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Printed in the United States of America

Print Number: 01 Print Year: 2017
S i d lo w / H e n s c h e n
Brief Contents
GOVT 10
PART I The Foundations of Our American System 1

1 America in the Twenty-First Century 2
2 The Constitution 24
3 Federalism 48
PART II Our Liberties and Rights 72

4 Civil Liberties 72
5 Civil Rights 98
PART III The Politics of Democracy 122

6 Interest Groups 122
7 Political Parties 144
8 Public Opinion and Voting 168
9 Campaigns and Elections 192
10 Politics and the Media 216
PART IV Institutions 236

11 The Congress 236
12 The Presidency 262
13 The Bureaucracy 288
14 The Judiciary 310
PART V Public Policy 334

15 Domestic Policy 334
16 Foreign Policy 354
Appendix A The Declaration of Independence A–1

Appendix B The Constitution of the United States A–3
Appendix C Federalist Papers No. 10 and No. 51 A–13
Appendix D Answers to Chapter Quiz Questions A–18
Appendix E Information on U.S. Presidents (Online)
Appendix F Party Control of Congress since 1900 (Online)
MerveKarahan/E+/Getty Images
Notes N–1
Glossary G–1
Index I–1
Chapter in Review Cards 1–32
Contents
Skill Prep: A Study Skills Module SP–1 1–4 American Political Ideology 17
Take Action: A Guide to Political 1–4a Conservatism 18
Participation TA–1 1–4b Liberalism 18
1–4c The Traditional Political Spectrum 19
1–4d Beyond Conservatism and Liberalism 20
AMERICA AT ODDS: Do We Still Need the “Mainstream
Media”? 3
Part I Join the Debate: Is Our Government Too Large? 12

PERCEPTION VERSUS REALITY: Do Immigrants Take
The Foundations of American Jobs? 17

AMERICA AT ODDS: America in the Twenty-First
Our American System 1 Century 21
2 The Constitution 24
2–1 The Beginnings of American Government 26
2–1a The First English Settlements 26
bbernard/Shutterstock.com
2–1b Colonial Legislatures 28

2–2 The Rebellion of the Colonists 28
2–2a “Taxation without Representation” 29
2–2b The Continental Congresses 30
2–2c Breaking the Ties: Independence 30
2–3 The Confederation of States 33
2–3a The Articles of Confederation 33
1 America in the
2–3b A Time of Crisis—The 1780s 34
2–4 Drafting and Ratifying the Constitution 36
Twenty-First Century 2
2–4a Who Were the Delegates? 36
1–1 What Are Politics and Government? 4 2–4b The Virginia Plan 37
1–1a Defining Politics and Government 4 2–4c The New Jersey Plan 37
1–1b Resolving Conflicts 5 2–4d The Compromises 37
1–1c Providing Public Services 5 2–4e Defining the Executive and the Judiciary 39
1–1d Defending the Nation and Its Culture 6 2–4f The Final Draft Is Approved 39
1–2 Different Systems of Government 7 2–4g The Debate over Ratification 39
1–2a Undemocratic Systems 7 2–4h Ratification 41
1–2b Democratic Systems 8 2–4i Did a Majority of Americans Support the
Constitution? 41
1–3 American Democracy 9
2–5 The Constitution’s Major Principles of Government 41
1–3a The British Legacy 10
2–5a Limited Government, Popular Sovereignty, and
1–3b Principles of American Democracy 11 the Rule of Law 42
1–3c American Political Values 11 2–5b The Principle of Federalism 42
1–3d Political Values and a Divided Electorate 14 2–5c Separation of Powers 43
1–3e Political Values in a Changing Society 15 2–5d Checks and Balances 43
2–5e Limited versus Effective Government 44
iv Contents
2–5f The Bill of Rights 44
2–5g Amending the Constitution 44
AMERICA AT ODDS: Should We Elect the President
by Popular Vote? 25
Part II
JOIN THE DEBATE: Was the United States Meant Our Liberties
to Be a Christian Nation? 27
PERCEPTION VERSUS REALITY: The Slavery Issue 40
and Rights 72
THE REST OF THE WORLD: The Parliamentary
Alternative 45
AMERICA AT ODDS: The Constitution 46
Frantic Studio/Shutterstock.com
Federalism 48
3–1 Federalism and Its Alternatives 50
3–1a What Is Federalism? 50
3–1b Alternatives to Federalism 51
3–1c Federalism—An Optimal Choice
for the United States? 51
3–2 The Constitutional Division of Powers 54
3–2a The Powers of the National Government 54
3–2b The Powers of the States 55
3–2c Interstate Relations 56
4 Civil Liberties 72
4–1 The Constitutional Basis for Our Civil Liberties 74
3–2d Concurrent Powers 57
4–1a Safeguards in the Original Constitution 74
3–2e The Supremacy Clause 57
4–1b The Bill of Rights 74
3–3 The Struggle For Supremacy 58 4–1c The Incorporation Principle 76
3–3a Early United States Supreme Court Decisions 58 4–2 Freedom of Religion 77
3–3b The Civil War—The Ultimate Supremacy Battle 60
4–2a Laws on Religion
3–3c Dual Federalism—From the Civil War to the in the Colonies 77
1930s 61
4–2b The Establishment Clause 79
3–3d Cooperative Federalism and the Growth
4–2c Prayer in the Schools 79
of the National Government 61
4–2d Evolution versus Creationism 80
3–4 Federalism Today 62
4–2e Aid to Parochial Schools 81
3–4a The New Federalism—More Power to the
4–2f The Free Exercise Clause 82
States 62
3–4b The Supreme Court and the New Federalism 63 4–3 Freedom of Expression 83
3–4c The Shifting Boundary between Federal 4–3a The Right to Free Speech Is Not Absolute 84
and State Authority 63 4–3b Subversive Speech 84
3–5 The Fiscal Side of Federalism 66 4–3c Limited Protection for Commercial Speech 84
3–5a Federal Grants 66 4–3d Unprotected Speech 85
3–5b Federal Grants and State Budgets 67 4–3e Free Speech for Students? 86
3–5c Federalism and Economic Cycles 67 4–3f Freedom of the Press 87
3–5d Using Federal Grants to Control the States 68 4–4 The Right To Privacy 87
3–5e The Cost of Federal Mandates 68 4–4a The Abortion Controversy 88
3–5f Competitive Federalism 68 4–4b Do We Have the “Right to Die”? 89
AMERICA AT ODDS: Should Recreational Marijuana Be 4–4c Privacy and Personal Information 89
Legal? 49 4–4d Personal Privacy and National Security 91
THE REST OF THE WORLD: Canadian versus American
Federalism 53 4–5 The Rights of The Accused 93
PERCEPTION VERSUS REALITY: The Best Government 4–5a The Rights of Criminal Defendants 93
Is Local Government 56 4–5b The Exclusionary Rule 93
JOIN THE DEBATE: Should “Sanctuary Cities” Be 4–5c The Miranda Warnings 94
Allowed? 65 AMERICA AT ODDS: Do U.S. Citizens Really Need
AMERICA AT ODDS: Federalism 69 Military-Style Rifles? 73
Contents v
THE REST OF THE WORLD: Do Foreigners Have
Part III
Constitutional Rights in the United States? 78
PERCEPTION VERSUS REALITY: The Availability of
Abortion 90
JOIN THE DEBATE: Is the Death Penalty a Cruel and
Unusual Punishment? 94
THE POLITICS
AMERICA AT ODDS: Civil Liberties 96 OF DEMOCRACY 122
5 Civil Rights 98
5–1 The Equal Protection Clause 100
5–1a Strict Scrutiny 100
a katz/Shutterstock.com
5–1b Intermediate Scrutiny 101
5–1c The Rational Basis Test (Ordinary Scrutiny) 101
5–2 African Americans 101
5–2a Separate But Equal 102
5–2b Violence and Vote Suppression 102
5–2c The Brown Decisions and School Integration 102
5–2d The Civil Rights Movement 103
5–2e African Americans in Politics Today 105
5–2f Continuing Challenges 106 6 Interest Groups 122
5–3 Women 107 6–1 Interest Groups and American Government 124
5–3a The Struggle for Voting Rights 107 6–1a The Constitutional Right to Petition the
5–3b The Feminist Movement 107 Government 124
5–3c Women in American Politics Today 108 6–1b Why Interest Groups Form 124
5–3d Women in the Workplace 108 6–1c How Interest Groups Function in American
Politics 127
5–4 Securing Rights For Other Groups 110 6–1d How Do Interest Groups Differ from Political
5–4a Latinos 110 Parties? 128
5–4b Asian Americans 113 6–2 Different Types of Interest Groups 128
5–4c American Indians 114 6–2a Business Interest Groups 128
5–4d Persons with Disabilities 115 6–2b Labor and Professional Interest Groups 130
5–4e Gay Men and Lesbians 116 6–2c Public-Interest and Other Types of Groups 132
5–5 Beyond Equal Protection—Affirmative Action 118 6–3 How Interest Groups Shape Policy 134
5–5a Affirmative Action Tested 118 6–3a Direct Techniques 134
5–5b Strict Scrutiny Applied 118 6–3b Indirect Techniques 136
5–5c The Diversity Issue 118
6–4 Today’s Lobbying Establishment 138
5–5d State Actions 119
6–4a Why Do Interest Groups Get Bad Press? 139
AMERICA AT ODDS: Do the Police Use Excessive Force
against African Americans? 99 6–4b The Regulation of Lobbyists 139
JOIN THE DEBATE: Is “Political Correctness” 6–4c The Lobbying Disclosure Act of 1995 140
a Real Problem? 111 6–4d Later Reform Efforts 141
PERCEPTION VERSUS REALITY: We Are Too Lax in AMERICA AT ODDS: Are Farmers Getting a Deal That’s
Vetting Refugees 112 Too Good? 123
AMERICA AT ODDS: Civil Rights 120 PERCEPTION VERSUS REALITY: The United States Can
Bring Back Factory Jobs 131
Join the Debate: Should We Let Uber and Lyft Pick
Up Passengers? 140
AMERICA AT ODDS: Interest Groups 142
vi Contents
7 Political Parties 144
8–3 Public Opinion Polls 178
8–3a Early Polling Efforts 178
8–3b How Polling Has Developed 178
7–1 A Short History of American Political Parties 146
8–3c Problems with Opinion Polls 180
7–1a The First Political Parties 146
7–1b From 1796 to 1860 147 8–4 Voting and Voter Turnout 183
7–1c From the Civil War to the Great Depression 149 8–4a Factors Affecting Voter Turnout 183
7–1d After the Great Depression 149 8–4b The Legal Right to Vote 184
8–4c Attempts to Improve Voter Turnout 186
7–2 America’s Political Parties Today 150
8–4d Laws That May Discourage Voting 188
7–2a Red States versus Blue States 150
8–4e Attempts to Improve Voting Procedures 188
7–2b Shifting Political Fortunes 151
8–4f Who Actually Votes 188
7–2c Realignment, Dealignment, and Tipping 153
AMERICA AT ODDS: How Important Is It to Target
7–3 What Do Political Parties Do? 155 Independents? 169
7–3a Selecting Candidates and Running Campaigns 155 PERCEPTION VERSUS REALITY: Do Politicians Always
7–3b Informing the Public 155 Follow the Polls? 182
7–3c Coordinating Policymaking 155 JOIN THE DEBATE: Do We Need Strict Voting ID
Laws? 187
7–3d Checking the Power of the Governing Party 156
AMERICA AT ODDS: Public Opinion and Voting 189
7–3e Balancing Competing Interests 156
9
7–4 How American Political Parties Are Structured 156
7–4a The Party in the Electorate 157 Campaigns and Elections 192
7–4b The Party Organization 158
9–1 How We Elect Candidates 194
7–4c The Party in Government 160
9–1a Conducting Elections and Counting the
7–5 The Dominance of Our Two-Party System 161 Votes 194
7–5a The Self-Perpetuation of the Two-Party 9–1b Presidential Elections and the Electoral
System 161 College 194
7–5b Third Parties in American Politics 162 9–2 How We Nominate Candidates 195
7–5c The Effects of Third Parties 164
9–2a Party Control over Nominations 196
AMERICA AT ODDS: Is Trump the Future of the
9–2b A New Method: The Nominating
Republican Party? 145
Convention 196
THE REST OF THE WORLD: Right-Wing Nationalist
9–2c Primary Elections and the Loss of Party
Parties in Europe 154
Control 196
JOIN THE DEBATE: Are Nonpartisan Elections
9–2d Nominating Presidential Candidates 199
a Good Idea? 163
AMERICA AT ODDS: Political Parties 165 9–3 The Modern Political Campaign 203
9–3a Responsibilities of the Campaign Staff 203
8 Public Opinion
9–3b The Professional Campaign Organization 203
9–3c Opposition Research 204
and Voting 168 9–4 The Internet Campaign 206
8–1 How Do People Form Political Opinions? 170 9–4a Fund-Raising on the Internet 206
8–1a The Importance of Family 170 9–4b Targeting Supporters 207
8–1b Schools and Churches 170 9–4c Support for Organizing 207
8–1c The Media 171 9–5 What It Costs To Win 208
8–1d Opinion Leaders 171 9–5a Presidential Spending 208
8–1e Major Life Events 172 9–5b The Federal Election Campaign Act 208
8–1f Peer Groups 172 9–5c Skirting the Campaign-Financing Rules 209
8–1g Economic Status and Occupation 172 9–5d The Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act
of 2002 210
8–2 Why People Vote As They Do 172
9–5e The Current Campaign-Finance
8–2a Party Identification and Ideology 172 Environment 211
8–2b Perception of the Candidates 173
8–2c Policy Choices 173
8–2d Socioeconomic Factors 173
Contents vii
AMERICA AT ODDS: Does Money Really Buy
Elections? 193
PERCEPTION VERSUS REALITY: Is the Word Socialism
Still Poison in U.S. Political Campaigns? 202
Part IV
THE REST OF THE WORLD: Banning Candidates and
Political Parties around the World 205
Institutions 236
Join the Debate: Should We Let Political Contributors
Conceal Their Identities? 213
AMERICA AT ODDS: Campaigns and Elections 214
10
JIM LO SCAL ZO/AFP/Getty Images

