sunlight, CO2, and water – are
readily available for free on an ongoing basis. Of course, that
might not be claimed for water in many dry climates. The free
claim can certainly be made for CO2 given the rising levels of
this component of our atmosphere. In fact, the sequestration of
CO2 by plants is one of the many solutions for mitigating the
rising levels of CO2. There needs to be a realization of the
essential nature of CO2 as the source of all plant life and thus
of all our food, thereby to reverse the bad press attributed to CO2.
Will We Run Out of Food in the Foreseeable Future?
Our reliance on the grains of cereal plants (especially wheat,
rice, and corn) is so great that they supply nearly 60% of our
food energy and 50% of the protein consumed on Earth. Thus,
grains really do ‘stand between us and starvation.’ Grains offer
the great advantages that they can be stored safely for long
periods and thus transported far from their growth sites. Grains
are adaptable with respect to the wide range of foods made
from them. Grains are also important as animal food and for
various forms of industrial processing.
But will we run out of food in the foreseeable future? Efforts
continue to improve methods of breeding, agronomy, harve-
sting, and processing, showing good signs that grain produc-
tion and quality will continue to increase, providing for a
world of hungry people. The production and yield of wheat
have tripled in the past 40 years, as explained in the Wheat
Overview article (The Cereal Grains: Wheat: An Overview of
the Grain That Provides ‘Our Daily Bread’). Furthermore,
Figure 3 shows how there is an ongoing increase in the
Million tonnes
800
600
400
200
0
2010/11 2012/13 2014/15
f’cast
Utilization (left axis)
4 THE BASICS | The Grains that Feed the World
Earth’s atmospheric CO2 concentration and temperature
390
370
350
ppm 330
CO2
310 CO2
290
270
250
1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000
Year
Figure 4 Increasing temperatures and levels of carbon dioxide promise increasing grain yields due to the carbon-fertilizer effect.
worldwide production of cereal grains, also including maize,
rice, barley, and other grass-related grains. The future therefore
looks hopeful.
However, we still have great inequalities in food supply in
terms of grains. Although current world production for all
grains is equivalent to 1 kg per person per day, there is still
hunger because some of this great volume of grain serves alter-
native important nonfood purposes, such as animal feed and
industrial uses. The greatest problem, however, is that the major
sites of production are distant from the major sites of need, and
those in need lack the resources to access the excess grain.
Increasing levels of carbon dioxide (Figure 4) offer the
promise of increasing grain yields, but with growth conditions
changing, breeders and agronomists need to focus research on
adapting to a changing world scene.
Climate Change and the Future of Grain Production
Predictions of global climate change include increased levels of
carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, causing warmer tempera-
tures (especially the daily minima), changed patterns of rain-
fall, and increased frequency and severity of heat-stress
episodes, together with decreased frost frequency and rising
sea levels. These trends imply a future of fluctuations in grain
yield and quality, but overall increases in grain yield are pre-
dicted. Rising sea levels have serious implications for many
low-lying rice-growing areas in Asia.
Irrespective of arguments about causes, increases in atmo-
spheric levels in carbon dioxide have been clearly demon-
strated, rising from ancient levels of 150–280 to 400 ppm
and beyond, with a predicted doubling in a century or so.
One consequence is the provision of carbon fertilizer, leading
in the future to more efficient biomass production and greater
yields for many grain species. However, the yield increases may
be largely in carbohydrate, potentially leaving reduced grain-
protein levels. The fertilizing effects of carbon dioxide are
more significant at higher temperatures, the other major effect
predicted to accompany the global climate challenge. For
wheat, the increases in temperature are also expected to affect
potential dough-forming properties. Temperatures in the range
15–30  C during grain filling have been shown to provide
optimal dough strength, but grain with weaker dough quality
is produced when plants are subjected to a few days of heat
14.5
14.3
14.1
°C
°C 13.9
13.7
13.5
stresses of over 35  C during grain filling. However, there are
indications that some wheat genotypes are available that
provide stable grain quality despite such heat-stress condi-
tions, thereby opening up promising research directions. So,
considerable research effort is concentrated on breeding for
changed growth conditions (see articles Agronomy of Grain
Growing: Implication of Climate Changes; Sustainable Grain
Production and Utilization; Wheat: Biotrophic Pathogen Resis-
tance; Genetics of Grains: Abiotic Stress Genes and Mecha-
nisms in Wheat; The Cereal Grains: An Overview of the Family
of Cereal Grains Prominent in World Agriculture).
Growing Our Grains
• Organic-grown grain is superior nutritionally to other
grain. Wrong!
• GMO grain is hazardous to your health. Wrong!
Organic Growing
Organic is an adjective used with the whole range of foods and
even fibers. The term is associated with a higher price and
presumed higher value. It should also indicate products of
such quality and composition as are expected from growing
these products in the absence of chemicals, instead using nat-
ural means of farm management. Are organically grown grains,
for example, any different nutritionally from other sources of
grain? The answer is generally no. Organic grain will look the
same as conventionally grown grain and will not likely to have
more favorable nutritional content.
Organic grain is likely to have a protein content similar to
that of other grains grown under similar conditions. With
respect to chemicals, the levels of pesticides and herbicides of
organic grain may be less than those for conventionally grown
grain, but the latter are still required to have such compounds
at levels below the minimum residue levels. A report by the UK
Crop Protection Association found “lower levels of pesticide
residues in organic produce when compared to conventional”
but “these differences are relatively small, for example, a typical
residue of 0.1 mg/kg is equivalent to a fly on a ten-ton truck.”
The encyclopedia’s article on organic grain points out that
the great advantage of organic farming is the benefit to land
 THE BASICS | The Grains that Feed the World 5

