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Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
THE PROCESS
4LTR Press uses a Student-Tested,
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unique needs of each course.
Learn Consumer Behavior YOUR Way with CB8!
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through visually engaging chapters as well as Chapter Review Cards
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of CB8 anywhere, anytime — including on your device!
Students Say Instructors Require

Students have asked for an overview of the Those teaching consumer behavior want a text that
course concepts that illustrate their value and covers current trends and topics directly related
impact in the world of consumer behavior, to students taking the course. Throughout this
especially around consumer decision making. edition, the authors focus on social media and
They want a resource with real-world examples current demographic research and the impact each
that focus on consumers and their actions. has had on the role of the consumer within society.
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Should I Care?
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Value and the Consumer

Behavior Framework
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Babin / Harris
CB 8 Brief Contents
PART I introduction 2
1 What Is CB and Why Should I Care?
2 Value and the Consumer Behavior Framework
PART II INTERNAL INFLUENCES 52

3 Consumer Learning Starts Here: Perception
4 Comprehension, Memory, and Cognitive Learning
5 Motivation and Emotion: Driving Consumer Behavior
6 Personality, Lifestyles, and the Self-Concept
7 Attitudes and Attitude Change
PART IIi EXTERNAL INFLUENCES 158

8 Group and Interpersonal Influence
9 Consumer Culture
10 Microcultures
PART IV SITUATIONS AND DECISION MAKING 228

11 Consumers in Situations
12 Decision Making I: Need Recognition and Search
13 Decision Making II: Alternative Evaluation and Choice
PART V CONSUMPTION AND BEYOND 286

14 Consumption to Satisfaction
15 Beyond Consumer Relationships
16 Consumer and Marketing Misbehavior
Endnotes 352
Glossary 373
Subject Index 383
Name Index 388
Products/Organizations Index 389
© RossHelen
Brief Contents iii
Contents
1-5 Consumer Behavior Is Dynamic 20
Part 1 1-5a
1-5b
Internationalization 20
Technological Changes 20
introduction 1-5c
1-5d
Changing Demographics 22
Changing and Sharing Economy 22
2 Value and the Consumer

Behavior Framework 24
2-1 The Consumer Value Framework and Its
Juice Images/Getty Images
Components 25
2-1a The Consumer Value Framework 25
2-1b Value and the CVF Components 25
2-2 Value and Its Two Basic Types 30

2-2a The Value Equation 30
1
2-2b Utilitarian Value 31
What Is CB and Why 2-2c Hedonic Value 31
Should I Care? 2 2-3 Marketing Strategy and Consumer Value 33
1-1 Consumption and Consumer Behavior 4 2-3a Marketing Strategy 33
1-1a Consumer Behavior as Human Behavior 4 2-3b Total Value Concept 34
1-1b Consumer Behavior as a Field of Study 6 2-3c The Total Value Concept Illustrated 35
2-3d Value Is Co-Created 36
1-2 The Ways in Which Consumers Are Treated 9
1-2a Competition and Consumer Orientation 9 2-4 Market Characteristics: Market Segments and
Product Differentiation 36
1-2b Relationship Marketing and Consumer
Behavior 11 2-4a Market Segmentation 36
2-4b Product Differentiation 38
1-3 The CB Field’s Role in Business, Society,
and for Consumers 12 2-5 Analyzing Markets with Perceptual Maps 39
1-3a Consumer Behavior and Marketing Strategy 12 2-5a Perceptual Maps 39
1-3b Consumer Behavior and Society 15 2-5b Illustrating a Perceptual Map 39
1-3c Consumer Behavior and Personal Growth 17 2-5c Using Consumer Behavior Theory in Marketing
Strategy 40
1-4 Different Approaches to Studying Consumer
Behavior 17 2-6 Value Today and Tomorrow—Customer
1-4a Interpretive Research 17 Lifetime Value 42
1-4b Quantitative Consumer Research 18 Part 1 Cases 44
iv Contents
3-6a Behaviorism and Cognitive Learning Theories 66
Part 2 3-6b Unintentional Learning 67
internal influences 4 Comprehension, Memory,

and Cognitive Learning 70
4-1 What Influences Comprehension? 70
4-1a Factors Affecting Consumer Comprehension 72
4-1b Characteristics of the Message 72
4-1c Message Receiver Characteristics 76
Tony Shi Photography/Getty Images

4-1d Environmental Characteristics 80
4-2 Multiple Store Theory of Acquiring, Storing,

and Using Knowledge 81
4-2a Multiple Store Theory of Memory 81
4-3 Making Associations with Meaning as a Key

Way to Learn 83
3 Consumer Learning Starts

Here: Perception 52
4-3a Mental Processes 83
4-4 Associative Networks and Consumer

Knowledge 87
3-1 Defining Learning and Perception 52 4-4a Associative Networks 87
3-1a Consumer Perception 53 4-4b Declarative Knowledge 87
3-1b Exposure, Attention, and Comprehension 54 4-5 Product and Brand Schemas 88
3-2 Consumer Perception Process 55 4-5a Exemplars 89
3-2a Sensing 55 4-5b Prototypes 89
3-2b Organizing 56 4-5c Reaction to New Products/Brands 90
3-2c Reacting 58 4-5d Script 90
3-2d Selective Perception 58 4-5e Episodic Memory 90
3-2e Subliminal Processing 59 4-5f Social Schemata 90
5
3-3 Applying the JND Concept 60
3-3a Just Meaningful Difference 62 Motivation and Emotion:
3-4 Implicit and Explicit Memory 62 Driving Consumer
3-4a Mere Exposure Effect 62 Behavior 92
3-4b Attention 65 5-1 What Drives Human Behavior? 92
3-5 Enhancing Consumers’ Attention 65 5-1a Homeostasis 93
5-1b Self-Improvement 93
3-6 The Difference between Intentional
and Unintentional Learning 66 5-1c Regulatory Focus 94
Contents v
5-2 General Hierarchy of Motivation 94 6-5 Self-Congruency Theory and Consumer
5-2a Simpler Classification of Consumer Behavior 128
Motivations 95 6-5a Segmentation and Self-Congruency 128
5-2b Consumer Involvement 95
7
5-3 Consumer Emotions and Value 98
5-3a Emotion 98 Attitudes and Attitude
5-3b Cognitive Appraisal Theory 98 Change 130
5-3c Emotion Terminology 99
7-1 Attitudes and Attitude Components 131
5-4 Measuring Emotion 100 7-1a Components of Attitude 132
5-4a Autonomic Measures 101
7-2 Functions of Attitudes 132
5-4b Self-Report Measures 102
7-2a Utilitarian Function 132
5-5 Differences in Emotional Behavior 104 7-2b Knowledge Function 133
5-5a Emotional Involvement 104 7-2c Value-Expressive Function 133
5-5b Emotional Expressiveness 105 7-2d Ego-Defensive Function 133
5-5c Emotional Intelligence 106
7-3 Hierarchy of Effects 133
5-5d What’s Funny 106
7-3a High-Involvement Hierarchy 134
5-6 Emotion, Meaning, and Schema-Based Affect 107 7-3b Low-Involvement Hierarchy 134
5-6a Semantic Wiring 107 7-3c Experiential Hierarchy 134
5-6b Mood-Congruent Recall 107 7-3d Behavioral Influence Hierarchy 134
5-6c Schema-Based Affect 108
7-4 Consumer Attitude Models 135
5-6d Self-Conscious Emotions 110
7-4a Attitude-Toward-the-Object Model 135
5-6e Emotional Contagion 110
7-4b Behavioral Intentions Model 138
7-5 Attitude Change Theories
6 Personality, Lifestyles,
and the Self-Concept 112
and Persuasion 140
7-5a Attitude-Toward-the-Object Approach 140
7-5b Behavioral Influence Approach 142
6-1 Personality and Consumer Behavior 112 7-5c Changing Schema-Based Affect 142
6-1a Psychoanalytic Approach to Personality 114 7-5d The Elaboration Likelihood Model 142
6-1b Trait Approach to Personality 115 7-5e Balance Theory 144
6-2 Major Traits Examined in Consumer Research 116 7-5f Social Judgment Theory 145
6-2a Many Traits Examined in CB 116 7-6 Message and Source Effects
6-2b Brand Personality 121 and Persuasion 146
6-3 Consumer Lifestyles, Psychographics, 7-6a Interactive Communications 147
and Demographics 123 7-6b Message Appeal 147
6-3a Lifestyles 123 7-6c Message Construction 149
6-3b Psychographics 124 7-6d Source Effects 150
6-3c Demographics 125 Part 2 Cases 152
6-4 The Role of Self-Concept in Consumer
Behavior 126
6-4a Self-Concept and Body Presentation 127
vi Contents
8-6 Household Decision Making and Consumer
Part 3 8-6a
Behavior 174
Traditional Family Structure 174
External Influences 8-6b

8-6c
Household Life Cycle 176
Household Purchase Roles 178
9 Consumer Culture 180

9-1 Culture and Meaning Are Inseparable 180
9-1a What is Culture? 180
9-1b Culture, Meaning, and Value 181
Donald Miralle/Getty Images
9-1c Cultural Norms 182

9-1d Cultural Sanctions 182
9-2 Using Core Societal Values 184

9-2a Where Does Culture Come From? 184
9-2b Dimensions of Cultural Values 185
8 Group and Interpersonal

Influence 158
9-2c
9-2d
The CSV Scoreboard 188
Cultural Distance 190
9-3 How Is Culture Learned? 192

8-1 Reference Groups 158 9-3a Enculturation 192
8-1a Group Influence 159 9-3b Acculturation 192
8-1b Conformity and Authority 161 9-3c Quartet of Institutions 193
8-2 Social Power 162 9-4 Fundamental Elements of Communication 195
8-2a Types of Social Power 162 9-4a Verbal Communication 195
8-3 Reference Group Influence 163 9-4b Nonverbal Communication 197
8-3a Informational Influence 163 9-5 Emerging Cultures 200
8-3b Utilitarian Influence 164 9-5a BRIC Markets 200
8-3c Value-Expressive Influence 164 9-5b Chindia 201
8-3d Value and Reference Groups 164 9-5c Glocalization 201
8-3e Reference Group Influence on Product
8-4
Selection 165
Social Media’s Role in Group and

10 Microcultures 202
Interpersonal Influence 166 10-1 Microculture and Consumer Behavior 202
8-4a Social Media and Consumer Behavior 166 10-1a Culture Is Hierarchical 202
8-4b Individual Differences in Susceptibility to Group 10-1b Microcultural Roles and Value 204
Influence 168
10-2 Major U.S. Microcultures 204
8-5 Word-of-Mouth and Consumer Behavior 170 10-2a Regional Microculture 205
8-5a Positive and Negative WOM 170 10-2b Sex Roles and Microculture 205
8-5b Buzz Marketing 171 10-2c Age-Based Microculture 207
8-5c Stealth Marketing 172 10-2d Generation Microculture 208
8-5d Opinion Leaders 173 10-2e Religious Microculture 212
8-5e Diffusion Processes 174 10-2f Ethnic Microculture 213
Contents vii
10-2g Income and Social Class Microculture 215 11-3c Shopping Activities 234
10-2h Street Microculture 216 11-3d Shopping Value 236
10-3 Microculture Is Not Uniquely American 216 11-4 Impulsive Shopping and Consumption 237
10-3a Microcultures Around the World 216 11-4a Impulsive versus Unplanned Consumer Behavior 237
10-3b Street Microcultures Worldwide 216 11-4b Distinguishing Impulsive and Unplanned Consumer
Behavior 238
10-4 Demographic Analysis 217
11-4c Susceptibility to Situational Effects 239
10-4a U.S. Census Data 217
11-4d Consumer Self-Regulation 239
10-5 Major Cultural and Demographic Trends 219 11-4e Impulsive versus Compulsive Behavior 241
10-5a Trends Affecting Consumer Behavior 219
11-5 Places Have Atmospheres 241
Part 3 Cases 222 11-5a Retail and Service Atmospherics 241
11-5b Atmosphere Elements 242
11-6 Antecedent Conditions 247
Part 4 11-6a Economic Resources 247

11-6b Orientation 248
Situations and 11-6c Mood 249

11-6d Security and Fearfulness 249
Decision making
12 Decision Making I: Need
Recognition and Search 250
12-1 Consumer Decision Making 250
12-1a Decision Making and Choice 251
12-2 Decision-Making Perspectives 253

Larry Dale Gordon/Getty Images
12-2a Rational Decision-Making Perspective 254

12-2b Experiential Decision-Making Perspective 254
12-2c Behavioral Influence Decision-Making Perspective 254
12-3 Decision-Making Approaches 255

12-3a Extended Decision Making 256
12-3b Limited Decision Making 256
11 Consumers in Situations 228 12-3c Habitual Decision Making 256
12-4 Need Recognition, Internal Search,

11-1 Value in Situations? 228
and the Consideration Set 257
11-1a Situations and Value 229
12-4a Need Recognition 258
11-2 Time and Consumer Behavior 230 12-4b Search Behavior 258
11-2a Time Pressure 230 12-4c The Consideration Set 260
11-2b Spare Time 231
12-5 External Search 261
11-2c Time of Year 232
12-5a The Role of Price and Quality in the Search
11-2d Cycles 232 Process 261
11-2e Advertiming 232 12-5b External Search and Emerging Technologies 262
11-3 Place Shapes Shopping Activities 233 12-5c Consumer Search and Smartphone Applications 262
11-3a What Is Shopping? 233 12-5d Amount of Search 263
11-3b Virtual Shopping Situations 233 12-5e Search Regret 265
viii Contents
13 Decision Making II:
Alternative Evaluation
14-1b Consumption and Product Classification 287
14-1c Situations and Consumer Reactions 288
14-1d Consumption, Meaning, and Transference 289
and Choice 266 14-1e Consumption Outcomes and Emotion 289
13-1 Evaluation of Alternatives: Criteria 266 14-1f Value in Experience 290
13-1a Evaluative Criteria 267 14-2 Value and Satisfaction 290
13-1b Determinant Criteria 268 14-2a What Is Consumer Satisfaction? 292
13-2 Value and Alternative Evaluation 268 14-2b What Is Consumer Dissatisfaction? 293
13-2a Hedonic and Utilitarian Value 268 14-3 Other Post-consumption Reactions 293
13-2b Affect-Based and Attribute-Based Evaluations 269
14-4 Theories of Post-consumption Reactions 294
13-3 Product Categorization and Criteria Selection 270 14-4a Expectancy/Disconfirmation 294
13-3a Category Levels 270 14-4b Equity Theory and Consumer Satisfaction 297
13-3b Criteria Selection 272 14-4c Attribution Theory and Consumer
Satisfaction 298
13-4 Consumer Choice: Decision Rules 276
14-4d Cognitive Dissonance 299
13-4a Compensatory Models 276
13-4b Noncompensatory Models 278 14-5 Consumer Satisfaction/Dissatisfaction
Measurement Issues 300
13-4c Use of Decision Rules 279
14-5a Improving Satisfaction Measures 300
13-4d Retail Outlet Selection 280
14-6 Disposing of Refuse 301
Part 4 Cases 281
14-6a Disposal Decisions 301
14-6b Disposal, Emotions, and Product Symbolism 303
Part 5
Consumption 15 Beyond Consumer
Relationships 304
and beyond 15-1 Outcomes of Consumption 304
15-2 Complaining and Spreading WOM 306

15-2a Complaining Behavior 306
15-2b Word-of-Mouth/Publicity 309
15-3 Switching Behavior 313

15-3a Procedural Switching Costs 314
michaeljung/Shutterstock.com
15-3b Financial Switching Costs 314

15-3c Relational Switching Costs 314
15-3d Understanding Switching Costs 315
15-3e Satisfaction and Switching 315
15-4 Consumer Loyalty 316

15-4a Customer Share 316
14 Consumption
to Satisfaction 286
15-4b
15-4c
Customer Commitment 318
Preferred Customer Perks 319
15-4d Antiloyalty 319
14-1 Consumption, Value, and Satisfaction 286 15-4e Value and Switching 320
14-1a Consumption Leads to Value 286
Contents ix
15-5 Link the Concept of Consumer Co-creation of Value 16-4 Corporate Social Responsibility 339
to Consumption Outcomes 321 16-4a The Societal Marketing Concept 339
15-5a Relationships and the Marketing Firm 322
16-5 Regulation of Marketing Activities 340
15-5b Value and Relationship Quality 322
16-5a Marketing and the Law 340
16-6 Public Criticism of Marketing 341

16-6a Deceptive Advertising 341
16 Consumer and Marketing

Misbehavior 324
16-6b Marketing to Children 341
16-6c Pollution 342
16-6d Planned Obsolescence 342
16-1 Consumer Misbehavior and Exchange 324 16-6e Price Gouging 342
16-1a The Focus of Misbehavior: Value 325 16-6f Manipulative Sales Tactics 343
16-1b Consumer Misbehavior and Ethics 326 16-6g Stealth Marketing 344
16-1c Motivations of Misbehavior 327 16-6h Products Liability 344
16-2 Distinguish Consumer Misbehavior from Problem Part 5 Cases 346
Behavior 327
16-2a Consumer Misbehavior 328
Endnotes 352
16-2b Consumer Problem Behavior 332
Glossary 373
16-3 Marketing Ethics and Misbehavior 334 Subject Index 383
16-3a Consumerism 336 Name Index 388
16-3b The Marketing Concept and the Consumer 336 Products/Organizations Index 389
x Contents
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What Is CB and Why Should

I Care?
Ch apter
Value and the Consumer

Behavior Framework
Access CB8 ONLINE at www.cengagebrain.com
PART 1
1 What Is CB and Why

Should I Care?
LEARNING Objectives
After studying this chapter, the student should be able to:
1-1 Understand the meaning of consumption and consumer behavior.
1-2 Describe how competitive marketing environments lead to better outcomes for consumers.
1-3 Explain the role of consumer behavior in today’s business and society.
1-4 Be familiar with basic approaches to studying consumer behavior.
Juice Images/Getty Images

1-5 Appreciate how dynamic the field of consumer behavior continues to be, particularly as CB
is shaped by technological advances including big data analytics, the “internet of things”
and the sharing economy.
Remember to visit PAGE 23 for additional STUDY TOOLS
how they should be done. Websites like Pinterest mimic

Introduction real discussions where one consumer tells others about
the things that bring value to their lives. Certainly, the
Students rarely feel like an expert when they begin a sharing of preferences and information about what to
new college class. However, a consumer behavior (CB) do helps consumer make decisions. The desire to share
course is an exception. Everyone reading this book has such information has driven Pinterest to one of the top
years of experience spending and consuming! As we will websites in the United States.1
see, spending means that something is being used, per- Consumer decisions are sometimes simple, involv-
haps, time and/or money, are being used toward a value- ing few resources, and other times complex, involving
producing activity, meaning consumption takes place. In large amounts of resources. When consumers make de-
fact, we act as consumers every day and every waking cisions, they set in place a chain of reactions that change
hour. That’s correct: Every day you have been alive you their lives, the lives of those around them, and the lives
have been a consumer. As a result, you begin this book of people they don’t even know. How can even simple
with a degree of expertise that makes the subject come decisions be so important to society? The answer to this
alive with relevance. question is one of the key points of this subject.
The human experience is made up largely of A consumer makes a decision with the intention of
consumption-relevant episodes. We wake, we drink, we improving his or her life—that is, doing something of
eat, we clean, we dress, we ride, we shop, we play, we value. But, the value creation doesn’t stop here. Busi-
read, we choose, we watch, we Instagram, we Tweet, nesses survive by offering value propositions that tell
and on and on. Practically everything we do involves consumers how they can maintain or make life better
consumer behavior in some way. Take a look at Pinter- by engaging with some good, service, or experience.
est and it becomes obvious that many of the posts call As long as consumers continue shopping, buying, and
attention to things to buy, places to go, things to do, and consuming, opportunity exists for business. The process
2 PART ONE: Introduction
of making a purchase starts a chain reaction of value- reaction occurs. Not only does the owner receive value,
creating actions. but value is created for others as the store must restock
Much of the news reported in the media focuses its inventory, meaning the manufacturer produces more
on the economy. Various aspects of the economy products. To do this, the manufacturer purchases raw
cause great concern. Why so? Consider the labor par- materials, parts, and services from suppliers. Compa-
ticipation rate, which has slid every year since 2007.2 nies like UPS or FedEx ship raw materials and finished
As a result, analysts become concerned about what is products, providing even more jobs. The consumer
being sold, particularly housing sales. When consum- also will enhance the product by adding appropriate
ers stop buying houses, many industries and people apps. Apps that track fitness can even change lifestyles:
downstream are affected. Fewer home sales means some consumers report changing their lifestyles and
fewer appliance and furniture purchases, less demand exercising because they don’t want their Fitbit or other
for architects, builders, and building supplies, and in exercise tracking app to register 0 at the end of a day.3
turn, fewer jobs for people in those industries. Jobs Thus, what seems to be even a simple purchase sets in
provide resources for consumers to enhance their place a chain reaction of value-enhancing activities that
lives by acquiring value-providing goods and services. improve individual lives and lives for those who work to
Those that are unemployed or underemployed are provide those products.
less likely to be able to make major purchases like a Marketers are challenged to continue to provide
home. Thus, when consumers stop buying, bad things innovations that offer relative value advantages. While
can take place. Apple turns its attention toward an autonomous electric
Now, what happens when consumers buy things? car, others are looking at transportation alternatives that
Have you adopted some type of smartwatch yet? Three don’t involve cars at all. In fact, imagine climbing inside
out of four smartwatch adopters express satisfaction a tube that is propelled through a hyperloop at 500 miles
with the device. Although owners are aggravated by per hour using technology commonly seen at bank drive-
some aspects such as short battery life, overall sales are throughs for decades.4 Will innovations like these offer
growing. When someone buys a smartwatch, a chain value for consumers?
CHAPTER 1: What Is CB and Why Should I Care? 3
1-1 Consumption and Consumer
Behavior
We consider CB from two unique perspectives:
1. The actual human thoughts, feelings, and actions
andrey_l/Shutterstock.com
involved in consumption experiences, and/or
2. A field of study (human inquiry) that is developing
an accumulated body of knowledge about human
consumption experiences.
Imagine climbing inside a tube that is