Politics and the Media 216
10–1 The Role of The Media In A Democracy 218
10–1a Media Characteristics 218
10–1b The New Media and the Old 218
10–1c The Media and the First Amendment 219
10–1d The Agenda-Setting Function of the Media 219
10–1e The Medium Does Affect the Message 221
10–1f Ownership of the Media 222
10–2 The Candidates and Television 223
10–2a Political Advertising 223
11 The Congress 236
10–2b Television Debates 224 11–1 The Structure and Makeup of Congress 238
10–2c News Coverage 225 11–1a Apportionment of House Seats 238
10–2d “Popular” Television 225 11–1b Congressional Districts 238
10–3 Talk Radio—The Wild West of The Media 226 11–1c The Representation Function of Congress 241
10–3a Audiences and Hosts 226 11–2 Congressional Elections 243
10–3b The Impact of Talk Radio 227 11–2a Who Can Be a Member of Congress? 243
10–4 The Question of Media Bias 227 11–2b The Power of Incumbency 244
10–4a Partisan Bias 227 11–2c Congressional Terms 245
10–4b The Bias against Losers 228 11–3 Congressional Leadership, The Committee System,
10–4c A Changing News Culture 228 and Bicameralism 245
10–5 Political News and Campaigns On The Web 229 11–3a House Leadership 245
10–5a News Organizations Online 229 11–3b Senate Leadership 247
10–5b Blogs and the Emergence of Citizen 11–3c Congressional Committees 247
Journalism 230 11–3d The Differences between the House and the
10–5c Podcasting the News 231 Senate 248
10–5d Cyberspace and Political Campaigns 231 11–4 The Legislative Process 251
AMERICA AT ODDS: Should It Be Easier to Sue for 11–5 Investigation and Oversight 253
Libel? 217
11–5a The Investigative Function 254
THE REST OF THE WORLD: Who Controls the
11–5b Impeachment Power 254
Internet? 220
11–5c Senate Confirmation 255
Join the Debate: Could We Lose Our High-Speed
Internet? 232 11–6 The Budgeting Process 256
AMERICA AT ODDS: Politics and the Media 234 11–6a Authorization and Appropriation 256
11–6b The Actual Budgeting Process 257
AMERICA AT ODDS: Should It Take Sixty Senators
to Pass Important Legislation? 237
Join THE DEBATE: Was Banning Pork-Barrel
Spending a Mistake? 242
PERCEPTION VERSUS REALITY: Cutting Back Our
Gigantic Tax Code 250
AMERICA AT ODDS: The Congress 259
viii Contents
12 The Presidency 262
13–4 Regulatory Agencies: Are They The Fourth Branch
of Government? 300
13–4a Agency Creation 300
12–1 Who Can Become President? 264
13–4b Rulemaking 300
12–1a Why Would Anyone Want to Be President? 264
13–4c Policymaking 301
12–1b Presidential Age and Occupation 265
13–5 Curbing Waste and Improving Efficiency 303
12–1c Race, Gender, and Religion 265
13–5a Whistleblowers 303
12–2 The President’s Many Roles 265
13–5b Improving Efficiency and Getting Results 304
12–2a Chief Executive 266
13–5c Another Approach—
12–2b Commander in Chief 266 Pay-for-Performance Plans 306
12–2c Head of State 267 13–5d Privatization 306
12–2d Chief Diplomat 267 13–5e Government in the Sunshine 306
12–2e Chief Legislator 267 13–5f Government Online 306
12–2f Political Party Leader 267 AMERICA AT ODDS: Does National Security Require
12–3 Presidential Powers 268 Us to Give Up Our Privacy? 289
12–3a The President’s Constitutional Powers 268 JOIN THE DEBATE: Are Government Workers Paid
Too Much? 299
12–3b The President’s Inherent Powers 270
THE REST OF THE WORLD: The Deep State 305
12–3c The Expansion of Presidential Powers 270
AMERICA AT ODDS: The Bureaucracy 308
12–4 Congressional and Presidential Relations 277
12–4a Advantage: Congress 277
12–4b Advantage: The President 278
12–5 The Organization of The Executive Branch 279
14 The Judiciary 310
14–1 The Origins and Sources of American Law 312
12–5a The President’s Cabinet 279 14–1a The Common Law Tradition 312
12–5b The Executive Office of the President 282 14–1b Primary Sources of American Law 313
12–5c The Vice Presidency and Presidential 14–1c Civil Law and Criminal Law 314
Succession 284
14–1d Basic Judicial Requirements 314
AMERICA AT ODDS: What Should Trump Do about the
Middle East? 263 14–2 The Federal Court System 316
PERCEPTION VERSUS REALITY: If You Like the President, 14–2a U.S. District and Specialized Courts 316
You’ll Love the Economy 273 14–2b U.S. Courts of Appeals 317
JOIN the Debate: Should We Make Trump Release His 14–2c The United States Supreme Court 318
Tax Returns? 280
14–3 Federal Judicial Appointments 320
AMERICA AT ODDS: The Presidency 285
14–3a The Nomination Process 320
13 The Bureaucracy 288

14–3b Confirmation or Rejection by the Senate 321
14–4 The Courts As Policymakers 322
14–4a The Issue of Broad Language 323
13–1 The Nature and Size of The Bureaucracy 290
13–1a The Nature of Bureaucracy 290 14–4b The Power of Judicial Review 324
13–1b The Growth of Bureaucracy 290 14–4c Judicial Activism versus Judicial Restraint 325
13–1c The Costs of Maintaining the Government 291 14–4d Ideology and the Courts 325
13–1d Where Does All the Money Go? 292 14–4e Ideology and Today’s Supreme Court 326
14–4f Approaches to Legal Interpretation 328
13–2 How The Federal Bureaucracy Is Organized 293
14–5 Assessing The Role of The Federal Courts 329
13–2a The Executive Departments 293
13–2b A Typical Departmental Structure 293 14–5a Criticisms of the Federal Courts 329
13–2c Independent Executive Agencies 294 14–5b The Case for the Courts 329
13–2d Independent Regulatory Agencies 296 AMERICA AT ODDS: Should the People Elect
Judges? 311
13–2e Government Corporations 296
Join THE DEBATE: Are Supreme Court Confirmations
13–3 How Bureaucrats Get Their Jobs 298 Too Political? 323
13–3a The Civil Service 298 PERCEPTION VERSUS REALITY: The Supreme Court
13–3b Origins of the Merit System 298 Legislates from the Bench 330
13–3c The OPM Hacking Scandal 298 AMERICA AT ODDS: The Judiciary 331
Contents ix
Part V 16 Foreign Policy 354
16–1 Who Makes U.S. Foreign Policy? 356
PUBLIC POLICY 334 16–1a The President’s Role 356
16–1b The Cabinet 357
16–1c Other Agencies 358
16–1d Powers of Congress 358
16–2 A Short History of American Foreign Policy 358
Chip Somodevilla/Getty Images News/
16–2a Isolationism 359

16–2b The Beginning of Interventionism 359
16–2c The World Wars 359
16–2d The Cold War 360
16–2e Post–Cold War Foreign Policy 362
Getty Images
16–3 Problems Requiring The Use of Force 362

16–3a The Problem of Terrorism 362
16–3b The U.S. Response to 9/11—The War
in Afghanistan 364
15
16–3c The Focus on Iraq 364
Domestic Policy 334 16–3d Again, Afghanistan 365
16–3e The Civil War in Syria and the Growth of ISIS 365
15–1 The Policymaking Process 336
16–4 Diplomacy In An Unstable World 367
15–1a Issue Identification and Agenda Setting 338
16–4a The Israeli-Palestinian Conflict 367
15–1b Policy Formulation and Adoption 338
16–4b Weapons of Mass Destruction 369
15–1c Policy Implementation 338
16–4c China—The Next Superpower? 372
15–1d Policy Evaluation 338
AMERICA AT ODDS: How Much of a Threat Is Putin’s
15–1e Policymaking and Special Interests 339
Russia? 355
15–2 Health-Care Policy 339 THE REST OF THE WORLD: Europe in Crisis 368
15–2a Two Problems with U.S. Health Care 339 AMERICA AT ODDS: Foreign Policy 373
15–2b Medicaid and Medicare 340 Appendix A The Declaration of Independence A–1
15–2c The Democrats Propose Universal Coverage 341 Appendix B The Constitution of the United States A–3
15–3 Energy and The Environment 343 Appendix C Federalist Papers No. 10 and No. 51 A–12
15–3a The Problem of Imported Oil 343 Appendix D Answers to Chapter Quiz Questions A–18
15–3b Climate Change 343 Appendix E Information on U.S. Presidents (Online)
15–3c New Energy Sources 344 Appendix F Party Control of Congress since 1900 (Online)
15–4 Economic Policy and Taxes 346 Notes N–1
15–4a The Goals of Economic Policy 346 Glossary G–1
15–4b Monetary Policy 346 Index I–1
15–4c Fiscal Policy 348
Chapter in Review Cards 1–32
15–4d The Federal Tax System 349
15–4e The Public Debt 351
AMERICA AT ODDS: Do We Send Too Many
People to Prison? 335
Join the Debate: What Should We Do about
Unauthorized Immigrants? 337
PERCEPTION VERSUS REALITY: Tax-Rate Cuts
for the Rich 350
AMERICA AT ODDS: Domestic Policy 352
x Contents
SKILL
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PREP
Welcome!
With this course and this
textbook, you’ve begun what we
hope will be a fun, stimulating,
A Study Skills Module and thought-provoking journey
into the world of American
government and politics.
In this course, you will learn about the foundation of the results when you study. You want to be able to under-
American system, culture and diversity, interest groups, stand the issues and ideas presented in the textbook, talk
political parties, campaigns, elections, the media, our about them intelligently during class discussions, and
governing institutions, public policy, and foreign policy. remember them as you prepare for exams and papers.
Knowledge of these basics will help you think critically This module is designed to help you develop the
about political issues and become an active citizen. skills and habits you’ll need to succeed in this course.
We have developed this study skills module to help With tips on how to be more engaged when you study,
you gain the most from this course and this textbook. how to get the most out of your textbook, how to
Whether you are a recent high school graduate or an adult prepare for exams, and how to write papers, this guide
returning to the classroom after a few years, you want will help you become the best learner you can be!
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Study
Prep Repeat
To read for learning, you have to read your textbook a
What does it take to be a successful student? You may number of times. Follow a preview-read-review process:
think success depends on how naturally smart you are. 1. Pr e v i e w: Look over the chapter title, section
However, the truth is that successful students aren’t headings, and highlighted or bold words. This will
born, they’re made. Even if you don’t consider yourself give you a good preview of important ideas in the
“book smart,” you can do well in this course by develop- chapter. Notice that each major section heading in this
ing study skills that will help you understand, remember, textbook has one or more corresponding Learning
and apply key concepts. Objectives. You can increase your understanding of the
material by rephrasing the headings and subheadings
in your textbook into questions, and then try to answer
Reading for Learning them. Note graphs, pictures, and other visual illustrations
Your textbook is the foundation for information in a of important concepts.
course. It contains key concepts and terms that are QUICK TIP! Log in to GOVT10 Online with the access
important to your understanding of the subject. For code in the front of your textbook to find interactive
this reason, it is essential that you develop good reading figures and tables from the chapters and to quiz your-
skills. As you read your textbook with the goal of learning self on the important material in the book.
as much of the information as possible, work on estab- 2. R e a d : It is important to read with a few questions
lishing the following habits: in mind: What is the main point of this paragraph or
section? What does the author want me to learn from
Focus this? How does this relate to what I read before? Keep-
ing these questions in mind will help you be an attentive
Make an effort to focus on the book and tune out other reader who is actively focusing on the main ideas of the
distractions so that you can understand and remember passage.
the information it presents.
QUICK TIP! In GOVT10 Online, create StudyBits from
Key Terms and definitions, photos, figures, and your
Take Time
text highlights. You can include notes in your Study-
To learn the key concepts presented in each chapter, you Bits, and add your own tags—such as “Midterm
need to read slowly, carefully, and with great attention. Exam”—so you can collect them all later.
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Also during this phase, it is helpful to take notes The physical act of writing makes you a more effi-
while reading in detail. You can mark your text or write cient learner. In addition, your notes provide a guide to
an outline, as explained later in this module. Taking notes what your instructor thinks is important. That means you
will help you read actively, identify important concepts, will have a better idea of what to study before the next
and remember them. When it comes time to review for
exam if you have a set of notes that you took during class.
the exam, the notes you’ve made should make your
studying more efficient.
QUICK TIP! In GOVT10 Online, create practice quizzes
Make an Outline
from filtered StudyBits or use all quiz questions from As you read through each chapter of your textbook, you
the chapter to test yourself before exams. might want to make an outline—a simple method for
3 . R e v i e w: When reviewing each section of the text organizing information. You can create an outline as part
and the notes you’ve made, ask yourself this ques- of your reading or at the end of your reading. Or you can
tion: What was this section about? You’ll want to make an outline when you reread a section before moving
answer the question in some detail, readily identifying on to the next one. The act of physically writing an outline
the important points. Use the Learning Objectives in the for a chapter will help you retain the material in this text
text to help focus your review. and master it.
QUICK TIP! Tear out the Chapter Review cards in the To make an effective outline, you have to be selec-
back of the textbook for on-the-go review! tive. Your objectives in outlining are, first, to identify the
A reading group is a great way to review the chapter. main concepts and, second, to add the details that sup-
After completing the reading individually, group mem- port those main concepts.
bers should meet and take turns sharing what they Your outline should consist of several levels written
learned. Explaining the material to others will reinforce in a standard format. The most important concepts are
and clarify what you already know. Getting a different assigned Roman numerals; the second-most important,
perspective on a passage will increase your knowledge, capital letters; and the third-most important, numbers.
because different people will find different things impor- Here is a quick example.
tant during a reading.
Take Notes
Being engaged means listening to discover (and remem-
ber) something. One way to make sure that you are listen- I. What Are Politics and Government?
ing attentively is to take notes. Doing so will help you A. Defining Politics and Government
focus on the professor’s words and will help you identify 1. Politics and Conflict
the most important parts of the lecture. 2. Government and Authority
B. Resolving Conflicts
C. Providing Public Ser vices
1. Ser vices for All and Ser vices for Some
2. Managing the Economy
D. Defending the Nation and Its Culture
II. Different Systems of Government
A. Undemocratic Systems
1. Monarchy
2. Dictatorship
B. Democratic Systems
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1. The Athenian Model of Direct Democracy