use and the environment (see articles Agronomy of Grain Grow- on the actual composition of GM food and the actual effects
ing: Organic Grain Production and Food Processing; Sustainable of GM plant and animal agricultural practices (see articles
Grain Production and Utilization; Food Grains and the Con- Food Grains and the Consumer: Genetically Modified Grains
sumer: Labelling of Grain-Based Foods). and the Consumer; Genetics of Grains: Detection of Geneti-
cally Modified Grains; Development of Genetically Modified
Grains; The Cereal Grains: Maize: Overview; The Oilseeds:
Genetically Modified Organisms Cottonseed: Overview; Canola: Overview; Soybean:
It is well over a century since grain scientists commenced the Overview).
now usual practice of cross pollination to combine the benefits of
one parental line with those of another. Previously, plant
improvements had involved the selection of promising plants Grains, Our Health, and the Media
(by appearance) from the common mix of plants in the field.
Cross pollination greatly extended the genetic variability of popu- What can we believe? We all know that the French queen Marie
lations from which to select promising new genotypes for use in Antoinette (Figure 5) famously declared “Let them eat cake”
developing new improved varieties. However, this approach to when she was told that her starving subjects were clamoring for
plant breeding is limited because cross pollination is generally bread. Wrong!
restricted to plants of the same genus, perhaps even the same The saying is stuck in historical tradition because it has been
species. Thus, for example, it is not possible to source genetic a convenient précis of the aristocratic arrogance of the times
resistance to a disease from beyond the target grain species. preceding the French revolution (1789–99). However, the line
In recent decades, this limitation has been removed by the about eating cake was actually written in the mid-1760s when
introduction of genetic engineering techniques, permitting not Marie Antoinette was a young girl living in Austria. It appears in
only very precise inter-genus transfer of genes but also the target- a work entitled Confessions written by Jean-Jacques Rousseau.
ing of single genes or groups of genes for transfer from unrelated Furthermore, much has been lost in translation. The word
genera (which could, e.g., be as distant as a fish and a different ‘cake’ is a mistranslation of the French brioche that is a pastry
plant). The improved plant or animal that carries functional with tender crumb made with generous inclusion of egg and
genes from an unrelated genus (a gene transfer that could not butter, hardly like our general concept of ‘cake.’ The linkage to
happen in nature) is termed genetically modified (GM). Many Marie Antoinette has been attributed to Jean-Baptiste Alphonse
improved grain genotypes have been introduced into agricul- Karr (1808–90), who wrote it 50 years after her death.
tural production on a very large scale. Such improvements may How does it happen that society accepts the authenticity of
include not only agronomic and disease benefits but also a phrase or story even though it is just plain wrong? The ‘Let
improvements in nutritional value. The major crops involved them eat cake’ story may be no more than a trivial error of
for large-scale production are maize, soybean, canola, and cot- history. More important are the multitude of other errors and
ton. In the case of GMO cotton especially, there has been great misconceptions in the public mind. To the extent that this
environmental benefit of reduced use of insecticides. There are misinformation affects our way of life and our personal well
GMO variations of many other grain crops, such as golden rice,
GM to contain beta-carotene, a source of vitamin A.
There has been political/philosophical/activist and con-
sumer resistance to the benefits offered by GMO technology,
such that the range of GMO grains has been restricted and the
potential benefits have not yet become available. For example,
there is thus no widespread cultivation of GMO wheat, barley,
or rice. Much of the scientific evidence presented on the poten-
tial harm of GM foods is simply spurious, generated with
disregard to normal experimental practices, and with results
predetermined by a bias on the part of the authors. In conse-
quence of consumer resistance, the spread of GMO grains has
been restricted to some countries and regions – mainly to the
Americas. In Argentina, for example, many farmers grow two
crops a year – wheat and GMO soy. As the soy is herbicide-
resistant, weeds are eliminated during the soy-growth phase,
and the subsequent wheat crop is harvested free of weed seeds.
Much of Europe and Africa has been far more circumspect
about permitting introduction of GM grains. There is a valid
and essential ongoing public debate to be made about the
ownership or intellectual property basis of genetic resources
that underpin GMO production. There is valid unease about
the potentially excess control that a few biotechnology compa-
nies may exert on world agriculture. There are also arguments
to be made about the environmental impacts – both positive
and negative – of all forms of agriculture, including that
involving GM plants and animals. But these arguments should Figure 5 The peasants of France were starving for lack of bread. Marie
be made on the basis of accurate and apolitical information Antoinette responded: “No bread? Then let them eat cake.” Did she?
6 THE BASICS | The Grains that Feed the World
being, there is a serious need for authentic information to be
offered and adopted.
There may be no combination of issues where this need is
more apparent than in the matter of nutrition, our diet being
closely allied to our health, quality of life, and our death, thus
prompting sayings such as the following:
• What we eat today walks and talks tomorrow.
• Digging our graves with our teeth.
• We are what we eat.
• Mens sana in corpore sano (a healthy mind in a healthy
body).
The Encyclopedia of Food Grains: A Source of
Authentic Information
This encyclopedia offers authentic information about all
aspects of food grains as they relate to us – and about all
sorts of grains: chickpeas, rice, maize, barley, quinoa, soya,
plus buckwheat, and the real wheat (the last two grains are
unrelated!). The encyclopedia’s coverage takes us through the
various stages of the breeding of grains, their growth, produc-
tion, processing, and the retailing of the wide range of grain-
based foods. All these issues impact us as consumers, situated
as we are at the culmination of the ‘grain chain’ (see article The
Basics: The Grain Chain: The Route from Genes to Grain-Based
Products). Veracity for the articles is assured due to authorship
by world authorities, followed by peer review by members of
the editorial advisory board, the editors, and external experts.
Some Popular Mythconceptions About Food Grains
In this opening article, we examine and correct some of the
myths and misconceptions (mythconceptions) about grain-
related nutrition and grain production. These errors appear in
popular books and on questionable websites and inferred in
advertising, in general gossip, and in popular concepts. Beyond
this article, more mythconceptions are addressed in detail
throughout the encyclopedia. How about the following ideas?
• Bread makes you fat. Wrong!
• The fat you eat goes straight to your hips. Wrong!
• Eat fat-free products and you won’t get fat. Wrong!
• Trans fats, produced in fats from oilseeds, are bad for you.
Maybe!
• Food additives are all badditives! Wrong!
• New types of oilseeds have fats that are nutritionally bene-
ficial. True!
• Only children get celiac disease and they can grow out of it
anyway. No and no!
• A gluten-free diet will make you feel better. Wrong or not
necessarily.
• A gluten-free diet is damaging to your health. Wrong!
• A gluten-free diet will cause you to miss essential nutrients.
Maybe.
• A gluten-free diet means that I cannot eat buckwheat.
Wrong!
Figure 6 This type of corn dolly is not made from corn (maize); they are
usually made from the stalks and heads of wheat, rye, triticale, and
barley. This apparent misnomer arises from the use of corn to signify any
grain species; this connotation is still prevalent in parts of Britain,
whereas corn is used in North America to signify maize.
• At least we know that milk and coffee are gluten-free. Not
necessarily.
• Corn dollies are made from corn (maize). No, not usually!
(See Figure 6.)
• There are dietary imbalances in the cereal grains. Partly true!
• Spinach is the best source of iron in our diet; we know that
because we grew up with Popeye the Sailor Man who ate all
his spinach. Wrong!
• Wild flax growing in New Zealand differs from cultivated
flax. Correct! (See Figure 7.)
• Organic-grown grain is superior nutritionally to other
grain. Wrong!
• GMO grain is hazardous to your health. Wrong!
Authentic information is needed on the aforementioned topics
and on many more. Ask a question about grains and seek an
authentic answer via the hypertext features or the conventional
index of this encyclopedia. The assurance of authenticity of this
encyclopedia is that world authorities have been sought to
write every chapter, and subsequently, all articles have been
peer-reviewed. None of those involved have any commercial
interest in the topic about which they have written. Those
assurances cannot be made for the authors of many popular
books, magazine articles, or websites.
What Do Our Bodies Need and How Much?
Let’s get to the facts of our nutrition. Our bodies are composed
of carbon (C), hydrogen (H), oxygen (O), nitrogen (N), cal-
cium (Ca), phosphorus (P), and the wide range of other chem-
ical elements illustrated in Figure 8. These then are the
elements that are essential in our diet. Their distribution varies
across the various foods we eat, as illustrated for breakfast time
in Figure 9. The importance of the grain-based foods is evident
as a source of an important combination of these elements. In
addition to the trace elements, there are the compounds that
we cannot make ourselves, including vitamins, essential amino
acids (forming proteins), and essential fatty acids.
This information is thus the starting point for good nutri-
tion. Beyond these essential components is the matter of how