If we think of a consumer considering the purchase of a
propelled through a hyperloop at 500 miles
smartwatch, CB captures the thoughts, feelings, reactions,
per hour using technology seen at bank
and consequences that take place as the consumer goes
drive-throughs for decades. . . . through a decision-making process, ownership, and usage
of a product, in this case a smartwatch. Alternatively, we
consider the body of knowledge that researchers accumu-
late as they attempt to explain these thoughts, feelings,
Although some may call a course like this one “buyer
actions, reactions, and consequences as the field of study
behavior,” consuming involves more than just buying. Cer-
known as consumer behavior. Thus, rather than choosing
tainly, businesses are interested in getting someone to buy
between the two alternative approaches, the best appre-
something. But consumption goes on long after purchase,
ciation of CB requires consideration of both perspectives.
and this consumption story ultimately determines how
much value results.
1-1a Consumer Behavior as Human
As you can see, our behavior as consumers is
critically important, not just to ourselves, but to many Behavior
other people. This is why so many people, not just mar- Consumer behavior is the set of value-seeking activi-
keting people, are interested in learning about CB. ties that take place as people go about addressing and at-
True, the marketer who understands consumers will tempting to address real needs. In other words, when a
be able to design products consumer is motivated by a
with greater value potential need, a process kicks in as the
and thus a greater chance of Consumers who understand consumer sets out to find de-
enhancing the well-being of sirable ways to fill this need.
stakeholders, including the CB can make better decisions The process involves multiple
company and customers. concerning how they psychological events, includ-
Policy makers also show ing thinking, feeling, and be-
interest in CB because the allocate scarce resources— having, and the entire process
knowledge allows them to that is, they become better culminates in value. If it’s suc-
make more effective public cessful, the process creates
policy decisions. Last but consumers. sufficient value to address the
not least, consumers who need that began the process.
understand CB can make better decisions concerning
how they allocate scarce resources—that is, they be- The Basic CB Process
come better consumers. Thus, an understanding of CB Exhibit 1.1 illustrates the basic consumption process.
can mean better business We discuss each step in detail in later chapters. How-
consumer behavior set for companies, better pub- ever, we briefly illustrate the process here, using a con-
of value-seeking activities that lic policy for governments, sumer who just got a new smartwatch. At some point,
take place as people go about
addressing their real needs and a better life for indi- the consumer realized a need to more conveniently ac-
viduals and households. cess outside media, such as Snapchat, Viber, and email,
and appliances retailer). After looking at several
Exhibit 1.1 alternative devices and talking it over with a sales-
person, the consumer selects the Samsung Gear S2
The Basic Consumption Process smartwatch. Having made a choice, the consumer
completes an exchange in which he gives up re-
sources in return for ownership and the potential to
use the product. An exchange is the acting out of
a decision to give something up in return for some-
thing perceived to be of greater value. Here, the
consumer decides the watch will be worth at least
© iStockphoto.com/Squaredpixels
the price of the product plus any apps and subscrip-
tions that may be needed to fully use the device.
The consumer then uses the product and
experiences all the associated benefits and costs
associated with consumption. Costs are the
negative results of consumption experiences.
The costs involve more than just the monetary
price of the product. Consumers spend time
both shopping for and learning how to use a device.
via the Internet. The realization of this need may be
Physical effort also takes place as consumers visit retail
motivated by a desire to do better on the job, to have
stores and browse web resources during the process.
better access to friends and family, to more quickly post
The time, money, and effort spent acquiring a product
news about personal activities, or some combination
comes at the expense of other activities, resulting in
of reasons. The realization of a need creates a want.
high opportunity costs for the consumer. Also, com-
A want is a specific desire that spells out a way a con-
patibility often is an issue for so-called smart devices.
sumer can go about addressing a recognized need. A
Health-conscious, budget-minded consumers like the
consumer feels a need to stay in touch, belong, socialize,
Fitbit Blaze? Consumers need to check compatibility
or feel good about him or herself, and this need mani-
with Windows, Android, and OSX before making the
fests itself in the want for better media access devices.
purchase. An incompatible phone or PC means the
Realizing the need, our consumer decides to visit the
smartwatch’s value is limited. In fact, even if a con-
new Buckhead HH Gregg store (consumer electronics
sumer might prefer a Samsung Gear S2, he/she may
end up with an iWatch, especially if he/she already
owns an iPhone or MacBook.5
Benefits are positive results of consumption expe-
riences. The benefits are multifaceted, ranging from po-
tentially better job performance, easier text, email, and
social network access, and benefits from other smart-
watch apps that do things
like monitor heart rate and
calories consumed. Other want a specific desire
koya979/Shutterstock.com
representing a way a consumer

tacit benefits may exist for may go about addressing a
some consumers who like recognized need
the fact that other consum-
exchange acting out of the
ers notice and admire the decision to give something up in
smartwatch. Benefits like return for something perceived to
these potentially enhance be of greater value
the perceived self-esteem costs negative results of
of the consumer. consumption experiences
Devices create customers for apps. Over time, the con-
benefits positive results of
Consumers drive the economy. sumer evaluates the costs consumption experiences
and benefits and reacts
to the purchase in some way. These reactions involve
thoughts and feelings. The thoughts may involve reac- Exhibit 1.2
tions to features such as the ease of use. The feelings
may sometimes include frustration if the features do not Relationships of CB with Other
work correctly or conveniently. Ultimately, the process
results in a perception of value. We will discuss value in Disciplines
more detail in Chapter 2.
Law Economics Neuroscience
Consumption
Statistics
Political
Science
Another way to look at the basic consumer behavior Marketing
process is to consider the steps that occur when con-
Finance Anthropology
Psychology
sumption takes place. Obviously, a consumer consumes.
Consumer Behavior
Interestingly, very few consumer behavior books define
consumption itself. Consumption represents the pro-
cess by which consumers use goods, services, or ideas and Marketing Strategy
transform the experience into value. Thus, the actions in-
volved in acquiring and using a technological device like
OR
a smartwatch create value for a consumer. Consumption
is a value-producing process in which the marketer and History Sociology Management
the consumer interact to produce value. When the con-
sumer fails to realize value from the process, something Source: Based on D. J. MacInnis and V. S. Folkes, “The Disciplinary Status of Consumer Behavior:
A Sociology of Science Perspective on Key Controversies,” Journal of Consumer Research 36 (April
has broken down in the process; perhaps a bad perfor- 2010): 899–914.
mance from the marketer or perhaps a bad decision by

the customer. Thinking about the result of all of these
interactions considered together, one easily sees that con-
sumption outcomes affect consumer well-being by affect- remains, and consequently, the body of accepted theory
ing quality of life. and rules of practice remains small. This is one reason con-
sumer behavior is so exciting to study. CB researchers con-
tinue to expand the knowledge base at a fast pace compared
1-1b Consumer Behavior as a Field of Study to more mature disciplines.
Consumer behavior as a field of study represents Like other fields of study, CB has family ties with
the study of consumers as they go through the consump- other disciplines. Exhibit 1.2 displays the relationship
tion process. In this sense, consumer behavior is the sci- between CB and other disciplines. Research in various
ence of studying how consumers seek value in an effort disciplines produced relevant knowledge for marketers
to address real needs. This book represents a collection seeking to understand consumers. The genesis of the CB
of knowledge resulting as consumer behavior research- field lies in business and the growing body of academic
ers go about studying consumers. research produced by business schools in the late 20th
Consumer behavior, and early 21st century.7 The exhibit displays the over-
as a field of study, is a very lapping nature of CB and marketing; other fields that
consumption process sometimes contribute to and to which CB sometimes
by which consumers use and young field. The first books
transform goods, services, or ideas focusing on consumer or contributes are also shown. A few of these disciplines
into value buyer behavior date from share a special bond with CB, as we discuss below. CB
the 1960s.6 Thus, compared shares particularly strong interdisciplinary connections
consumer behavior as
a field of study study of with older disciplines, re- with economics, psychology (particularly social psychol-
consumers as they go about the searchers have had less ogy), marketing, and anthropology.8
consumption process; the science time to develop the body
of studying how consumers seek
of knowledge. Therefore, Economics and Consumer Behavior
value in an effort to address real
needs each decade the accumu- Economics often is defined as the study of produc-
lated body of knowledge tion and consumption. A free enterprise system allows
economics study of
production and consumption grows significantly. Clearly, individuals to participate freely in the market.9 Ac-
however, much uncertainty cordingly, it is easy to see that marketing has origins
in economics, particu-
larly with respect to Exhibit 1.3
the production and
distribution of goods. The Big Mac Index
As the definition im-
Big Mac Prices
plies, economics also $8.00
involves consumption. 2016 2014
Therefore, consumer
behavior and econom- $6.00
ics have a lot in com-
mon. However, the
economist’s focus on $4.00
consumer behavior
is generally a broad
or macro perspective $2.00
bounded by broad as-
sumptions. Economic
studies often involve
$0.00
things like commod-
ela
a
a
ay
St ited
nd
di
in
ric
rw
u
Ch
In
ity consumption of
Af
es
la
ez
Un
No
at
er
h
n
ut
Ve
itz
nations over time.
So
Sw
This may even involve
tracking changes in
consumption with dif-
ferent price levels, enabling price elasticity to be deter- on individual consumers rather than countries. The Big
mined. The economist finds data for a study like this Mac Index assumes equal liking for Big Macs and does
in historical sales records. This type of study does not not take into account individual difference characteristics
require data describing individual consumers that may or even cultural variables that might influence the value
reveal the thoughts, feelings, and behaviors associated of a Big Mac. Most Indian consumers for instance, would
with consumption. not pay a penny for a Big Mac because eating beef would
Economists’ inclination to track and compare overall run counter to Hindu beliefs. CB research relaxes many
consumption of a specific phenomenon illustrates a macro assumptions of economics including rationality to better
perspective. For instance, The Economist journal tracks understand why consumer preferences vary so much. For
prices of Big Macs globally.10 The Big Mac Index compares instance, consumer researchers study how consumers’ de-
the relative price of hamburgers country by country. The sires for fast food are influenced by various health claims
idea was to show relative purchasing power, but economists or even by the relative body shape of other individuals in
now realize the Big Mac Index actually predicts currency the fast-food restaurant.12 These results suggest, among
fluctuations with some accuracy. A relatively low price in- other things, that a consumer who buys a “healthy” burger
dicates an undervalued currency. The prices represent ag- is likely to indulge in more side orders than a consumer
gregate prices paid by thousands of anonymous consumers buying a burger that makes no health claims.
within each country. Exhibit 1.3 displays the Big Mac
Index prices for several countries for both 2014 and
2016. Large differences in the prices indicate less
stable currencies. In this case, Venezuela and Norway Consumption is a value-
show the biggest changes in two years. The fluctuation producing process in which
is likely tied to the fact that oil prices have dropped
from well over $100 per barrel in 2014 to well under the marketer and the
$50 a barrel in 2016.11 Both Norway’s and Venezuela’s consumer interact to produce
economies rely heavily on oil.
In contrast, consumer behavior researchers generally value.
study CB at much more of a micro level, often focusing
Psychology Marketing
Psychology is the study of human reac- One doesn’t have to look very
tions to their environment.13 Psychologists hard to find different definitions
seek to explain the thoughts, feelings, and of marketing. Many older defini-
behaviors that represent human reaction. tions focus heavily on physical
Psychology itself consists of several subdis- products and profitability. Even
ciplines. Social psychology and cognitive though products and profits are
psychology, in particular, are highly rel- very important aspects of market-
evant to consumer behavior.14 ing, such definitions are relatively
Social psychology focuses on the narrow.16 Marketing consists of
thoughts, feelings, and behaviors that the multitude of value-produc-
people have as they interact with other ing seller activities that facilitate
beornbjorn/Shutterstock.com
people (group behavior). Consumer be- exchanges between buyers and
havior most often takes place in some sellers. The value-producing ac-
type of social setting or sometimes with tivities include the production,
the specific intention of affecting the promotion, pricing, distribution,
way others view the self. Thus, social and retailing of goods, services,
psychology and consumer behavior over- ideas, and experiences, all with
lap significantly. the potential to create value for
Cognitive psychology deals with the intricacies consumers and other stakeholders.
of mental reactions involved in information processing. CB and marketing are very closely related. Ex-
Every time a consumer evaluates a product, sees an ad- change is intimately involved in marketing and, as can
vertisement, or reacts to product consumption, informa- be seen from Exhibit 1.1, exchange also is central to CB.
tion is processed. Thus, cognitive psychology is also very In fact, in some ways, CB involves “inverse” marketing
relevant to consumer behavior and a prominent topic as consumers operate at the other end of the exchange.
throughout the text. Marketing actions are targeted at and affect consumers,
Today the study of cognitive psychology is assisted while consumer actions affect marketers. A marketer
by developments in neuroscience. Neuroscience, the without customers won’t be a marketer very long. In
study of the central nervous system including brain mech- fact, without consumers, marketing is unnecessary.
anisms associated with emotion, offers potential for un- Some researchers view the CB discipline as sepa-
derstanding CB by charting rate and distinct from marketing. Others view CB as a
psychology study of human a consumer’s physicological subdiscipline within marketing.17 The details of the ar-
reactions to their environment brain functions during the gument are beyond the scope of this text; however, the
social psychology study that consumption process. Neu- very fact that such an argument exists illustrates the
focuses on the thoughts, feelings, roscience researchers use close bond between the two. Marketing and CB share
and behaviors that people have as sophisticated brain imag- considerable relevance, and both are essential inputs to
they interact with other people ing equipment to monitor organizational success.
cognitive psychology brain activity. One finding
study of the intricacies of mental suggests that when con- Consumer Behavior and Other Disciplines
reactions involved in information
sumers think about enjoy- Commerce increased tremendously with the industrial
processing
ing some of their favorite revolution and the coinciding political changes that
neuroscience the study of the foods their brains become fostered economic freedom in many countries. Busi-
central nervous system including
brain mechanisms associated with more active than when nesses looked to the new field of marketing for practical
emotion they actually eat the food.15 advice initially about distribution and later about pric-
marketing multitude of value- Is thinking about consuming, packaging, advertising, and communication. Thus,
producing seller activities that ing as good as actually although marketing may have originally shared more
facilitate exchanges between buyers consuming? Neuroscience in common with economics, the turn toward consumer
and sellers, including production, applications addressing research brought numerous psychologists into the field.
pricing, promotion, distribution,
such questions continue to Many of these psychologists became the first consumer
and retailing
increase in number. researchers.
CB research and marketing research overlap with
each other more than they do with any other discipline,
as illustrated by the overlapping shapes in Exhibit 1.2.
Beyond this, CB research shares much in common with
psychological research, particularly in terms of shared
research approaches and shared theories. Consumer re-
search is based largely on psychology, and to some extent
psychology draws from consumer behavior research.
ROBYN BECK/Getty Images

Disciplines beyond economics, psychology, and
marketing also intersect with consumer behavior.
Sociology focuses on the study of groups of people
within a society. Sociology’s relevance for CB lies in the
fact that consumption often takes place within group set-
tings or is in one way or another affected by group dynam- Compared to a restaurant, what motivation
ics. Consumers take value from sharing experiences with does the DMV have to provide a high-value
others not only because it is enjoyable, but because waiting experience?
shared experiences can build social capital. 18
Anthropology has contributed to consumer be-
havior research by allowing researchers to interpret the places? What is the waiting environment like at each
relationships between consumers and the things they pur- one? Is there a clean, comfortable waiting area with
chase, the products they own, and the activities in which pleasant music? How dedicated are the employees to
they participate. Anthropological consumer research of- delivering a high-quality service experience? How likely
ten features the symbolic meanings behind our posses- are employees to view the customer as a nuisance? If
sions. One interesting study looks at the role of gift-giving you don’t see the point of these questions yet, contrast
among victims held in Nazi concentration camps and the waiting area at a driver’s license bureau with the
links both giving and possessing to self-identity.19 Other elaborate lobby where you wait for check-in service
disciplines, such as geography and the medical sciences, (probably not very long) at a Miami Beach resort.
overlap with consumer behavior in that they draw from Some organizations can survive while treating cus-
some of the same theories and/or research approaches. tomers badly, while others need to pamper customers
just to have a chance of surviving. Consider these two
questions in trying to understand why this is so:
1-2 The Ways in Which 1. How competitive is the marketing environment?
Consumers Are Treated 2. How dependent is the marketer on repeat
business?
Is the customer always “king”? Look at this list of famil-
iar service environments: 1-2a Competition and Consumer Orientation
Where do consumers go if
▸▸ A typical Department of Motor Vehicles (DMV) office they don’t like the service
▸▸ The registrar’s office at a state university at the DMV? If the choice sociology the study of
groups of people within a society,
▸▸ A bank lobby comes down to visiting with relevance for consumer
the bureau or not driving, behavior because a great deal of
▸▸ A university health clinic
nearly all consumers will consumption takes place within
▸▸ A Veterans’ Administration (VA) Clinic put up with the less-than- group settings or is affected by
group behavior
▸▸ A sports bar immaculate surroundings,
▸▸ A New York City fine dining establishment long waits, and poor ser- anthropology field of
vice that all too typically study involving interpretation of
▸▸ A Honolulu resort relationships between consumers
go along with getting a and the things they purchase,
driver’s license. Put your- the products they own, and the
Think about the following questions. Does a consumer self into the shoes of the activities in which they participate
receive the same degree of service at each of these service providers at the
to cut wait times to 15 minutes, many Colorado drivers
still face waits of 2 to 3 hours.20 Veterans waiting for
care from a VA health facility sometimes wait months
or years to receive care. The excessive wait times did
much to fuel the recent VA scandal.21 Imagine a bank
touting wait times of less than two hours or a sports bar
saying “Come back next year!” A few states have turned
to combinations of technology and private outsourcing
to improve service. Some states have outsourced DMV
offices to private companies. The private companies
generally provide consumers with better service, and
the DMV ends up with better and more accurate infor-
mation about drivers.22 Why does the private company
improve service? They are the marketer, and the city,
county, or state is the customer. Just like the sports bar
customer, if the public officials are unhappy with the
EtiAmmos/Shutterstock.com
service, they’ll find another company to do the job.
Many Competitive Pressures?

Now consider the customer dining in New York City.
A consumer can choose from thousands of options in-
cluding over 1,000 Italian restaurants alone. A diner
Competitive pressures motivate marketers to doesn’t have to put up with poor treatment. The con-
provide good service. sumer can simply go next door. While the consumer
without a reservation may wait for a table at the estab-
lishments with a loyal clientele, many provide a com-
bureau. Is there any concern about doing something fortable lounge area to enjoy a drink, some music, and
that would make a customer not want to return to do conversation while waiting. Here the consumer deals
business again? Is there any real incentive to provide a with firms operating in a highly competitive market
pleasant and valuable experience? dependent on repeat business. Thus, firms are oriented
toward value creation, and consumers typically receive
Few Competitive Pressures? better treatment.
In essence, the DMV typifies a service organization Governments sometimes realize that competition
that operates in a market with practically no competi- in the marketplace serves to protect consumers. In the
tive pressure and a captive audience. In a government United States, many federal laws oversee commerce
service like this, the answers to the two questions above with an eye toward ensuring business competition.
are (1) not at all competitive and (2) not at all dependent The Robinson-Patman Act, the Sherman Act, and the
on keeping customers. No matter how poor the service Clayton Act are examples of such legislation. They at-
is, they know consumers will return to do more business tempt to restrict practices such as price fixing, secret
when the term on their license expires or they need to rebates, and customer coercion. European officials are
register a vehicle. The incentive for better customer ser- debating consumer privacy acts under the name of a
vice remains relatively small. “right to be forgotten” as part of the European Agenda
Unlike a restaurant, DMV management may not be for Security intended to prohibit companies, including
compelled to adjust workloads to demand. DMV cus- Google, Amazon, and Facebook, from divulging con-
tomers in many places face sumer information without permission.23
consumer (customer) long lines and even wait
orientation way of doing times counted in hours, Firm Orientations and Consumers
business in which the actions and not minutes. Even after Competition eventually drives companies toward a
decision making of the institution
prioritize consumer value and state officials in Colo- high degree of consumer orientation. Consumer
satisfaction above all other concerns rado introduced the “Wait (customer) orientation is a way of doing busi-
Less” program, designed ness in which the actions and decision making of the
institution prioritize consumer value and satisfaction
above all other concerns. A consumer orientation is a
key component of a firm with a market-oriented culture.
Market orientation is an organizational culture that
embodies the importance of creating value for custom-
ers among all employees. In addition to understand-
ing customers, a market orientation stresses the need
to monitor and understand competitor actions in the
marketplace and the need to communicate information
about customers and competitors throughout the orga-
David Pereiras/Shutterstock.com
nization.24 Market-oriented firms develop effective ways
of listening to consumers, and these skills usually, but
not always, lead to better performance.25
A market orientation represents a less narrow fo-
cus than a strategic orientation that focuses more solely
on production. However, an even broader orientation
comes when firms adapt stakeholder marketing. This consumer is encountering a touchpoint
Under this orientation, firms recognize that more than
with her stylist. Are there other touchpoints
just the buyer and seller are involved in the marketing
taking place at the same time?
process.26 In fact, primary stakeholders include custom-
ers, employees, owners (or shareholders), suppliers,
and regulating agencies; secondary stakeholders in-
clude the mass media, communities, and trade organi- a customer. Increasingly, multiple channels or ways of
zations. Stakeholder marketing orientation recognizes making this contact exist, including phone, email, text
that all stakeholders are involved in and/or are affected messaging, online social networking, and especially
by the firm’s marketing in some way. This means that face-to-face contact.28 Every touchpoint, no matter the
even secondary stakeholders can alter the value equa- channel, should be considered as an opportunity to cre-
tion and have relevance for marketing strategies. ate value for the customer. Like any type of relationship,
a customer–marketer relationship will continue only as
1-2b Relationship Marketing long as both parties see the partnership as valuable.
Marketers are increas-
and Consumer Behavior
ingly realizing the value of
Let’s go back to the list of service environments. Certainly, relationship marketing. Wait market orientation
banks and restaurants are generally in very intense com- staff sometimes provide organizational culture that
petition with rival businesses. Competitive pressures business cards to customers. embodies the importance of
challenge businesses to get customers to repeatedly These customers can use creating value for customers among
purchase the goods or services they offer. Even in a city all employees
the card to ask for this waiter
with a population as great as New York, without repeat again on the next visit or to stakeholder marketing an
business each restaurant would have fewer than ten orientation in which firms recognize
recommend the restaurant
that more than just the buyer and
customers per night. In addition, virtually all firms see and server to a friend. Notice seller are involved in the marketing
repeat customers as less costly to serve.27 For instance, that with relationship mar- process, and a host of primary
business managers often need to buy a lot of advertising keting, the firm and its em- and secondary entities affect and
for new customers to learn about a restaurant, whereas are affected by the value creation
ployees are very motivated
process
old customers already know the place. to provide an outstanding
Thus, relationship marketing means the firm’s overall experience. In sum, relationship
marketing activities aim to increase repeat business as a both a competitive mar- marketing activities based
on the belief that the firm’s
route to strong firm performance. Relationship market- ketplace and a relationship performance is enhanced through
ing recognizes that customer desires are recurring and marketing orientation cre- repeat business
that a single purchase act may be only one touchpoint ate exchange environments
touchpoints direct contacts
in an ongoing series of interactions with a customer. where firms truly treat cus- between the firm and a customer
Touchpoints are direct contacts between the firm and tomers as “king.”
1-3 The CB Field’s Role
in Business, Society,
and for Consumers
As mentioned earlier, multiple reasons for studying con-
sumer behavior exist. Each perspective provides unique
and interesting opportunities for study. CB is important
in at least three ways:
1. CB provides an input to business/marketing
Chris Hondros/Getty Images

strategy.
2. CB provides a force that shapes society.

