Test Bank for Marketing for Hospitality and Tourism 6th Edition Kotler

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MULTIPLE CHOICE. Choose the one alternative that best completes the statement or
answers the question.
1) The fact that services cannot be seen, tasted, felt, or smelled relates to 1)
which service characteristic?
A) perishability B) intangibility
C) inseparability D) variability

2) The fact that a business traveler will have a very positive check-in 2)
experience during one stay at a hotel and then a very negative check-in
experience the next time is an issue related to which service
characteristic?
A) variability B) inseparability
C) perishability D) intangibility

3) If you manage a 200-room hotel, and only sell 150 rooms tonight, you 3)
can't stockpile the
extra 50 rooms to sell tomorrow. This is a problem with the
of services.
A) inseparability B) perishability
C) variability D) intangibility

4) We as customers cannot take service on a "test drive," meaning we 4)

cannot evaluate them before we use them. This is a problem with the
of the service.
A) inseparability B) variability
C) intangibility D) perishability

5) Because services are characterized by the issue of inseparability, service 5)

providers will often have to:
A) lower their prices.
B) train the customers.
C) reduce inventory.
D) minimize the inseparability issue.

6) Which of the following is NOT a link in the service-product chain? 6)

A) greater service value
B) satisfied and productive service employees
C) increasingly intangible services
D) healthy service profits and growth

7) Perhaps the best measure of service quality is: 7)

A) low employee turnover. B) customer retention.
C) profitability. D) total sales.
8) Which of the following statements is FALSE? 8)
A) CRM combines marketing, business strategy and
information technology to better understand customers.
B) One goal of CRM is to make switching costs high.
C) CRM calls for developing unique and lasting relationships with
costumers.
D) The use of CRM in the hospitality industry appears to be strong.
 9) A casino employee's uniform or a restaurant's fancy front lobby are a 9)
means of:
A) overspending on the part of the service provider.
B) tangibilizing the service.
C) paying attention to the perishability of the service.
D) creating overly high expectations on the part of the customer.

10) Studies have shown the best way to deal with service failure is to: 10)
A) give the unhappy customer timely information regarding
the failure.
B) refund the customer's money whenever a failure occurs.
C) replace the unhappy customer with a happier one.
D) ignore the failure in the hopes the customer will forget about it.
TRUE/FALSE. Write 'T' if the statement is true and 'F' if the statement is false.
11) In general, government-run tourism promotion organizations have not 11)
assumed responsibility for the quality of the services they promote.

12) It is no longer possible for one restaurant to sue another over the "trade 12)
dress" issue.

13) Empowering employees in part means giving them the authority to tend 13)
to customer needs.

14) The perishability of a service is especially a problem when demand 14)

fluctuates.

15) So long as a company sets high standards for service quality, it is not 15)
necessary to evaluate its actual performance.

16) Bill Marriott would say that the first set of people you need to satisfy are 16)
your customers.

17) To reduce uncertainty caused by service intangibility, buyers look for 17)
whatever tangible evidence they can find that will provide information
about the service.

18) Within the realm of Customer Relationship Management (CRM) 18)

switching costs are only monetary in nature.

19) Most restaurant kitchens would be considered examples of invisible 19)

organizations.

SHORT ANSWER. Write the word or phrase that best completes each statement or answers
the question.
20) Service marketers must be concerned with four characteristics of 2 0)
services. What are they? Describe each.
2
22) Successful service companies focus their attention on both their 22)
employees and customers. They understand the service profit
chain, which links service from profits with employee and
customer satisfaction. List and describe the five links that
make up the service profit chain.

23) Resolving customer complaints can sometimes be a difficult 23)

scenario in the hospitality industry. Service quality will always
vary, depending on the interactions between employees and
customers. Problems inevitably will occur. As the manager of
a high volume establishment what measures will you take to
resolve customer complaints?