Figure 7 (a) This is flax. It is wild flax growing in New Zealand, a form
of lily (Phormium tenax and Phormium colensoi). It is used by the
Maoris to make fabrics. (b) This is flax. It is seed from cultivated flax
(Linum usitatissimum). This flax or linseed is valuable for its oil content.
In addition, the leaves are used to produce linen. The genus name
was adapted for the floor covering linoleum (informally abbreviated to
lino), which is made from solidified linseed oil (linoxyn). Flax seed is
reputed to assist in lowering serum cholesterol levels.
much of them and in what proportions. This topic has been
addressed in many countries by the provision of nutritional
guidelines, such as those in Figures 10 and 11. They empha-
size the quantitative importance of the grain-based foods in
our diets, either as the base of the pyramid or as the largest
sector of the dinner plate. In fact, the major cereal grains
(wheat, maize, rice, barley, sorghum, oats, rye, and millet)
provide about half the protein needs of mankind and over
half of our food energy consumption. Additional contribu-
tions are made by the noncereal grains, including soy, canola,
sunflower, and legumes. Worldwide, annual grain production
exceeds 2.5 billion tonnes. This equates to about 1 kg of grain
person per day for the whole world’s population! Why is
there hunger anywhere?
THE BASICS | The Grains that Feed the World 7
Finally, there is the important factor of how much food we
should consume. While an excess of food consumption is a
critical health factor in many countries, elsewhere, hunger is
still present. How can this contrast exist when grain production
is so great?
Correcting Misinformation
Overlaying the elementary recommendations coming from
Figures 8 and 9, there are many, many points of discussion,
various arguments, and gross issues of misinformation about
our nutrition. The points listed in the preceding text are cov-
ered in the succeeding text.
Grains, Fats, and Weight Loss
• The fat you eat goes straight to your hips. Wrong!
• Eat fat-free products and you won’t get fat. Wrong!
• Bread makes you fat. Wrong!
• Food additives are all badditives! Wrong!
• Trans fats, produced in fats from oilseeds, are bad for you.
Maybe!
• New types of oilseeds have fats that are nutritionally extra
beneficial. True!
The Fat We Eat: Where Does It Go?
All the food we eat is broken down to simpler components in
our stomach and intestine before it is absorbed. Starch is
hydrolyzed and absorbed as glucose. Fats are absorbed as the
fatty acids. These simpler compounds are metabolized to
acetyl coenzyme A, which in turn is digested via the Krebs
cycle (Figure 12) to carbon dioxide and compounds that
store the resulting energy. Subsequently, these metabolites
provide energy to our muscles and replace almost all of the
material in our bodies in regular turnover activities. Some
excess will be laid down as fat deposits (maybe in the hips),
but these fat deposits come indirectly from any of the compo-
nents in our diet, not only from fats. Thus, eating fat-free
foods does not necessarily relate to weight loss or gain any
more than any other food source (see article Food Grains and
the Consumer: Grains and Health: Misinformation and
Misconceptions).
Bread as a Food
Bread provides good proportions of protein, starch, fiber, and
fat. But watch what goes onto the bread as a spread or as
sandwich filling!
Flour and ground grain are obviously the main ingredients
in bread and baked goods generally. In addition, there are
various ingredients (some sugar, salt, and fat, plus rising agents
such as yeast and baking powder), including some ingredients
that may be classed as ‘additives.’ The added ingredients have
the functions of enhancing the quality and nutritional value of
the baked foods. But they certainly cannot be labeled as
8 THE BASICS | The Grains that Feed the World