2. Direct Democracy Today
3. Representative Democracy
4. Types of Representative Democracy
C. Other Forms of Government
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Mark Your Text Researchers have shown Try These Tips
If you own your own textbook for Here are a few more hints that will
that the physical act of
this course and plan to keep it, help you develop effective study
you can improve your learning by marking, just like the skills.
marking your text. By doing so,
you will identify the most impor-
physical act of note- Do schoolwork as soon as
▸
possible after class. The longer
tant concepts of each chapter, and taking during class you wait, the more likely you will
at the same time, you’ll be making
a handy study guide for reviewing
increases concentration be distracted by television, the
Internet, video games, or friends.
material at a later time. Marking and helps you better Set aside time and a quiet,
▸
allows you to become an active par-
ticipant in the mastery of the mate- retain the material. comfortable space where you
can focus on reading. Your
rial. Researchers have shown that
school library is often the best place to work. Set
the physical act of marking, just like the physical acts of
aside several hours a week of “library time” to study
note-taking during class and outlining, increases con-
in peace and quiet. A neat, organized study space is
centration and helps you better retain the material.
also important. The only work items that should be on
your desk are those that you are working on that day.
Ways o f M a r k i n g
Reward yourself for studying! Rest your eyes
▸
The most common form of marking is to underline and your mind by taking a short break every twenty
important points. The second-most commonly used to thirty minutes. From time to time, allow yourself
method is to use a felt-tipped highlighter or marker, in a break to do something else that you enjoy. These
yellow or some other transparent color. You can put a interludes will refresh your mind, give you more
check mark next to material that you do not understand. energy required for concentration, and enable you to
Work on better comprehension of the checkmarked study longer and more efficiently.
material after you’ve finished the chapter. Marking also
To memorize terms or facts, create flash (or
▸
includes circling, numbering, using arrows, jotting brief
note) cards. On one side of the card, write the ques-
notes, or any other method that allows you to
tion or term. On the other side, write the answer or
remember things when you go back to skim the
definition. Then use the cards to test yourself or have
pages in your textbook prior to an exam.
a friend quiz you on the material.
QUICK TIP! Don’t forget about the StudyBit QUICK TIP! In GOVT10 Online, flash cards are available
f unc tionality when highlighting in GOVT10 for all key terms (with definitions). Create more flash
Online! Change colors of your highlights to cards from your StudyBits or anything in the online
rate your understanding of each StudyBit, and use narrative, and rate your understanding on each while
them in your review in the Studyboard. you study!
T w o P o i n t s to R e m e m b e r Mnemonic (pronounced ne-mon-ik) devices

▸
W h e n M a r k i n g are tricks that increase our ability to mem-
orize. A well-known mnemonic device is the
▸ Read one section at a time before you do
any extensive marking. You can’t mark a phrase ROY G BIV, which helps people remem-
section until you know what is important, ber the colors of the rainbow—red, orange, yel-
and you can’t know what is important until low, green, blue, indigo, violet. You can create
you read the whole section. your own mnemonic devices for whatever you
▸ Don’t overmark. Don’t fool yourself into need to memorize. The more fun you have com-
thinking that you have done a good job ing up with them, the more useful they will be.
Danilin VladyslaV Travel/Shutterstock.com
just because each page is filled with arrows, Take notes twice. First, take notes in class.
▸
© Vladyslav Danilin/Shutterstock
circles, and underlines. Be selective in your Writing down your instructor’s key points will
marking, so that each page allows you to see help you be a more active, engaged listener. Tak-
the most important points at a glance. You ing notes will also give you a record of what your
can follow up your marking by writing out
instructor thinks is important. Later, when you
more in your subject outline.
have a chance, rewrite your notes. The rewrite
will act as a study session for you to think about
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Test
Prep
You have worked hard throughout the term, reading fill in the dots on a machine-graded answer sheet. Other
the book, paying close attention in class, and taking exams require underlining or circling. In short, you have
good notes. Now it’s test time, and you want to show to read and follow the instructions carefully.
mastery of the material you have studied. To be well
prepared, you should know which reading materials
and lectures will be covered. You should also know
Objective Exams
whether the exam will contain essays, objective ques- An objective exam consists of multiple-choice, true/
tions, or both. Finally, you should know how much time false, fill-in-the-blank, or matching questions that have
you will have to take the exam. The following steps can only one correct answer. Students usually commit one
help to reduce any anxiety you may feel, allowing you of two errors when they read objective exam questions:
to approach the test with confidence. (1) they read things into the questions that do not exist,
or (2) they skip over words or phrases. Most test ques-
tions include key words such as:
Follow Directions
Students are often in a hurry to start an exam, so they > all > ne ver
take little time to read the instructions. The instructions > always > only
can be critical, however. In a multiple-choice exam, for
example, if there is no indication that there is a penalty If you miss any of these key words, you may answer the
for guessing, then you should never leave a question question incorrectly even if you know the information
unanswered. Even if only a few minutes are left at the being tested.
end of an exam, you should guess on the questions that Whenever the answer to an objective question is not
you remain uncertain about. obvious, start with the process of elimination. Throw out
Additionally, you need to know the weight given the answers that are clearly incorrect. Typically, the easi-
to each section of an exam. In a typical multiple-choice est way to eliminate incorrect answers is to look for those
exam, all questions have equal weight. In other types of that are meaningless, illogical, or inconsistent. Often,
exams, particularly those with essay questions, different test authors put in some answers that make perfect sense
parts of the exam carry different weights. You should use and are indeed true, but do not answer the question
these weights to apportion your time. If the essay portion under study. Here are a few more tips that will help you
of an exam accounts for 20 percent of the total points on become an efficient, results-oriented student.
the exam, you should not spend 60 percent of your time ▸ Review your notes thoroughly as part of your exam
on the essays. preparation. Instructors usually lecture on subjects
Finally, you need to make sure you are marking the they think are important, so those same subjects are
answers correctly. Some exams require a No. 2 pencil to also likely to be on the exam.
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▸ Create a study schedule to reduce stress and give
yourself the best chance for success. At times, you
will find yourself studying for several exams at once.
When this happens, make a list of each study topic
and the amount of time needed to review that topic.
▸ Form a small group for a study session. Discuss-
ing a topic out loud can improve your understand-
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ing of that topic and will help you remember the key
points that often come up on exams.
▸ Study from old exams. Some professors make old
exams available, either by posting them online or by
putting them on file in the library. Old tests can give
you an idea of the kinds of questions the professor
likes to ask. Write
▸ Avoid cramming just before an exam. Cramming
tires the brain unnecessarily and adds to stress, which
Prep
can severely hamper your testing performance. If
you’ve studied wisely, have confidence that you will
be able to recall the information when you need it.
▸ Be sure to eat before taking a test so you will have A key part of succeeding as a student is learning how
the energy you need to concentrate. to write well. Whether writing papers, presentations,
▸ Be prepared. Make sure you have everything you essays, or even e-mails to your instructor, you have to
will need for the exam, such as a pen or pencil. Arrive be able to put your thoughts into words and do so with
at the exam early to avoid having to rush, which will force, clarity, and precision. In this section, we outline
only add to your stress. Good preparation helps you a three-phase process that you can use to write almost
focus on the task at hand. anything.
▸ When you first receive your exam, make sure

that you have all the pages. If you are uncertain,
ask your professor or exam proctor. This initial scan
Phase 1: Getting Ready to Write
may uncover other problems as well, such as illegible First, make a list. Divide the ultimate goal—a finished
print or unclear instructions. paper—into smaller steps that you can tackle right
away. Estimate how long it will take to complete each
▸ With essay questions, look for key words such
step. Start with the date your paper is due and work
as “compare,” “contrast,” and “explain.” These will
backward to the present: For example, if the due date
guide your answer. Most important, get to the point
is December 1, and you have about three months to
without wasting your time (or your professor’s) with
write the paper, give yourself a cushion and sched-
statements such as “There are many possible reasons
ule November 20 as your targeted completion date.
for . . . .”
Then list what you need to get done by October 1 and
▸ Review your answers when you finish a test early. November 1.
You may find a mistake or an area where some extra
writing will improve your grade. P i c k a To p i c
▸ Keep exams in perspective. Worrying too much To generate ideas for a topic, any of the following
about a single exam can have a negative effect on your approaches work well:
performance. If you do poorly on one test, it’s not the ▸ Brainstorm with a group. There is no need to cre-
end of the world. Rather, it should motivate you to do ate in isolation. You can harness the energy and the
better on the next one. natural creative power of a group to assist you.
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▸ Speak it. To get ideas flowing, There is no need to create in ▸ If your purpose is to move
start talking. Admit your confu- the reader into action, explain
sion or lack of clear ideas. Then
isolation. Brainstorm ideas exactly what steps to take,
just speak. By putting your for a topic with a group. and offer solid benefits for
thoughts into words, you’ll start doing so.
thinking more clearly. Ask for feedback from your
To clarify your purpose, state it
▸ Use free writing. Free writ- instructor or a friend as in one sentence—for example,
ing, a technique championed “The purpose of this paper is to
by writing teacher Peter
you prepare an outline and discuss and analyze the role of
women and minorities in law
Elbow, is also very effective revise your first draft. enforcement.”
when trying to come up with a
topic. There’s only one rule in
free writing: Write without stopping. Set a time limit— Begin Research
say, ten minutes—and keep your fingers dancing
At the initial stage, the objective of your research is not
across the keyboard the whole time. Ignore the urge
to uncover specific facts about your topic. That comes
to stop and rewrite. There is no need to worry about
later. First, you want to gain an overview of the subject.
spelling, punctuation, or grammar during this process.
Say you want to advocate for indeterminate sentenc-
ing. You must first learn enough about determinate
R e f i n e Yo u r I d e a and indeterminate sentencing to describe the pros and
After you’ve come up with some initial ideas, it’s time to cons of each one.
refine them:
Make an Outline
▸ Select a topic and working title. Using your
instructor’s guidelines for the paper, write down a list An outline is a kind of map. When you follow a map, you
of topics that interest you. Write down all of the ideas avoid getting lost. Likewise, an outline keeps you from
you think of in two minutes. Then choose one topic. wandering off topic. To create your outline, follow these
The most common pitfall is selecting a topic that is steps:
too broad. “Political Campaigns” is probably not a 1. Review your thesis statement and identify the
useful topic for your paper. Instead, consider “The three to five main points you need to address in your
Financing of Modern Political Campaigns.” paper to support or prove your thesis.
▸ Write a thesis statement. Clarify what you
want to say by summarizing it in one concise
sentence. This sentence, called a thesis state-
ment, refines your working title. A thesis is the
main point of the paper—it is a declaration of
some sort. You might write a thesis statement
such as “Recent decisions by the Supreme
Court have dramatically changed the way that
political campaigns are funded.”
Set Goals
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Effective writing flows from a purpose. Think