24) How can managing the customer relationship be used to 24)

enhance revenues and retain customers?
 1) B
2) A
3) B
4) C
5) B
6) C
7) B
8) D
9) B
10) A
11) TRUE
12) FALSE
13) TRUE
14) TRUE
15) FALSE
16) FALSE
17) TRUE
18) FALSE
19) TRUE
20) Service intangibility; unlike physical products, services cannot be seen, tasted, felt,
heard, or smelled before the are purchased. In the hospitality industry, many of the
products sold are intangible experiences or great memories. To reduce the uncertainty
caused by service intangibility, buyers look for tangible evidence that will provide
information and confidence about the service.
Service inseparability; in most hospitality services, both the service provider and the
customer must be present for the transaction to occur. The food in a restaurant may be
superior, but if the service is off customers will not be satisfied. Service inseparability also
means that customers are part of the product.
Service variability; Services are highly variable, their quality depends on who provides
them and when and where they are provided. There are several causes of service
variability. Services are produced and consumed simultaneously, which limits quality
control. Fluctuating demand makes it difficult to deliver consistent products during
periods of peak demand. The thigh degree of contact between the service provider and
the guest means that product consistency depends on the service providers skills and
performance at the time of the exchange.
Perishability; services cannot be stored for future use, an empty seat or room is revenue lost
forever. Because of this perishability, some hospitality businesses are charging guests that
hold reservations even when they fail to arrive.
21) Invest in good hiring and training procedures; recruiting the right employees and
providing them with excellent training is crucial.
Standardize the service-performance process throughout the organization; diagramming
the service delivery system in a service blueprint can simultaneously map out he service
process, the points of customer contact and the evidence of service from a customers
point of view.
Monitor customer satisfaction; Employee suggestion and complaint systems,
customer surveys, and comparison shopping. hospitality companies have the
advantage of knowing their customers.
22) 1. Healthy service profits and growth—superior service firm performance.2. Satisfied and
loyal customers—satisfied customers who remain loyal, repeat purchase, and refer other
customers.
3. Greater service value—more effective and efficient customer value creation and service
deliv ied and productive service employees—more satisfied, loyal, and hard-working
ery. employees.
4. 5. Internal service quality—superior employee selection and training, a high-quality
work Satisf environment, and strong support for those dealing with customers.
23) In order to have effective complaint resolution managers must empower frontline service
employees--to give them the authority, responsibility, and incentives they need to
recognize, care about, and tend to customers needs. Empowered employees can act
quickly and effectively to keep service problems from resulting in lost customers. In
complaint resolution there are two important factors. First, resolve complaints quickly and
second, seek out complaints--fix them before they happen. Most customers do not
complain--they just never come back, so empowering service employees with the
authority to deal with complaints will enhance communication with customers and
management--giving management information necessary to reduce or maybe even
eliminate complaints.
24) Customer relationship management is a managerial philosophy and practice that has
received widespread acceptance in many industries. It combines marketing, business
strategy, and information technology to better understand the customers, to custom
develop products for key customers, and to develop closer relationships with key
customers.
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between the leaves. These gillbearing appendages can be flapped to
and fro, and they seem to be at times held apart by the flabellum, a
spatulate process which Patten and Redenbaugh regard as a
development of the median sensory knob on the outer side of the
coxopodite of the last pair of walking limbs.
Limulus has no trace of
Malpighian tubules, structures
which seem often to develop only
when animals cease to live in
water and come to live in air. The
Xiphosura have retained as
organs of nitrogenous excretion