OTHERS
ABUNDANT ELEMENTS

1.5%
PHOSPHORUS RARE
SULFUR
1.0%
POTASSIUM
SODIUM
CHLORINE
CALCIUM
MAGNESIUM
1.5% VERY RARE
IRON
FLUORINE
NITROGEN SILICON

3.0% ZINC
STRONTIUM
RUBIDIUM
LEAD
HYDROGEN
MANGANESE
10% COPPER
ULTRA RARE
ALUMINUM
CARBON CADMIUM
TIN
18% BARIUM
MERCURY
SELENIUM
IODINE
OXYGEN
MOLYBDENUM
65% NICKEL
BORON
CHROMIUM
ARSENIC
COBALT
VANADIUM
= MINERALS

Figure 8 The proportions of the chemical elements that make up our bodies. Reproduced from Bunpei Y (2012) Wonderful Life with the Elements. San
Francisco, CA: No Starch Press.

badditives. All such ingredients must be approved by the
respective government agencies (see articles Food Grains and
the Consumer: Fortification of Grain-Based Foods; Wheat-
Based Foods: Breads; Cookies, Biscuits and Crackers: Formu-
lation, Processing and Characteristics; Flatbreads of the World;
Sour Dough Technology).
sourced from fish; they are now becoming available in grains
via new genotypes of oilseeds such as canola (Figure 13) (see
articles Breeding of Grains: Canola/Rapeseed: Genetics and
Breeding; Fats: Healthy Fats and Oils; Lipid Chemistry; The
Oilseeds: Canola: Overview).

Celiac Disease: Going Gluten-Free or Not

Different Types of Fats
The various species of oilseeds provide edible oils for many of
our food sources. An example is margarine. In its processing,
some trans fats may be produced; being unnatural, trans fats
are suspect and thus discouraged. Polyunsaturated fatty acids
in our diet are considered superior to fully saturated fats, which
come mainly from animal sources. Grains are major sources of
polyunsaturated fatty acids, such as oleic acid, linoleic acid,
and linolenic acid. Some of these are essential in our diet.
Especially desirable in our diet are the long-chain omega-3
oils (eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid), mainly
• Only children get celiac disease and they can grow out of it
anyway. No and no!
• A gluten-free diet will make you feel better. Wrong or not
necessarily.
• A gluten-free diet is damaging to your health. Wrong!
• A gluten-free diet will cause you to miss essential nutrients.
Maybe.
• A gluten-free diet means that I cannot eat buckwheat. Wrong!
• At least we know that coffee and milk are gluten-free. Not
necessarily.
 SALAD FRUIT YOGURT

Ca K Fe YOGURT

Zn Mg Mn Ca Mo K Mg
BREAD

P P I Co Na
P K Fe
FRUITS
Na CI Ca
K Mg Cu Zn
Mn
P

BUTTER

Ca Mg Na

K Co P

Se Cu

BACON AND Ca Fe K
EGGS
Na P Zn
BACON

P Cl Mg Cu

Na K S EGGS
COFFEE
BLACK PEPPER Se Fe Ca P Cr
K
Cr K S Zn Co K

EUROPEAN AND AMERICAN BREAKFAST

Figure 9 Sources of the chemical elements in breakfast. The elements carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen are not included because they are in all
these foods. Reproduced from Bunpei Y (2012) Wonderful Life with the Elements. San Francisco, CA: No Starch Press.

Fats, Oils & Sweets KEY

Fat (naturally occurring and added)
USE SPARINGLY
Sugars (added)
These symbols show fats and added sugars in foods.

Milk, Yogurt & Meat, Poultry, Fish, Dry Beans,

Cheese Group Eggs & Nuts Group
2-3 SERVINGS 2-3 SERVINGS

Vegetable Group Fruit Group

3-5 SERVINGS 2-4 SERVINGS

Bread, Cereal,
Rice & Pasta
Group
6-11
SERVINGS

Figure 10 Nutritional guide pyramid provided by the US Department of Agriculture.