3. CB provides an input to making responsible deci-
sions as a consumer.
The Pets.com sock puppet. The San

1-3a Consumer Behavior
Francisco-based pet products company,
and Marketing Strategy known for its commercials with the sock-
What companies do you think of as successful? The puppet dog and the slogan “Because
ultimate hallmark of success for a business is long-term pets can’t drive,” closed in late 2000 after
survival. One hundred years is a blink of an eye in the failing to find a financial backer or buyer.
course of history. But how many companies survive at
least 100 years? Exhibit 1.4 lists some famous interna-
tional companies, their core business, and their age. founded in 1994 and now synonymous with online retail-
None of these companies are even 100 years old. ing, is ancient in terms of “.com” firms. Remember Pets.
Even though we may think about big famous companies com? Probably not! This online pet supply retailer spent
as lasting forever, chances are some of these giants will vastly more on Super Bowl advertising than it made in rev-
not be around 100, 50, or perhaps even 20 years from enue and never saw its first birthday. Similarly, flooz.com,
now. So, surviving is not a trivial goal, and the companies intended to provide online currency to replace credit card
that do survive long term do so by finding ways to con- payments, and quirky.com, an invention platform allowing
tinuously obtain resources from consumers in return for consumers to vote on their favorite new things, failed to
the value they offer. This is a basic tenet of resource- create sufficient value and didn’t make it to adolescence.30
advantage theory, a prominent theory that explains One company that has survived over 100 years is
why companies succeed or fail.29 Companies succeed Abercrombie and Fitch (A&F). They were founded in
by acquiring more resources from consumers and in the early 1890s as a store providing high-quality gear
turn using those resources to gain advantages in physi- for the active hunter or fisherman. Not what you think
cal and intellectual capital. Consumer research is needed about when you think of A&F today? Well, this illus-
to understand what makes trates how the companies that survive long term cannot
a consumer give up scarce be complacent or think that consumers do not change.
resource-advantage
theory theory that explains why resources. Ultimately, con-
companies succeed or fail; the firm sumers give up resources in What Do People Buy?
goes about obtaining resources the pursuit of value. When consumers buy something, they give up resources
from consumers in return for the
In contrast to the com- in the form of time, money, and energy in return for what-
value the resources create
panies listed in Exhibit 1.4, ever is being sold. Consider a customer who purchases a
attribute a part, or tangible many companies that were Toyota Prius. What does she really get? Well, the tan-
feature, of a product that
thought of as innovative and gibles include an engine, high-powered batteries, plastic,
potentially delivers a benefit of
consumption can’t miss never make it out integrated circuitry, seats, wheels, and so on. These parts,
of infancy. Amazon.com, or attributes, make up the product. No reasonable
Exhibit 1.4
The Short Life Span of Success?
Company Core business Birthdate Place of birth
Tesco Food Retailing 1919 London, England
Toyota Motor Vehicles 1937 Tokyo, Japan
Target Discount Retailing 1962 Ohio
Samsung Electronic Equipment 1969 Seoul, South Korea
Microsoft Computer Software and Systems (originally operating systems) 1975 New Mexico
Amazon.com Retailing 1994 Washington State
Home Depot Retail and Contractor Building Supply 1976 Georgia
FedEx Express Package Shipping—Originally founded as Federal Express in 1973 2000 Tennessee
Facebook Online Social Networking 2004 Massachusetts
Apple Inc. Media devices and peripheries—Originally founded as Apple Computers in 1976 2007 California
consumer would pay around $30,000 for a pile of these successful. Over time, successful innovations exhibit all
parts. Consumers don’t really pay for the physical attri- or some of these characteristics:
butes of a product. So what do consumers pay for? The 1. Relative Advantage—makes things better than
attributes do function to enable the consumer to enjoy before
benefits such as transportation and comfort. Also, the
product’s image, in this case a Prius, creates a feeling 2. Simplicity—all things equal, a simpler innovation is
better than a complex innovation
within the owner. Outcomes like these are valuable and
represent what the customer is ultimately buying. 3. Observable—things that are observable tend to get
Marketing firms often implement poor strategies adopted faster
when they don’t fully understand what a product truly 4. Trialability—things that can be tried with little or
is. A product is not a collection of attributes but rather no risk get adopted faster
a potentially valuable bundle of benefits. Theodore 5. Consistency—consumers are more likely to adopt
Levitt, one of the most famous marketing researchers, things that are congruent with existing values and
understood this by saying that a customer who buys a knowledge
drill is really buying holes in the wall. He emphasized
the importance of the value a customer receives from a
product, rather than the product itself. The companies that survive
Innovation long term cannot be
Ultimately, companies need to understand why people complacent or think that
buy their products to recognize which other current
and future products represent competitive threats. Let’s
consumers do not change.
look at the companies that produced slide rules (rulers
used to do calculations) such as Accu-Rule. They did not Consider our consumer with the new smartwatch from
go out of business because their products were flawed. the beginning of the chapter. His liking of the new de-
Accu-Rule made great slide rules. They went out of busi- vice will depend on these
ness because they failed to innovate. characteristics, but more
product potentially valuable
Newness alone does not make an innovation. An importantly for those in- bundle of benefits
innovation has to produce value for consumers to be volved in marketing these
very large segments in which consumers
Exhibit 1.5 do not have specific desires (are not picky).
Undifferentiated marketers generally adopt
Different Ways of Doing Business a production orientation, wherein in-
novation is geared primarily toward mak-
ing the production process as efficient and
economical as possible. In other words, the
emphasis is on serving customers while in-
curring minimum costs. Walmart typifies
this approach with their Supercenters and
their state-of-the-art distribution network,
which ships massive quantities of products
to stores around the world at the lowest
possible cost. The need for consumer ori-
entation and consumer research is minimal
because all consumers are treated the same.
Differentiated marketers serve
multiple market segments, each with a
unique product offering. A market ori-
entation usually serves a differentiated
marketer well. The emphasis here is on
matching a product with a segment.
Many people are aware that Bud-
weiser and Ultra are two of several Anheuser-Busch beer
devices, these characteristics will ultimately determine if brands. Each brand has unique characteristics appealing
the category represents a successful innovation. to a different market segment. However, companies in
other industries also create different brands to appeal to
Ways of Doing Business
different market segments. In much the same way, Prada
Each company adopts a way of doing business that is represents a prestige name in designer accessories (shoes,
epitomized in its corporate culture. Corporate cultures handbags, etc.), appealing to the luxury segment. Prada
fall roughly into one of several categories representing also operates the Miu Miu brand. Prada aims Miu Miu at
different ways of doing business. Exhibit 1.5 summarizes women who are design- and fashion-conscious, but who
different ways of doing business. Each way of market- may be slightly more price sensitive than the Prada shop-
ing coincides with a vary- per. Prada also offers footwear under the Church’s brand
ing degree of consumer (English-style shoes for men), and the Car Shoe brand,
undifferentiated marketing orientation, which, as we the ultimate driver’s shoe (for the male driver).
plan wherein the same basic product
is offered to all customers
indicated earlier, is a basic Marketers can take differentiated marketing to
component of a market or the extreme with a practice known as one-to-one
production orientation stakeholder orientation. marketing. Here, the company offers a unique prod-
approach where innovation is
geared primarily toward making
The ways of doing business uct to each individual customer and thereby treats each
the production process as efficient often guide a firm’s mar- customer as a segment of one. A custom home builder
and economic as possible keting practices. practices one-to-one marketing. Computer-aided infor-
differentiated In undifferentiated mation processing, design, and production have helped
marketers firms that serve marketing , the same ba- make this a reality on a large scale. Many media sources
multiple market segments, each sic product is offered to use consumer preferences and past browsing history to
with a unique product offering all customers. Mass mer- create an experience tailored specifically to that individ-
one-to-one marketing chandisers typify undiffer- ual. The Wall Street Journal and other news sources feed
plan wherein a different product entiated marketers in that to each unique online user stories that match user profile
is offered for each individual they rely on selling a high characteristics and the type of stories read previously.
customer so that each customer is
treated as a segment of one
volume to be successful. As Firms that specialize in serving one market segment
such, they focus on serving with particularly unique demand characteristics practice
Consumers and Technology
What a Gas
The Volkswagen emissions debacle illustrates how
policy, company, and consumers all play relevant roles
in CB. U.S. government policy includes auto emission
standards as part of the Clean Air Act. One downside
of emissions-choking devices is reduced auto perfor-
mance. Cleverly, some Volkswagen engineers installed
technology on diesel-powered cars that could actually
detect when an emissions test was being conducted,
radub85/123RF
and activate the emissions-choking mechanisms. In
normal driving, the emissions devices automatically shut
down so drivers enjoy improved power and fuel econ-
omy. Volkswagen went into 2015 poised to challenge brand. Interestingly, Audi, a separate brand of Volkswa-
Toyota as the world’s top auto seller. In 2016, sales of gen, is enjoying increased sales through the period and
Volkswagen-branded cars dropped substantially world- the industry is highly anticipating Audi’s 2018 models.
wide. Volkswagen now faces reduced sales and enor- Boston, W. (2016), “Sales Slide at VW Continues Globally,” Wall Street Journal, (January 9), B3. Fry, E.
mous fines, and consumers feel less confident about the (2015), “VW Fooled Everyone. Was it the Only One?” Fortune, 172 (11/1), 18.
niche marketing. Niche marketers may be consumer ori- For example, how does U.S. society treat smoking?
ented. However, some niche marketers are product oriented Cigarette advertisements made up a large chunk of all TV
and produce a product that has unique appeal within a seg- advertising before a federal ban took effect on January 2,
ment. For example, many companies serve the golf market 1971. Popular culture glamorized smoking as a valued be-
one way or another, and some of them are huge differenti- havior. In the movies, cigarette smoking certainly did not
ated marketers like Taylormade or Callaway, offering many harm James Bond’s image. On the stage, famous performers
products aimed at multiple markets. However, the Bobby like Sammy Davis Jr. and Frank Sinatra often smoked dur-
Grace company specializes in one product: the putter. They ing their acts. At home, practically every room in the house
only make putters and have a very small product offering of included at least one ashtray. No Smoking sections did not
accessories beyond that. Bobby Grace markets their putters exist in stores, restaurants, offices, or planes. In fact, flight
as highly advanced technologically because all of the com- attendants (then stewardesses) on those planes walked the
pany’s attention is dedicated to just one club, the putter. aisles, offering passengers “coffee, tea, or cigarettes.”
My, how things have changed! Smoking has become
nearly taboo in the United States. Smoking inside any
1-3b Consumer Behavior and Society
public building is practically impossible either due to
The things that people buy and consume end up deter- laws restricting smoking or rules created by building
mining the type of society in which we live. Things like owners prohibiting smoking. Smoking is not allowed
customs, manners, and rituals all involve consumption— throughout most U.S. restaurants and in many parts of
value-producing activities. Certainly, not every society Europe. Increasingly, consumers look upon smoking
around the world is the same. Just think about the ways as a non–value-producing activity. Furthermore, politi-
we eat and the types of food consumed around the world. cians realize political ad-
Additionally, when governments create laws that govern vantage in creating more niche marketing plan
the way we buy and consume products, consumer behav- restrictions as consumer wherein a firm specializes in
ior is involved. Thus, consumer behavior creates the so- opinion continues to turn serving one market segment
with particularly unique demand
ciety in which we live and serves as an important source against the behavior. Policy characteristics
of input to public policy in a free society. makers should make such
It’s Not Always Smart!
Consumers and Their Phones

As discussed in the chapter, smartphone technology
represents a discontinuous innovation. Discontinuous
innovations change and create behaviors. In this case,
the change may be best reflected by the term “smom-
bie,” or smartphone zombie. Are you a smombie?
We love our phones, but they also are a source of
Andresr/Shutterstock.com
aggravation—particularly to others. Restrictions on the
use of phones in cars are being enacted as a matter of
public safety. Some restaurants now frown on or even
prohibit phone usage. Consider the following list. In
your opinion, do any of these behaviors violate accept-
able mobile phone etiquette? 9. Speaking so loudly that your phone conversation is
1. Using the smartphone (texting, browsing, etc.) while easily heard by others around you
involved in a face-to-face conversation with others—a 10. Texting, emailing, browsing, social networking, etc.
phenomenon that’s come to be known as “phubbing” while driving
2. Using a smartphone (to text, browse, or social net- 11. Texting, emailing, browsing, social networking
work) when dining with others while walking in public or riding a bicycle
3. Having a phone conversation at the table while din- 12. Using the phone while in the checkout line at the store
ing in a nice restaurant
The majority of Americans believe using a phone
4. Texting, browsing, accessing social networks, or
playing games under the table in class in a restaurant, at the movies, or in a meeting is inap-
propriate. And about using the phone in any manner in
5. Using profanity on the phone when others can over-
the bathroom . . . well, studies show that your phone is
hear the conversation
probably the dirtiest product most people own!
6. Using the phone in any manner in a movie theater
7. Having a phone conversation in a public bathroom Sources: Dewey, C. (2015), “When it is and isn’t okay to be on your smartphone: The Conclusive
Guide,” Washington Post, https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/the-intersect/wp/2015/08/26
toilet stall /when-it-is-and-isnt-okay-to-be-on-your-smartphone-the-conclusive-guide/, accessed February 7,
2016; Piro L. (206), “Is Your Phone Dirtier than a Toilet Seat?”, http://www.goodhousekeeping
8. Texting while using the bathroom .com/home/cleaning/videos/a27005/phone-dirtier-than-toilet/.
decisions with a thorough understanding of the CB is-

sues involved.
Another current public policy issue concerns the
use of mobile phones. Consider how much consumers’
widespread adoption of the mobile phone has changed,
and continues to change, society. Over 92 percent of
American adults own a cellphone; nearly 2 of 3 of those
phones are smartphones. Nearly 50 percent own a tab-
let computer, and while 40 percent own game consoles,
that percentage is no longer growing. Worldwide, more
consumers (6 billion) have access to a phone than to a
pimpic/Shutterstock.com
toilet (4.5 billion). Out of those 6 billion phones, nearly 1

in 3 are smartphones.31 Clearly, “smart” phone technolo-
gies represent a discontinuous innovation by altering our
behaviors and communications in many ways.
1-3c Consumer Behavior and Personal Growth 1-4 Different Approaches
We face many important decisions as consumers. Among
these are choices that will affect our professional careers,
to Studying Consumer
our quality of life, and the very fiber of our families. By Behavior
this point in your life, you have already experienced many
of these decisions. Some decisions are good; some are Consumer researchers have many tools and approaches
not. All consumers make dumb decisions occasionally. with which to study CB, and researchers don’t always
Consider modern consumers’ decisions to take on agree on which approach is best. In reality, the con-
debt. Credit can be a good thing, but it has its limits. sumer researcher should realize that no single best way
Americans owe about $1 trillion in consumer credit card of studying CB exists. Rather, different types of research
debt. Some consumers carry no credit card debt, how- settings may call for different approaches and the use of
ever, so the average amount of debt for those house- different tools. Thus, we provide a brief overview of two
holds carrying balances is just over $15,000. Americans basic approaches for studying CB. The purpose is to pro-
also owe over $1 trillion in student loan debts (an aver- vide the reader with an idea of how the knowledge found
age of $45,000 per household in student debt).32 College in this book was obtained. For a more detailed view of
students are prime targets for credit cards, and as can the different research approaches, the reader is referred
be seen on many college campuses, students are quite elsewhere.34
willing to apply for cards in exchange for something as
mundane as a new t-shirt. Thus, one can easily see why 1-4a Interpretive Research
many consumers continue to have negative net worth One consumer’s music is just noise to another con-
years into their professional life because of the debt ac- sumer. What creates value in the musical experience?
cumulated in early adulthood. What does music mean and how much does the mean-
The culture of debt also exists in many governments. ing shape the value of an experience? These are ques-
Total U.S. debt exceeds $19.5 trillion, which comes to tions that evoke very abstract comments and thoughts
over $159,000 per taxpayer.33 This amount has doubled from consumers. They are questions that lend them-
since 2006. Surely, U.S. consumers and most Western selves well to interpretive research, especially when
nations’ governments know how to spend. Eventually, environmental factors like culture shape behaviors.35
though, debt becomes problematic, and drastic changes Interpretive research seeks to explain the inner
are needed to the national budgets. meanings and motivations associated with specific con-
For individuals, decisions that lead to high levels sumption experiences. Consumer researchers interpret
of debt do not seem to be wise, as bankruptcy, financial these meanings through the words that consumers use
stress, and lower self-esteem often result. Although of- to describe events or through observation of social in-
ten overlooked, decisions about household budget allo- teractions. With this approach, researchers interpret
cation are very relevant aspects of CB. However, budget meaning rather than analyze data.
decisions are not the only way one can choose unwisely Interpretive research generally falls into the
when acting as a consumer. broader category of qualitative research. Qualitative
Thus, when consumers learn CB, they should be research tools include things such as case analy-
able to apply that knowledge by making better consumer ses, clinical interviews, focus group interviews, and
decisions. Several topics can be particularly helpful in other means by which
enlightening consumers, including: data are gathered in a
relatively unstructured interpretive research
approach that seeks to explain the
way. In other words, con- inner meanings and motivations
1. Consequences associated with poor budget allocation sumer respondents are associated with specific
2. The role of emotions in consumer decision making usually free to respond in consumption experiences
their own words or sim- qualitative research
3. Avenues for seeking redress for unsatisfactory purchases
ply through their own tools means for gathering
4. Social influences on decision making, including peer behavior. Data of this data in a relatively unstructured
pressure type requires that the way, including case analysis,
clinical interviews, and focus
5. The effect of the environment on consumer behavior researcher interpret its
group interviews
meaning.
relies on casual interviews with consumers from whom
the researcher has won confidence and trust. This may
be supplemented with various other ways that the con-
sumer can tell a story. Ethnography has roots in an-
thropology and often involves analyzing the artifacts
© d3images/Shutterstock.com
associated with consumption. An ethnographer may
decide to go through trash or ask to see the inside of
a consumer’s refrigerator in an effort to learn about
the consumer. These approaches represent viable op-
tions for consumer researchers. More recently, eth-
nographic CB research takes a twist, brought on by
the prominence of social networking in everyday life.
Different types of consumer situations call
Netnography applies ethnographic tools to study the
for different types of research approaches. behavior of online cultures and communities.37 While
the field is new, researchers believe results will help
explore the interplay between brands, products, and
belonging based on the virtual relationships played out
Such results are considered researcher on Facebook and other social networking sites.
dependent, because the interpretation is a matter of
opinion until corroborated by other findings.
The roots of interpretive consumer research go back
1-4b Quantitative Consumer Research
over 50 years to the earliest days of consumer research. Which consumer group is most likely to listen to rap
The focus was on identifying the motivations that lie be- music? Statistical models can be applied to retail sales
hind all manner of consumer behavior, including mun- data to identify clusters of consumers who are more
dane things such as coffee drinking or taking an aspirin, likely to be in the market for specific types of prod-
to more elaborate issues such as what “drives” one to ucts. Sometimes, the results are so spot-on they be-
buy a Ford versus a Chevy.36 The motivational research come controversial. For instance, researchers working
era in consumer research, which lasted through the for Target stores used patterns of purchases to predict
early 1960s, generally proved disappointing in provid- which customers are highly likely to be pregnant.38
ing satisfying explanations for consumer behavior on a Using this data, the consumers who fall into those
large scale. Unfortunately, groups coincidentally (or not) begin receiving promo-
many interpretive re- tions from the store for baby strollers, diapers, and
researcher dependent
search tools were scarcely other maternity-related items. One teen’s father went
subjective data that requires
a researcher to interpret the applied for years after- to a Target store to complain when his teenage daugh-
meaning wards. However, these ter began receiving the maternity-related promotions
approaches have made a only to have to apologize when his daughter broke the
phenomenology
qualitative approach to recent comeback and are news to him. The fact that individual customer pur-
studying consumers that relies now commonly applied to chases can be recorded and stored by loyalty or credit
on interpretation of the lived many aspects of the field. card numbers makes this type of quantitative model-
experience associated with some
Interpretive re- ing possible.
aspect of consumption
searchers adopt one of Other types of quantitative research exist as well. Re-
ethnography qualitative several orientations. Two searchers employ multivariate statistical analysis, which
approach to studying consumers common interpretative involves examining relationships among many variables,
that relies on interpretation of
orientations are phenom- to predict individual consumers’ profitability, the likeli-
artifacts to draw conclusions about
consumption enology and ethnogra- hood of purchasing name brands or private labels, the
phy. Phenomenology likelihood of trying a new product, what type of media a
netnography a branch of represents the study of consumer will respond to, and much more. For instance,
ethnography that studies the
consumption as a “lived statistical analytics can group consumers into categories
behavior of online cultures and
communities experience.” The phe- based on whether they tend to buy products in many
nomenological researcher products in only a few categories or a few products in
New Value of Using Things
T he Internet of Things is a term that refers to connection