the more primitive nephridia, or
coxal glands as they are called, in
the Arachnida. They are redbrick
in colour, and consist of a
longitudinal portion on each side
of the body, which gives off a lobe
opposite the base of the pedipalps
and each of the first three walking
legs—in the embryo also of the
chelicerae and last walking legs,
but these latter disappear during
development. A duct leads from
Fig. 155.—Diagram of the first gill of
Limulus, from the posterior side,
the interior of the gland and
showing the distribution of the gill- opens upon the posterior face of
nerve to the gill-book (about natural the last pair of walking legs but
size). After Patten and Redenbaugh. 1, one.
Inner lobe of the appendage; 2, outer The nervous system has been
lobe of appendage; 3, median lobe of
appendage; 4, gill-book; 5, neural nerve
very fully described by Patten and
of the ninth neuromere; 6, internal Redenbaugh, and its complex
branchial nerve; 7, gill-nerve; 8, nature plays a large part in the
median branchial nerve; 9, external ingenious speculations of Dr.
branchial nerve. Gaskell as to the origin of
Vertebrates. It consists of a stout
ring surrounding the oesophagus
and a ventral nerve-cord, composed—if we omit the so-called fore-
brain—of sixteen neuromeres. The fore-brain supplies the median
and the lateral eyes, and gives off a median nerve which runs to an
organ, described as olfactory by Patten, situated in front of the
chelicerae on the ventral face of the carapace. Patten distinguishes
behind the fore-brain a mid-brain, which consists solely of the
cheliceral neuromere, a hind-brain which supplies the pedipalps and
four pair of walking legs, and an accessory brain which supplies the
chilaria and the genital operculum. This is continued backward into a
ventral nerve-cord which bears five paired ganglia supplying the five
pairs of gills and three pairs of post-branchial ganglia; the latter are
ill-defined and closely fused together. As was mentioned above, the
whole of the central nervous system is bathed in the blood of the
ventral sinus.
The sense-organs consist of the olfactory organ of Patten, the
median and lateral eyes, and possibly of certain gustatory hairs upon
the gnathobases. The lateral eyes in their histology are not so
differentiated as the median eyes, but both fall well within the limits
of Arachnid eye-structure, and their minute anatomy has been
advanced as one piece of evidence amongst many which tend to
demonstrate that Limulus is an Arachnid.
Both ovaries and testes take the form of a tubular network which is
almost inextricably entangled with the liver. From each side a duct
collects the reproductive cells which are formed from cells lining the
walls of the tubes, and discharges them by a pore one on each side of
the hinder surface of the genital operculum. As is frequently the case
in Arachnids the males are smaller than the females, and after their
last ecdysis the pedipalps and first two pairs of walking legs, or some
of these appendages, end in slightly bent claws and not in chelae. Off
the New Jersey coast the king-crabs (L. polyphemus) spawn during
the months of May, June, and July, Lockwood states at the periods of
highest tides, but Kingsley[217] was never “able to notice any
connexion between the hours when they frequent the shore and the
state of the tide.” “When first seen they come from the deeper water,
the male, which is almost always the smaller, grasping the hinder
half of the carapace of the female with the modified pincer of the
second pair of feet. Thus fastened together the male rides to shallow
water. The couples will stop at intervals and then move on. Usually a
nest of eggs can be found at each of the stopping-places, and as each
nest is usually buried from one to two inches beneath the surface of
the sand, it appears probable that the female thrusts the genital plate
into the sand, while at the same time the male discharges the milt
into the water. I have not been able to watch the process more closely
because the animals lie so close to the sand, and all the appendages
are concealed beneath the carapace. If touched during the
oviposition, they cease the operation and wander to another spot or
separate and return to deep water. I have never seen the couples
come entirely out of the water, although they frequently come so
close to the shore that portions of the carapace are uncovered.”[218]
Fig. 156.—A view of the nervous system of Limulus from below.
(About natural size.) After Patten and Redenbaugh.