10 THE BASICS | The Grains that Feed the World

Why the Gluten-Free Diet?
People who are diagnosed with celiac disease must adhere to a
gluten-free diet. Celiac disease is a disease affecting all ages; the
only treatment, a gluten-free diet, is a lifelong commitment.
There are other conditions, less well characterized, for which
benefit has been obtained by the omission of gluten from the
diet. In these cases, perhaps, a gluten-free diet will make you
feel better. However, beyond these cases, gluten-free diet has
become a dietary fad with many adherents. The inferior quality
of much of the gluten-free bread available is a testament to the
value of gluten in bread making. Nevertheless, there are many
substitutes for the function of gluten in the production of
gluten-free foods (Figure 14).
Strict adherence to a gluten-free is difficult given the use of
wheat, rye, triticale, and barley in many processed foods. In the
process of avoiding gluten, it may be possible that some normal
nutrient sources are also avoided with the consequent risk of
missing out on some essential nutrients. But overall, it is unlikely
that eating gluten-free diets will be damaging to your health (see
articles Appendix 3: Grains, Foods, and Ingredients Suiting

Figure 11 Nutritional guidelines as a dinner plate provided by the

Australian government. Figure 13 Canola in flower in Scotland.

sugars, fats

Acetyl-CoA

more oxaloacetate citrate more

oxidized reduced

malate [cis-aconitate]

fumarate isocitrate

succinate [oxalosuccinate]

succinyl-coA α–ketoglutarate

Figure 12 The Krebs cycle via which fats and sugars are broken down to CO2 releasing energy that is stored in compounds such as adenosine
triphosphate.
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The Project Gutenberg eBook of History for ready reference, Volume 6
This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most other parts of the world at
no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the
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Title: History for ready reference, Volume 6

Recent history - 1894-5 to 1901 A-Z

Author: J. N. Larned

Release date: October 17, 2023 [eBook #71897]

Language: English

Original publication: Springfield, Mass: C. A. Nichols Co, 1895

Credits: Don Kostuch

*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORY FOR READY REFERENCE, VOLUME
6 ***
[Transcriber's Notes: These modifications are intended to provide
continuity of the text for ease of searching and reading.

1. To avoid breaks in the narrative, page numbers (shown in curly

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between subjects.

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replaced with spaces and newlines.

6. Subjects are arranged thusly:

---------------------------------
MAIN SUBJECT TITLE IN UPPER CASE
Subheading one.
Subheading two.

Subject text.

See CROSS REFERENCE ONE.

See Also CROSS REFERENCE TWO.

John Smith,
External Citation Title,
Chapter 3, page 89.
---------------------------------

Main titles are at the left margin, in all upper case

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Subheadings (if any) are indented three spaces and

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Text of the article (if any) follows the list of subtitles

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case (as in the original) and indented six spaces. They
usually begin with "See", "Also" or "Also in".

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and in italics (as in the original). The bibliography in
Volume 1, APPENDIX F on page xxi provides additional details,
including URLs of available internet versions.
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indicates the start/end of a group of subheadings or other
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To search for words separated by an unknown number of other

characters, use this Regular Expression to find the words
"first" and "second" separated by between 1 and 100 characters:
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this file as an aid for finding words with unusual spellings
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End Transcriber's Notes.]

----------------------------------
Spine
Map of Asia

HISTORY FOR READY REFERENCE.

FROM THE BEST HISTORIANS, BIOGRAPHERS, AND SPECIALISTS

THEIR OWN WORDS IN A COMPLETE SYSTEM OF HISTORY

FOR ALL USES, EXTENDING TO ALL COUNTRIES AND SUBJECTS,
AND REPRESENTING FOR BOTH READERS AND STUDENTS THE BETTER
AND NEWER LITERATURE OF HISTORY IN THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE

BY
J. N. LARNED
 WITH NUMEROUS HISTORICAL MAPS FROM ORIGINAL
STUDIES AND DRAWINGS BY

ALAN O. REILEY

REVISED AND ENLARGED EDITION

IN SIX VOLUMES

VOLUME VI—RECENT HISTORY

1894-5 TO 1901
A to Z

SPRINGFIELD, MASS.

THE C. A. NICHOLS CO., PUBLISHERS

COPYRIGHT, 1901,
BY J. N. LARNED.

The Riverside Press,

Cambridge, Massachusetts, U. S. A.
Printed by H. O. Houghton & Company.

PREFACE TO THE SIXTH VOLUME.

The six years that have passed since the original five volumes
of this compilation were published, in 1894-5, have been
filled with events so remarkable and changes so revolutionary
in political and social conditions that the work has seemed to
need an extension to cover them. The wish for such an
extension, expressed by many people, led to the preparation of
a new volume, in which all the lines of the historical record
are taken from the points at which they were dropped in the
early volumes, and are carried to the end of the Nineteenth
Century, and beyond it, into the opening months of the present
year.

In plan and arrangement this additional volume is uniform with

the preceding ones; but the material used in it is different
from that dealt with before, and a quite different character
is given consequently to the book. The former compilation
represented closet-studies of History—perspective views of a
past more or less remote from those who depicted it. This one,
on the contrary, exhibits History in the making,—the day by
day evolution of events and changes as they passed under the
hands and before the eyes and were recorded by the pens of the
actual makers and witnesses of them. If there is crudeness in the
story thus constructed, there is life in it, to quite make good
the lack of literary finish; and the volume is expected to
prove as interesting and as useful as its predecessors. It
sets forth, with the fulness which their present-day interest
demands, all the circumstances that led to the
Spanish-American war; the unforeseen sequences of that war, in
the Philippine Islands, in Cuba, in Porto Rico, and in
 American politics; the whole controversy of Great Britain with
the South African Boers and the resulting war; the shameful
dealings of western nations with China, during late years,
which provoked the outbreak of barbaric hostility to
foreigners, and the dreadful experiences of the siege and
relief of Peking; the strange Dreyfus agitations in France;
the threatening race-conflicts in Austria; the change of
sovereign in England; the Peace Conference at The Hague and
its results; the federation of the Australian colonies; the
development of industrial combinations or trusts in the United
States; the archæological discoveries of late years in the
East, and the more notable triumphs of achievement in the
scientific world. On these and other occurrences of the period
surveyed, the record of fact is quoted from sources the most
responsible and authentic now available, and always with the
endeavor to present both sides of controverted matters with
strict impartiality.