about how you’d like your reader or listener to
respond after considering your ideas.
▸ If you want to persuade someone, make your
writing clear and logical. Support your asser-
tions with evidence.
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2 . Next, focus on the three to five major points that If you get stuck, ask for help.
support your argument and think about what minor
points or subtopics you want to cover in your paper. Most schools have writing
Your major points are your big ideas. Your minor
points are the details you need to fill in under each of resource centers where
those ideas. you can go for assistance
3 . Ask for feedback. Have your instructor or a class-
mate review your outline and offer suggestions for and guidance.
improvement. Did you choose the right points to sup-
port your thesis? Do you need more detail anywhere?
Does the flow from idea to idea make sense?
Do In-Depth Research
Phase 2: Writing a First Draft
To create your draft, gather your notes and your out-
Dig in and start reading. Keep a notebook, tablet, or lap-
line (which often undergoes revision during the research
top handy and make notes as you read. It can help to
process). Then write about the ideas in your notes. It’s
organize your research into three main categories:
that simple. Just start writing. Write in paragraphs, with
1. Sources (bibliographical information for a source), one idea per paragraph. As you complete this task, keep
2 . Information (nuggets of information from a correctly the following suggestions in mind:
quoted source) ▸ Remember that the first draft is not for keeps.
3 . Ideas (thoughts and observations that occur to you as You can worry about quality later. Your goal at this
you research, written in your own words) point is simply to generate words and ideas.
▸ Write freely. Many writers prefer to get their first
You might want to use these categories to create three
draft down quickly and would advise you to keep
separate documents as you work. This will make it easy
writing, much as in free writing. You may pause to
to find what you need when you write your first draft.
glance at your notes and outline, but avoid stopping
When taking research notes, be sure to:
to edit your work.
▸ Copy all of the information correctly.
▸ Be yourself. Let go of the urge to sound “scholarly”
▸ Include the source and page number while gathering and avoid using unnecessary big words or phrases.
information. With Internet searches, you must also Instead, write in a natural voice.
record the date a site was accessed.
▸ Avoid procrastination. If you are having trouble get-
▸ Stay organized; refer to your outline as you work. ting started, skip over your introduction and just begin
writing about some of your findings. You can go back
later and organize your paragraphs.
▸ Get physical. While working on the first
draft, take breaks. Go for a walk. From
time to time, practice relaxation tech-
niques and breathe deeply.
▸ Put the draft away for a day. Schedule
time for rewrites, and schedule at least
one day between revisions so that you
can let the material sit. After a break,
problems with the paper or ideas for
improvement will become more evident.
Phase 3: Revising Your Draft

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During this phase, keep in mind the saying,

“Write in haste; revise at leisure.” When you
are working on your first draft, the goal is to
produce ideas and write them down. During
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the revision phase, however, you need to slow down and
take a close look at your work. One guideline is to allow
50 percent of writing time for planning, researching, and
writing the first draft. Then use the remaining 50 per-
cent for revising.
Here are some good ways to revise your paper:
1. Read it out loud. The combination of speaking
and hearing forces us to pay attention to the details. Is
the thesis statement clear and supported by enough
evidence? Does the introduction tell your reader
what’s coming? Do you end with a strong conclusion
that expands on your introduction rather than just
restating it?
2 . H av e a fr i e n d lo o k o v e r yo u r pa p e r .
This is never a substitute for your own review, but a
friend can often see mistakes you miss. With a little
practice, you will learn to welcome feedback, because
it provides one of the fastest ways to approach the
revision process.
3 . C u t. Look for excess baggage. Also, look for places
where two (or more) sentences could be rewritten as
one. By cutting text you are actually gaining a clearer,
more polished product. For efficiency, make the larger
6. P R EPA R E. Format your paper following accepted
cuts first—sections, chapters, pages. Then go for the
smaller cuts—paragraphs, sentences, phrases, words. standards for margin widths, endnotes, title pages,
and other details. Ask your instructor for specific
4 . Pa s t e . The next task is to rearrange what’s left of instructions on how to cite the sources used in writ-
your paper so that it flows logically. Look for con- ing your paper. You can find useful guidelines in the
sistency within paragraphs and for transitions from MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers. If
paragraph to paragraph and section to section. you are submitting a hard copy (rather than turning
5 . F i x . Now it’s time to look at individual words and it in online), use quality paper for the final version.
phrases. Define any terms that the reader might not For an even more professional appearance, bind your
know. In general, focus on nouns and verbs. Too paper with a plastic or paper cover.
many words add unnecessary bulk to your writing. 7. Pr o o f R EAD. As you ease down the home stretch,
Write about the details, and be specific. Also, check read your revised paper one more time, and look for
your writing to ensure that you: the following:
▸ Prefer the active voice. Write “The research ▸ A clear thesis statement.
team began the project” rather than “A project was
▸ Sentences that introduce your topic, guide the
initiated,” which is a passive statement.
reader through the major sections of your paper,
▸ Write concisely. Instead of “After making a and summarize your conclusions.
timely arrival and observing the unfolding events,
▸ Details—such as quotations, examples, and
I emerged totally and gloriously victorious,” be
statistics—that support your conclusions.
concise with “I came, I saw, I conquered.”
▸ Lean sentences that have been purged of needless
▸ Communicate clearly. Instead of “The speaker
words.
made effective use of the television medium, ask-
ing in no uncertain terms that we change our belief ▸ Plenty of action verbs and concrete, specific nouns.
systems,” you can write specifically, “The senatorial ▸ Spelling and grammar mistakes. Use contractions
candidate stared straight into the television camera sparingly, if at all. Use spell-check by all means,
and said, ‘Take a good look at what my opponent is but do not rely on it completely, as it will not catch
doing! Do you really want six more years of this?’ ” everything.
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Academic Integrity: date, article title, and the name of the magazine or
journal as well. If you found the article in an aca-
Avoiding Plagiarism demic or technical journal, also include the volume
Using another person’s words, images, or other origi- and number of the publication. A librarian can help
nal creations without giving proper credit is called identify these details.
plagiarism. Plagiarism amounts to taking someone else’s ▸ Cite online sources correctly. If your source is a
work and presenting it as your own—the equivalent of website, record as many identifying details as you can
cheating on a test. The consequences of plagiarism can find—author, title, sponsoring organization, URL,
range from a failing grade to expulsion from school. publication date, and revision date. In addition, list
To avoid plagiarism, ask an instructor where you the date that you accessed the page. Be careful when
can find your school’s written policy on this issue. Don’t using Internet resources, as not all sites are consid-
assume that you can resubmit a paper you wrote for ered legitimate sources. For example, many profes-
another class for a current class. Almost all schools will sors don’t regard Wikipedia as an acceptable source.
regard this as plagiarism even though you wrote the
▸ Include your sources as endnotes or footnotes
paper. The basic guidelines for preventing plagiarism
to your paper. Ask your instructor for examples of
are to cite a source for each phrase, sequence of ideas,
the format to use. You do not need to credit wording
or visual image created by another person. While ideas
that is wholly your own. Nor do you need to credit
cannot be copyrighted, the specific way that an idea is
general ideas, such as the suggestion that people use
expressed can be. You also need to list a source for any
a to-do list to plan their time. But if you borrow some-
idea that is closely identified with a particular person.
one else’s words or images to explain the idea, do give
The goal is to clearly distinguish your own work from the
credit.
work of others. There are several ways to ensure that you
do this consistently: ▸ When in doubt, don’t. Sometimes you will find
▸ Identify direct quotes. If you use a direct quote yourself working against a deadline for a paper, and
from another source, put those words in quotation in a panic, you might be tempted to take shortcuts.
marks. If you do research online, you might copy text You’ll find a source that expressed your idea perfectly,
from a website and paste it directly into your notes. but you must cite it or completely rephrase the idea
This is a direct quote. You must use quotation marks in your own words. Professors are experts at notic-
or if the quote is long, an indented paragraph. ing a change in tone or vocabulary that signals plagia-
rism. Often, they can simply Google a phrase to find
▸ Paraphrase carefully. Paraphrasing means restat-
its source online. Do not let a moment’s temptation
ing the original passage in your own words, usually
cause you to fail the course or face an academic integ-
making it shorter and simpler. Students who copy a
rity hearing.
passage word for word and
then just rearrange or delete
a few phrases are running a
serious risk of plagiarism.
Remember to cite a source
for paraphrases, just as you
do for direct quotes. When
you use the same sequence
of ideas as one of your
sources—even if you have
not paraphrased or directly
quoted—cite that source.
▸ Note details about each
source. For books, include
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the author, title, publisher,

publication date, location
of publisher, and page num-
ber. For articles from print
sources, record the author,
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Rawpixel.com/Shutterstock.com
TAKE It’s easy to think of politics as
a spectator sport—something
ACTION
that politicians do, pundits
analyze, and citizens watch.
But there are many ways to
get engaged with politics, to
A Guide to Political Participation interact with the political
world and participate in it, and
even to effect change.
GET • Which Founder Are You? The National Constitutional

Center can help you with that. Go to constitutioncenter.
INFORMED org/foundersquiz to discover which Founding

Father’s personality most resembles your own.
• The U.S. Constitution is an important part of the

context in which American politics takes place. Do you
Find Out Where You know what the Constitution says? Take the Constitution
I.Q. Quiz: constitutionfacts.com. Was your score
Fit and What You Know higher than the national average?
• You already have some opinions about a variety of po-
litical issues. Do you have a sense of where your views • At the National Constitution Center, you can explore
place you on the political map? Get a feel for your ideo- the interactive Constitution and learn more about the
logical leanings by taking The World’s Smallest Political provisions in that document: constitutioncenter.
Quiz: theadvocates.org/quiz. org/interactive-constitution.
TA-1
Rich Koele/Shutterstock.com
Get
• Find out what those who want to become U.S. citizens
have to do—and what they have to know. Go to the U.S. Connected
Citizenship and Immigration Services website at uscis.
gov/. What is involved in applying for citizenship?
Take the Naturalization Self-Test at https://my.uscis.
gov/prep/test/civics. How did you do? News
Keep up with news—print, broadcast, and online. Don’t
Think about How Your avoid certain news sources because you think you might
Political Views Have Been Shaped not agree with the way they report the news. It’s just as
important to know how people are talking about issues as
• Consider how agents of political socialization—your
it is to know about the issues themselves.
family, your schools, and your peers, for example—
have contributed to your political beliefs and atti- • One way to follow the news is to get your information
tudes. Then have conversations with people in your from the same place that journalists do. Often they
classes or where you live about the people, institu- take their cues or are alerted to news events by news
agencies such as the nonprofit cooperative Associated
tions, and experiences that influenced the way they
Press: ap.org.
view the political world. Try to understand how and
why your views might differ. • Installing a few key apps on your phone or tablet can
help you stay informed. Try downloading the Associ-
• Explore how your views on political issues compare
ated Press (AP) app for timely updates about news
with those of a majority of Americans. There are a around the world. There are tons of other great politi-
number of good polling sites that report public opin- cal apps—some are fairly polarizing, some are neutral,
ion on a range of topics. and still others are just plain silly.
o The Pew Research Center for the People & the
Press conducts monthly polls on politics and policy Blogs
issues: people-press.org.
The blogosphere affords views of politics that tend to be
o Public Agenda reports poll data and material on
slanted according to the political orientation of the blog
major issues: publicagenda.org.
sponsor. In the last several decades, blogs have surged
o The results of recent polls and an archive of past in popularity as a source for political news and opinion.
polls can be found at Gallup: gallup.com.
o The Roper Center for Public Opinion Research
is a leading archive of data from surveys of public
opinion: ropercenter.cornell.edu.
TA-2
Social Media
Staying connected can be as simple as following local,
national, or international politics on social media.
Former President Barack Obama, Senator Elizabeth
Warren, House Speaker Paul Ryan, and even the White
House have Instagram accounts worth following. Most
politicians and political outlets are also on Twitter and
Facebook.
Check the Data