The carapace is represented as transparent. The appendages have

been removed, but the outlines of the left entocoxites (6) have
been sketched in. The positions of the abdominal appendages are
indicated by the external branchial muscles (17), the branchial
cartilages (19), the tendinous stigmata (18), and the abdominal
endochondrites (21). In the cephalothorax (1) all the tergo-coxal
and plastro-coxal muscles have been dissected away, leaving the
endosternite (11) with the occipital ring exposed. One of the left
tergo-proplastral muscles (4) and the left branchio-thoracic
muscles (16) are represented. The longitudinal abdominal muscles
are also seen. All the muscles of the right side have been omitted
except the haemo-neural muscles (23), of which the last two are
represented upon the left side also. At the base of the telson the
flexors (29) and extensors (27) of the caudal spine are represented
as cut off near their insertions. The sphincter ani (26), levator ani,
and occludor ani (25), and their relations to the anus (28), are
shown.

The oesophagus runs forward to the proventriculus (3). From this

the intestine (20) passes posteriorly.

The brain lies upon the neural side of the endosternite, and the
ventral cord (22) passes back through the occipital ring. The
neural nerves are cut off, but the left haemal nerves and those
from the fore-brain (12) are represented entire.

The first pair of neural nerves go to the chelicerae. The second to

sixth pairs go to the next five cephalothoracic appendages, which
are represented by the entocoxites (6). The seventh pair of neural
nerves go to the chilaria, and the eighth pair to the operculum.
The neural nerves from the ninth to the thirteenth arise from the
abdominal ganglia and innervate the five pairs of gills.

From the fore-brain a median olfactory nerve (9) and two lateral
ones (8) pass forward to the olfactory organ; a median eye-nerve
(2) passes anteriorly and haemally upon the right of the
proventriculus (3) to the median eyes; and a pair of lateral eye-
nerves pass to the lateral eyes (15).

The first haemal nerve, or lateral nerve, follows the general course
of the lateral eye-nerve, but continues posteriorly far back on to
the neural side of the abdomen.

The haemal nerves of the hind-brain radiate from the brain to the
margins of the carapace, and each one passes anterior to the
appendage of its own metamere. The integumentary portions
divide into haemal and neural branches, of which the haemal
branches (5) are cut off. Each haemal branch gives off a small
nerve which turns back toward the median line upon the haemal
side of the body.

The haemal nerves of the accessory brain pass through the

occipital ring to the sides of the body between the operculum and
the sixth cephalothoracic appendage. The seventh innervates the
posterior angles of the cephalothorax, the eighth the opercular
portion of the abdomen. The next five haemal nerves arise from
the five branchial neuromeres, pass out anterior to the gills to the
sides of the abdominal carapace, and innervate the first five spines
upon the sides of the abdomen.

The first post-branchial nerve innervates the last abdominal

spine; the second post-branchial nerve and one branch of the
third post-branchial innervate the posterior angles of the
abdomen and the muscles of the telson; and the caudal branch of
the third post-branchial nerve innervates the telson.

Intestinal branches arise from all the haemal nerves from the sixth
to the sixteenth, and pass to the longitudinal abdominal muscles
and to the intestine.

Cardiac nerves arise from all the haemal nerves from the sixth to
the thirteenth. Six of the cardiac nerves communicate with the
lateral sympathetic nerve (24), which innervates the branchio-
thoracic muscles (16).

Two post-cardiac nerves arise from the first two post-branchial

nerves, and passing to the haemal side anastomose with a branch
from the last cardiac nerve, and innervate the extensors (27) of the
telson and the epidermis behind the heart.

1, Cephalothorax; 2, median eye-nerve; 3, proventriculus; 4, tergo-

proplastral muscles; 5, haemal branch of integumentary nerve; 6,
entocoxites; 7, 2nd haemal nerve; 8, right olfactory nerve; 9,
median olfactory nerve; 10, intestine; 11, endosternite; 12, fore-
brain; 13, origin of 4th neural nerve; 14, lateral nerve; 15, lateral
eye; 16, branchio-thoracic muscles; 17, external branchial muscles;
 18, tendinous stigmata; 19, branchial cartilages; 20, intestine; 21,
abdominal endochondrites; 22, ventral cord; 23, haemo-neural
muscles; 24, lateral sympathetic nerve; 25, occludor ani; 26,
sphincter ani; 27, extensors of telson; 28, anus; 29, flexors of
telson; 30, lateral projections of abdomen; 31, nerves of spines;
32, external branchial muscles.