For purposes of reference and study, a large number of

important documents—laws, treaties, new constitutions of
government, and other state papers—are given in full, and, in
most instances, from officially printed texts.

BUFFALO, NEW YORK; May, 1901.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS.

I am indebted to the following named authors, editors, and

publishers, for permission kindly given me to quote from books
and periodicals, all of which are duly referred to in
connection with the passages severally borrowed from them:

The manager of The American Catholic Quarterly Review;

the editor of The American Journal of Archæology;
the editor of The American Monthly Review of Reviews;
General Thomas F. Anderson;
Messrs. D. Appleton & Company;
Messrs. Wm. Blackwood's Sons (Blackwood's Magazine);
Mr. Andrew Carnegie;
Messrs. Chapman & Hall (The Fortnightly Review);
Mr. Samuel L. Clemens (Mark Twain);
Hon. W. Bourke Cockran;
the editor of The Contemporary Review;
Prof. John Franklin Crowell;
the G. W. Dillingham Company;
Messrs. Dodd, Mead & Company;
Messrs. Doubleday, Page & Company;
The Ecumenical Conference on Foreign Missions;
Mr. J. Foreman;
The Forum Publishing Company;
Harper & Brothers (Harper's Magazine);
Mr. Howard C. Hillegas;
Prof. H. V. Hilprecht;
Hon. Frederick W. Holls;
 Messrs. Houghton, Mifflin & Company (The Atlantic Monthly);
Mr. George Iles;
the editor of The Independent;
Prof. John H. Latané;
Messrs. Longmans, Green & Company (The Edinburgh Review);
Mr. Charles F. Lummis;
Messrs. McClure, Philips & Company (The Popular Science Monthly);
Messrs. MacMillan & Company (London);
The New Amsterdam Book Company;
the editor of The Nineteenth Century Review;
the editor of The North American Review;
the editors of The Outlook;
the managing editor of The Political Science Quarterly;
Mr. Edward Porritt;
Messrs. G. P. Putnam's Sons;
Messrs. Charles Scribner's Sons;
George M. Sternberg, Surgeon-General, U. S. A.;
The Frederick A. Stokes Company;
the managing editor of The Sunday School Times;
Prof. F. W. Taussig;
Prof. Elihu Thomson;
the manager of The Times, London;
The University Press, Cambridge;
Mr. Herbert Welsh; the editors of The Yale Review.

My acknowledgments are likewise due to the Hon. D. S.

Alexander, Representative in Congress, and to many officials
at Washington, for courteous assistance in procuring
publications of the national government for my use.

LIST OF MAPS.

Map of Asia, Preceding the title page

Map of Africa, Following page 2

Map of Alaska, Following page 8

Map of Australia, Following page 30

Map of Central America,

showing the Isthmian Canal routes, Following page 66

Map of the East Coast of China, Following page 76

Map of Cuba and the West Indies, Following page 170

Map of Hawaii, Following page 254

Map of the Philippine Islands,

and of the seat of war in Luzon, Following page 368
 Map of Porto Rico, Following page 410

Map of the Boer Republics

and their surroundings, Following page 492

Map illustrating the Santiago campaign

in the Spanish-American war, On page 603

LIST OF TABLES.

The descendants of Queen Victoria, Page 215

Protestant foreign missions

and missionary societies, Pages 311-313

Navies of the Sea Powers, Page 318

Philippine Islands, area and population, Pages 367-369

The Shipping of the World in 1900, Page 452

British military forces in South African war, Pages 509-510

Statistics of the Spanish-American War, Pages 628-631

Twelfth Census of the United States (1900), Pages 645-646

Revenues and expenditures of the government

of the United States for the fiscal
year ended June 30, 1900, Page 666
Losses from all causes in the armies
of the United States from
May 1, 1898, to May 20, 1900, Pages 666-667

Qualifications of the elective franchise

in the several States of the United States, Pages 676-677

Military and naval expenditures of

the greater Powers, Pages 694-697

Chronological record of events, 1895 to 1901, Pages 702-720

{1}

HISTORY FOR READY REFERENCE.

ABORIGINES, American.
 See (in this volume)
INDIANS, AMERICAN.

ABRUZZI, the Duke of: Arctic expedition.

See (in this volume) POLAR EXPLORATION, 1899-1900, 1901.

ABYDOS, Archæological exploration at.

See (in this volume)

ARCHÆOLOGICAL RESEARCH: EGYPT: RESULTS.

ABYSSINIA: A. D. 1895-1896.
Successful war with the Italians.

See (in this volume) ITALY: A. D. 1895-1896.

ABYSSINIA: A. D. 1897.
Treaty with Great Britain.

A treaty between King Menelek of Abyssinia and the British

Government was concluded in May, 1897. It gives to British
subjects the privileges of the most favored nations in trade;
opens the port of Zeyla to Abyssinian importations; defines
the boundary of the British Somali Protectorate, and pledges
Abyssinia to be hostile to the Mahdists.

ACETYLENE GAS, Production of.

See (in this volume)

SCIENCE, RECENT: CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS.

ADOWA, Battle of.

See (in this volume) ITALY; A. D. 1895-1896.

AFGHANISTAN: A. D. 1893-1895.
Relinquishment of claims over Swat, Bajaur and Chitral.

See (in this volume)

INDIA: A. D. 1895 (MARCH-SEPTEMBER).

AFGHANISTAN: A. D. 1894.
The Waziri War.