• It’s not always easy to figure out whether a news report
or public statement is accurate. PolitiFact, a project of
the Tampa Bay Times, is a good place to go to get the
Rawpixel.com/Shutterstock.com
facts: politifact.com. Check out the Truth-O-Meter,
and get it on your smartphone or tablet.
• A project of the Annenberg Public Policy Center,
factcheck.org is a nonpartisan, nonprofit “consumer
advocate” for voters that monitors the factual accuracy
of what political players are saying in TV ads, speeches,
and interviews.
Keep Up during Election Season Monitor Money and

• Project Vote Smart offers information on elections Influence in Politics
and candidates: votesmart.org.
The Center for Responsive Politics website is an excel-
• Nate Silver’s FiveThirtyEight features election anal- lent source for information about who’s contributing
ysis, in addition to covering sports and economics: what amounts to which candidates: opensecrets.org.
fivethirtyeight.com. You can also use the lobbying database to identify the top
• Stay connected to the horse-race aspect of electoral lobbying firms, the agencies most frequently lobbied, and
politics by tracking election polls. There are many the industries that spend the most on lobbying activities.
good sources:
o For a comprehensive collection of election polls, go Connect with Congress
to the RealClearPolitics website: realclearpolitics.
com/polls. RealClearPolitics is a good source for You can, of course, learn a lot about what’s going on in
other political news and opinions as well. Congress from the websites of the House of Representa-
tives and the Senate: house.gov and senate.gov. Look
o Polls for U.S. federal elections, including state-by-
up the names and contact information for the senators
state polls, can be found at electoral-vote.com.
and the representative from your area. If you want your
o HuffPost Pollster publishes pre-election poll voice to be heard, simply phone or e-mail your senators
results combined into interactive charts: elections. or your representative. Members of Congress listen to
huffingtonpost.com/pollster. During presiden- their constituents and often act in response to their con-
tial elections, additional maps and electoral vote stituents’ wishes. Indeed, next to voting, contacting those
counts can be found at HuffPost Politics Election who represent you in Congress is probably the most
dashboard. effective way to influence government decision making.
• If you have the opportunity, attend a speech by a Check GovTrack to find out where your represen-
candidate you’re interested in. tative and senators fall on the leadership and ideology
charts, and learn about their most recently sponsored
bills and votes on legislation: govtrack.us.
TA-3
financial health, account-
ability and transparency,
and reporting of results.
Design Your
Own Ways to
Take Action
• Start a network to
match those who need
assistance and those
who want to help.
For example, there may
Dragon Images/Shutterstock.com
be people on your cam-
pus who, because of a
disability or recent injury,
need someone to help
carry belongings, open
doors, or push wheel-
chairs.
• Do you want to raise awareness about an issue? Is
there a cause that you think needs attention? Talk with
friends. Find out if they share your concerns. Turn your
Get discussions into a blog. Create videos of events you

think are newsworthy and share them online. Sign or
Involved start a petition.
Join a Group on Campus

Take an Interest in Your You probably see flyers promoting groups and recruiting
members posted all over campus. Chances are, there’s a
Community—Offer to Help group organized around something you’re interested in
Every community—large and small—can use energetic or care about.
people willing to help where there is a need. Local non- Maybe it’s an organization that works to bring clean
profit agencies serving the homeless, battered women, water to remote parts of the world. The American Red
or troubled teens often welcome volunteers who are Cross may be looking for help with campus blood drives.
willing to pitch in. You’ll find groups organized around race, culture, or
The Internet also has abundant resources about political parties; groups that go on spring break trips to
nonprofits and charities and how you can get involved: serve communities in need; service organizations of all
kinds; and groups that focus on the environment. The
• Idealist.org is a great place to find organizations and
list goes on and on.
events that are looking for employees, interns, and
If you have an interest that isn’t represented by the
volunteers. Filter by type and area of focus (women,
groups on your campus, start your own. Your college
disaster relief, animals, etc.) to find a cause that
or university should have an office of campus life (or
fits you.
something similar) that can help you establish a student
• Tinyspark.org is a watchdog for nonprofits and organization.
charity organizations. It highlights individuals and
groups that are doing good things around the globe
and investigates those who may not be doing as much
Vote (but Don’t
good as you’d think. Tiny Spark also has a podcast. Forget to Register First)
• Charitynavigator.org is another tool for check- • You can learn about the laws governing voting in your
ing on charities. It evaluates and rates charities on state by going to the website of the National Conference
TA-4
of State Legislatures and its link to Voter Identification lowest-level conventions (or, in some states, caucuses)
Requirements: ncsl.org/research/elections-and- are open to anyone who shows up. Voting rights at a
campaigns/voter-id. convention, however, may be restricted to those who
• Register: Enter “register to vote in [your state]” in a are elected as precinct delegates in a party primary.
search engine. The office in your state that administers In much of the country, precinct delegate slots go
voting and elections will have a website that outlines unfilled. If this is true in your area, you can become a
the steps you will need to follow. You can also find out precinct delegate with a simple write-in campaign, writ-
how to obtain an absentee ballot. ing in your own name and persuading a handful of friends
• If you want to view a sample ballot to familiarize your- or neighbors to write you in as well. Whether you attend
self with what you’ll see at the polls, you will probably a convention as a voting delegate or as a guest, you’ll
be able to view one online. Just enter “sample bal- have a firsthand look at how politics operates. You’ll hear
lot” in a search engine. Your local election board, the debates on resolutions. You might participate in electing
League of Women Voters, or your district library often delegates to higher-level conventions—perhaps even the
post a sample ballot online. national convention if it is a presidential election year.
• Vote: Familiarize yourself with the candidates and
issues before you go to the polls. If you’d like to
influence the way things are done in your Work for a Campaign
community, state, or Washington, D.C., Candidates welcome energetic volun-
you can do so by helping to elect local, teers. So do groups that are support-
state, and federal officials whose views
ing (or opposing) ballot measures.
you endorse and who you think would
While sometimes tiring and frus-
do a good job of running the govern-
trating, working in campaign poli-
ment. Make sure you know the loca-
tion and hours for your polling place. tics can also be exhilarating and very
rewarding.
Find the contact information
Support a Political Party
LH
Gr for a campaign you’re interested in on

F
ap
hic
Getting involved in political parties is as sim- s/S
hu t
ter s t
its website, and inquire about volunteer
o c k . c om
ple as going to the polls and casting your vote for opportunities. Volunteers assemble mail-
the candidate of one of the major parties—or of a third ings, answer the telephone, and make calls to encour-
party. You can also consider becoming a delegate to a age voters to support their candidate or cause. Even if
party convention. Depending on the state, parties may you have little free time or are not comfortable talking
hold conventions by U.S. House district, by county, to strangers, most campaigns can find a way for you to
or by state legislative district. In many states, the participate.
Be Part of
Campus
Media
Do you have a nose
for news and do
you write well? Try
reporting for the
university newspa-
per. Work your way
up to an editor’s
Joseph Sohm/Shutterstock.com
position. If broad-
cast media are your
thing, get involved
with your college
radio station or go
on air on campus TV.
TA-5
Engage with Political Institutions,
Government Agencies, baur/Shutterstock.com
and Public Policymakers— • You can take a virtual tour of the Supreme Court
at Home and Abroad at the website of the Oyez Project at IIT Chicago-Kent
• Visit the government websites for your state and College of Law: www.oyez.org/tour. You can also
community and learn about your representa- listen to Supreme Court oral arguments wherever you
tives. Contact them with your thoughts on matters are. Go to the Oyez site and check out ISCOTUSnow
that are important to you. Attend a city council meet- (blogs.kentlaw.iit.edu/iscotus/).
ing. You can find the date, location, and agenda on • Check with the study-abroad office at your college
your city’s website. And if you’re passionate about a or university. Studying abroad is a great way to expand
local issue, you can even sign up to speak. your horizons and get a feel for different cultures
• Check to see if internships or volunteer oppor- and the global nature of politics and the economy.
tunities are available close to home. Your U.S. There are programs that will take you almost any-
representative has a district office, and your U.S. sen- where in the world.
ators also have offices in various locations around the • Participate in the Model UN Club on your cam-
state. If you plan to be in Washington, D.C., and want pus (or start a Model UN Club if there isn’t one). By
to visit Capitol Hill, book a tour in advance through participating in Model UN,
your senators’ or representative’s offices. That’s also you will become aware
where you can obtain gallery passes to the House and of international issues
Senate chambers. and conflicts and gain
• Spend some time in Washington, D.C. Many col- hands-on experience
leges and universities have internship programs with in diplomacy.
government agencies and institutions. Some have
semester-long programs that will bring you into contact
with policymakers, journalists, and a variety of other
prominent newsmakers. Politics
and government will come alive,
and the contacts you make while
GET INFORMED.
participating in such programs can
often lead to jobs after graduation. GET CONNECTED.
• If you’re interested in the
GET INVOLVED.
k .c o m
Supreme Court and you’re plan-

r s to c
ning a trip to Washington D.C.,

S hu t te
try to watch oral arguments. Go to the Court’s web-

nla s /
site to access the link for oral arguments: supreme

el C a
court.gov. You’ll find the argument calendar and a

Romm
visitor’s guide. (The secret is to get in line early.)

• Become a virtual tourist. If you can’t make it to
Washington, D.C., for a semester-long program or
even a few days, take the U.S. Capitol V
irtual Tour:
https://www.capitol.gov.
TA-6
Every day in America, almost 12,000 people turn age 18 and
become eligible to vote. Each vote makes a difference!
Rock the Vote! is the largest nonprofit and nonpartisan

organization providing the tools college students need to
get registered to vote. It also provides resources about
becoming a more active citizen.
Go to the website below and get involved. Let your voice

be heard!
Go to the Rock the Vote website below and ...
Source: Rock the Vote
1 America in the
Twenty-First
Century
bbernard/Shutterstock.com
LEARNING OUTCOMES
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
1–1 Explain what is meant by the terms politics and government.

After
1–2 Identify the various types of government systems.
finishing this
1–3 Summarize some of the basic principles of American democracy and basic
chapter,
American political values. go to PAGE 22
1–4 Define common American ideological positions, such as “conservatism” for STUDY TOOLS
and “liberalism.”
2 PART ONE: The Foundations of Our American System
razihusin/Shutterstock.com
Do We Still Need
the “Mainstream
Media”?
During the first week of the Trump administration, press were fading. These include print newspapers, weekly
secretary Sean Spicer announced that the new adminis- news magazines, and the televised evening news, pre-
tration was not going to let the “mainstream media get sented by trusted anchorpersons. With the advent of
away with anything.” During the years leading up to his the Internet, social media, and unlimited access to vid-
presidential victory, Trump relied heavily on communica- eos and blogs, we now live in a world of hyper informa-
tions methods that bypassed the mainstream media. He tion, most of it unfiltered. Does that mean that we can
was, and still is, famous for his constant barrage of tweets. forget about the mainstream media and just let them
But even before Trump and his blizzard of tweets, ride off into the sunset?
the great news institutions of the twentieth century
Forget the Mainstream Media—

They Are Biased Anyway
Don’t Kid Yourself—We Need Real
Trump’s people certainly seem to believe that the main-
stream media are doomed. They see these sources as
Reporters and Real Facts
a collection of has-beens with liberal biases who can’t Defenders of the mainstream media have a very
accept that the world has changed. As chief White House different view of what is happening. The real world is
strategist Steve Bannon told the New York Times: “The not just made up of tweets, retweets, and Facebook’s
media should be embarrassed and humiliated and keep news feed. If all we rely on are tweets from politi-
its mouth shut and just listen for awhile.” cians and their supporters, we are in for real trouble.
When a president tweets a falsehood, it takes the
Leaving aside the contention that the mainstream mainstream media to fight back so that the public
media are pro-liberal and anti-Trump, more and more knows the truth. Politifact, a Pulitzer Prize–winning
news consumers today use mobile devices to find out fact-checker, has found that more than two out of
what is happening. Young people simply have no inter- every three statements made by Trump are mostly
est in reading the print edition of any newspaper or false, false, or “pants on fire.”
magazine. They get their news from Twitter, Facebook,
online bloggers, and just about any place except the The mainstream media have and will continue
mainstream media. to serve a civic role, one in which they function as
useful filters of information. They sort facts from
In the past, most Americans had to put up with the lies. Rather than simply criticizing the mainstream
opinions of their local newspaper and network anchor- media as irrelevant, we should be looking for ways
persons, whether they agreed with those opinions or to strengthen them. And that does cost money. After
not. That is no longer necessary. You can find the news all, journalists have families to feed and thus must
presented in whatever way you wish on hundreds of be paid. Companies that are part of the mainstream
Internet news sites and thousands of blogs. media must make profits to stay in business. New
types of media are all very fine, but we also need to
support and encourage the media that have served
us well since this nation was founded.
Where do you stand?