The developing ova and young larvae are very hardy, and in a little
sea-water, or still better packed in sea-weed, will survive long
journeys. In this way they have been transported from the Atlantic to
the Pacific coasts of the United States, and for a time at any rate
flourished in the western waters. Three barrels full of them
consigned from Woods Holl to Sir E. Ray Lankester arrived in
England with a large proportion of larvae alive and apparently well.
According to Kishinouye, L. longispina spawns chiefly in August
and between tide-marks. “The female excavates a hole about 15 cm.
deep, and deposits eggs in it while the male fertilises them. The
female afterwards buries them, and begins to excavate the next
hole.”[219] A line of nests (Fig. 157) is thus established which is always
at right angles to the shore-line. After a certain number of nests have
been formed the female tires, and the heaped up sand is not so
prominent. In each “nest” there are about a thousand eggs, placed
first to the left side of the nest and then to the right, from which
Kishinouye concludes that the left ovary deposits its ova first and
then the right. Limulus rotundicauda and L. moluccanus do not bury
their eggs, but carry them about attached to their swimmerets.
The egg is covered by a leathery egg-shell which bursts after a
certain time, and leaves the larva surrounded only by the
blastodermic cuticle; when ripe it emerges in the condition known as
the “Trilobite larva” (Fig. 158), so-called from a superficial and
misleading resemblance to a Trilobite. They are active little larvae,
burrowing in the sand like their parents, and swimming vigorously
about by aid of their leaf-like posterior limbs. Sometimes they are
taken in tow-nets. After the first moult the segments of the meso-
and metasoma, which at first had been free, showing affinities with
Prestwichia and Belinurus of Palaeozoic times, become more
solidified, while the post-anal tail-spine—absent in the Trilobite larva
—makes its first appearance. This increases in size with successive
moults. We have already noted the late appearance of the external
sexual characters, the chelate
walking appendages only being
replaced by hooks at the last
moult.
Fig. 157.—The markings on the sand
made by the female Limulus when
depositing eggs. Towards the lower end
the round “nests” cease to be apparent,
the king-crab being apparently
exhausted. (From Kishinouye.) About
natural size.

Fig. 158.—Dorsal and ventral view of the last larval stage (the so-
called Trilobite stage) of Limulus polyphemus before the
appearance of the telson. 1, Liver; 2, median eye; 3, lateral eye; 4,
last walking leg; 5, chilaria. (From Kingsley and Takano.)

Limulus casts its cuticle several times during the first year—
Lockwood estimates five or six times between hatching out in June
and the onset of the cold weather. The cuticle splits along a “thin
narrow rim” which “runs round the under side of the anterior
portion of the cephalic shield.”[220] This extends until it reaches that
level where the animal is widest. Through this slit the body of the
king-crab emerges, coming out, not as that of a beetle anteriorly and
dorsally, but anteriorly and ventrally, in such a way as to induce the
unobservant to exclaim “it is spewing itself out of its mouth.” In one
nearly full-sized animal the increase in the shorter diameter of the
cephalic shield after a moult was from 8 inches to 9½ inches, which
is an indication of very rapid growth. If after their first year they
moult annually Lockwood estimates it would take them eight years to
attain their full size.
The only economic use I know to which Limulus is put is that of
feeding both poultry and pigs. The females are preferred on account
of the eggs, of which half-a-pint may be crowded into the cephalic
shield. The king-crab is opened by running a knife round the thin
line mentioned on p. 275. There is a belief in New Jersey that this
diet makes the poultry lay; undoubtedly it fattens both fowls and
pigs, but it gives a “shocking” flavour to the flesh of both.

CLASSIFICATION.

But five species of existing King-crabs are known, and these are
grouped by Pocock into two sub-families: (i.) the Xiphosurinae, and
(ii.) the Tachypleinae. These together make up the single family
Xiphosuridae which is co-extensive with the Order. The following is
Pocock’s classification.[221] The names used in this article are printed
in italic capitals.