See (in this volume) INDIA: A. D. 1894.

AFGHANISTAN: A. D. 1895.
Anglo-Russian Agreement.
Determination of the northern frontier.

The joint Anglo-Russian Commission for fixing the northern

frontier of Afghanistan, from Zulfikar on the Heri-Rud to the
Pamirs, finished its work in July, 1895. This was consequent
upon an Agreement between the governments of Great Britain and
Russia which had been reduced to writing on the previous 11th
 of March. In part, that Agreement was as follows:

"Her Britannic Majesty's Government and the Government of His

Majesty the Emperor of Russia engage to abstain from
exercising any political influence or control, the former to
the north, the latter to the south, of the above line of
demarcation. Her Britannic Majesty's Government engage that
the territory lying within the British sphere of influence
between the Hindu Kush and the line running from the east end
of Lake Victoria to the Chinese frontier shall form part of
the territory of the Ameer of Afghanistan, that it shall not
be annexed to Great Britain, and that no military posts or
forts shall be established in it. The execution of this
Agreement is contingent upon the evacuation by the Ameer of
Afghanistan of all the territories now occupied by His
Highness on the right bank of the Panjah, and on the
evacuation by the Ameer of Bokhara of the portion of Darwaz
which lies to the south of the Oxus, in regard to which Her
Britannic Majesty's Government and the Government of His
Majesty the Emperor of Russia have agreed to use their
influence respectively with the two Ameers."

Great Britain, Papers by Command: Treaty Series,

Number 8, 1895.

AFGHANISTAN: A. D. 1896.
Conquest of Kafiristan.

By the agreement of 1893, between the Ameer of Afghanistan and

the government of India (see, in this volume, INDIA. A. D.
1895-MARCH-SEPTEMBER), the mountain district of Kafiristan was
conceded to the former, and he presently set to work to
subjugate its warlike people, who had never acknowledged his
yoke. By the end of 1896 the conquest of these Asiatic Kafirs
was believed to be complete.

AFGHANISTAN: A. D. 1897-1898.
Wars of the British with frontier tribes.

See (in this volume) INDIA: A. D. 1897-1898.

AFGHANISTAN: A. D. 1900.
Russian railway projects.

See (in this volume) RUSSIA-IN-ASIA: A. D. 1900.

----------AFRICA: Start--------

AFRICA: A. D. 1891-1900
(Portuguese East Africa).
Delagoa Bay Railway Arbitration.

See (in this volume)

DELAGOA BAY ARBITRATION.
AFRICA: A. D. 1893 (Niger Coast Protectorate).
Its growth.

See (in this volume)

NIGERIA: A. D. 1882-1899.

AFRICA: A. D. 1894 (The Transvaal).

The Commandeering question.

See (in this volume)

SOUTH AFRICA: (THE TRANSVAAL): A. D. 1894.

AFRICA: A. D. 1894 (The Transvaal).

Dissatisfaction of the Boers with the
London Convention of 1884.

See (in this volume)

SOUTH AFRICA (THE TRANSVAAL): A. D. 1884-1894.

AFRICA: A. D. 1894-1895 (British South Africa Company).

Extension of charter and enlargement of powers.
Influence of Cecil J. Rhodes.
Attitude towards the Transvaal.

See (in this volume)

SOUTH AFRICA
(BRITISH SOUTH AFRICA COMPANY): A. D. 1894-1895.

AFRICA: A. D. 1894-1895 (Rhodesia).

Extended territory and enlarged powers of the British
South Africa Company.
Ascendancy of Cecil J. Rhodes.

See (in this volume)

SOUTH AFRICA
(BRITISH SOUTH AFRICA COMPANY): A. D. 1894-1895.

AFRICA: A. D. 1894-1898
(British Central Africa Protectorate: Nyassaland).
Administrative separation from British South Africa Company's
territory.
Conflicts with natives.
Resources and prospects.

See (in this volume)

BRITISH CENTRAL AFRICA PROTECTORATE.

{2}

AFRICA: A. D. 1895 (Bechuanaland).

Partial conveyance to British South Africa Company.

Several Bechuana chiefs visited England to urge that their

country should not be absorbed by Cape Colony or the British
South Africa Company. An agreement was made with them which
reserved certain territories to each, but yielded the
 remainder to the administration of the British South Africa
Company.

AFRICA: A. D. 1895 (British East Africa).

Transfer of territory to the British Government.

The territories previously administered by the Imperial

British East Africa Company (excepting the Uganda
Protectorate, which had been transferred in 1894) were finally
transferred to the British Government on the 1st of July. At
the same time, the dominion of the Sultan of Zanzibar on the
mainland came under the administrative control of the British
consul-general at Zanzibar.

AFRICA: A. D. 1895 (Cape Colony).

Annexation of British Bechuanaland.

Proceedings for the annexation of British Bechuanaland to Cape

Colony were adopted by the Cape Parliament in August.

AFRICA: A. D. 1895 (French West Africa).

Appointment of a Governor-General.

In June, M. Chaudie was appointed Governor-General of French

West Africa, his jurisdiction extending over Senegal, the
Sudan possessions of France, French Guinea, Dahomey, and other
French possessions in the Gulf of Benin.

AFRICA: A. D. 1895 (Orange Free State).

Proposed federal union of the Free State with the Transvaal.

A resolution making overtures for a federal union with the

Transvaal was passed by the Volksraad of the Orange Free State
in June.

AFRICA: A. D. 1895 (Sierra Leone).

Establishment of a British Protectorate over the
Hinterland of Sierra Leone.
Anglo-French boundary agreement.

See (in this volume)

SIERRA LEONE PROTECTORATE.