1. What is the danger, if any, in obtaining news only Explore this issue online
from your friends, tweets, and Facebook’s trending • Search for “state of the news media” to see a compre-
topics? hensive report by the Pew Research Center.
2. What methods could you use to find out whether • Ann Arbor is now the largest city in the nation with-
your favorite news sources are biased? out a for-profit daily newspaper. (The University of
Michigan still supports a daily.) See what replaced
the Ann Arbor News at www.mlive.com/ann-arbor.
CHAPTER 1: America in the Twenty-First Century 3

I NTRO D U CTION such as its land, among themselves and how to bal-
ance individual needs and wants against those of society
generally.
Regardless of how Americans feel about government, one
These perfect people would also have to decide how
thing is certain: they can’t live without it. James Madison
to make these decisions. They would need to create a
(1751–1836) once said, “If men were angels, no govern-
process for making rules and a form of government to
ment would be necessary.” Today, his statement still holds
enforce those rules. It is thus not difficult to understand
true. People are not perfect. People need an organized
why government is one of humanity’s oldest and most
form of government and a set of rules by which to live.
universal institutions.
Government performs a wide range of extremely
As you will read in this chapter, a number of dif-
important functions. From the time we are born until
ferent systems of government exist in the world today.
the day we die, we constantly interact with various levels
In the United States, we have a
of government. Most (although not
democracy in which decisions
all) students attend government-
about pressing issues ultimately
run schools. All of us travel on “The ultimate rulers are made politically by the people’s
government-owned streets and

representatives in government.
highways. Many of us serve in the of our democracy Because people rarely have
military—a completely government-
controlled environment. A few of us are . . . the voters identical thoughts and feelings
about issues, it is not surprising
get into trouble and meet up with the
of this country.” that in any democracy citizens are
government’s law enforcement sys-
FRANKLIN D. ROOSEVELT often at odds over many political
tem. Every citizen reaching the age
THIRTY-SECOND PRESIDENT and social problems. Throughout
of sixty-five can expect the govern-
OF THE UNITED STATES 1933–1945 this book, you will read about con-
ment to help with medical and living
temporary controversies that have
expenses. To fund all these functions,
brought various groups of Ameri-
the government collects taxes.
cans into conflict with one another.
In a representative democracy such as ours, it is poli-
Differences in political opinion are essential parts of
tics that controls what the government decides to do. What
a democratic government. Ultimately, these differences
combination of taxes and government services is best? When
are resolved, one way or another, through the American
should our leaders use military force against foreign nations
political process and our government institutions.
or rebellions in foreign countries? As discussed in this chap-
ter’s opening America at Odds feature, how do citizens gain
the information they need to make these decisions? How
1–1a Defining Politics
the nation answers these and many other questions will have
a major impact on your life—and participation in politics is and Government
the only way you can influence what happens. Politics means many things to many people. There are
also many different notions about the meaning of gov-
1–1 WHAT ernment. How should we define these two central
ARE POLITICS concepts?
AND GOVERNMENT?
Politics and Conflict To some, politics is an
expensive and extravagant game played in Washing-
LO E xplain what is meant by the terms politics and
government. ton, D.C., in state capitols, and in city halls, particularly
during election time. To others, politics involves all of
Even if—contrary to Madi- the tactics and maneuvers carried out by the president
institution An ongoing son’s observation—people and Congress. Most formal definitions of politics, how-
organization that performs were perfect, they would ever, begin with the assumption that social conflict—
certain functions for society. still need to establish rules disagreements among people in a society over what the
social conflict to guide their behavior. society’s priorities should be—is inevitable. Conflicts will
Disagreements among people They would somehow have naturally arise over how the society should use its scarce
in a society over what the to agree on how to divide resources and who should receive various benefits, such
society’s priorities should be.
up a society’s resources, as health care and higher education. Resolving such
conflicts is the essence of p olitics.
Political scientist Harold Lasswell
perhaps said it best in his classic
definition of politics as the process of
determining “who gets what, when,
and how” in a society.1
Government and Authority

Disputes over how to distribute a
society’s resources inevitably arise
because valued resources, such as
Matthew Corley/Shutterstock.com
property, are limited, while people’s
wants are unlimited. To resolve such
disputes, people need ways to deter-
mine who wins and who loses, and
how to get the losers to accept those
decisions. Who has the legitimate
power—the authority—to make such Transportation Security Administration (TSA) and Secret Service agents set
decisions? This is where governments up security equipment outside an upcoming rally by senator and presidential
step in. candidate Bernie Sanders (D., Vt.) in Santa Cruz, California. Why is passenger
From the perspective of politi- screening at airports carried out by federal government employees such as TSA staff?
cal science, government can best be
defined as the individuals and institu-
the highly controversial
tions that make society’s rules and also possess the power
question of whether the
and authority to enforce those rules. Generally, in any politics The process of
Second Amendment to the resolving conflicts over how
country, government uses its authority to serve at least
Constitution grants indi- society should use its scarce
three essential purposes:
viduals the right to bear resources and who should
arms. In 2008 and 2010, receive various benefits, such
▸▸ Resolving conflicts,
as public health care and
▸▸ providing public services, and the Court affirmed that public higher education.
such a right does exist.
▸▸ defending the nation and its culture against attacks government The
Because of the Court’s
by other nations. individuals and institutions
stature and authority as a that make society’s rules
government body, there and possess the power and
1–1b Resolving Conflicts was little resistance to its authority to enforce those
decision, even from gun rules.
Governments decide how conflicts will be resolved so
control advocates. power The ability to
that public order can be maintained. Governments have
influence the behavior of
power—the ability to influence the behavior of others. others, usually through the
Power is getting someone to do something that he or 1–1c Providing use of force, persuasion, or
she would not otherwise do. Power may involve the use Public rewards.
of force (often called coercion), persuasion, or rewards. Services authority The ability to
Governments typically also have authority, which they legitimately exercise power,
can exercise only if their power is legitimate. As used Another important pur- such as the power to make
here, the term authority means the ability to use power pose of government is to and enforce laws.
that is collectively recognized and accepted by society provide public services— public services
as legally and morally correct. Power and authority are essential services that Essential services that
central to a government’s ability to resolve conflicts by many individuals cannot individuals cannot provide
for themselves, such as
making and enforcing laws, placing limits on what peo- provide for themselves. building and maintaining
ple can do, and developing court systems to make final Governments undertake roads, establishing welfare
decisions. projects that individuals programs, operating public
For example, the judicial branch of government— usually would not or could schools, and preserving
national parks.
specifically, the United States Supreme Court—resolved not carry out on their own.
These projects include building and maintaining roads, of 10 percent. Yet the unemployment rate counts only
establishing welfare programs, operating public schools, people who are actively looking for work. The share of
and preserving national parks. Governments also provide Americans of prime working age without a job in 2017
such services as law enforcement, fire protection, and was almost 2 percentage points higher than in 2007. That
public health and safety programs. As Abraham Lincoln translates into more than 2 million people who have not
once stated: gone back to work. As you will learn later in this chapter,
when many Americans continue to face economic hard-
The legitimate object of government is to do for a com- ships, they often have negative views about how well our
munity of people, whatever they need to have done, but government is “running the ship.”
cannot do, at all, or cannot, so well do, for themselves—
in their separate, individual capacities. In all that the
1–1d Defending the
people can individually do as well for themselves,
government ought not to interfere.2 Nation and Its Culture
Historically, matters of national security and defense
Services for All and Services for Some Some
have been given high priority by governments and have
public services are provided equally to all citizens of the
demanded considerable time, effort, and expense. The
United States. For example, government services such
U.S. government provides for the common defense and
as national defense and domestic law enforcement allow
national security with its Army, Navy, Marines, Air Force,
all citizens, at least in theory, to feel that their lives and
and Coast Guard. The departments of State, Defense,
property are safe. Laws governing clean air and safe
and Homeland Security, plus the Central Intelligence
drinking water benefit all Americans.
Agency, National Security Agency, and other agencies,
Other services are provided only to citizens who are
also contribute to this defense network.
in need at a particular time, even though they are paid
As part of an ongoing policy of national security,
for by all citizens through taxes. Such services include
many departments and agencies in the federal govern-
health and welfare benefits. For example, a program
ment are constantly dealing with other nations. The
such as Social Security Disability Insurance provides a
Constitution gives our national government exclusive
source of income to people whose ability to work is lim-
power over relations with foreign nations. No individual
ited by a notable disability. Americans contribute to the
state can negotiate a treaty with a foreign nation.
program through the Social Security payroll tax, regard-
less of whether they ever become disabled.
Managing the Economy

One of the most crucial public
services that the government is
expected to provide is protection
from hardship caused by economic
recessions or depressions. From
2008 on, this governmental objec-
tive became more important than
almost any other, due to the sever-
ity of the Great Recession that
Getmilitaryphotos/Shutterstock.com
began in December 2007.

One of the most damaging
consequences of the recession has
been low rates of employment,
which have continued into the
present, even though the reces-
sion officially ended in June 2009 A U.S. Navy SEAL with diving gear and weapons. As of early 2017, participation
when economic growth resumed. by U.S. troops in Syria was limited to special operations forces such as the SEALs.
True, the official unemployment Why would the federal government be reluctant to introduce regular infantry soldiers into
rate was 4.7 percent at the begin- that conflict?
ning of 2017, down from a high
Of course, in defending the nation against attacks Monarchy One form of autocracy, known as a
by other nations, a government helps to preserve the monarchy, is government by a king or queen, an emperor
nation’s culture, as well as its integrity as an indepen- or empress—or a person with some other aristocratic
dent unit. Failure to defend successfully against foreign title, such as emir, grand duke, or prince. In a monar-
attacks may have significant consequences for a nation’s chy, the monarch, who usually acquires power through
culture. For example, consider what happened in Tibet inheritance, is the highest authority in the government.
in the 1950s. When that country was taken over by the Historically, many monarchies were absolute mon-
People’s Republic of China, the conquering Chinese archies, in which the ruler held complete and unlim-
set out on a systematic program, the effective result of ited power. Until the eighteenth century, the theory
which was large-scale cultural destruction. of “divine right” was widely accepted in Europe. This
Attacks by foreign governments are not the only threat divine right theory, variations of which had existed
that nations must address. Since the terrorist attacks on the since ancient times, held that God gave those of royal
World Trade Center and the Pentagon in 2001, defending birth the unlimited right to govern other men and
the homeland against future terrorist attacks has become women. In other words, those of royal birth had a “divine
a priority of our government. Terrorists often operate right” to rule, and only God could judge them. Thus, all
independently of any foreign authority, even if they are citizens were bound to obey their monarchs, no matter
inspired from abroad. Examples include the killings in how unfair or unjust they seemed to be. Challenging
San Bernardino, California, in December 2015 and the this power was regarded not only as treason against the
massacre at a gay nightclub in Orlando, Florida, in 2016. government but also as a sin against God.
Most modern monarchies, however, are constitu-
Critical Thinking
tional monarchies, in which the monarch shares govern-
mental power with elected lawmakers. Over time, the
▸▸ Would it be a good idea to send U.S. ground forces to attack monarch’s power has come to be limited, or checked, by
ISIS in Iraq or Syria, or would doing so lead to even greater other government leaders and perhaps by a constitution
problems than we already face? Explain your answer.
or a bill of rights. Most constitutional monarchs today
serve merely as ceremonial leaders of their nations, as in
Spain, Sweden, and the United Kingdom (Britain).
1–2 Different Systems Dictatorship Undemocratic systems that are not
of Government supported by tradition are called dictatorships. Often,
a dictator is a single indi-
vidual, although dictatorial autocracy A form of
LO Identify the various types of government systems.
power can be exercised by a government in which the
group, such as the Commu- power and authority of the
Through the centuries, the functions of government just government are in the hands
discussed have been performed by many different types of nist Party of China. Dicta-
of a single person.
structures. A government’s structure is influenced by a num- tors are not accountable to
anyone else. monarchy A form of
ber of factors, such as a country’s history, customs, values, autocracy in which a king,
geography, resources, and human experiences and needs. A dictatorship can be
queen, or other aristocrat
No two nations have exactly the same form of government. totalitarian, which means is the highest authority in
Over time, however, political analysts have developed ways that a leader or group of the government. Monarchs
leaders seeks to control usually obtain their power
to classify different systems of government. One of the most
almost all aspects of social through inheritance.
meaningful ways is according to who governs. Who has the
power to make the rules and laws that all must obey? and economic life. The divine right theory The
leadership establishes the theory that a monarch’s right
goals of society. Citizens to rule was derived directly
1–2a Undemocratic Systems from God rather than from the
must conform to the gov- consent of the people.
Before the development of modern democratic systems, ernment’s dictates in all
dictatorship A form of
the power of the government was typically in the hands fields of endeavor—in the government in which absolute
of an authoritarian individual or group. When such economy, in literature and power is exercised by an
power is exercised by an individual, the system is called entertainment, and even in individual or group whose
an autocracy. Autocrats can gain power by traditional or private conversation. Typi- power is not supported by
tradition.
nontraditional means. cally, these collective goals