Order Xiphosura.

Family 1. Xiphosuridae.

Sub-Fam. 1. Xiphosurinae.

This includes the single species Xiphosura polyphemus (Linn.) (=

Limulus polyphemus, Latreille), “which is said to range from the
coast of Maine to Yucatan.”

Sub-Fam. 2. Tachypleinae.

Genus A. Tachypleus includes three species: (i.) T. gigas, Müll. (=

Limulus gigas, Müll., and L. moluccanus, Latreille), widely
distributed in Malaysia; (ii.) T. tridentatus, Leach (= L. tridentatus,
Leach, and L. longispina, Van der Hoeven), extending from British
North Borneo to China and Southern Japan; and (iii.) T. hoeveni,
Pocock (= L. moluccanus, Van der Hoeven), found in the Moluccas.
Genus B. Carcinoscorpius with one species, C. rotundicauda
(Latreille) (= L. rotundicauda, Latreille). It occupies a more
westerly area than T. gigas or than T. tridentatus, having been
recorded from India and Bengal, the Gulf of Siam, Penang, the
Moluccas, and the Philippines.
With regard to the affinities of the group it is now almost
universally accepted that they are Arachnids. The chief features in
which they differ from other Arachnids are the presence of gills and
the absence of Malpighian tubules, both being features associated
with aquatic life. As long ago as 1829 Straus-Dürckheim emphasised
the points of resemblance between the two groups, and although the
view was during the middle of the last century by no means
universally accepted, towards the end of that epoch the painstaking
researches of Lankester and his pupils, who compared the King-crab
and the Scorpion, segment with segment, organ with organ, tissue
with tissue, almost cell with cell, established the connexion beyond
doubt. Lankester would put the Trilobites in the same phylum, but in
this we do not follow him. With regard to the brilliant but, to our
mind, unconvincing speculations as to the connexion of some
Limulus-like ancestor with the Vertebrates, we must refer the reader
to the ingenious writings of Dr. Gaskell,[222] recently summarised in
his volume on “The Origin of Vertebrates,” and to those of Dr. Patten
in his article “On the Origin of Vertebrates from Arachnids.”[223]

Fossil Xiphosura.[224]

Limulus is an example of a persistent type. It appears first in

deposits of Triassic age, and is found again in the Jurassic,
Cretaceous, and Oligocene. In the lithographic limestone of
Solenhofen in Bavaria, which is of Upper Jurassic age, Limulus is
common and is represented by several species. One species is known
from the Chalk of Lebanon, and another occurs in the Oligocene of
Saxony. No other genus of the Xiphosura appears to be represented
in the Mesozoic and Tertiary deposits, but in the Palaeozoic
formations (principally in the Upper Silurian, the Old Red
 Sandstone, and the Coal
Measures) several genera have
been found, most of which differ
from Limulus in having some or
all of the segments of the
abdomen free; in this respect they
resemble the Eurypterida, but
differ from them in the number of
segments. In Hemiaspis (Fig. 159,
A), from the Silurian, the
segments of the abdomen are
Fig. 159.—A., Hemiaspis limuloides, divisible into two groups
Woodw., Upper Silurian, Leintwardine,
Shropshire. Natural size. (After (mesosoma and metasoma) in the
Woodward.) B., Prestwichia (Euroöps) same way that they are in
danae (Meek), Carboniferous, Illinois, Eurypterids; the first six
× ⅔. (After Packard.) segments have broad, short terga,
the lateral margins of the sixth
being divided into two lobes,
probably indicating the presence of two fused segments; the last
three segments are narrower and longer than the preceding, and at
the end is a pointed tail-spine. In Belinurus (Fig. 160) from the
Carboniferous, the two regions of the abdomen are much less
distinct; there are eight segments, the last three of which are fused
together, and a long tail-spine. In Neolimulus, from the Silurian,
there seems to be no division of the abdomen into two regions, and
apparently all the segments were free. On the other hand, in
Prestwichia (Carboniferous), all the segments of the abdomen, of
which there appear to be seven only, were fused together (Fig. 159,
B).
In the Palaeozoic genera the median or axial part of the dorsal
surface is raised and distinctly limited on each side, so presenting a
trilobed appearance similar to that of Trilobites. In Neolimulus,
Belinurus, and Prestwichia, lateral eyes are present on the sides of
the axial parts of the carapace, and near its front margin median eyes
have been found in the two last-named genera.
In nearly all the specimens of Palaeozoic Xiphosura[225] which have
been found nothing is seen but the dorsal surface of the body; in only
a very few cases have any traces of the appendages been seen,[226]
but, so far as known, they appear
to have the same general
character as in Limulus.
Aglaspis, found in the Upper
Cambrian of Wisconsin, has been
regarded as a Xiphosuran. If that
view of its position is correct,
then Aglaspis will be the earliest
representative of the group at
present known. Other genera of
Palaeozoic Xiphosura are
Bunodes, Bunodella, and
Pseudoniscus in the Silurian;
Protolimulus in the Upper
Devonian; and Prolimulus in the
Permian.