of everyday things electronically to the web, allowing
the transfer of real-time data between a consumer and a
services provider. Even everyday things like clothing and
light bulbs can be connected with small chips so that
the data about when the products are used and for how
long are automatically recorded and shared through the
web. What does it mean for consumers? When companies
express the benefits of connection in terms of services,
such as Uber providing an Internet service rather than
a connection of automobiles, they communicate value
to consumers. For companies, the data provided by the
patterns of usage likewise prove a valuable community.
Some companies may even pay consumers to use services
in exchange for the data that is provided. An automatic
record of all the media used by a consumer could prove
an extremely valuable asset for companies looking to
offer bundles of benefits consistent with patterns of
media usage. Imagine getting paid for using—rather
than paying for—a smartphone. It could happen.
Sources: http://www.wsj.com/articles/the-internet-of-things-is-here-and-it-isnt-a-thing
-1471799999. http://www.businessinsider.com/what-is-the-internet-of-things-definition-2016-8.
many categories.39 Data can also be correlated with out- other words, structured questionnaires typically involve
side influences such as the time of the day, temperature, multiple-choice questions. Alternatively, quantitative re-
chance of rain, and so forth to suggest changes in mer- search might analyze sales data tracked via the Internet
chandising that can affect the bottom line. Researchers or with point-of-sale scanners.
also employ quantitative measurement through surveys Unlike qualitative research, the data are not re-
and very often use surveys to capture responses to some searcher dependent to the extent that the numbers
experiment that may manipulate some characteristic of are the same no matter who the researcher may be.
an ad or product. For instance, survey responses allow Typically, quantitative research better enables re-
numerical representation of consumers’ attitudes. Us- searchers to test hypotheses as compared to interpre-
ing an experimental approach, research suggests that tive research. Similarly, quantitative research is more
consumers often express a more favorable attitude for a likely to stand on its own and does not require deep
product promoted with an “amount off” discount as op- interpretation. For example, if consumers have an
posed to a percentage discount, particularly for higher- average willingness-to-pay score of $50 for brand A
priced products.40 and $75 for brand B, we
These studies typify quantitative research. can objectively say that quantitative
Quantitative research addresses questions about consumers will pay more research approach that
consumer behavior using numerical measurement and for brand B. Exhibit 1.6 addresses questions about
analysis tools. The measurement is usually structured, illustrates characteristics consumer behavior using
numerical measurement and
meaning that the consumer will simply choose a response of qualitative and quanti- analysis tools
from among alternatives supplied by the researcher. In tative research.
1-5a Internationalization
Exhibit 1.6 When Starbucks opened its first
Comparing Quantitative and Qualitative Research store in 1971, the thought may not
have occurred that the concept could
spread to other parts of the state of
Washington or even other parts of
the United States. In 1996, Starbucks
opened its first store outside the
United States in Tokyo, Japan. Today,
consumers around the world can or-
der up a latte at one of about 20,000
Starbucks locations in over 65 coun-
tries.41 Whether you are on business
in Guadalajara, Mexico; Seoul, South
Korea; London, England; Shanghai,
China; Nantes, France; or Ruston,
Louisiana, you can relax at a Star-
bucks. Almost anywhere the modern
consumer travels, he or she can find
a familiar place to eat or drink. A Sub
way, a Pizza Hut, or a McDonald’s
never seems far away.
1-5 Consumer Behavior Although these chains can be found worldwide,
consumers are not alike everywhere these firms oper-
Is Dynamic ate. An Outback Steakhouse in Seoul will offer kimchi
(fermented cabbage) on the menu, something neither
All one has to do is examine the differences in standards American nor Australian. Companies must therefore
of living between today’s American consumers and deal with geographical distances as well as cultural dis-
those living in the years 1875, 1925, 1985, and 2005 to tances. The international focus of today’s modern com-
gain an appreciation of how CB has changed over time. pany places a greater demand on CB research. Every
As an overall statement, we can say that consumers culture’s people will interpret products and behaviors
are never completely satisfied. Actually, this is a good differently. The meanings these consumers perceive
thing, because as companies strive to meet consumer will determine the success or failure of the product be-
demands, increasingly innovative products are offered, ing offered.
and companies grow in response to increased sales. As
a result, they hire more people and raise income levels
throughout the economy.
1-5b Technological Changes
The way marketers respond to consumers is We live in an age where technological advances seem
changing dramatically. Marketers have historically to be coming at an ever-increasing rate. Upon closer
used advances in technology to provide consumers reflection, we may realize that technology has influ-
with greater opportunities to communicate with com- enced business practices ever since the advent of in-
panies. Today, billions of consumers around the world dustry. Certainly, many retailers felt threatened by mail
have 24-hour, seven-day-a-week access to markets via order technology that was practiced through the Sears
the Internet. Consumers do not need to wait to go to Roebuck catalog and the telephone. In 1895, the Sears
a retail store to purchase music. They can download catalog contained 532 pages of products that enabled
their favorite new tunes, movies, books, games, and rural consumers to obtain things that would have been
apps while walking down the street. Here are some otherwise difficult to get.42 Why would people go to a
of the trends that are shaping the value received by store when they could simply telephone and have prod-
consumers today. ucts delivered to their door?
Interestingly, many surveys of preferred communica-
tion methods don’t even list face-to-face communica-
tion. Among other sources, email appears far from dead.
Consumers can easily access their email from any smart
device, and email is the most widely tracked source of
data analytics among marketers.45
© Joachim Wendler/Shutterstock.com
Google, Facebook, Twitter, and Pinterest remain

good sources of digital media for reaching consumers.
Marketers are experimenting with newer media tools
including Twitter’s Periscope.com. Periscope allows any-
one with the app to live-stream video. Brands can use
spokespeople on short live videos, have experts present
content, present live news, and perhaps most important
of all, use Periscope to promote other media including
What do the Sears Catalog from 1895 and an
the brand website.46
online shopping cart have in common?
Big Data
Back in the days of small general stores in small towns,
In the mid-20th century, television revolutionized store owners came to know their customers extremely
consumer behavior. Not only did TV change advertis- well. They could sometimes predict when a customer
ing forever, but true home shopping became a possibil- would show up, and they could fill their order from
ity. Now, the consumer could actually see a product in memory. The business and the customer had an inti-
use on television and then make a purchase either by mate connection. As electronic storage becomes sim-
picking up the phone or punching buttons on a cable pler and cheaper, and as more real-time electronic
device. Why would someone go to a store? devices are used to record information, the amount of
A consumer now has 24/7 access to purchasing al- data available for analysis grows exponentially. By the
most any type of product. The Internet has made geo- time a university sophomore today finishes college,
graphical distance almost a nonissue. Additionally, the more data will have been collected than in all eternity
consumer can truly shop on his or her own schedule, before that time.
not on a schedule determined by store hours. Com- The term big data has come to be used to rep-
munication technology has also advanced tremen- resent the massive amounts of data available to com-
dously. The entire world is now truly the market for panies, which can potentially be used to predict
consumers in free countries. With all of this advanc- customer behaviors. The data include internal records
ing technology, e-commerce accounts for around 8% of customer behavior like scanner purchase data, sur-
of total U.S. retailing as of 2016.43 That’s still about vey responses, and web traffic records, as well as data
$380 billion out of a total of $4.8 trillion U.S. sales from social network interactions and even things like
excluding autos. GPS tracking.47 Researchers apply statistical tools to
Shopping online can be a valuable experience, but try to discover patterns in the data that will allow bet-
are virtual shopping and “real” shopping gratifying in the ter prediction. The application of these statistical tools
same way? Amazon.com’s worldwide sales topped $100 sometimes is referred to
billion in 2015. Perhaps surprisingly, Amazon’s growth as predictive analytics. big data term used to
plans include physical stores in major shopping centers. Although the application represent the massive amounts of
Part of the enticement may be the fact that in-store of big data in this sense data available to companies, which
shoppers buy 50 percent more than online shoppers.44 is still in its infancy, one can potentially be used to predict
customer behaviors
can get an idea about how
this works when purchas- predictive analytics the
Changing Communications ing something online and application of statistical tools in an
effort to discover patterns in data
As technology changes, so do the ways that people com- getting shown products that allow prediction of consumer
municate with each other. Once upon a time, consumers’ that consumers “who behavior
predominant form of communication was face-to-face. bought this product also
Montri Nipitvittaya/Shutterstock.com
Collaborative consumption in the sharing economy is fast approaching annual

transactions of $100 billion globally with little sign of the growth slowing
purchased.” This is certainly a technological trend that families are averaging less than one child per family. As
will affect how companies study their customers. The a result, the relative importance of cultures as consumer
term internet of things refers to the fact that every- markets is changing. Marketers around the world find it
day products themselves allow data to be gathered and hard to ignore the nearly 2 billion consumers in China or
stored for analysis through the use of technologies like the 1 billion in India. We’ll discuss demographic trends
near-field communication. In fact, the data provided in a later chapter.
by some products may prove more valuable to some
companies than the reveneu generated by the product 1-5d Changing and Sharing Economy
that will send the data.
Recent years have seen a downturn in the economy
in much of the developed world. A smaller percent-
1-5c Changing Demographics
age of the U.S. population is working today than
In most of the Western world, notable demographic since 1978.48 Today, under 62 percent have a job or
trends have shaped consumer behavior patterns greatly are actively seeking work. Many college students are
over the past quarter century or so. First, households in- deciding to stay in school longer, given limited pros-
creasingly include two primary income providers. In con- pects in the workforce. Mature workers are more apt
trast to the stereotypical working dad and stay-at-home to retire, given the decreased opportunity to work at
mom, families today often in- an acceptable wage. These factors contribute to stag-
clude two parents with ca- nant income. Moreover, economic, political, and social
Internet of things the reer orientations. Second, turmoil around the world contributes to a picture that
automatic recording of data from
family size is decreasing leaves many consumers uneasy. As a result, U.S. con-
everyday products that signal
consumers patterns of behavior throughout most of West- sumer spending has changed in several ways. Consum-
ern culture. European ers are more cautious about spending money and react
(rentals) as a replacement for
Exhibit 1.7 traditional ownership. When
the rental transaction activity is
Global Consumer Trends consumer to consumer (peer to
peer), the term collaborative
▸▸ Selling “Shares”–not just Uber, but all manner of sharing services including sharing what you consumption is often ap-
wear as in “Girl Meets Dress.” plied. Many new businesses
▸▸ International Shopping–malls, particularly in emerging economies, offer consumers access to exist to put consumer and
far-away experiences consumer together for things
other than dates! Airbnb, Uber,
▸▸ Consumers as Marketers–many consumers become vloggers spreading videos that include their
brand likes and dislikes Getaround, and girlmeetsdress
offer rooms, rides, cars, and
▸▸ Green and Healthy–consumers will pay for options they see as good for the Earth and body, but dresses for temporary use on
it’s not so simple a consumer to consumer basis.
▸▸ Easy over Size–consumers now see convenience as a nearby albeit smaller option for food and The sharing economy is fast ap-
staples proaching annual transactions
Source: Kasriel-Alexander, K. (2015), Top 10 Global Trends for 2015, Euromonitor International.
of $100 billion globally with
little sign of the growth slowing.
Later chapters will address vari-
ous reasons for the trend away
more favorably to price-cutting policies. Private label from ownership, although clearly one big motivator is con-
brands (such as retail store brands like Walmart’s Sam’s venience. Green marketing
Choice) become more attractive alternatives as a way continues to trend, satisfy- sharing economy the
of saving money. ing consumers’ desire to global consumer trend toward
Globally, including the United States, consumers save the Earth. In addition, rental (temporary usage for hire)
display several signs of the times. Two related global vlogging (video blogging) is rather than ownership
consumer trends include the continued desire for growing quickly as a means collaborative consumption
greater convenience and the increased acceptability of of communicating with and the term used for a rental transaction
temporary use in the form of sharing as an alternative to by consumers. Exhibit 1.7 activity that is consumer to
consumer, rather than business to
owning. The term sharing economy is used to capture summarizes a few global
consumer or business to business
the market activity involving temporary usage for hire trends.
Study
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2 Value and the Consumer
Behavior Framework
LEARNING Objectives
After studying this chapter, the student should be able to:
2-1 Describe the consumer value framework, including its basic components.
2-2 Define consumer value and compare and contrast two key types of value.
2-3 Apply the concepts of marketing strategy and marketing tactics to describe the way firms go
about creating value for consumers.
2-4 Explain the way market characteristics like market segmentation and product differentiation
affect marketing strategy.
Dimitri Otis/Getty Images

2-5 Analyze consumer markets using elementary perceptual maps.
2-6 Justify consumers’ lifetime value as an effective focus for long-term business success.
Remember to visit PAGE 43 for additional STUDY TOOLS
Introduction lying is common in these sites. In particular, consum-

ers like to lie about what they own and what they do,
When two people meet for the first time, one of the fast- in addition to embellishing their personal appearance.
est ways to get to know one another is to share informa- Common lies often involve activities like traveling, as
tion about each other’s favorite things. You might ask, people try to portray themselves as living a certain life-
What is your favorite thing to do? What are your favor- style.1 People also choose which hobbies to list based
ite brands? What are your favorite things to eat and to more on how they believe this will appeal to others
drink? And the person may answer, playing poker with than on the way they actually spend time. The fact that
friends, Urban Outfitters, shrimp, and craft beer. Now those seeking dates commonly stretch the truth about
you know something about that person. the things they spend time and money on demonstrates
Online dating has become commonplace. Just un- how important consumer choices are in shaping indi-
der half of single consumers in America report visiting vidual identity.
an online dating site. The choices have grown beyond Many consumers who use dating sites seek a re-
match.com and eHarmony.com to more targeted sites lationship. Likewise, consumers and businesses often
such farmersonly.com, christianmingle.com, outime benefit from relationships. These relationships begin
.com, and blackpeoplemeet.com, just to mention a few. with consumer preference. Consumer preference
All the dating sites involve personal descriptions that can be varied and fickle. For example, one consumer
include physical appearance, occupation, and, as men- likes sauerkraut while another can’t even go near it.
tioned above, favorite things. Can users believe what This book sheds light on why the things that provide
they see in an online profile? Research suggests that so much value to certain consumers in certain times
or certain situations don’t really do anything for other 2-1a The Consumer Value Framework
consumers or even the same consumer at a different
Given the potential complexity involved in explain-
time or in a different situation. This chapter intro-
ing consumption, a framework for studying consumer
duces the Consumer Value Framework and some of
behavior is useful. Exhibit 2.1 displays the framework
the core concepts that tie all of CB together and make
used in this book. The Consumer Value Frame-
it actionable in marketing.
work (CVF) represents consumer behavior theory,
illustrating factors that shape consumption-related be-
haviors and ultimately determine the value associated
2-1 The Consumer Value with consumption. The different components shown
with different colors roughly correspond to the differ-
Framework and Its ent parts of this book. However, the student of con-
Components sumer behavior must recognize and accept the fact that
each aspect of the CVF is related in some way to other
components of the model. The arrows connecting the
Consumer behavior is multifaceted. Not only does different components typify these connections.
the study of consumer behavior involve multiple dis-
ciplines, but anyone who has ever made a major pur- 2-1b alue and the
V Consumer Value
chase like a house, an automobile, or an apartment
knows that many factors can affect both the purchase
CVF Components Framework (CVF)
consumer behavior theory that
decision and the way one feels after the purchase. This Value is at the heart of expe- illustrates factors that shape
book tries to explain these sorts of phenomena and in riencing and understanding consumption-related behaviors
and ultimately determine the value
doing so provide clues as to how consumers can be bet- consumer behavior. Thus,
associated with consumption
ter served. we will never get too far
CHAPTER 2: Value and the Consumer Behavior Framework 25
CRM means each cus-
Exhibit 2.1 tomer represents a poten-
tial stream of resources
Consumer Value Framework (CVF) rather than just a single sale.
Relationship quality re-
Internal Influences External Influences flects the connectedness
Consumption Process
Consumer Psychology Needs Social Environment between a consumer and a
Learning Wants Acculturation/ retailer, brand, or service
Search Exchange Enculturation
Perception Costs and Benefits provider.2 In practice, a
Culture and
Implicit Memory Reactions Cultural Values high-quality relationship is
Intuition Reference Groups typified by a consumer who
Information and Peer Influence
Processing Value feels like he or she should
Social Class
Memory Utilitarian Value Family Influence buy the same brand each
Categorization Hedonic Value Social Media time a need for that product
Attitudes Popular Media arises. When relationship
quality is strong between
Personality of Consumer customer and company, cus-
Motivation
Personal Values Situational Influences tomers are highly receptive
Personality Environment to brand extensions and thus
Lifestyle Relationship Quality (Virtual/Physical) the brand enjoys a near ready
Self-Image/Identity CS/D Time/ Timing
Switching Behavior Conditions market for new products.3
Emotional
Expressiveness Customer Share Loyal customers are more
Emotional Intelligence Customer Commitment profitable than custom-
ers who consider switching
brand or providers each

time they make a purchase.
from value in any chapter of this book. We’ll expand more A customer who experiences high value from ser-
on value later in this chapter and throughout the book. vice realizes that relationship quality is high. Over time,
In the rest of this section, we present the basic compo- the consistent value delivery builds customer loyalty.
nents of the CVF that either contribute to or are outcomes Salesforce.com has grown into one of the leading For-
of value. tune 500 firms overall and one of the top 10 firms to work
for, all based on the idea that systems that build customer
Relationship Quality relationships provide win-win exchanges where both cus-
Over the past two decades or so, Customer tomer and business benefit. Their products include ana-
Relationship Management (CRM) has become a lytics tools that push valuable information to a salesforce,
popular catchphrase, not so that salespersons can enter any meeting with a client
just in marketing but in all armed with key information that points toward the types
Customer Relationship of business. A basic CRM of products clients are most likely to need or desire.
Management (CRM)
systematic information premise is that customers
form relationships with Consumption Process
management system that collects,
maintains, and reports detailed companies as opposed to Consumers must decide to do something before they
information about customers to companies conducting in- can receive value. The consumption process involves
enable a more customer-oriented
managerial approach
dividual transactions with deciding what is needed, what the options for exchange
customers. A CRM sys- might be, and the inevitable reaction to consumption.
relationship quality tem tracks detailed infor- The consumption process can involve a great deal of de-
degree of connectedness between
a consumer and a retailer, brand,
mation about customers cision making and thus represents a consumer decision-
or service provider so marketers can make making process and the results of service. Service can
more customer-oriented be thought of as the organization’s efforts and resources
Service an organization’s
efforts and resources applied
decisions that hope fully applied toward value creation. Many factors influence
toward value creation lead to longer-lasting this process, and these factors can be divided into differ-
relationships. ent categories, such as internal and external influences.
Consumers and Technology
A Tech Firm Has to Know Its

Limitations
When we think about technology firms, we have
expectations that they all will develop the next big
thing! So much so that Samsung latched on to “the
next big thing” as its slogan. Inevitably, firms want to
grow. But, how should they grow? Very often, when
Rawpixel.com/Shutterstock.com
a tech firm builds lots of resources, they attempt
to build a product at the next layer of technology.
Eventually, the next big thing is something more
technologically complex.
The term “stack fallacy” refers to the mistaken
belief that success lies in creating the next, more
complicated, layer of technology. However, history
shows that success often comes from moving down its core service—facilitating search! A firm has to know
the technology stack, not up. Google tried moving up its limitations to create value for customers.
to social networking with less than outstanding results Sources: Mims, C. (2016), “Why Companies Are Being Disrupted,” Wall Street Journal (January
(Google +). However, its move down to create its own 25), B4. Limer, C. (2015), “Samsung Galaxy 6: Not the Next Big Thing, Just a Great Phone,”
http://gizmodo.com/samsung-galaxy-s6-review-not-the-next-big-thing-just-1695061015,
servers has allowed it to better provide value through accessed February 10, 2016.
Internal Influences: The Psychology child may develop a dislike of smoking. Affect refers to
and Personality of the Consumer the feelings experienced during consumption activities or
feelings associated with specific objects. If the child con-
The Psychology of the Consumer. Most consumers
tinues to receive negative information about smoking,
can think of a place they try hard to avoid solely because
the belief that it’s nasty may result in feelings of disgust.
of the irritating music played there. Consumers fear they
Many people think of these types of things when they
may develop an earworm, a term that refers to the real
think of CB. Certainly, our perceptions help shape the desir-
phenomenon of a song that “gets stuck in my head.” Is
ability of products, which can influence decision processes
getting a song stuck in someone’s head a good idea if you
and the value perceived
want to sell something? Repetitive rhythms provide a
from consuming something.
mechanism that facilitates learning.4 But the effect can internal influences
Recall that value is a subjec-
also be irritating, as evidenced by the fact that songs like things that go on inside the mind
tive assessment. Therefore, and heart of the consumer or that
Single Ladies (Beyoncé), Ice Ice Baby (Vanilla Ice), and,
value is very much a matter are truly a part of the consumer
perhaps the top example, It’s a Small World (Disney),
of perception. psychologically
drive many consumers up the wall. Questions like this
involve the psychology of the consumer. In other words, The Personality of the cognition thinking or mental
processes that go on as we process
the mechanisms that create such effects are internal in- Consumer. Every con- and store things that can become
fluences, things that go on inside the consumer’s mind sumer has certain char- knowledge
and heart or that are indeed truly a part of the consumer. acteristics and traits that
affect feelings associated with
The psychology of the consumer involves both cog- help define him or her as objects or activities
nitive and affective processes. The term cognition re- an individual. We refer to
fers to the thinking or mental processes that go on as we these traits generally as individual differences
characteristic traits of individuals,
process and store things that can become knowledge. A individual differences. including demographics,
child hears parents talk about smoking as a nasty thing to Individual differences that personality, and lifestyle
do. Smoking becomes associated with nastiness, and the tangibly make one person
distinct from another, which include personality and safety. She clicks through and finds a link to a video of
lifestyle, help determine consumer behavior. Consumer a new eight-floor apartment building two miles from
researchers focus increasingly on the self-identity of con- campus. The video provides a virtual visit and clearly
sumers. The increased attention may be driven in part by displays the friendly doorman (in a security uniform)
the theory that today’s teens and young adults are more providing entry to the building and pointing the way to
self-absorbed than previous generations. This belief is built the elevator. She talks about her fears with her room-
largely on the fact that narcissism scores, a personality trait mate, friends, and parents. Her parents agree to pay
capturing self-absorption, are higher among these con- to break the lease and tell her to find a safer place.
sumers than those from previous generations.5 What do Now she goes back to the Web and searches for the
you think? If this is so, how would it influence marketing? address of the high-rise apartment complex and checks
Companies have spent vast amounts of money and for other apartment buildings nearby. At this moment,
time trying to harness individual differences in a way Pam experiences what some call the “zero moment
that allows consumer choice to be predicted. They do of truth.” That’s the point when a passive shopper
so because individual differences like these include becomes an active shopper and actively seeks out ex-
basic motivations, which trigger consumer desires. change alternatives.6
Also, individual differences shape the value experi- In this example, numerous external influences
enced by consumers and the reaction consumers have have come together to change the value equation for
to consumption. Pam, change the relationship with her current apart-
ment complex, activate a need, and trigger the desire
External Influences for a better place to live. External influences include
Every consumer contains a storehouse of information social, cultural, media, environmental, and temporal
internally, but in many cases some external influence factors, among others. They are critical to understand-
triggers the consumption process or provides infor- ing CB.
mation necessary for a consumer to make a decision.
Social Environment. The social environment in-
Pam, a 20-year-old student at an urban university, de-
cludes people and groups who help shape a consum-
cides to move to a university apartment complex with
er’s everyday experiences. Some influence is personal,
a roommate she’s known since high school. The com-
meaning the consumer actually knows the people;
plex is typical, and they have a ground-floor flat with
some is impersonal, coming from unknown people like
two reserved parking spots in the back, about 40 yards
celebrities; and still other influence is virtual, coming
from their apartment door. They like the quiet location
from unknown sources online or in social networks.
facing the rear of the complex. Both are content and
excited about their new place. One day, Pam is surfing
Slideshare.net as she has a bite to eat near her place.
She takes a look at a slideshow called “What they didn’t
tell me.” The slides contain a list of “mistakes” made by
the author, a young woman with whom Pam can relate.
Several slides talk about the horror of break-ins in her
ground-floor flat and warn viewers that ground-floor Syda Productions/Shutterstock.com
apartments are not safe
and to always get an apart-
external influences
social and cultural aspects of life ment with a door in plain
as a consumer view (not rear-facing), or
better, to choose an apart-
social environment
elements that specifically deal ment complex with inte-
with the way other people rior apartment access only
influence consumer decision via a 24-hour doorman. Consumer researchers focus increasingly
making and value
The next day, while on the self-identity of consumers, based
zero moment of truth The Pam is buying a textbook on the theory that today’s teens and
point when a shopper moves from online using her smart- young adults are more self-absorbed than
passive to active and seeks out
phone, she notices a link previous generations were.
exchange alternatives.
to a blog about apartment
Nespresso: So Emotional
I n economics, we typically think lower prices lead to