benefit only the leaders and are damaging to the nation The Athenian Model of Direct Democracy
as a whole. Democracy as a form of government began long
Examples of the totalitarian form of government ago. In its earliest form, democracy was simpler than
include Adolf Hitler’s Nazi regime in Germany from the s ystem we know today. What we now call direct
1933 to 1945 and Joseph Stalin’s dictatorship in the democracy exists when the people participate directly
Soviet Union (Russia) from 1929 to 1953. A more con- in government decision making. In its purest form,
temporary example of a totalitarian dictator is the latest direct democracy was practiced in Athens and several
leader of North Korea, Kim Jong-un. other ancient Greek city-states about 2,500 years ago.
Every Athenian citizen participated in the governing
1–2b Democratic Systems assembly and voted on all major issues. Some consider
the Athenian form of direct democracy ideal because
The most familiar form of government to Americans is
it demanded a high degree of citizen participation.
democracy, in which the supreme political authority rests
Others point out that most residents in the Athenian
with the people. The word democracy comes from the
city-state (women, foreigners, and slaves) were not
Greek demos, meaning
c onsidered citizens. Thus, they were not allowed to
democracy A system of “the people,” and k ratia,
participate in government.3
government in which the people meaning “rule.” The
have ultimate political authority. main idea of democracy Direct Democracy Today Clearly, direct democ-
The word is derived from the
is that government exists racy is possible only in small communities in which citi-
Greek demos (“the people”) and
kratia (“rule”). only by the consent of zens can meet in a chosen place and decide key issues
the people and reflects and policies. Nowhere in the world does pure direct
direct democracy A system the will of the majority. democracy exist today. Some New England towns,
of government in which political
decisions are made by the people Figure 1–1 shows the though, and a few of the smaller political subunits, or
themselves rather than by elected extent of democracy in cantons, of Switzerland still use a modified form of direct
representatives. This form of the world today—with democracy.
government was practiced in
“democratic” defined as Another modern institution with some of the char-
some parts of ancient Greece.
“free.” acteristics of direct democracy is the ballot proposal,
Figure 1–1 FREE AND UNFREE NATIONS OF THE WORLD, JANUARY 2017
In this classification of nations by Freedom House, green means free, yellow means partly free, and blue means
unfree. Bear in mind that these are the assessments of a single organization. Why might another organization
come up with a different system of classification?
Germany
Russia
Canada
UK
France
Italy
USA
China
Japan
Mexico India
Pakistan
Philippines
Bangladesh
Nigeria Indonesia
Brazil
Australia
Sources: Arch Puddington and Tyler Roylance, Populists and Autocrats: The Dual Threat to Global Democracy (Washington, D.C.: Freedom House, 2017).
Outline map adapted from Wikimedia.
In a representative democracy, the will of the
majority is expressed through smaller groups of individu-
als elected by the people to act as their representatives.
These representatives are responsible to the people for
their conduct and can be voted out of office.
Our founders preferred to use the term republic,
which means essentially a representative system with
one qualification. A democratic republic, by definition,
has no king or queen. Rather, the people are sovereign.
In contrast, a representative democracy may be headed
Universal History Archive/Universal Images Group/Getty Images
by a monarch. For example, as Britain evolved into a

representative democracy, it retained its monarch as the
head of state (but with no real power).
Types of Representative Democracy In the

modern world, there are basically two forms of repre-
sentative democracy: presidential and parliamentary.
In a presidential democracy, the lawmaking and law-
enforcing branches of government are separate but
equal. For example, in the United States, Congress is
charged with the power to make laws, and the president
is charged with the power to carry them out.
In this rather idealized painting by Norman Rockwell, In a parliamentary democracy, the lawmaking and
a working man rises to speak at a New England town law-enforcing branches of government are united. In
meeting. The 1943 work, titled “Freedom of Speech,”
Britain, for example, the prime minister and the cabinet
was one of four. The others illustrated freedom of
are members of the legislature, called Parliament, and
worship, freedom from want, and freedom from fear.
are responsible to that body. A parliament thus both
Why would Rockwell paint such images in the middle of
World War II (1939–1945)? enacts the laws and carries them out.
Critical Thinking
in which the voters themselves decide a specific ques- ▸▸ Chinese Communist leader Mao Zedong (1893–1976)
tion rather than letting their elected officials resolve the once said, “Political power grows out of the barrel of a
gun.” Was Mao right? Why or why not?
issue. Ballot proposals are used in many American states.
In one type, the referendum, the legislature sends a bal-
lot proposal to the voters. The initiative differs in that a
question is placed on the ballot by gathering signatures, 1–3 American representative
not by action of the legislature. A related process is democracy A form of
recall, an initiative to remove an elected official imme- Democracy democracy in which the will
diately, before his or her term of office comes to an end. of the majority is expressed
through groups of individuals
LO S
ummarize some of elected by the people to act as
Representative Democracy Although the the basic principles of
their representatives.
founders of the United States were aware of the Athenian American democracy
model and agreed that government should be based on the

and basic American republic Essentially, a
political values. representative system in
consent of the governed, they believed that direct democ- which there is no king or
racy would deteriorate into mob rule. They thought that “This country, with all its queen and the people are
large groups of people meeting together would ignore the institutions, belongs to sovereign.
rights and opinions of people in the minority and would the people who inhabit it. parliament The national
make decisions without careful thought. They believed Whenever they shall grow legislative body in countries
that representative assemblies were superior because they weary of the existing gov- governed by a parliamentary
would enable public decisions to be made in a calmer and ernment, they can exercise system, such as Britain and
Canada.
more deliberate manner. their constitutional right to
cannot be overemphasized, because it clearly established
“The thing about democracy, the principle of limited government—a government on
which strict limits are placed, usually by a constitution.
beloveds, is that it is not neat, This form of government is characterized by institutional
orderly or quiet. It requires a checks to ensure that it serves public rather than private
interests. Hence, the Magna Carta signaled the end of
certain relish for confusion.” the monarch’s absolute power. Although many of the
rights provided under the original Magna Carta applied
~ MOLLY IVINS, AMERICAN JOURNALIST, 1944–2007 only to the nobility, the document formed the basis of
the future constitutional government for E ngland and
eventually the United States.
amend it, or their revolutionary right to dismember or Representative Government In a represen-
overthrow it.”4 tative government, the people, by whatever means,
With these words, Abraham Lincoln underscored the elect individuals to make governmental decisions for
most fundamental concept of American government: the all of the citizens. Usually, these representatives of the
people, not the government, are ultimately in control. people are elected to their offices for specific periods
of time. In England, as mentioned earlier, this group
1–3a The British Legacy of representatives is called a parliament. The English
form of government provided a model for Americans
In writing the U.S. Constitution, the framers incor-
to follow. Each of the American colonies established its
porated two basic principles of government that had
own legislature.
evolved in England: limited government and representa-
In 1689, the English Parliament passed the English
tive government. In a sense, then, the beginnings of our
Bill of Rights, which further extended the concepts of
form of government are linked to events that occurred
limited and representative government. This document
centuries earlier in England. They are also linked to the
included several important ideas:
writings of European philosophers, particularly the Eng-
lish political philosopher John Locke (1632–1704). From ▸▸ The king or queen could not interfere with parliamen-
these writings, the founders of our nation derived ideas tary elections.
to justify their rebellion against B
ritain and their estab- ▸▸ The king or queen had to have Parliament’s approval
lishment of a “government by the people.” to levy (collect) taxes or to maintain an army.
Limited Government At one time, the English ▸▸ The king or queen had to rule with the consent of the
monarch claimed to have almost unrestricted powers. This people’s representatives in Parliament.
changed in 1215, when King John was forced by his nobles
The English colonists in North America were also Eng-
to accept the Magna Carta, or the Great Charter. This
lish citizens, and nearly all of the major concepts in the
monumental document pro-
English Bill of Rights became part of the American sys-
limited government vided for a trial by a jury of
A form of government based tem of government.
one’s peers (equals). It pro-
on the principle that the
powers of government should
hibited the taking of a free Political Philosophy: Social Contracts and
be clearly limited either man’s life, liberty, or prop- Natural Rights Our democracy resulted from what
through a written document erty except through due can be viewed as a type of social contract among early
or through wide public process of law. The Magna Americans to create and abide by a set of governing
understanding.
Carta also forced the king to rules. Social-contract theory was developed in the sev-
social contract obtain the nobles’ approval enteenth and eighteenth centuries by philosophers such
A voluntary agreement
of any taxes he imposed on as John Locke. According to this theory, individuals vol-
among individuals to create
a government and to give them. Government thus untarily agree with one another, in a “social contract,” to
that government adequate became a contract between give up some of their freedoms to obtain the benefits of
power to secure the mutual the king and his subjects. orderly government. The government is given adequate
protection and welfare of all The importance of the power to secure the mutual protection and welfare of all
individuals.
Magna Carta to England individuals.
Locke also argued that people are born acceptable compromises because of their
with natural rights to life, liberty, and common political heritage.
property. He theorized that the pur-
pose of government was to protect
those rights. If it did not, it would 1–3c American
Corbis Yellow/RF/Corbis
lose its legitimacy and need not Political Values
be obeyed. When the American
Historically, as the nations of the
colonists rebelled against Brit-
world emerged, the boundaries
ish rule, such concepts as natural
of each nation normally coincided
rights and a government based
with the boundaries of a population
on a social contract became impor-
that shared a common ethnic heri-
tant theoretical tools in justifying the
tage, language, and culture. From its
rebellion.
beginnings as a nation, however, America
has been defined less by the culture shared by its
1–3b Principles of diverse population than by the ideas that make up its
American Democracy political culture.
A political culture can be defined as a patterned
We can say that American democracy is based on at least
set of ideas, values, and ways of thinking about govern-
five fundamental principles:
ment and politics. Our political culture is passed from
▸▸ Equality in voting. Citizens must have equal opportuni- one generation to another through families, schools,
ties to express their preferences about policies and and the media. This culture is powerful enough to win
leaders. over most new immigrants. Indeed, some immigrants
▸▸ Individual freedom. All individuals must have the great- come to America precisely because they are attracted by
est amount of freedom possible without interfering American values.
with the rights of others. The ideals and standards that constitute American
▸▸ Equal protection of the law. The law must entitle all political culture are embodied in the Declaration of Inde-
persons to equal protection. pendence, one of the founding documents of this nation,
▸▸ Majority rule and minority rights. The majority should
presented in its entirety in Appendix A. The political val-
rule, while guaranteeing the rights of minorities. ues outlined in the Declaration of Independence include
natural rights (to life, liberty, and the pursuit of happi-
▸▸ Voluntary consent to be governed. The people who
ness), equality under the law, government by the consent
make up a democracy must collectively (not individu-
ally) agree to be governed by the rules laid down by
of the governed, and limited government powers. In some
their representatives. ways, the Declaration of Independence defines Ameri-
cans’ sense of right and wrong. It presents a challenge to
These principles frame many of the political issues that anyone who might wish to overthrow our democratic pro-
you will read about in this book. They also frequently cesses or deny our citizens their natural rights.
lie at the heart of America’s political conflicts. Does the The rights to liberty, equality, and property are fun-
principle of minority rights mean that minorities should damental political values
receive preferential treatment in hiring and firing deci- shared by most Americans. natural rights Rights
sions to make up for past mistreatment? Does the prin- These values provide a that are not bestowed by
ciple of individual freedom mean that individuals can basic framework for Amer- governments but are inherent
within every man, woman,
express whatever they want on the Internet, including ican political discourse and child by virtue of the fact
hateful, racist comments? Above all, how much should and debate because they that he or she is a human
the government do? We address that last question in this are shared, yet Americans being.
chapter’s Join the Debate feature. often interpret their mean- political culture The set
Such conflicts over individual rights and freedoms ings quite differently. The of ideas, values, and attitudes
and over society’s priorities are natural and inevitable. result of these differences about government and the
Resolving these conflicts is what politics is all about. The can be sharp conflict in the political process held by a
community or a nation.
key point is that Americans are frequently able to reach political arena.