Fig. 160.—Belinurus reginae, Baily,

Coal Measures, Queen’s Co., Ireland, ×
1. (After Woodward).
 EURYPTERIDA

BY

HENRY WOODS, M.A.

St. John’s College, Cambridge, University Lecturer in Palaeozoology.
 CHAPTER XI
ARACHNIDA (CONTINUED)—
DELOBRANCHIATA = MEROSTOMATA
(CONTINUED)—EURYPTERIDA

Order II. Eurypterida.

The Eurypterida or Gigantostraca are found only in the Palaeozoic

formations. Some species of Pterygotus, Slimonia, and Stylonurus
have a length of from five to six feet, and are not only the largest
Invertebrates which have been found fossil but do not seem to be
surpassed in size at the present day except by some of the
Dibranchiate Cephalopods. All the Eurypterids were aquatic, and,
with the possible exception of forms found in the Coal Measures, all
were marine. The earliest examples occur in the Cambrian deposits,
and the latest in the Permian; but although the Eurypterids have
thus a considerable geological range, yet it is mainly in the Silurian
and the Old Red Sandstone that they are found, the principal genera
represented in those deposits being Eurypterus, Stylonurus,
Slimonia, Pterygotus, Hughmilleria, Dolichopterus, and Eusarcus.
From the Cambrian rocks the only form recorded is Strabops;[227] in
the Ordovician the imperfectly known Echinognathus[228] and some
indeterminable fragments have alone been found. In the
Carboniferous deposits Eurypterus and Glyptoscorpius occur, and
the former survived into the Permian.[229]
Fig. 161.—Eurypterus fischeri, Eichw. Upper Silurian, Rootziküll,
Oesel. Dorsal surface. a, Ocellus; b, lateral eye; 2–6, appendages
of prosoma; 7–12, segments of mesosoma; 13–18, segments of
metasoma; 19, tail-spine. (After Holm.)
 The Eurypterid which is best known is Eurypterus fischeri (Figs.
161, 162), which is found in the Upper Silurian rocks at Rootziküll in
the Island of Oesel (Gulf of Riga). In the Eurypterids from other
deposits the chitinous exoskeleton has been altered into a
carbonaceous substance, but in the specimens from Oesel the chitin
is perfectly preserved in its original condition; and since these
specimens are found in a dolomitic rock which is soluble in acid, it
has been possible to separate the fossil completely from the rock in
which it is embedded, with the result that the structure can be
studied more easily and more thoroughly than in the case of
specimens from other localities. Consequently Eurypterus
fischeri[230] may, with advantage, be taken as a type of the
Eurypterida.
The general form of the body (Fig. 161) is somewhat like that of a
Scorpion, but is relatively broader and shorter. On the surface of
many parts of the exoskeleton numerous scale-like markings are
found (Figs. 162, 163).[231] The prosoma or cephalothorax consists
of six fused segments covered by a quadrate carapace with its front
angles rounded. This bears on its dorsal surface two pairs of eyes—
large kidney-shaped lateral eyes and median ocelli (Fig. 161, b, a).
The margin of the dorsal part of the carapace is bent underneath to
form a rim which joins the ventral part of the carapace.
On the ventral surface of the prosoma (Fig. 162) six pairs of
appendages are seen, of which only the first pair (the chelicerae) are
in front of the mouth. The chelicerae are small, and each consists of a
basal joint and a chela, the latter being found parallel to the axis of
the body; they closely resemble the chelicerae of Limulus. The
remaining five pairs of appendages are found at the sides of the
elongate mouth, and in all these the gnathobases of the coxae are
provided with teeth at their inner margins and were able to function