greater demand. Is that the case? Think of the stron-
gest brands that you associate with coffee. Do they
sell for the lowest price? In fact, no brand in coffee has
gained more strength recently than Nespresso, which
sells for over $50 per pound. But looking at the CVF,
one has to consider the entire model to understand the
Nespresso appeal.
Sorbis/Shutterstock.com
The coffee makers were originally useful in creating
customers for pods. However, coffee is a mere vehicle
to provide customers with an emotional experience.
Nespresso boutiques provide retail theater epitomizing
the hedonic value experience that allows Nespresso
to build and reinforce relationships with its customers.
Nespresso’s huge success lies not in a low price, but in Sources: Foster, J., and McLelland, M. A. (2015). “Retail Atmospherics: The Impact of a Brand-
Dictated Theme,” Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services, 22, 195–205. Wrigley, C. and R. Ramsey
emotional design delivering a total value experience— (2016), “Emotional Food Design: From Designing Food Products to Designing Food Systems,”
not just a cup of coffee. International Journal of Food Design, 1, 11–29.
In addition, any time a consumer chooses to do some- influences like acculturation, the sometimes not-so-
thing, at least in part, to please or appeal to another subtle influence of family and friends.
consumer, the social environment plays a role in that
Situational Influences. External influences also in-
process. Group influence is one mechanism through
clude situational influences. Situational influences
which social influences work. Simple decisions ranging
are temporary factors unique to a time or place that can
from what breakfast foods to buy to complicated things
change the value seen in a decision and received from
like attending a university all are shaped by subtle
consumption. Situational influences include the effect
that the physical environment has on con-
sumer behavior. For example, the presence
Exhibit 2.2 of music in an environment may shape con-
sumer behavior and even change buying
External Influences Shape patterns. Timing also plays an important
role. Research suggests that for a short time
Consumers’ Decisions following the purchase of a lottery ticket,
This looks like my
consumers are more likely to participate in
I think I saw this
on Pinterest. friend Jen’s new impulsive shopping.7 More enduring tem-
shirt.
poral factors, such as the economic condi-
This store is so
tion at any given time, also affect the value
I wonder if my
much fun!
mom will like it?
of things. Exhibit 2.2 shows some of the ex-
ternal influences on one consumer.
The Cus-
This is a great Tomorrow is pay tomer Value situational influences
sale! day. I can afford it.
Framework things unique to a time or place
(CVF) helps that can affect consumer decision
making and the value received
organize the
from consumption
remainder of
this book. The CVF should be a valuable a later chapter. In contrast to these examples,
study aid, particularly given that the contriving a situation where
different theoretical areas of CB consumers are not seeking
are so closely related to each value is virtually impossible.
other. Additionally, the CVF is a In fact, everything we do in life we
good analysis tool for solving con- do in pursuit of value.
sumer behavior business prob-
lems. Lastly, the CVF is a valuable 2-2a The Value Equation
tool for businesses that are trying
shutteratakan/Shutterstock.com Exhibit 2.3 reflects some compo-
to understand the way consumers
nents of value and how a consumer might put these
respond to their product offerings. Thus, the CVF is useful
together to determine the overall worth of something—
in developing and implementing marketing strategy.
or its value. Worth to a consumer is actually a function of
much more than price. Value can be modeled by playing
the “what you get” from dealing with a company against
2-2 Value and Its Two the “what you have to give” to get the product. The “what
Basic Types you get” includes all sorts of benefits or positive conse-
quences of consumption. The “what you give” includes
sacrifices or the negative consequences of consumption.
The heart of the Consumer Value Framework, and the
Opportunity costs play a role. For instance, if a student
core concept of CB, is value. Value is a personal as-
goes to the movies on a weeknight, he may be giving up
sessment of the net worth a consumer obtains from
the opportunity to attend a class. In major decisions, like
an activity. From a marketing perspective, the firm
where to attend college, purchasing a smartphone, or
serves consumers well when consumers realize value
buying a home, one can easily see that the entire CVF
from activities involving interactions with the firm or
is involved. However, even in simpler situations, all the
its products. Value is what consumers ultimately pur-
components of the CVF are subtly in play. Thinking back
sue, because valuable actions address motivations that
to the chapter opening: when someone lies on an online
manifest themselves in needs and desires. In this sense,
value captures how much gratifi-
cation a consumer receives from
consumption. In return, the firm
receives value from consumers as Exhibit 2.3
they make purchases.
Most consumers would not list The Value Equation
a convenience store as their favor-
ite place to shop. Consumers see Value —
— What you get — What you give
the selection as small, the prices
high, and the service minimal.
Yet consumers return repeatedly
Benefits such as: Sacrifice of:
because, as their name implies, Quality Time
convenience is the key to value in Convenience Money
this setting. Consumers will actu- Emotions Effort
ally repeat behavior for which they Prestige Opportunity
have previously experienced low
Experience Emotions
satisfaction. Walmart stores do not
have a relatively high consumer sat- Image
isfaction index, yet many customers Other factors like:
repeatedly visit Walmart. Walmart Scarcity
delivers Nostalgia
value, as
value a personal assessment of the
net worth obtained from an activity we will
see in
dating site, they are attempting to distort the value equa- else good to happen or be accomplished. Search en-
tion from reality. gines provide value as a means of providing the end of
Later in the book, a chapter is devoted to further finding potentially useful information.
describing value and other related concepts, including
expectations, satisfaction, and quality. However, because
value is an essential part of consumer behavior, a basic
2-2c Hedonic Value
overview is provided in this chapter. While theoretically The second type of value is referred to in CB as hedonic
one could probably break down value into many very value. Hedonic value is the immediate gratification
specific types, a very useful value typology can be devel- that comes from experiencing some activity. Seldom
oped using only two types. Thus, we distinguish utilitar- does one go to a horror film or play Face Swap Online in
ian value from hedonic value. an effort to get a job done. With hedonic value, the value
is provided entirely by the actual experience and emo-
2-2b Utilitarian Value tions associated with consumption, not because some
other end is or will be accomplished.
Activities and objects that lead to high utilitarian Conceptually, hedonic value differs from utilitar-
value do so because they help the consumer accom- ian value in several ways. First, hedonic value is an end
plish some task. Utilitarian value is gratification de- in and of itself rather than a means to an end. Second,
rived from something that helps the consumer solve hedonic value is very emotional and subjective in nature.
problems or accomplish tasks that are a part of be- Third, when a consumer does something to obtain he-
ing a consumer. When consumers buy something in donic value, the action can sometimes be very difficult to
pursuit of utilitarian value, they can typically provide explain objectively.
a clearly rational explanation for the purchase. For Rather than being viewed as opposites, the two
instance, when a consumer calls a plumber, she un- types of value are not mutually exclusive. In other words,
doubtedly has a problem like a stopped-up toilet. The
the same act of consumption can provide both utilitar-
consumer purchases the plumbing services because
ian value and hedonic value. Dining in a place like the
they accomplish something. In this case, the services
Hard Rock Café is an event. One doesn’t have to go to
accomplish the end of getting a toilet working. Actions
Hard Rock to eat, but dining there is a lot of fun—an
that provide utilitarian value are worthwhile because
experience. However, the Hard Rock consumer also ac-
they provide a means to an end.8 The actions provide
complishes the task of having something to eat—getting
value because the object or activity allows something
nourished. In fact, the very best consumer experiences
are those that provide both high utilitarian value and
high hedonic value.
What are your favorite movies of all time? Exhibit 2.4
shows the top 10 grossing movies of all time.9 Is anything
surprising about the list? All are rated G, PG, or PG-13.
Not even a single R rating appears among the top 10,
even though Hollywood produces more R-rated movies
than any other rating. Maybe Hollywood doesn’t under-
stand all the ways a movie provides value. With a family
film, parents can take the kids to the movie and accom-
wavebreakmedia/Shutterstock.com
plish the job of keeping the kids happy while at the same
time enjoying the movie themselves. In this way, mov-
ies like these provide high
value and the value trans- utilitarian
lates into business success value gratification derived
for the studios. because something helps a
consumer solve a problem or
Exhibit 2.5 illustrates accomplish some task
Going to the movies? What are the gets and the value propositions of
gives that determine value from the movie example brands. Marketers hedonic value value derived
from the immediate gratification
experience? can do well by concentrat- that comes from some activity
ing on providing one type
imagination and cap off a tantaliz-
Exhibit 2.4 ing hedonic experience for the tar-
geted segment of the population.
All Time-Box Office Sales Leaders It’s easy to start thinking about
utilitarian and hedonic value as op-
Domestic posites, but one does not exclude
Year Total sales sales the other. In fact, some brands and
Rank Movie released ($millions) ($millions)
experiences offer high or low levels
1 Avatar 2009 $2,788.00 $760.50 of both. Many may find their smart
2 Titanic 1997 $2,186.80 $658.70 devices typify high utilitarian and
3 Star Wars: The Force 2015 $2,026.60 $914.80 high hedonic value. The Wood-
Awakens house may not be high-tech, but
it clearly offers high levels of both
4 Jurassic World 2015 $1,670.40 $652.30
types of value through an indulgent
5 Marvel’s The Avengers 2012 $1,519.60 $623.40 day spa experience that is also good
6 Furious 7 2015 $1,516.00 $353.00 for clients’ minds and bodies. The
7 Avengers: Age of Ultron 2015 $1,405.40 $459.00 day spa business is fast growing in
the United States; in fact, some
8 Harry Potter and the 2011 $1,341.50 $381.00 hospital brands are opening medi-
Deathly Hallows Part 2
cal spas to enhance customers’
9 Frozen 2013 $1,276.50 $400.70 physical and emotional well-being.
10 Iron Man 3 2013 $1,215.40 $409.00 The decision of just how to deliver
value becomes an important mar-
Source: http://www.boxofficemojo.com/alltime/world/, accessed October 17, 2016.
keting strategy question.
of value or the other. In the best-case scenario, they pro-

vide high levels of both. Walmart epitomizes a brand that
does well by concentrating providing utilitarian value
its customers find by shopping in a Walmart store or at
Walmart online. Twin Peaks is a fast-growing but con-
troversial restaurant chain. The Twin Peaks experience
includes a mountain lodge atmosphere and a reasonably
priced bar food menu featuring typical items like chicken
wings, quesadillas, and cold beer. So what’s controver-
sial? Well, Twin Peaks servers’ uniforms leave little to the
Exhibit 2.5
Value Propositions Involve
Roman Samborskyi/Shutterstock.com
Combinations of Value
Utilitarian Value
Low High
Hedonic Low Kodak Walmart
Value
High Twin Peaks Woodhouse High utilitarian and high hedonic value
help build brand success.
Firms that offer low utilitarian and low hedonic
value typically are failing. Kodak, once lauded for its
The company that focuses
marketing genius, has struggled mightily in the digital
era. Currently, most traditional Kodak products, like on value creation builds
traditional cameras, offer little usefulness and little ex-
perience beyond nostalgia. Thus, Kodak is in the unfor-
innovative solutions around
tunate position of offering low levels of both utilitarian consumer needs and wants,
and hedonic value.
not the physical product.
2-3 Marketing Strategy

and Consumer Value When companies define themselves in terms of
products like phones, cable, or even the Internet,
One way that a company can enhance the chance of long- they often fail to realize how they truly serve custom-
run survival is to have an effective marketing strategy. To ers. When firms fail to realize how their products pro-
an army general, a strategy provides a way of winning a vide value, they run the risk of developing marketing
military conflict. Generally, a strategy is a planned way myopia, defined as a condition in which a company
of doing something to accomplish some goal. views itself competing in a product business rather than
in a value- or benefits-producing business.11 Thus, when
technology makes a good or service obsolete, the myopic
2-3a Marketing Strategy business goes out of business. In contrast, the company
If strategy is a way of doing something, given the purpose that focuses on value creation builds innovative solu-
of business, a marketing strategy is the way a company tions around consumer needs and wants, not the physi-
goes about creating value for customers. The strategy cal product. It’s interesting to contemplate what business
also should provide an effective way of dealing with both famous brands like Apple, Google, and Facebook are
competition and eventual technological obsolescence, by really in. Do they know? Eharmony might easily define
making sure the firm’s offerings deliver value in a way that itself only as a dating site, but the company views itself
competitors cannot duplicate easily and in a way not de- as being more in the compatibility business, and is ex-
fined only in terms of the tangible product offered. perimenting with job placement—matching employees
A complete understanding of the value consumers with compatible jobs.
seek is needed to effectively develop and implement a Strategies exist at several different levels. Exhibit 2.6
strategy. The market is filled with competing Internet demonstrates this point. Basically, corporate strategy
service providers (ISPs). CenturyLink, Comcast, Cox, deals with how the firm will be defined and sets general
and AT&T are major ISP players. While they obviously goals. This strategy is usually associated with a specific
compete with each other, each also competes less obvi- corporate culture, which
ously with relatively unknown companies working to- provides an operating ori- strategy a planned way of
ward a solution that bypasses ISPs. One such firm is entation for the company. doing something to accomplish
working on a satellite-based solution that beams free Marketing strategy then some goal
Internet communication directly to consumers’ devices follows. Different business marketing strategy way
through an inexpensive plug-and-play receiver coupled units within the firm may a company goes about creating
to a satellite dish.10 If the Outernet becomes even eas- have different marketing value for customers
ier to access, why would one need an ISP? Couple this strategies. In describing marketing myopia a
with the fact that Skype provides free real-time voice how value is created, the common condition in which a
and video communication, and more and more con- strategies tell why cus- shortsighted company views itself
sumers rely on YouTube and Netflix for entertainment; tomers will choose to buy in a product business rather than
in a value- or benefits-producing
some of these ISPs, cable companies, or phone com- things from the company. business
panies could be in their final years. Each firm needs Strategies must even-
to understand what benefit they truly provide. A com- tually be implemented. corporate strategy way
a firm is defined and its general
munication company may be better than an ISP or a Implementation deals with goals
phone company. operational management.
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
cuerpo de coros de los clubs y de las sociedades secretas, la gente
gritona, y también bastantes de los que habían tirado del coche de
Fernando VII cuando volvió de Francia el año 14. Los absolutistas
creían con razón ganada la partida, y afectaban cierta generosidad
magnánima. ¡Pobre gente! Algunos de estos pajarracos me visitaron
entre ellos don Víctor Sáez, y tuve el gusto de hacerles rabiar
asegurándoles que Angulema traía orden de obsequiarnos con las dos
Cámaras y un absolutismo templado, suavísimo emoliente para
nuestra anarquía. Esto ponía a mis buenos amigotes más furiosos que
las bravatas de los liberales, pues aún había liberales con inocencia
bastante para echar roncas.
Pero yo me ocupaba poco de tales cosas. Mi primer cuidado fue
hacer algunas averiguaciones concernientes a la entrañable política de
mi herido corazón. Por fortuna, a la casa donde yo vivía, honradísimo
albergue de una noble familia alavesa, iba a menudo un tal Campos
hombre muy intrigante, director de Correos, si no recuerdo mal, gran
maestre de la Orden masónica, o por lo menos principalísimo
dignatario de ella, amigo íntimo de los liberales de más viso y también
de algunos absolutistas, como hombre que sabe el modo de comer a
dos carrillos.
Yo le había tratado el año anterior, y charlando juntos, me reía de
los masones, lo cual a él no le enojaba. Entre bromas y veras solía
enterarme de algunas cosas reservadas, porque no era hombre de
extraordinaria discreción, ni tampoco de una incorruptibilidad absoluta
En los días de mi llegada de Irún, que eran los de mediados de mayo
del 23, le pregunté si esperaban los masones algún mensaje
reservado de Mina. Negolo; mas yo, asegurándolo con el mayo
descaro y nombrando el mensajero, le hice confesar que esperaban
órdenes de Mina de un día a otro. Él, lo mismo que su secretario, cuyo
nombre no recuerdo, me aseguraron no haber visto todavía en Madrid
a Salvador Monsalud, ni tener noticia alguna de él.
—No ha llegado aún —dije—. Mucho tarda.
Sin reparar en nada fui a su casa. Un portero, tan locuaz como
pedante, liberal muy farolón, de aquellos a quienes yo llamo
sepultureros de la libertad, porque son los que la han enterrado, me
informó de que el señor Monsalud faltaba de Madrid desde el mes de
agosto del año anterior.
—Puede que la señora doña Solita sepa algo —me dijo—. Pero no
es fácil, porque anoche lloraba... Como no llorase de placer, que
también esto sucede a menudo...
—¿De modo que la casa subsiste? —le pregunté.
—Subsiste, sí, señora; pero no subsistirá mucho tiempo si el seño
don Salvador no vuelve del otro mundo.
—Pues qué, ¿ha muerto?
—Así lo creo yo. Pero esa joven sentimental siempre tiene
esperanzas, y cada vez que el sol sale por el horizonte esparciendo
sus rayos de oro... ¿me entiende usted?
—Sí, acabe de una vez el señor Sarmiento.
—Quiero decir, que siempre que amanece, lo cual pasa todos los
días, la señora doña Solita dice: «¡Hoy vendrá!» Tal es la naturaleza
humana, señora, que de todo se cansa menos de esperar. Y yo digo
¿qué sería del hombre sin esperanza?... Dispénseme la señora; pero
si piensa subir, tengo el sentimiento de no poder acompañarla, porque
como mi hijo es miliciano...
—¿Y qué?
—Como es miliciano, y el honor le ordena derramar hasta la última
gota de su sangre en defensa de la dulce patria y de la libertad
preciosísima del género humano...
—¿Y qué más? —dije, complaciéndome en oír las graciosas
pedanterías de aquel hombre.
—Que impulsado por su ardoroso corazón, capaz del heroísmo, y
por mi paternal mandato, ha ido a Cádiz con las Cortes; y como ha ido
a Cádiz con las Cortes, y no volverá hasta dejar confundida a la
facción y a los cien mil y quinientos hijos, nietos o tataranietos de
calzonazos de Luis XVIII... ¡Por vida de la chilindraina y con cien mi
pares de docenas de chilindrones, que si yo tuviera veinte años
menos...! Pues digo que como Lucas ha ido a Cádiz..., y es un león m
hijo, un verdadero león..., resulta que me es forzoso estar al cuidado
de la puerta; ¿me entiende la señora?
—Está bien —le dije riendo—. Puedo subir sola.
Quise darle una limosna, porque su aspecto me pareció muy
miserable; pero la rechazó con dignidad y cierto rubor decoroso, propio
de las grandezas caídas.
Subí a la casa. Antes que yo subía mi corazón.
XVI
En seguida que llamé salieron a abrir. Se conocía que en la casa