AFRICA: A. D. 1895 (Transvaal).

Action in Swaziland.

By a proclamation in February, the Transvaal Government

assumed the administration of Swaziland and installed King
Buna as paramount chief.

AFRICA: A. D. 1895 (The Transvaal).

Closing of the Vaal River Drifts.

See (in this volume)

SOUTH AFRICA (THE TRANSVAAL):
A. D. 1895 (SEPTEMBER-DECEMBER).
AFRICA: A. D. 1895 (The Transvaal).
Discontent of the Uitlanders.
The Franchise question.

See (in this volume)

SOUTH AFRICA (THE TRANSVAAL):
A. D. 1895 (NOVEMBER).

AFRICA: A. D. 1895 (The Transvaal).

Opening of Delagoa Bay Railway.

See (in this volume)

SOUTH AFRICA (THE TRANSVAAL):
A. D. 1895 (JULY).

AFRICA: A. D. 1895 (Zululand).

Extension of Boundary.

A strip of territory west of Amatongaland, along the Pondoland

River to the Maputa was formally added to Zululand in May, the
South African Republic protesting.

AFRICA: A. D. 1895-1896 (Portuguese East Africa).

War with Gungunhana.

The Portuguese were involved in war with Gungunhana, king of

Gazaland, which lasted from September, 1895, until the
following spring, when Gungunhana was captured and carried a
prisoner, with his wives and son, to Lisbon.

AFRICA: A. D. 1895-1896 (The Transvaal).

Revolutionary conspiracy of Uitlanders at Johannesburg.
The Jameson raid.

See (in this volume)

SOUTH AFRICA (THE TRANSVAAL):
A. D. 1895-1896.

AFRICA: A. D. 1895-1897 (British East Africa Protectorate).

Creation of the Protectorate.
Territories included.
Subjugation of Arab chiefs.
Report of commissioner.

See (in this volume)

BRITISH EAST AFRICA PROTECTORATE:
A. D. 1895-1897.

AFRICA: A. D. 1896 (Ashanti).

British conquest and occupation.

See (in this volume)

ASHANTI.

AFRICA: A. D. 1896 (British South Africa Company).

 Resignation of Mr. Rhodes.
Parliamentary movement to investigate.

See (in this volume)

SOUTH AFRICA (BRITISH SOUTH AFRICA COMPANY):
A. D. 1896 (JUNE); and (JULY).

AFRICA: A. D. 1896 (Cape Colony).

Investigation of the Jameson raid.

See (in this volume)

SOUTH AFRICA (CAPE COLONY): A. D. 1896 (JULY).

AFRICA: A. D. 1896 (Rhodesia).

Matabele revolt.

See (in this volume)

SOUTH AFRICA (RHODESIA):
A. D. 1896 (MARCH-SEPTEMBER).

AFRICA: A. D. 1896 (Zanzibar).

Suppression of an usurper by the British.

On the sudden death (supposed to be from poison) of the Sultan

of Zanzibar, August 25, his cousin, Said Khalid, seized the
palace and proclaimed himself sultan. Zanzibar being an
acknowledged protectorate of Great Britain, the usurper was
summoned by the British consul to surrender. He refused, and
the palace was bombarded by war vessels in the harbor, with
such effect that the palace was speedily destroyed and about
500 of its inmates killed. Khalid fled to the German consul,
who protected him and had him conveyed to German territory. A
new sultan, Said Hamud-bin-Mahomed was at once proclaimed.

AFRICA: A. D. 1896-1899 (The Transvaal).

Controversies with the British Government.

See (in this volume)

SOUTH AFRICA (THE TRANSVAAL):
A. D. 1896 (JANUARY-APRIL), to 1899 (SEPTEMBER-OCTOBER).

AFRICA: A. D. 1897 (Congo Free State).

Mutiny of troops.

The Congo troops of an expedition led by Baron Dhanis mutinied

and murdered a number of Belgian officers. Subsequently they
were attacked in the neighborhood of Lake Albert Edward Nyanza
and mostly destroyed.

AFRICA: A. D. 1897 (Dahomey and Tongoland).

Definition of boundary.

By a convention concluded in July between Germany and France,

the boundary between German possessions in Tongoland and those
of France in Dahomey and the Sudan was defined.
AFRICA: A. D. 1897 (Nigeria).
Massacre at Benin.
British expedition.
Capture of the town.

See (in this volume)

NIGERIA: A. D. 1897.

AFRICA: A. D. 1897 (Nigeria).

Subjugation of Fulah slave-raiders.

In January and February, the forces of the Royal Niger Company

successfully invaded the strong Fulah states of Nupé and
Ilorin, from which slave raiding in the territory under
British protection was carried on. Bida, the Nupé capital, was
entered on the 27th of January, after a battle in which 800
Hausa troops, led by European officers, and using heavy
artillery, drove from the field an army of cavalry and foot
estimated at 30,000 in number. The Emir of Nupé was deposed,
another set up in his place, and a treaty signed which
established British rule. The Emir of Ilorin submitted after
his town had been bombarded, and bowed himself to British
authority in his government. At the same time, a treaty
settled the Lagos frontier. Later in the year, the stronghold
at Kiffi of another slave-raider, Arku, was stormed and
burned.
Map of Africa

{3}

AFRICA: A. D. 1897 (Orange Free State and Transvaal).

Treaty defensive between the two republics.

See (in this volume)

SOUTH AFRICA (ORANGE FREE STATE AND TRANSVAAL):
A. D. 1897 (APRIL).

AFRICA: A. D. 1897 (Sudan).

Beginning of the Anglo-Egyptian conquest.

See (in this volume)

EGYPT: A. D. 1885-1896.