in mastication, whilst the distal part of each appendage served as an
organ of locomotion. The posterior part of each coxa is plate-like and
is covered (except in the case of the sixth appendage) by the coxa of
the next appendage behind. A small process or “epicoxite” is found at
the posterior end of the toothed part of the coxae of the second,
third, fourth, and fifth pairs of appendages. The second appendage
consists of seven joints, whilst the remaining four consist of eight
joints; none of these appendages end in chelae. The second, third,[232]
and fourth pairs of appendages are similar to one another in
structure, but become successively larger from before backwards.
These three pairs are directed radially outwards; each consists of
short joints tapering to the end of the limb, and bearing spines at the
sides and on the under surface, and also a spine at the end of the last
joint.
Fig. 162.—Eurypterus fischeri, Eichw. Upper Silurian, Rootziküll,
Oesel. Restoration of ventral surface; 1–6, appendages of
prosoma; m, metastoma. Immediately posterior to the metastoma
is the “median process” of the genital operculum. (After Holm.)
 The fifth appendage is longer than the fourth and is directed
backwards; its second and third joints are short and ring-like; the
others (fourth to eighth) are long and similar to one another, each
being of uniform width throughout; the last joint is produced into a
spine on each side, and between these two is the movable end-spine;
the other joints do not bear long spines as is the case in the three
preceding pairs of appendages.
The sixth appendage is much larger and stronger than the others,
and like the fifth, is without long spines. The coxa is large and
quadrate; the second and third joints are short, like those of the fifth
appendage; the fourth, fifth, and sixth joints are longer and more or
less bell-shaped; the seventh and eighth joints are much larger than
the others and are flattened.
The metastoma (Fig. 162, m) is an oval plate immediately behind
the mouth; it covers the inner parts of the coxae of the sixth pair of
appendages, and represents the chilaria of Limulus. But, unlike the
latter, it is not a paired structure; nevertheless the presence of a
longitudinal groove on its anterior part renders probable the view
that it is derived from a paired organ.[233] The front margin of the
metastoma is indented and toothed. On its inner side in front is a
transverse plate, the endostoma, which is not seen from the exterior,
since the front margin of the metastoma extends a little beyond it.
Behind the prosoma are twelve free segments, of which the first six
form the mesosoma (Fig. 161, 7–12). The tergum on the dorsal
surface of each segment is broad and short, the middle part being
slightly convex and the lateral parts slightly concave; the external
margin is bent under, thus forming a narrow rim on the ventral
surface. The tergum of each segment overlaps the one next behind.
The segments increase in breadth slightly up to the fourth segment,
posterior to which they gradually become narrower.
On the ventral surface the segments of the mesosoma bear pairs of
plate-like appendages, each of which overlaps the one behind like the
tiles on a roof. On the posterior (or inner) surfaces of these
appendages are found the lamellar branchiae, which are oval in
outline (Fig. 165, d). Between the two appendages of the first pair is a
median process which is genital in function; this pair are larger than
the other appendages, and cover both first and second segments, the
latter being without any appendages, and they represent the genital