reinaba la impaciencia. Una mujer descorrió con presteza el cerrojo y
me rogó que entrase. Era ella. Yo recordaba haberla visto en alguna
parte.
Carecía de verdadera hermosura; pero al reconocerlo así con gozo
no pude dejar de concederle una atracción singular en toda su
persona, un encanto que habría establecido al instante entre ella y yo
profunda simpatía, si en medio de las dos no existiese, como
infranqueable abismo, la persona de un hombre. Vestía de luto, y la
delgadez de su rostro anunciaba el paso de grandes penas. Cuando
me vio, alterose tanto y su turbación fue tan grande, que no podía
dirigirme la palabra. Por mi parte, la miré con serenidad y altanería
como de superior a inferior, haciendo todo lo posible para que ella se
creyese muy honrada con mi visita.
Yo había oído hablar a Salvador, con cariño y admiración que me
ofendían, de aquella singular hermana suya que no era tal hermana, n
aun pariente, y que muy bien podía ser otra cosa. Nunca creí en la
fraternidad honesta de que él me había hablado, porque conozco un
poco el corazón del hombre, y admito solo los sentimientos cardinales
y fundamentales, y no esas mixturas y composiciones sutiles que no
sirven más que para disfrazar alguna pasión ilícita... Deseaba conoce
por mí misma a la dichosa hermana tan ponderada por él, y ver s
tenía fundamento el secreto odio que mi alma hacia ella sentía. Desde
que la vi, a pesar de que me fue muy patente su inferioridad persona
con respecto a la nieta de mi abuela, me pareció tener delante a una
rival temible, más peligrosa cuanto más humilde en apariencia. A
instante traté de buscar en ella un defecto grande, de esos que afean
espantosamente a la mujer. Mi ingenioso rencor encontró al punto
aquel defecto, y dije en mi interior:
«Esta muchacha debe de ser una hipocritona. No hay más remedio
sino que lo es.»
Mi juicio fue rápido, como la inspiración, como la improvisación
Desde la puerta a la sala a donde me condujo, hice mil observaciones
entre ellas una que no debo pasar en silencio. La casa estaba tan
perfectamente arreglada, que no parecía vivienda sin dueño. Todo se
hallaba en su sitio, sin el más ligero desorden, en perfecto estado de
limpieza, descubriéndose en cada cosa el esmero peregrino que
anuncia la mano de una mujer poseedora del genio doméstico
Creeríase que el amo era esperado de un momento a otro, y que todo
se acababa de disponer para agradarle cuando entrara.
Al sentarme reconcentré mis ideas acerca del plan que había
formado, y le dije:
—Sé que usted padece mucho por saber el paradero del amo de
esta casa, y como tengo noticias de él, vengo a tranquilizarla.
—¡Oh, señora, cuánta bondad! —exclamó con repentina alegría—
¿De modo que usted sabe dónde está y por qué no viene?... ¿Han
vuelto a cogerle los facciosos?
—No, señora. Está libre y bueno.
—Entonces no tiene perdón de Dios —dijo abatiendo el vuelo de su
alma, que tanto se había elevado con las alas de la alegría—. No, no
tiene perdón de Dios.
—¿Usted le ha escrito?
—Muchas veces. Dirijo las cartas al ejército de Mina, con la
esperanza de que alguna llegue a sus manos... pero no recibo
contestación. Es una iniquidad de mi hermano. Por poco que se
acuerde de mí, por muy grande que sea su olvido, ¿será tal que no me
haya escrito una sola vez?
—Los que están en armas —dije sonriendo— no se acuerdan de
las pobres mujeres que lloran.
—Yo creo que me ha escrito. Él es muy bueno y me considera
mucho. No es capaz de tenerme en esta incertidumbre por su
voluntad.
—¿Pero usted no ha recibido ninguna carta?
—En febrero vinieron dos; pero después ninguna. Quizás se hayan
perdido.
—Podría ser.
—A veces me figuro que no me escribe porque viene. Todos los
días creo que va a llegar, y desde que siento pasos en la escalera
corro a ver si es él. Todo lo tengo preparado, y si viene, nada
encontrará fuera de su sitio.
—Sí, ya lo veo. Es usted una alhaja. El pobre Salvador debe de
estar muy satisfecho de su hermana. Él la aprecia a usted mucho. Me
lo ha dicho.
—¡Se lo ha dicho a usted! —exclamó tan vivamente conmovida, que
casi estuvo a punto de llorar.
—Me lo ha dicho, sí. Él me cuenta todo. Para mí nunca ha tenido
secretos.
Sola me miró de hito en hito durante un momento, que me pareció
demasiado largo. ¿Qué había en la expresión de su semblante a
contemplar el mío? ¿Envidia? No podía ser otra cosa; pero la
apariencia indicaba más bien una resignación dolorosa. Le habría
tenido mucha lástima, si no hubiera estado convencida de que era una
hipócrita.
—Muchas veces me ha hablado de usted —proseguí—
elogiándome sus bellas cualidades para el gobierno de una casa. Vea
usted de qué manera ha venido a encontrarse sola al frente de este
hogar vacío, conservándole tan bien para cuando él vuelva.
—La pobre doña Fermina —dijo—, que murió de pesadumbre por la
pérdida de su hijo, me encargó todo al morir, poniendo en mi mano
cuanto tenía y ordenándome que lo guardase y conservase hasta que
pareciera Salvador.
—¿Entonces ella no le creía muerto?
—Dudaba. Siempre tenía esperanza —manifestó la joven dando un
suspiro—. Yo le hablaba a todas horas de la vuelta de su hijo, y, la
verdad, siempre tuve esperanza de verle entrar en la casa, porque una
voz secreta de mi corazón me decía que volvería. El día antes de
fallecer, doña Fermina escribió una larga carta a su hijo... ¡Cuántas
lágrimas derramó la pobre! Yo habría dado con gusto mi vida porque la
infeliz madre viera a su hijo antes de morir. Pero Dios no lo quiso así.
—¿Y esa carta?... —pregunté, deseosa de conocer aquel detalle.
—Esa carta la depositó en mí doña Fermina, mandándome que la
entregase a Salvador en su propia mano, si parecía.
—¿Y si no parecía?
—Doña Fermina me ordenó que le buscase por todos los medios
posibles, y que si tenía noticias de él y no venía a Madrid, fuese a
buscarle aunque tuviera que ir muy lejos.
—Pero ¿cómo podrá usted emprender esos viajes? ¡Pobrecilla! —
exclamé mostrando una compasión que estaba muy lejos de sentir.
—Eso sería lo de menos. No me faltan ánimos para ponerme en
camino, ni tampoco recursos con que emprender un largo viaje
porque doña Fermina me entregó todos sus ahorros para que los
destinase a buscar a su hijo.
—¡Ah! Entonces... Y para el caso de no encontrarlo, ¿qué dispuso
esa señora?
—Que esperase, y le volviera a buscar después.
—¿Y para el caso de que fuera evidente su muerte?
—Que echase al fuego la carta sin leerla. ¡Ha sido desgraciada
suerte la nuestra! —prosiguió la huérfana con abatimiento—. Un mes
después de haber subido al cielo aquella buena señora, vino la carta
de Salvador anunciando que estaba libre. ¡Ay! En mi vida he tenido
mayor alegría ni mayor tristeza, juntas tristeza y alegría sin que
pudiesen ser separadas. Yo le contesté diciéndole lo que pasaba y
rogándole que viniese. Desde aquel día lo estoy esperando. Han
pasado tres meses, y no ha venido ni me ha escrito.
—Pues ha llegado la ocasión de que usted cumpla la última
voluntad de la pobre señora difunta, partiendo en busca de ese hijo
desnaturalizado.
—¡Si no sé dónde está...! Un amigo que lee todos los papeles
públicos y sabe por dónde andan los ejércitos, las guerrillas y las
contraguerrillas, me ha dicho que las tropas de Mina se han disuelto
Otro que vino del norte, me aseguró que Salvador había emigrado a
Francia. Yo, a pesar de estas noticias, le espero, tengo confianza en
que ha de venir, y he resuelto aguardar lo que resta de mes. Sigo mis
averiguaciones, y si en todo mayo no ha venido ni me ha escrito
pienso ponerme en camino y buscarle con la ayuda de Dios.
—Siento quitarle a usted una ilusión —dije, adoptando
definitivamente mi diabólico plan, y resolviéndome a ponerlo en
práctica—. Salvador no vendrá por ahora, no puede venir.
—¿Lo sabe usted de cierto? —me preguntó vivamente turbada y
con algo de incredulidad en sus hermosos ojos.
—¿Duda usted de mí? —dije poniendo en mi semblante esa
naturalidad inefable que es uno de mis más preciosos resortes para
expresar lo que quiero—. Precisamente no he venido a otra cosa que
a decirle a usted su paradero, después de tranquilizarla, por si le creía
enfermo o muerto.
—¿Y dónde está?
—Habiendo reñido con Mina por una cuestión de amor propio, pasó
a las contraguerrillas que siguen al general Ballesteros.
—¿Entonces sigue en el norte?
—No, señora. Ya sabe usted que el ejército de Ballesteros se ha
retirado a Valencia.
—A Valencia, sí. Efectivamente, lo oí decir. ¿De modo que Salvado
está en Valencia?
—Sí, y estos informes no son vagos ni fundados en conjeturas
porque yo misma...
Al llegar aquí di un suspiro afectando cierta emoción. Después
acabé así la frase:
—Yo misma me separé de él en Onteniente el 20 de abril.
—¿Es cierto, señora, lo que usted me dice? —me preguntó con
gran agitación.
—Sí; pero no creo que haga usted el disparate de ponerse en
camino para Levante —indiqué con objeto de que no conociera m
verdadera idea.
—¿Pues qué, vendrá?
—Venir no. No vendrá en mucho tiempo, mayormente si de hoy a
mañana capitula la corte y se establece el absolutismo. Yo creo que se
verá obligado a emigrar, embarcándose en cualquier puerto de la
costa.
—¡Embarcarse! —exclamó con desaliento—. No, señora, no; eso
no puede ser. Corro allá al momento.
Se levantó como si de un vuelo pudiera trasladarse a Valencia.
—¿Y será usted capaz de emprender un viaje tan largo?... ¿Tendrá
usted valor?... —manifesté con fingida admiración.
—Yo tengo valor para todo, señora.
Después del primer movimiento de credulidad, la vi como abatida y
vacilante. Dudaba.
—Puede usted escribirle —le dije— con la dirección que yo le dé, y
cuando reciba la contestación de él, ponerse en camino... Lo malo
será que en ese tiempo tome la guerra otro aspecto y llegue usted
tarde.
—Eso sería terrible. Yo creo que si voy, debo ir hoy mismo... ¿Y de
él se separó usted el 20 de abril?
Dudaba todavía. Al llegar a este punto, la voz de la conciencia, que
aún me detenía, fue acallada por mis celos, y no pensé más que en e
éxito completo del plan que me había propuesto. No vacilé más y
pensé en la carta que me había traído Pipaón.
—Me separé de él el 20 de abril —afirmé—; pero después de eso
hallándome en Aranjuez, recibí una carta suya.
Con avidez fijó Solita sus ojos en mí. Por grande que fuera m
serenidad, mi corazón palpitaba, porque ni aun los criminales más
criminales hacen ciertas cosas sin algo de procesión por dentro
Confesaré ahora la fealdad toda de mi acción, para que se comprenda
bien la importancia de aquella escena y mi perverso papel.
—Si quisiera mostrarme usted la carta de Salvador —me dijo en
tono suplicante—, al menos para saber con fijeza el punto en que se
halla...
—No la he traído —repuse con el mayor aplomo—; pero volveré a
mi casa, que está a dos pasos, y la traeré, para que tenga usted ese
consuelo, y una seguridad que no pueden darle mis palabras.
—¡Oh!, no, señora; yo creo...
—No... estas cosas son delicadas. Al instante traeré a usted la carta
que me escribió, y que no está fechada en Onteniente, sino en otro
pueblo del reino de Valencia, pues como usted puede suponer, e
ejército se mueve casi todos los días.
Diciendo esto me levanté. Ella me daba las gracias por mi bondad
en cariñosas y vehementes palabras. Brindose a ir conmigo porque yo
no me molestase en volver; pero esto no me convenía, y sal
rápidamente. ¡Miserable de mí, y cuánto me cegaba la pasión y aque
detestable afán de hacer daño a la que aborrecía!... Contaré esto con
la mayor brevedad posible, porque me mortifica tan desagradable
recuerdo; y en verdad que si pudiera escribir estas vergonzosas líneas
cerrando los ojos, lo haría para no ver lo que traza mi propia pluma.
XVII
Corrí a mi casa, tomé la carta de Salvador, y con ese golpe de vista

del genio criminal, comprendí que lo previsto por mí momentos antes
podía realizarse fácilmente. La data Urgel estaba escrita en letra
ancha y mala. La palabra podía ser variada por una mano hábil, y la
mía, fuerza es decirlo, lo era, aunque nunca hasta entonces se había
empleado en tan infames proezas.
Yo tenía muy presente a un primo mío que había comerciado años
antes en un pueblo de Alicante llamado Vergel, en las inmediaciones
de Denia, a orillas del río Bolana. Esta palabra era el puñal de
asesinato proyectado por mí. La tomé con la fiebre del rencor. ¡Qué
admirablemente servía para mi objeto! ¡Qué bien dispuestas estaban
sus letras para una obra satánica! No podía pedirse más, no. Tenía
delante de mí una de esas infernales coincidencias que deciden a los
criminales vacilantes, y a veces hasta impulsan a los justos a
escandalosos y horribles pecados.
Tomé la pluma, y con mano segura, regocijándome interiormente en
la perfección de mi obra, convertí la palabra Urgel en Vergel. La fecha
era fácil de mudar también. Salvador había puesto marzo en
abreviatura. Yo convertí el marzo en mayo, dejando el día, que era e
3, lo mismo que estaba... ¡Oh, cuando no se me cayó la mano
entonces, creo que tendré manos para toda mi vida!
Del texto de la carta podía mostrarse la primer plana, donde decía
entre otras cosas insignificantes: «No pienso en muchos días salir de
este pueblo.»
Corrí allá con mi puñal. Las trágicas figuras antiguas a quienes
pintan alborotadas y arrogantes con un hierro en la mano, no fruncirían
el ceño más fieramente que yo al blandir mi carta homicida. Subí a la
casa. Sola me esperaba en la puerta. Entramos: me senté al punto..
Estaba muy cansada.
—Vea usted —le dije—: el pueblo donde ahora está es Vergel. He
pasado por él.
Solita devoraba con los ojos la carta.
—Vergel —añadí mostrándole la carta— está entre Pego y Denia
sobre un riachuelo que llaman Bolana. Si va usted a Onteniente, le
será muy fácil llegar a Vergel.
Ella seguía leyendo.
—Asegura que por ahora no piensa moverse de ese pueblo —dijo
meditabunda—. Mejor: con eso tendré la certeza de encontrarle.
—¿Pero de veras insiste usted en ir?... El resto de la carta no se lo
enseño a usted porque no puede interesarle —indiqué afectando la
mayor naturalidad y guardando mi arma—. No puedo creer que haga
usted la locura de...
—Iré, iré —afirmó con resolución briosa, que inundó mi alma de los
frenéticos goces del éxito criminal.
Después de manifestar así su propósito, frunció el ceño y me dijo:
—Cuando usted se separó de Salvador, ¿sabía él que venía usted
a Madrid?
—Lo sabía.
—¿Y cómo no le rogó que me viese y me tranquilizara?
—Porque sabe —repuse con dignidad— que yo no sirvo para hace
las veces de correo. Si he venido a esta casa, ha sido por..., se lo diré
a usted con entera franqueza, no quiero fingir móviles que no tuve a
venir aquí, aunque después que nos hemos tratado hayan sido
distintas mis ideas.
Solita atendía a mis palabras como el Evangelio. Yo le tomé una
mano, y poniéndome a punto de llorar, me expresé así:
—Señora doña Solita, dije a usted al entrar que venía con el simple
objeto de tranquilizarla dándola informes de Salvador.
—Así fue, señora, lo que usted me dijo.
—Pues bien, falté a la verdad: quise encubrir mi verdadero objeto
con una fórmula común. Pero yo no puedo fingir; no puedo ocultar la
verdad. Mi carácter peca de excesivamente franco, natural y
expansivo. Mis pasiones y mis defectos, la verdad toda de mi alma
buena o mala, se me sale por los ojos y por la palabra cuando más
quiero disimular. Usted me ha inspirado simpatías; usted me ha
revelado una pureza de sentimientos que merece el mayor respeto
Quiero ser como usted, y hablarle con la noble veracidad que se debe
a los verdaderos amigos. ¿No es usted hermana para él? Pues quiero
que lo sea también para mí.
Solita, al oír esto, se apartó lentamente de mi lado. Noté en ella
cierta aversión contenida por el respeto.
—Querida amiga —proseguí forzando mi arte—. No he venido aqu
sino por un egoísmo que usted no comprenderá tal vez. He venido po
ver su casa, por conocer lo único que guarda Madrid de esa amada
persona, este asilo donde él ha vivido, donde murió su madre, y por e
cual parecen vagar aún sus miradas. Quería yo dar a mis ojos el gusto
de ver estos objetos, estos muebles donde tantas veces se han fijado
los ojos suyos... Nada más, ningún otro objeto me trajo aquí. He tenido
además el placer de conocerla a usted, y ahora, deseándole que halle
pronto a su hermano, me retiro.
Levanteme resueltamente. Solita había prorrumpido en amargo
llanto.
—¡Oh! ¡Gracias, gracias, señora! —exclamó secando sus lágrimas
—. Le diré que debo a usted este inmenso favor.
—No, no, por Dios. Ruego a usted que no me nombre para nada
Vería en mí una debilidad que no quiero confesarle, mediando, como
median en uno y otro, los propósitos de separación eterna.
—Pues callaré, señora, callaré. ¿De modo que usted no le verá
más?
Al decir esto había tanto afán en su mirada, que me causó
indignación. La habría abofeteado, si mi papel no exigiera gran
prudencia y circunspección.
—No, señora, no le veré más —le dije, fijando más sobre m
semblante la máscara que se caía—. Después de lo que ha pasado..
Pero no puedo revelar ciertas cosas. Si usted le conoce bien, conocerá
su inconstancia. Yo le he amado con fidelidad y nobleza. Él... no quiero
rebajarle delante de una persona que le estima. Adiós, señora, adiós
¿Se va usted al fin hoy?
Esto lo dije en pie, estrechando aquella mano que habría deseado
ver cortada.
—Sí, señora, iré a buscarle, puesto que él no quiere venir.
—¿Pero se atreve usted, sola, sin compañía, por esos caminos...?
—indiqué, deseando que confirmara su resolución.
—Dios irá conmigo —repuso la hipocritona con el acento de los que
tienen verdadera fe—. El ordinario de Valencia que sale esta noche
era amigo de doña Fermina. Con él iré. Tengo confianza en Dios, y
estoy segura de que no me pasará nada... Ahora, tomada esta
determinación, estoy tranquila.
—La felicidad le retoza a usted en el rostro —afirmé con crue
sarcasmo—. Bien se conoce que es usted feliz. Yo me congratulo de
haberle proporcionado un cambio tan dichoso en su espíritu.
Cuando pronuncié estas palabras, debió secárseme la lengua, lo
confieso.
Poco más hablamos. Hícele ofrecimientos corteses y salí de la
casa. Cuando bajaba la escalera sentí impulsos de volver a subir y
llamarla y decirle: «no crea usted nada de lo que he dicho; soy una
embustera»; pero el egoísmo pudo más que aquel pasajero y débi
sentimiento de rectitud, y seguí bajando. Del mismo modo iba bajando
mi alma, escalón tras escalón, a los abismos de la iniquidad. Razoné
como los perversos, diciéndome que la víctima de mi intriga era una
mujer hipócrita, y que las pérfidas maquinaciones, tan dignas de
censura cuando recaen en personas inocentes, son más tolerables s
recaen en quien las merece y es capaz de urdirlas peores. Pero estos
sofismas no acallaban mi remordimiento, que empezó a crecer desde
que salí de la casa, y ha llegado después, por su mucha grandeza y
pesadumbre, a mortificarme en gran manera.
XVIII
Verdaderamente mi acción no pudo ser más indigna. ¡Precipitar a

una desamparada e infeliz mujer a resolución tan loca, obligarla por vi
engaño a emprender un viaje largo, dispendioso, arriesgado, y, sobre
todo, inútil!... Al mirar esto desde tan distante fecha, me espanto de m
acción, de mi lengua, y de la horrible travesura y sutileza de m
entendimiento.
En aquellos días la pasión que me dominaba, y más que la pasión
el envidioso afán que me producían los recelos de que alguien me
robase lo que yo juzgaba exclusivamente mío, no me permitieron ve
claramente mi conciencia ni la infamia de la denigrante acción que
había cometido; pero cuando todo se fue enfriando y oscureciendo, he
podido mirarme tal cual era en aquel día, y declaro aquí que, según
me veo, no hay fealdad de demonio del infierno que a la mía se
parezca.
¡Y sigue una viviendo después de hacer tales cosas! ¡Y parece que
no ha pasado nada, y vuelve la felicidad, y aun se da el caso de olvida
completamente la perversa y villana acción!... Yo no vacilo en escribirla
aquí, porque me he propuesto que este papel sea mi confesonario, y
una vez puesta la mano sobre él, no he de ocultar ni lo bueno ni lo
malo. La seguridad de que esto no ha de verlo nadie hasta que yo no
me encuentre tan lejos de las censuras de este mundo como lo están
los astros de las agitaciones de la tierra, da valor a mi espíritu para
escribir tales cosas. Yo digo: «Que todo el mundo escriba con absoluta
verdad su vida entera, y entonces, ¡cuánto disminuirá el número de los
que pasan por buenos! Las cuatro quintas partes de las grandes
reputaciones morales no significan otra cosa que falta de datos para
conocer a los individuos que se pavonean con ellas fatuamente, como
los cómicos cuando se visten de reyes.»
Aquella tarde torné a pasar por allí, y entablé conversación con
Sarmiento; pero me fue imposible averiguar por él si Solita insistía en
partir. Yo tenía gran desasosiego hasta no saberlo, y para salir de m
incertidumbre quise averiguarlo por mí misma. Soy así: lo que puedo
hacer no lo confío a los demás. Me fatigan las dilaciones y la torpeza
de los que sirven por dinero, y carezco de paciencia para aguardar a
que me vengan a decir lo que yo puedo ver por mis propios ojos. A
llegar la noche y la hora en que solían partir los coches, sillas de
postas y galeras, mi criada y yo nos vestimos manolescamente, con
pañolón y basquiña, y nos encaminamos al parador del Fúcar, de
donde, según mis noticias, salía el ordinario de Valencia.
No tuve que esperar mucho para satisfacer mi curiosidad. All
estaba. Solita partía irremisiblemente. Ya no me quedaba duda. La v
dentro del coche que salía, y no pude sofocar en mí un sentimiento de
profundísima lástima, forma indirecta que tomaba entonces m
conciencia para presentarme ante los ojos la imagen de mi crimen
Pero el coche partió; ella se fue con su engaño, y yo me quedé con m
lástima.
No se había extinguido el rumor de las ruedas del carro de Valencia
cuando sonó más vivo estrépito de ruedas y caballerías. Un gran
carruaje de colleras entró en el parador. Mi criada y yo nos detuvimos
por curiosidad.
—Es el coche de Alcalá —dijeron a nuestro lado—. Esta noche
viene lleno de gente.
Por una de las portezuelas vi la cara de un hombre. El corazón
parecía hacérseme pedazos. Me volví loca de alegría. No pude
contenerme. Era él. Mis exclamaciones cariñosas le obligaron a baja
del coche, y apenas puso el pie en tierra, me arrojé llorando en sus
brazos.
XIX
Al día siguiente le aguardaba en mi casa, y no fue hasta muy tarde

cuando ya anochecía. Estaba muy fatigado, triste y abatido. Lo primero
de que me habló fue del vacío que había dejado en su casa la muerte
de su madre, de la partida de su hermana, a quien creía encontrar en
Madrid, y del brevísimo espacio que un perverso destino había puesto
entre la marcha de ella y la llegada de él.
—Castigo de Dios es esto —dijo—, por mi descuido en escribirle y
mi desnaturalizado proceder.
Después pasó de la tristeza a la furia. Yo procuraba arrancarle tan
lúgubres ideas, recordándole nuestro placentero viaje del verano
anterior y la catástrofe de su cautiverio; hacíale mil preguntas sobre
sus padecimientos, emancipación, campaña de Cataluña y toma de la
Seo; pero solo me contestaba con monosílabos y secamente. Escaso
interés mostraba por las cosas pasadas, y aun yo misma, que era un
presente digno, a mi parecer, de alguna estima, apenas podía obtene
de él atención insegura y casi forzada. Su pensamiento estaba fijo en
la fugitiva, y mis sutiles zalamerías no podían apartarle de allí. No
cesaba de discurrir sobre los móviles de aquel viaje, y yo, sintiendo
revivir y agitarse en mí lo que siempre tuve de serpiente, estuve a
punto de indicarle que Soledad habría partido arrastrada por algún
hombre; pero en el momento en que desplegaba los labios para
sugerir esta idea, me contuve. Aquella vez había vencido m
conciencia, y hallándome con fuerzas para las mayores crueldades, no
las tuve para la calumnia.
Al fin creí prudente no decirle una palabra sobre aquella cuestión.
—Bastaba que yo viniese con deseo de verla —dijo hiriendo
violentamente el suelo con el pie— para que ella huyese de mí. As
son todas mis cosas. Lo bueno existe mientras yo lo deseo. Pero lo
toco, y adiós.
Estas amargas palabras eran un desaire para mí, y por lo visto yo
no estaba comprendida en el número de las cosas buenas; pero
sofoqué mi resentimiento y seguí escuchándole.
—Desde que el deseo de venganza y mi odio al absolutismo —
añadió— me inclinaron a tomar las armas, tuve el presentimiento de
que la campaña se echaría a perder, y así ha sido. Ya tienes a la plaza
de Figueras en poder de los franceses; a Mina vagabundo, sin sabe
qué partido tomar, y todo el ejército desconcertado y sin esperanza de
vencer. ¡Gran milagro habría sido que donde yo estoy hubiese
victorias! Desastres y nada más que desastres. La sombra que yo
echo sobre la tierra, destruye.
—¡Qué necio eres! ¿Crees acaso en las estrellas fatales y en e
sino?
—No debiera creer; pero todo me manda que crea... Ya ves. Me
envía Mina a Madrid con una comisión en que funda grandes
esperanzas, y desde que llego aquí pierdo las pocas que traía, porque
no hallo sino desanimación y flojedad. Al mismo tiempo, la ilusión más
querida de este viaje se ha desvanecido como el humo. Yo tenía una
hermana, más que hermana, amiga, con una amistad pura y
entrañable que nadie puede comprender sino ella y yo; una amistad
que tiene todo lo santo de la fraternidad y todo lo bueno del amor, sin
las tenebrosas ansias de este. En mi hermana veía yo todo lo que me
queda de familia, lo único que me resta de hogar; en ella veía a m
madre, y una representación de todos los goces de mi casa, la paz de
alma, dichas muy grandes sin mezcla de martirio alguno. Pues bien
llego, y mi casa está desierta. Jamás pensé en perderla. Ella, el único
ser de quien estaba seguro, vuela también lejos de mí, y se va. ¡Ay
Jenara! ¡No puedo decirte cuán sola estaba mi casa! Figúrate todo e
universo vacío y sin vida. Ni mi madre, ni Soledad... ¡Qué sepulcro
Dios mío! Así se va quedando mi corazón lo mismo que una gran fosa
todo lleno de muertos... Tú no puedes entender esto, Jenara. En t
todo vive. Tu carácter hace resucitar las cosas, y eres un se
privilegiado para quien el mundo se dispone siempre del modo más
favorable; pero yo...
—Cúlpate a ti mismo —le dije—, y no hables del destino. Te quejas
de que tu hermana te haya abandonado, y no recuerdas que has
estado mucho tiempo sin escribirle, sin darle noticias de ti, sin decirle
ni siquiera: «estoy vivo».
—Es verdad; pero se amparó de mí el estúpido delirio de la guerra
Me sedujo la idea gloriosa que representaba nuestro ejército a
perseguir a los realistas. Solo veía lo que estaba delante de mis ojos y
dentro de mí: el enemigo y los torbellinos de mi cerebro, un ideal de
magníficas victorias que dieran a mi país lo que no tiene. Ya sabes que
yo me equivoco siempre. Lo extraño es que conociendo mi torpeza me
empeñe en andar hacia adelante como los demás hombres, en vez de
estarme quieto como las estatuas... Ahora todo lo veo destrozado
caído y hecho pedazos por mis propias manos, como el que entrando
en un cuarto oscuro y lleno de preciosidades, a ciegas tropieza y lo
rompe todo. En Cataluña, desengaños; en Madrid, más desengaños
todavía; un gran vacío del entendimiento, y otro más grande de
corazón. Parece que la realidad de mis ideas es un ave que se asusta
de mis pasos, y levanta el vuelo cuando me acerco a ella. ¡Maldita
persona la mía!
Debía enojarme de tales palabras, porque según ellas, yo no era
nada. Pero no me mostré ofendida, y solamente dije:
—Si al llegar encuentras todo solo y vacío, no es porque las cosas
vuelen antes de tiempo, sino porque tú llegas siempre tarde.
—También es verdad. Llego siempre tarde. Ya ves lo que me ha
pasado ahora. Se le antoja al señor Mina enviarme aquí cuando todo
está perdido. Pero él no contaba con la rapidez de este
desmoronamiento: no contaba con la retirada de Ballesteros sin
combatir, ni con la defección de La Bisbal. Mina tiene la desgracia de
creer que todos son valientes y leales como él.
—¿La defección de La Bisbal? ¡De modo que ya...! No creí que
fuera tan pronto. El conde acostumbra preparar con cierto arte sus
arrepentimientos.
—No se dice públicamente; pero es seguro que ya está en tratos
con los franceses para capitular. Me lo ha dicho Campos, que olfatea
los sucesos. De mañana a pasado, el aborrecido estandarte negro
ondeará en Madrid. ¿A qué he venido yo? No parece sino que vengo a
izarlo yo mismo.
—Pues no hagas caso de los masones, ni de la guerra, ni de la
Constitución —le dije—. ¿Para qué te empeñas en cosas imposibles?
¿Por qué desprecias lo que tienes, y persigues fantasmas vanos?
Me miró comprendiendo mi intención. Sus ojos no indicaban
desafectos. Acompañome a cenar, y mis alardes de humor festivo, m
cháchara y las delicadas atenciones que con él tuve, no lograron
disipar las nubes que ennegrecían su alma. También la mía se
encapotaba lentamente, cayendo en hondas tristezas. Acostumbrada a
verse señora de los sentimientos de aquel hombre, padecía mucho
considerando perdido su amoroso dominio, esa tiranía dulcísima que
al mismo tiempo embelesa al amo y al esclavo.
Pero aún conservaba yo gran parte de mi prestigio. Vencí, aunque
sin poder conseguir la tranquilidad que acompaña a los triunfos
completos, porque descubrí en su complacencia algo de violento y
forzado. Sospeché que al corresponder a mi leal cariño, lo hacía más
bien por delicadeza y por deber que por verdadera inclinación. Esto
me atormentó toda la noche, quitándome el sueño. Cuando pude
dormir, la imagen de la pobre huérfana que recorría media España
buscando a su hermano, a su amante o lo que fuera, se me presentó
para atormentarme más. ¡Ay, qué terrible es una gran falta sin éxito!
La visión de la mujer errante no se quitaba de mi imaginación. Pero
yo entonces, creyéndome menos amada de lo que mi frenesí de amo
exigía, pensando que me habían vencido ajenos recuerdos y
vaguedades sentimentales referentes a otra persona, me gozaba con
fiera crueldad en la desolación de la hermana viajera.
«¡Bien —le decía—, corre tras él, corre hoy y mañana y siempre
para no encontrarle al fin...! Muy bien, hipocritona. ¡¡Me alegro, me
alegro!!»
XX
Campos entró en casa al día siguiente muy temprano. Ya he dicho

que este masón era amigo muy constante de la familia con quien yo
vivía, un matrimonio alavés, de edad madura y sin hijos, extraño por lo
general a las pasiones políticas, aunque la señora, como buena
vascongada, se inclinaba al absolutismo. Campos entró gritando:
—¡Ya nos la ha pegado ese tunante!
Al punto comprendí lo que quería expresar.
—La Bisbal ha capitulado, ¿no es eso? —le dije—. ¡Qué noticia! Ya
lo suponíamos.
—Pero al menos, señora, al menos... —manifestó Campos con afán
—. Las formas, es preciso guardar ciertas formas... Todos estamos
dispuestos a capitular, porque no es posible vivir en lucha con la
general corriente, ni con la Europa entera; pero..., pero...
—¿Y qué ha hecho La Bisbal?
—Dar un manifiesto...
—Ya lo suponía: es el hombre de los manifiestos.
—Un manifiesto en que dice que sí y que no, y que tira y afloja, y
que blanco y que negro... en fin, un manifiesto de La Bisbal. Después
entregó el mando al marqués de Castelldosrius, y ha desaparecido. En
el ejército cunde la desmoralización. La mayor parte de los soldados
se van a donde les da la gana, y aquí nos tiene usted como el 3 de
diciembre de 1808, en poder de los franceses... Vamos a ver, ¿qué
hace ahora un hombre honrado como yo? ¿Qué hacen ahora los
hombres que no se han metido en nada, que desde su campo
defendieron siempre el orden y las conveniencias?...
Yo hacía esfuerzos para contener la risa. La zozobra del masón en
momentos de tanto apuro, y su afán por presentarse como hombre de
orden, ofrecían un cuadro tan gracioso como instructivo.
—¿De modo que ya se acabó la Constitución? —dijo la señora de
Saracha, elevando majestuosamente las manos al cielo, como en
acción de gracias—. Pues ahora habrá perdón general. Se
reconciliarán todos los españoles, dándose fraternales abrazos, y
amparándose bajo el manto amoroso del rey.
Yo me eché a reír.
—No es mal perdón el que nos aguarda —dijo Campos con
detestable humor—. ¡Bonito manto nos amparará! Ya se ha alborotado
la gentuza de los barrios bajos, y las caras siniestras, las manos
negras y rapaces, los trabucos y las navajas, van apareciendo. Nada
nada. Tendremos escenas de luto y de ignominia, otro 10 de mayo de
1814.
—¿Será posible? Pues me parece que efectivamente hay algo de
alboroto en la calle —dijo mi amiga asomándose al balcón.
Vivíamos en la calle de Toledo, que es la arteria por donde la
emponzoñada sangre sube al cerebro de la villa de Madrid en los días
de fiebre. Cruzaban la calle gentes del pueblo en actitud poco
tranquilizadora. Al poco rato oímos gritar: «¡Viva la religión! ¡Vivan las
caenas!» Fue aquella la primera vez de mi vida que oí tal grito, y
confieso que me horrorizó.
Campos no quiso asomarse, porque le enfurecían los desahogos de
la plebe (mayormente cuando chillaba en contra de los liberales), y
seguía diciendo:
—Veremos cómo tratan ahora a los hombres honrados que han
defendido el orden, que han procurado siempre contener a
democratismo y a la demagogia.
No pude vencer mi natural inclinación a las burlas, y le dije:
—Señor Campos, no doy cuatro cuartos por su pellejo de usted.
—Ni yo tampoco —me respondió riendo.
Él, en medio de su descontento, esperaba filosóficamente el fin
seguro de sobrenadar tarde o temprano en el piélago absolutista. Era
además hombre de tanto valor como audacia.
La gente de los barrios bajos siguió alborotando todo el día
Moviose la tropa para mantener el orden, y el general Zayas, que
mandaba en Madrid y había firmado la capitulación aquella misma
mañana con los franceses, parecía dispuesto a ametrallar sin
compasión a la canalla. En gran zozobra vivíamos todos los vecinos
de la villa, porque se hablaba de saqueo y de la aproximación de las
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“A good riddance of bad rubbish,” said Ned contemptuously; “if
there’s anything I loathe in this world it’s an eavesdropper. There’s
only one thing worse, and that’s a religious hypocrite.”
“I only hope he didn’t hear you call him a mean spy-cat, Ned,” I
said, anxiously regarding my coxswain.
“Bless your young heart, sir, I don’t care a snap of the fingers if he
did or not. He can’t do me more harm than he has already, I take it.”
“I wouldn’t give him the chance if I were you, my man,” said Mr.
Triggs in a low tone. “For the future we’d best just talk in whispers,
for that swab is sure to be up to his spy-catting tricks again from time
to time.”
This was good advice, and we determined that we would follow it.
At about the hour of sunset, Miguel brought us our supper of
porridge; but he made no reference to the late episode, and indeed
did not vouchsafe to utter a word, good, bad, or indifferent. We did
not at all object to his taciturnity, but ate our suppers with as good an
appetite as we could muster up—certainly with many wry faces on
my part. Even Ned allowed that the hominy and rancid butter wasn’t
a patch on the salt fish and rice.
We were kept well supplied with water, a pannikin being always
near us.
The sun went down, and our prison-deck became wrapped in
gloom. It seemed as if night was to be ushered in by the baying of
bloodhounds, for I distinctly heard a mournful chorus from those
four-footed man-hunters, which was kept up for some little time. Ned
was very superstitious about this, and declared that the Irish
“banshee” was nothing to it.
Soon after darkness fell a couple of armed sentries arrived to
mount guard over us. For the greater part of the time they marched
up and down with rifles in their hands; but occasionally they sat
down upon the deck within easy reach of us, smoked bad cigarettes,
and played at dominoes. They were relieved at intervals, I believe;
but I slept very soundly, strange to say, and was hardly cognizant of
what went forward during the night hours.
I was awoke in the early hours of the morning by a chorus of
shouts and angry yells, and a grinding and buffeting noise and
vibration which seemed to shake our little vessel violently from her
cutwater to her stern-post.
“We’ve struck on a rock, I’m afraid!” cried the gunner, starting up in
great alarm. “I hope, if the vessel begins to sink, they’ll knock off our
manacles in time to give us a chance for our lives.”
“Maybe ’tis a collision,” said Ned, “and that would be as bad
perhaps. I take it these furriners are only fair-weather sailors at the
best of times.”
Our guards had rushed on deck at the first sound of alarm.
At this moment the crash of a volley of musketry rang out above
the confused din on deck. Then we heard shrieks and yells of agony
mingled with the shouts of commanding voices and the baying of the
bloodhounds.
We exchanged glances of astonishment and horror.
“Didn’t I say they were pirates?” exclaimed Mr. Triggs in an excited
tone of voice. “This proves it. There is no need to be on deck to
watch their villanous deeds, for ’tis all as plain as a pikestaff. We’ve
run alongside some merchant vessel, and these precious scamps
are going to board and take possession of her.”
I clung to the hope that the other vessel was the attacking one,
and might prove to be a Spanish man-of-war or revenue boat; but I
could not help feeling that the gunner was most likely correct in his
conjecture.
Without doubt we were in the hands of lawless, bloodthirsty
pirates.
A brisk fire of musketry was being kept up, and now and again I
distinguished the sharp crack of pistols and the clash of steel. The
shouts and yells of the contending parties were indescribable, so
prolonged and violent were they. The fight was evidently a desperate
one.
The grinding and buffeting noise still continued as if the two
vessels were lashed to each other pending the issue of the conflict.
We listened intently for every sound, exchanging remarks now and
again in awestruck, subdued whispers.
At times we thought we could distinguish the voice of the chief
ringing out like a brazen trumpet, as he directed the operations of his
followers. To my surprise, no guns were fired from the upper deck,
although, in my hasty glance around, when I was carried on board, I
had noticed that the brig was provided with some sort of armament.
Presently the shouts and yells of the combatants grew fainter, as
also did the rolling reports of the musketry and the sharp, spiteful
cracks of the death-dealing pistols.
“The pirates have boarded ’em, poor chaps,” said the gunner;
“there can be no doubt about that. The fight is being carried on
aboard t’other craft now.”
“God help ’em if they gets the worst of it, poor chaps!” said Ned; “I
don’t believe they’d get quarter from men like Miguel and his mates.”
At this moment a piercing shriek rent the air, followed by a dead
silence which lasted for some seconds. Then we heard loud hails,
apparently from a distance, and answering shouts from some one on
board our brig. This was immediately followed by some orders given
in a piercing voice by an officer on deck.
A rush of men’s feet—a rattling of ropes and blocks—a steady
tramp, tramp, tramp, tramp.
“Bracing up the yards,” said Mr. Triggs, “and altering course to
close t’other craft, which has shot clear of us somehow. That shriek
haunts me, shipmates, and I’m afraid it meant some deed of infamy.”
There was no doubt that the gunner was quite correct as to the
two vessels having in some way swung clear of each other, for we
had noticed for some little time that the two hulls were no longer
clashing and colliding together.
“Well, I’d give summat to be on deck and to see what’s going
forward!” exclaimed Ned impatiently; “and what’s more, I’d like to be
striking a blow for those poor chaps what’s in danger of losing their
vessel.”
Bump, bump, bump! The two ships were evidently alongside each
other once more. We heard shots, the creaking of spars, and the
rattling of cordage, but no sounds of conflict.
The fight had evidently been settled the one way or the other.
A few minutes later, the chief, with a look of animal ferocity
gleaming from his sombre eyes, came slowly down the ladder. He
had a bloodstained bandage around his head, and walked with a
limp. Close at his heels stalked his bloodhound, which had evidently
lost an ear in the fray.
CHAPTER XVIII.
THE PIRATES’ ISLAND.
W HAT the chief’s intention was in seeking us I do not know, for

before he had reached our side of the ship he turned livid,
swayed heavily forward, and fell prone upon the deck, evidently in an
unconscious state.
“The fellow has fainted from loss of blood,” exclaimed the gunner;
“what shall we do?”
“Rather a good job he has, I take it,” said Ned with great
complacency; “for he looked mighty vicious as he came down the
ladder, as if he hadn’t half slaked his thirst for slaughter.”
The bloodhound seemed much concerned at the mishap that had
occurred to its master. For a few seconds it stood and glared at us
ferociously, as if convinced that we were in some way responsible for
what had happened. Its bristles were erect upon its back, and, in the
semi-darkness of the lower deck, its eyes glowed like red-hot coals,
whilst blood oozed from its shred of a mutilated ear and dripped
upon the deck. It flashed across my mind for a moment that the great
beast was going to spring upon us like a tiger upon its prey, and that
with our legs in irons we should be in a very awkward predicament;
but to my immense relief the savage animal at that moment sat down
beside its master, and throwing back its massive head with a jerk,
gave vent to a loud and most pathetic howl.
“If that dogerwauling don’t bring some of the swabs tumbling down
the hatchway, smash my top-lights if anything will!” observed Ned;
“’tis the most onnatural shindy that ever I came across by a long
chalk.”
My coxswain was right. The dog had just lifted his head for
another ear-piercing howl, when a confused hubbub of voices was
heard at the top of the hatchway, and the next moment Miguel and
two or three other swarthy fellows came rushing down the ladder in a
reckless manner, evidently very perturbed in mind.
They were all talking at once, vociferating at the top of their voices,
and gesticulating wildly. All were armed, and bore unmistakable
traces of the late fray.
“Your boss has fainted from loss of blood, I reckon,” said Ned,
pointing out the chief’s motionless recumbent form to Miguel. “He
suddenly fell down as if he had been shot.”
Miguel made some surly rejoinder, the meaning of which we did
not catch. Then he made a sign to his comrades, and together they
stooped and raised their leader’s apparently lifeless body, and bore it
swiftly up the companion ladder, closely followed by the bloodhound.
“I wonder if he’s dead,” I remarked in an awestruck voice as soon
as they were out of sight. “He may have suffered from heart disease,
and the excitement of the battle may have brought on an attack.”
“That’s possible,” said Mr. Triggs; “but it’s much more likely to be
the effect of the wound in his head, which, I expect, was more
serious than he thought.”
Soon after this occurrence Miguel brought us some breakfast of
coffee and brown bread. As the reader may suppose, we did our
best to wheedle some information out of him; but he was even more
taciturn than usual, and would not deign to respond to our questions.
An admirable spy and an admirable jailer, was he not?
Before we had finished our meagre breakfast, we knew that the
two vessels were no longer alongside each other, and that our brig
was cleaving her way through the waves again as if nothing out of
the common had happened. She had doubtless been brought to her
course again; but what of the captured craft? Had a prize crew been
put on board, and was she accompanying us on our mysterious
voyage? We came to the conclusion that this must be so; for there
had been no time to transfer her cargo to the deck of the brig, and
the pirates would not have scuttled her without performing this very
necessary operation.
We were now very careful not to talk on subjects that might be
considered treasonable by our captors, for fear of being overheard. I
managed, by great good fortune, to sleep away a good many hours
of this particular day, which was an uncommonly hot one. The pain in
my head from which I had suffered so much on the two previous
days had now entirely disappeared, but the place where I had been
struck by the miscreant’s pistol was still swollen and sore. For this
latter misfortune, however, I cared but little.
It was about the hour of sunset that Mr. Triggs aroused me from a
fitful slumber into which I had fallen.
“Wake up, Mr. Darcy,” he said; “we’ve come to an anchor.”
I was keenly on the alert in a moment. At anchor! Yes, but where?
Of course, I had been expecting to hear the news at any moment;
and yet, when it came, it gave me a sort of electric shock.
The brig was lying steadily upon the water. I heard the last links of
her cable rumbling out of the hawse-hole. Yes, we were at anchor.
A half-hour of anxious suspense followed, during which we hardly
spoke. I felt very despondent, and so, judging from their looks, did
my companions. Then heavy footsteps resounded on the deck
above us, and half a dozen armed men—one with his left arm in a
sling, and another with a bandaged head—descended the
companion ladder, bringing tools with them wherewith to release us
from our manacles.
This latter operation did not take long, and our guards then
secured our wrists with stout twine and led us on deck. How thankful
I was that they did not blindfold us.
The chief was on his quarter-deck, looking rather haggard. His
head was still bandaged, but was surmounted by a very large broad-
brimmed felt hat. He was armed with his sword and silver-mounted
pistols; and grouped about him were some of his principal followers,
several of whom had evidently not come scathless out of the late
affray. I noticed that upon the upper deck the brig carried six small
brass guns, and abaft all, under a small poop, were stands for rifles
and side-arms. I took all this in with a hasty glance, and then
hurriedly turned my attention to the long, low stretch of land which
was just visible over the port bulwarks.
Was it an island?
I was just debating this point in my mind, and trying to obtain a
clearer view of the brig’s surroundings, and to see if there was
another vessel with us, when I received a severe blow upon the back
from a sheathed sword.
Turning hastily to ascertain who my cowardly assailant was, I
found that it was Miguel, whose face wore its usual malevolent smile.
“Keep eye shut,” he said significantly, “or you get your troat cut,
like plentee moch of ze udder Ingleeshmans!”
I considered that this was a delicate hint worth taking, for I had no
wish to be put out of the way, or even blindfolded. So I cast my eyes
sheepishly to the deck, and answered not a word.
But I very quickly had fresh opportunities of using my powers of
observation. The chief issued some order, and we were at once
marched to the entry-port by our guard, and conveyed down the side
into a large cutter-shaped boat which lay alongside, manned by half
a dozen of the brig’s crew. We were placed in the stern-sheets; and I
had no sooner taken my seat there than my eye fell on a topsail
schooner lying at anchor a few cable-lengths ahead of our own
vessel. Everything on board her looked in great disorder, and I
noticed that some of her rigging was shot away and hanging in
bights, while her sails were loosely flapping about, and her yards and
gaffs at all sorts of queer angles. I heard a confused hubbub of
voices proceeding from her upper deck, but could not see the
speakers owing to the schooner’s very lofty bulwarks.
“Yonder is the prize,” whispered Ned to me; “and a taut little craft
she looks.”
I could not answer him, for I saw Miguel’s glittering eyes upon me.
I gave my coxswain a warning nudge, and at the same moment the
order was given to shove the boat off.
The oars splashed into the water, our bows were turned towards
the land, and the crew struck up some kind of a boat-song with a
weird refrain.
The chief and some of his followers remained on board the brig,
but I fancied that they were preparing to follow in another boat.
There was a dead calm on the sea. The surface was like a mirror,
unruffled by the faintest zephyr of a catspaw. The sky in the west
was aflame with the ruby tints of sunset, fading away above in
delicate gradations of colour into topaz, aquamarine, and pale
sapphire; while faint bars of amethyst cloud, edged with gold,
seemed to hover above the horizon line, as if preparing to follow the
sun on his nightly journey. The exquisite sky-tints were reflected in
the motionless ocean mirror in tender shades of colouring.
I thought of my messmate Fitzgerald, and how he would have
raved about this fairy-like scene; then my mind reverted to my chum,
Charlie Balfour, lying wounded on board the Rattler, and I wondered
if he would be told of my disappearance. Again my thoughts travelled
across the broad seas, and concentrated themselves on my happy
home in the old country; and with tears gathering in my eyes I found
myself muttering a prayer to the Creator of the universe, that those
near and dear to me might never know the painful particulars of my
capture and captivity.
I strove to shake off these gloomy thoughts, and turned my
attention to the island we were now fast approaching.
I could not be certain whether what I saw before me was an island;
but it had every appearance of being so, and I felt sure that we had
not sailed far enough to reach the coast of Central America. An
exuberant tropical vegetation seemed to cover the low hills, and the
shore was fringed with dense groves of palm trees, some of the
latter appearing almost to kiss the waves with their great drooping
fronds. I saw no signs of any inhabitants, or of buildings of any kind,
nor could I detect any traces of cultivated land. As we drew inshore,
however, I noticed that there were numerous outlying cayos, as they
are called in these seas, or coral reefs, covered with exquisite
verdure. To thread one’s way in a boat through these labyrinths of
tiny West Indian islets is often an operation requiring great skill and
nerve, and a thorough knowledge of the winding channels.
The world looked beautiful, bright, and happy, and as if wrapped in
a sublime repose. How strange it seemed that we should form part of
such a fair scene! A band of bloodthirsty pirates, their souls black
with recent crime, were indeed an incongruity in such a picture.
I glanced at them for a moment. Their swarthy, unprepossessing
faces were positively irradiated with the fast-fading roseate tints of
the western sky, but even that could not redeem them. They were
stamped too legibly with the brand of their evil passions.
I had for a long time felt convinced that our captors had no
connection with the Cuban insurgents, or with the mutineers of the
Flying-fish. There could be no doubt that Mr. Triggs had surmised
rightly, and that they were pirates first and smugglers afterwards. It
was merely a coincidence that their great cave happened to be not
far distant from our line of march; and undoubtedly our reliable spies
had mistaken them for a body of insurgents, and had so led us
astray. The pirates’ reason for kidnapping us, of course, I could not
fathom. It remained a mystery.
We threaded our way carefully through the cayos, and presently I
noticed that we were approaching what appeared to be a narrow but
fairly deep lagoon, fringed with mangrove bushes, and overhung with
clumps of tall feathery bamboos, and picturesque palm trees. Flocks
of sea-birds, which had apparently been fishing, rose into the air with
shrill screams of protest as we approached, and then winged their
way seawards.
The boat’s crew had ceased their wild singing, and now began to
pull rather leisurely, the oars dipping very irregularly in and out of the
placid waters.
In a few minutes we were gliding up the lagoon, which seemed to
teem with fish. I noticed that two or three cranes were standing in a
watchful attitude in the shallows, and that kingfishers and several
kinds of waterfowl were seeking the shelter of the mangrove-studded
banks. Far above our heads soared a frigate pelican.
A rude pier, constructed of roughly-hewn logs of wood, now came
into view, and the boat was steered directly for it. The steersman
gave a loud and very peculiar shout, which echoed with weird effect
among the trees, and seemed to die away in mocking laughter on
the slopes of the more distant hills.
Two dark alert-looking figures almost immediately emerged from a
grove of trees near the head of the pier, and gave a shrill answering
shout, at the same time moving forward rapidly in the direction of the
boat. It was now getting dusk, and I could not distinguish them
clearly, as the triumphant glories of the sunset sky were fast fading in
the western heavens.
Amid much jabbering and inane laughter on the part of the crew,
we glided alongside the pier. I just had time to notice that one of the
men who stood there to receive us was old, and wore a grey pointed
beard, although his figure was erect and military-looking. The next
instant, we were hustled out of the boat by our guards, and marched
off without any delay towards the head of the pier. I had time to
notice that four men remained in the boat, and that these fellows
promptly pushed off into deep water, as if with the intention of pulling
off to the brig again for a fresh consignment of passengers.
The two men who had awaited our advent at the pier accompanied
us on our march, and I saw them look at us keenly, and heard them
asking innumerable questions in a very surprised tone of voice,
evidently pumping our captors as to our identity and nationality.
Miguel was the one who principally took upon himself to answer
these queries.
On quitting the rude pier we struck off by an upward gradient on a
broad but roughly-constructed path leading through a grove of palm
trees. The atmosphere here was hot and close, although the sun had
set, and mosquitoes and other insects seemed to swarm in myriads
and caused us much annoyance. The shades of evening were
gathering fast, and the pirates stepped out briskly as if afraid of
being benighted. They were, of course, well armed, and kept a
watchful eye on us, having orders, no doubt, to shoot us dead should
we make the slightest attempt to escape.
I fancied that both Mr. Triggs and my coxswain looked less
anxious than they had done on board the brig. They were marching
just in front of me, and now and again I caught a hasty glimpse of
their faces.
To our great relief, we soon emerged from the palm-grove, and
found ourselves on a small open savannah of natural turf. On the
right hand it sloped away rather abruptly to a sheet of water which
was either a long narrow lake, or the upper strip of the salt water
lagoon that we had just quitted. Its dark waters were only visible here
and there through vistas in the trees that studded the savannah, but I
could see that they swarmed with waterfowl. I found myself
wondering whether the pirates’ brig could be towed through the
outlying cayos into the outer and deeper waters of the lagoon. As the
island seemed to possess no harbour, the brig would otherwise have
to remain in the open roadstead, and run the risk of being perceived
by passing vessels.
The track we were following wound up over the upper slopes of
the savannah, and had evidently been trodden by many feet from
time to time. On our left hand, at the distance of about a hundred
yards, was a belt of somewhat stunted jungle; and beyond the upper
boundary was a precipitous escarpment of rocks and boulders,
amidst which clumps of brushwood and tussocks of long coarse
grass seemed to find soil enough to flourish in. Above these, again,
were other gentle slopes, clothed with trees, terminating in a long,
level, arid-looking ridge destitute of any vegetation, which was
doubtless the backbone of the island.
As we toiled up over the savannah, we came upon the first signs
of a human habitation which we had seen. This was a long low
dwelling with mud walls, and a roof of the flimsiest description
thatched with dried grass. Around the building were a few banana,
bread-fruit, and guava trees; and in front was a large patch of
cultivated ground containing yams and sweet potatoes, which was
being lazily hoed by two sleek-looking and nearly nude negroes. In
the doorway of the house a stout negress, arrayed in a flaring cotton
dress, was seated, nursing a pickaninny, and singing softly to herself
the refrain of some African cradle-song. I noticed the start of
astonishment this black trio gave when their eyes fell upon us. The
negroes ceased working, and leaning upon their hoes stared at us
as if their great rolling black orbs were going to drop out of their
sockets; and the negress, starting to her feet, and placing her baby
in a sort of rude hammock, which was slung under a couple of fruit
trees, waddled toward us with her arms akimbo, and her full-moon
face expressive of the greatest astonishment.
The scene changed in a twinkling, for Miguel and some of his
choice companions attacked these black dependants of theirs with
what was, I am sure, a torrent of invective. The hoers resumed their
work without a word of remonstrance; and the negress, evidently
terrified at the threats hurled at her, fairly turned tail, and attempted
to run in the direction of the hammock in which she had deposited
her pickaninny. Any pace but that of a slow walk, however, was
evidently foreign to this good lady’s habits, and in her confusion she
caught her foot in the root of a tree, and went sprawling on the
ground in a very helpless sort of fashion; for it was evident that she
could not get up again without assistance, and was very much in the
predicament of a turned turtle on the beach. The pickaninny set up a
roar at this critical moment, and I could hear its “mammy” gasping
and spluttering like a stranded fish.
Bearing away sharp to the left, we entered the belt of jungle of
which I spoke before. Here the light was sombre, and, but for the fact
that the trees had been felled along the route, would have been
difficult to traverse.
In about ten minutes we emerged from the belt, and found
ourselves in a singularly arid, barren-looking stretch of country,
which had, I fancied, a volcanic appearance. The island was
certainly larger than I had expected, and appeared to be of
somewhat remarkable formation. Boulders of peculiar shape were
scattered about in all directions, and ridges of scarred and fissured
rock, running up towards the central ridge, broke up the slopes of the
hills into numerous shallow stony ravines, one or two of the latter
conveying streams of water in the direction of the sea.
A small lake of remarkably transparent emerald-green water lay
beneath us, and on its surface was a canoe containing two dark
figures, evidently men engaged in fishing. Miguel gave them a yell
that might have awakened the dead, but we did not pause in our
march for an instant. There came a responsive shout from the lake,
whereupon I saw that the canoe was being paddled to the shore.
The path was now narrower and more stony, but the pirates did
not diminish their pace. The way was tortuous, winding amongst
huge cliff-like rocks, and around the brows of desolate boulder-
strewn hills. Suddenly we arrived upon the verge of what looked like
the large crater of an extinct volcano. Its edges were fringed with
sparse vegetation, but within all was arid and desolate in the
extreme, and the brown, bare, thirsty-looking soil was strewn with
blocks of lava and igneous rocks, where lizards probably held high
revelry whenever they felt in a “jinky” humour.
I jumped two or three feet off the ground!
The old greybeard, who was walking close to my side, had pulled
out a bugle, on which he blew an ear-piercing and mighty blast.
The way the notes echoed and re-echoed in apparently endless
reverberations amid the rocky cliffs of the crater sounded almost
uncanny, at length dying away like the faint mutterings of some evil
spirits lurking in the shadowy ravines.
A couple of vultures soared over our heads, and I fancied I heard
in the distance the mournful howl of a jackal.
The evening air seemed unusually chilly after the sweltering heat
of the day, and in spite of our brisk walk I felt a cold shivering fit
come over me.
As if in response to the bugle blast, half a dozen villanous-looking
fellows came rushing along the path to meet their compatriots. They
eyed us with a broad stare of astonishment, and then fell to
questioning our captors eagerly.
The track now led us down over the lip of the crater, and in a
moment we found ourselves on a sort of terrace strewn with
boulders, and apparently blasted out of the volcanic detritus
deposited centuries before amid frightful convulsions of nature.
CHAPTER XIX.
IN THE CRATER CAVE.
I T was a weird spot, and in the gathering darkness had a

depressing effect upon one’s spirits. Here there might have been
enormous catacombs, where the dead of untold ages had been
brought from other lands to be entombed; and if so, what troops of
uneasy ghosts might be found wandering about the yawning chasms
of the gloomy crater after nightfall!
For was there not the dusky entrance yonder to some land of
hidden rock-tombs?
Before it stood two small brass cannon, their polished mouths
gleaming with a menacing look through the semi-darkness. Beside
these weapons of war stood, neatly arranged, piles of shot.
It flashed across me immediately that the pirates had here some
cave dwellings; perhaps their headquarters, where they kept their
looted cargoes.
I was not long kept in suspense, for our captors hurried us through
the dark entrance which I had noticed in the cliffs as resembling the
gloomy portals to some dreary abode of the dead.
We found ourselves in a beautiful little grotto, low in the roof, but
almost circular in shape. The atmosphere reeked with the strong
fumes of tobacco. On one side several cases, bales of goods, and
barrels were piled, the one on top of the other, and on one of the
latter stood a lighted ship’s lantern, which thoroughly illuminated the
little cavern.
I was enabled to take only a very hurried survey of our new
surroundings, for the pirates hustled us through a very narrow
passage opening from the rear of the cave into another of about the
same dimensions, but irregular in shape, and exceedingly dark and
gloomy in appearance, there being no natural orifices in the roof to
admit light or air. It was in fact a subterranean dungeon, for such in
my present depression of spirits I felt it to be.
One of the pirates struck a match and lit a lantern that he had
brought with him from the outer cave. This he placed in the centre of
the sandy floor. Another individual had brought in a bundle or two of
dried grass, and this he proceeded to strew upon the ground at the
farther end of the little cavern. Upon this Miguel motioned us to take
our seats, a gesture with which we at once complied. All the pirates
now retired to the outer cave, with the exception of the old greybeard
and Miguel, who stood eyeing us for some time without uttering a
word.
Mr. Triggs broke the unpleasant silence.
“It is time, I think, that we should demand some explanation of
your conduct,” he said, speaking slowly, and addressing the mule-
driver. “We should like to know for what reason we have been taken
prisoners, and what is going to be done with us.”
The greybeard evidently did not understand English, for he looked
in a puzzled way at Miguel and addressed some question to him.
The two men conferred together for some minutes, and it was
evident that they disagreed upon some knotty point. At length Miguel
turned to us in rather a sulky manner, and addressing the gunner
said,—
“Ze Captain-General in Havana have gotten in one prison two
mans zat pelong to our ship; and if he shall kill zem, we shall kill you
for ze return complimont, as you shall spik in ze Inglees. We should
have much like better to catch ze Spanish orficer; but Inglees or
Spanish, it can make vaire leetle deference to us.”
“But it makes a deal of difference to us, my fine fellow,” said Mr.
Triggs, with a considerable amount of indignation in his tone; “and I
should like to know how and when you are going to let the Captain-
General know that you have taken us prisoners?”
One of his malevolent smiles flitted across Miguel’s features, and
he shrugged his shoulders disdainfully. Then, slipping his arm
through the greybeard’s, the two quitted the cave without
vouchsafing us another word.
“I wonder whether that fellow is a consummate liar or not,”
whispered the gunner, turning to me.
“I shouldn’t wonder if he was speaking the truth for once,” I
answered in the same low tone. “I think the old greybeard persuaded
him to tell us how matters stand.”
“Not a bad old codger, I’m thinking, that there ancient,” chimed in
Ned; “but I’m dashed if I think Miguel could speak the truth if he tried
for a month of Sundays!”
“You think what he told us was a made-up yarn then?” I asked my
coxswain.
“Yes, sir, I do, and for this here reason. Do you suppose as these
bloomin’ pirates would go and run their heads into a noose just
because a couple of their pals are in chokey? Why, they’d bring a
hornets’ nest about their ears in the shake of a pig’s whisker if they
tried on any such little game! Mighty foolish they’d look, I take it,
strung up in a row like a lot of Yarmouth herrin’s!”
Mr. Triggs looked thoughtful and rather troubled. He was not a
man of much imagination, and was fairly puzzled by the perplexities
of the situation.
“How is your head, my boy?” he asked, turning abruptly to me.
“Much better, thank you, Mr. Triggs. There is still a swelling like a
walnut, but it doesn’t hurt me an atom.”
“Good. How’s your back, Ned?”
“Pretty tol-lollish, sir, thank’ee.”
“These are queer diggings the pirates have,” said I; “and I expect
they’ve more caves even than these two. They couldn’t stow away
very much loot here.”
“’Tis a place that can be very easily defended from an assault,”
remarked Ned. “I should say there was no path leading to the terrace
except the one we arrived by, and the beggars could sweep that in a
murderous manner with their two cannon.”
“True enough, true enough,” assented the gunner; “as far as I
could see ’twas all precipices below and aloft, and ’twould be
something of the nature of a forlorn hope to try to rush it.”
“Don’t you think it would be quite possible for the pirate chief to
communicate with the Spanish authorities, without betraying the
whereabouts of his island?” I asked Ned.
“Do you suppose as the Jack Spaniards don’t know of this here
settlement then?” demanded my coxswain in a surprised tone. “It
may be so, of course, but I shouldn’t be a bit taken aback if I was
told that they were all in the swim, and winked at it.”
I could tell by the expression of Mr. Triggs’s face that he didn’t
much believe in this theory of Ned’s; but at this moment some of our
captors entered with supper, and we relapsed into silence. The meal
consisted of a sort of kedgeree, made of fresh fish and boiled rice,
and would have been palatable enough if the cook had not used
garlic as a flavouring. We were all allowed to discuss our supper at
the same time, but four armed men took up their position as sentries
just within our cave-entrance, and looked quite capable of shooting
us at a moment’s notice.
From a subsequent uproar of shouting and talking in the outer
cavern, I gathered that the chief and some more of his followers had
arrived, and I was confirmed in this belief by hearing the deep baying
of the bloodhounds. None of these late arrivals, however, intruded
themselves upon us, which I attributed partly to the indisposition of
the chief.
The atmosphere of our cave grew very oppressive as evening
wore on, all the more that it was permeated with clouds of smoke
from strong tobacco; but in spite of all this I slept soundly, worn out
with fatigue and anxiety.
The next day, nothing occurred to break the monotony of our
captivity. We were not permitted to leave the cavern, and its gloom
and foul atmosphere were depressing. Nevertheless, our guards did
not prevent our talking, which was indeed a precious boon, but we
took especial care not to abuse the privilege. Every evening our
arms were bound, and four armed sentries were always on watch
day and night.
Every morning when I awoke, it was with a hope in my heart that
we should hear during the day the roar of the Rattler’s guns, or of
some war-vessel sent by the Spanish Government to demand our
release. Every evening I had to confess to bitter disappointment, for
no such warlike sounds had thundered forth.
Day after day passed in this manner, and we began to grow sick at
heart. Had Captain Graves and our shipmates deserted us in our
hour of need? No; we scouted the idea indignantly. They must have
utterly failed to trace us. There was no other explanation. Mr. Triggs
and I began to think too that Ned was right in his conjecture that
Miguel had been telling us falsehoods regarding the Captain-General
of Cuba. If there was any question of exchanging prisoners, why all
this delay?
After the first few days of our captivity had passed, we were
allowed to go out on the terrace for an hour every day about the time
of sunset. If this privilege had been withheld, we should soon have
become very ill, for the weather was extremely oppressive; and the
cool sea-breezes, which ought to have tempered the fierce heat
during the day, did not seem able to penetrate into the great hollow
of the volcanic crater. We badly wanted a change of clothing, but
there was no means of obtaining it. Occasionally, however, we were
allowed to perform our ablutions.
I think about a fortnight must have passed, when it came to our
knowledge through various channels that the chief and a good many
of his followers had gone off upon some expedition, whether on the
island or by sea we did not know. Miguel remained behind, and the
greybeard. This event caused much comment amongst us. I noticed
that Ned visibly brightened up.
“Ah, how I wish we could get a chance to give the swabs the slip!”
the latter whispered to me just after our arms had been bound that
evening. “It’s when their numbers are reduced like this that we could

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Students Say Instructors Require

Student Resources: Instructor Resources

+ What is CB and Why

Value and the Consumer

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PART II INTERNAL INFLUENCES 52

PART IIi EXTERNAL INFLUENCES 158

PART IV SITUATIONS AND DECISION MAKING 228

PART V CONSUMPTION AND BEYOND 286

Brief Contents iii

1-5 Consumer Behavior Is Dynamic 20

2 Value and the Consumer

2-2 Value and Its Two Basic Types 30

Part 2 3-6b Unintentional Learning 67

internal influences 4 Comprehension, Memory,

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4-2 Multiple Store Theory of Acquiring, Storing,

4-3 Making Associations with Meaning as a Key

3 Consumer Learning Starts

4-4 Associative Networks and Consumer

7-5 Attitude Change Theories

External Influences 8-6b

9 Consumer Culture 180

9-1c Cultural Norms 182

9-2 Using Core Societal Values 184

8 Group and Interpersonal

9-3 How Is Culture Learned? 192

Social Media’s Role in Group and

11-6 Antecedent Conditions 247

Part 4 11-6a Economic Resources 247

Situations and 11-6c Mood 249

12-2 Decision-Making Perspectives 253

12-2a Rational Decision-Making Perspective 254

12-3 Decision-Making Approaches 255

11 Consumers in Situations 228 12-3c Habitual Decision Making 256

12-4 Need Recognition, Internal Search,

15-2 Complaining and Spreading WOM 306

15-3 Switching Behavior 313

15-3b Financial Switching Costs 314

15-4 Consumer Loyalty 316

16-6 Public Criticism of Marketing 341

16 Consumer and Marketing

Includes Videos & Other CB8

What Is CB and Why Should

Value and the Consumer

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1 What Is CB and Why

1-1 Understand the meaning of consumption and consumer behavior.

1-4 Be familiar with basic approaches to studying consumer behavior.

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2 PART ONE: Introduction

CHAPTER 1: What Is CB and Why Should I Care? 3

1. The actual human thoughts, feelings, and actions

Imagine climbing inside a tube that is

Part 4 11-6a Economic Resources 247

12-2a Rational Decision-Making Perspective 254

11 Consumers in Situations 228 12-3c Habitual Decision Making 256