Join
the Debate
Is Our Government Too Large?
F
or much of America’s history, people who need, for example, medi- fact, America then experienced some
there was little discussion about cal care or education. The problem of the strongest economic growth
whether our government had is that once government programs in its history.
grown too large. The government, are in place, they expand. Opponents More generally, liberals argue
after all, wasn’t that big. Since the of big government believe that too that we need the programs that
Great Depression of the 1930s, how- many people seek government assis- a big government can provide.
ever, the government has grown by tance rather than taking care of their Medicare, Medicaid, and Social
leaps and bounds. problems by themselves or with the Security together make up half
Americans are at odds over the help of family and friends. of all federal spending. These
proper size of government. Indeed, the Conservatives argue that govern- programs assist people who cannot
size of government lies at the very heart ment spending must be held back get by with just the help of family
of the traditional differences between to avoid higher taxes. Even if the or friends.
Republicans and Democrats. Republi- government supports its spending by Liberals agree that government
cans in Congress have called for large borrowing, it will have to make up the should do whatever it can to limit
cuts to the federal budget. Democrats, difference by imposing new taxes at wasteful spending. But when we must
however, believe that large cuts may some time in the future. The federal choose between higher taxes and
endanger important programs such budget deficit cannot rise forever, eliminating crucial services, we will
as Medicare and Medicaid. (Medicare and most of us know that. Further, simply have to pay for the benefits we
provides health-care funding to the the government is inefficient. Private need. America can do this if we need
elderly, and Medicaid provides it to citizens can almost always make bet- to. Back in the 1970s, the top marginal
low-income persons.) As a candidate, ter use of funds than the government income tax rate was 75 percent higher
Donald Trump was more open to large can. Finally, taxing some people to than what it is today. In the 1950s it
government than most Republican support other people is fundamen- was higher still.
leaders. As president, however, Trump’s tally unfair.
proposals have been more traditionally
Republican, and it is not clear what will We Need What
happen to the size of government. the Government Does
Liberals reject the argument that
Big Government taxation must injure the economy.
Must Shrink
Critical Analysis
In the 1990s, Democrats under
Many of those who believe that big President Bill Clinton raised taxes to Are tax increases a legitimate
government must shrink admit that reduce the federal budget deficit. policy option—or should they be
government programs can help many Conservatives predicted disaster. In out of the question?
Liberty The term liberty can be defined as a state of unless they are free to voice their opinions, freedom of
being free from external controls or restrictions. In the speech is a basic requirement in a true democracy.
United States, the Constitution sets forth our civil liber- Clearly, though, if we are to live together with oth-
ties, including the freedom to practice whatever religion we ers, there have to be some restrictions on individual liber-
choose and to be free from any state-imposed religion. Our ties. If people were allowed to do whatever they wished,
liberties also include the freedom to speak freely on any without regard for the rights or liberties of others, chaos
topic and issue. Because people cannot govern themselves would result. Hence, a more accurate definition of
contend that it is the government’s
responsibility to totally eliminate
the economic and social differ-
ences that lead to unequal oppor-
tunities. Indeed, some contend
that efforts to achieve equality, in
the sense of equal treatment for
all, are fundamentally incompat-
ible with the value of liberty.
Property As noted earlier,
the English philosopher John
Locke asserted that people are

born with natural rights and that
among these rights are life, lib-
erty, and property. The Declara-
tion of Independence makes a
similar assertion: people are born
with certain “unalienable” rights,
A young girl celebrates the Fourth of July. What function does “flag waving” have?
including the right to life, liberty,
and the pursuit of happiness. For
Americans, property and the pur-
liberty would be the freedom of individuals to believe, suit of happiness are closely related. Americans place a
act, and express themselves as they choose so long as great value on home ownership, on material possessions,
doing so does not infringe on the rights of other individu- and on their businesses. Property gives its owners political
als in the society. power and the liberty to do what they want—within limits.
While almost all Americans believe strongly in lib-
Property and Capitalism. Private property in America
erty, differing ideas of what liberty should mean have led
is not limited to personal possessions such as automo-
to some of our most heated political disputes. Should
biles and houses. Property also consists of assets that
women be free to obtain abortions? Should employers
can be used to create and sell goods and services, such
be free to set the wages and working conditions of their
as factories, farms, and shops. Private ownership of
employees? Should individuals be free to smoke mari-
wealth-producing property is at the heart of our capital-
juana? Over the years, Americans have been at odds over
ist economic system. Capitalism enjoys such widespread
these and many other issues that concern liberty.
support in the United States
Equality The goal of equality has always been a cen- that we can reasonably call
tral part of American political culture. The Declaration of it one of the nation’s fun- liberty The freedom of
Independence confirmed the importance of equality to damental political values. individuals to believe, act,
and express themselves as
early Americans by stating, “We hold these Truths to be In addition to the private they choose so long as doing
self-evident, that all Men are created equal.” Because of ownership of productive so does not infringe on the
the goal of equality, the Constitution prohibited the gov- property, capitalism is based rights of other individuals in
ernment from granting titles of nobility. (The Constitu- on free markets—markets the society.
tion did not prohibit slavery, however.) in which people can freely equality A concept that
But what, exactly, does equality mean? Does it mean buy and sell goods, services, holds, at a minimum, that all
simply political equality—the right to vote and run for people are entitled to equal
and financial investments
protection under the law.
political office? Does it mean that individuals should have without undue constraint by
equal opportunities to develop their talents and skills? the government. Freedom capitalism An economic
system based on the private
What about those who are poor, suffer from disabilities, to make binding contracts ownership of wealth-
or are otherwise at a competitive disadvantage? Should is another element of the producing property, free
it be the government’s responsibility to ensure that such capitalist system. The pre- markets, and freedom of
individuals also have equal opportunities? eminent capitalist institu- contract. The privately owned
corporation is the preeminent
Although most Americans believe that all persons tion is the privately owned
capitalist institution.
should have the opportunity to fulfill their potential, few corporation.
Capitalism and Government. Although capitalism is sup- Democrats consider the other party to be not merely
ported by almost all Americans, there is no equivalent misguided, but a danger to the country. The 2016 elec-
agreement on the relationship between capitalism and tions, therefore, were certain to be hard-fought. Voter
the government. Is it best for the government to leave turnout was higher than in the 2012 presidential elec-
businesses alone in almost all circumstances—or would tion year, not to mention the midterm years 2010 and
this lead to excessive inequality and unethical business 2014. The Democrats did, in fact, post a net gain of two
practices that injure consumers? As with the values of senators and eight members of the House, although
liberty and equality, Americans are divided over what the this result did not come close to threatening Republi-
right to property should mean. can control of either chamber. In addition, Democratic
presidential candidate Hillary Rodham Clinton won the
national popular vote by a margin of 2.1 percent.
1–3d Political Values
In the United States, however, presidential elec-
and a Divided Electorate tions are not decided by the popular vote but by votes
Differences among Americans in interpreting our colin the electoral college. The members of the college—
lectively held values underlie the division between the electors—are chosen by the individual states, plus the
Republican and Democratic parties. Election results in District of Columbia. Republican presidential candidate
the twenty-first century suggest that the voters are split Donald J. Trump carried the electoral college easily.
right down the middle. Elections have often been close. Trump’s victory was decided in the so-called heartland,
In 2000, for example, Republican George W. Bush won the industrial Midwest plus Pennsylvania. His margins
the presidency in one of the closest presidential elec- in states such as Michigan, Pennsylvania, and Wisconsin
tions in U.S. history. In election years since 2000, sup- were narrow, however. Clinton ran up unprecedented
port for the two major parties has swung back and forth, margins in states such as California, but that state was
sometimes dramatically. The years 2006 and 2008 were going to vote Democratic anyway. In effect, Clinton’s
very good for the Democrats, at first because of public extra votes in states such as California were wasted.
dissatisfaction with the war in Iraq and later because of Republicans in Power For the first time since
the economic crisis that struck while Bush was still presi- December 2010, one party was in full control of the
dent. The Republicans, in turn, enjoyed a banner year in national government. In January 2017, President Trump
2010, based in part on the widespread belief that Presi- nominated a conservative candidate to fill a vacancy on the
dent Barack Obama and the Democrats were going too United States Supreme Court, in an attempt to ensure
far in an attempt to carry out their liberal party platform. that the Republicans would enjoy a sympathetic hear-
Despite the earlier swing to the Democrats and the later ing from the judiciary. The practical consequences of the
Republican victories, the underlying reality remained— Republican sweep were not clear. That party was expected
the nation was closely divided in its political preferences. to pass much conservative legislation, but new laws
The 2012 and 2014 Elections By 2012, many would need Trump’s approval. On many points, Trump’s
moderate voters were apparently concerned that Republi- nationalist politics differed from traditional Republican
can threats to popular social programs outweighed Demo- small-government conservatism. Trump’s influence on
cratic fondness for “big government.” Also, in a presidential Congress, however, turned out to be surprisingly modest.
election year such as 2012, more Democratic-leaning
Trump’s Policies In an almost endless number of
young people and minority group members could be
ways, Trump was an unprecedented presidential candi-
expected to vote. (Often, such voters stay home in mid-
date. His background, campaign style, and positions on
term election years such as 2010 and 2014, when presiden-
the issues were quite different from those of past Repub-
tial candidates are not on the ballot.) In the end, President
lican candidates. For years, a core Republican objective
Obama won reelection in 2012 by a comfortable margin.
had been cuts in tax rates, especially for upper-income
In 2014, however, voter turnout was lower than it had
Americans. Republican leaders were willing to fund such
been in any year since 1942, when the vote took place in
reductions by cutting programs such as Social Security
the middle of World War II. One result was the largest
and Medicare. Many ordinary Republicans, however,
number of Republicans in Congress since the 1920s.
saw these programs as a right earned by years of paying
The 2016 Elections The political battles of the taxes. For many of these people, opposition to immigra-
twenty-first century have been intense. Public opinion tion was the number one issue. In contrast, business-
polls report that increasing numbers of Republicans and oriented establishment Republicans often supported
immigration and steps to improve the status of illegal
immigrants. “People often say that, in a
Trump, in contrast, promised to defend Social
Security and Medicare. His hostility to immigration democracy, decisions are made
and to foreign imports was legendary. In Trump’s view,
foreign trade was responsible for a dramatic fall in the
by a majority of the people. Of
number of manufacturing jobs. He expressed his opin- course, that is not true. Decisions
ions on trade and immigration with some of the most
inflammatory language ever employed by a major-party are made by a majority of . . .
presidential candidate. He began his campaign in 2015
by denouncing Mexican immigrants: “They’re bringing
the people who vote—a very
drugs. They’re bringing crime. They’re rapists.” different thing.”
Trump’s Followers Those Trump supporters who ~ WALTER H. JUDD,
attended his rallies may have applauded such language, U.S. REPRESENTATIVE FROM MINNESOTA, 1943–1963
but for most of his voters economic issues were at least
as important as concerns about the changing nature of
American society. Trump did best in areas with two char- cultural distinctions and assimilate the language and
acteristics. One was an unusually large number of white customs of earlier Americans.
voters with no more than a high school diploma. Such One of the outgrowths of the civil rights movement
people are commonly identified as members of the white of the 1960s was an emphasis on multiculturalism, the
working class (although earlier in history that term was belief that the many cultures that make up American soci-
based on employment, not education). A second char- ety should remain distinct and be protected—and even
acteristic of districts that voted strongly for Trump was encouraged—by our laws. Trump’s 2016 presidential
that people in these areas were more likely to suffer from campaign, however, revealed that some Americans con-
poor health. Death rates in Trump counties were also tinue to see multiculturalism as an unacceptable value.
well above the national average. Despite their differing views about multicultural-
Trump clearly struck a nerve among voters in areas ism, Americans of all backgrounds remain committed
suffering from serious economic and social stress. Voter to the values described in the last few sections of this
turnout was up substantially in districts with such prob- text. The variety of ways that different groups interpret
lems. Trump’s new voters were generally not the hardest- these values, however, add to our political divisions.
pressed members of the white working class, however. African Americans, for example, given their collective
Rather, they were somewhat more prosperous individu- history, often have a different sense of what equality
als who believed that their communities were unraveling should mean than do Americans whose ancestors came
around them. When combined with regular Republican from Europe.
voters, who mostly rallied to Trump, this new group of
voters was enough to elect Trump president. Race and Ethnicity The racial and ethnic makeup
of the United States has changed dramatically in the last
two decades and will continue to change, as shown in
1–3e Political Values Figure 1–2. Already, non-Hispanic whites are a minority
in California. For the nation as a whole, non-Hispanic
in a Changing Society
whites will be in the minority before 2050. Some
From the time of the earliest European settlers, America’s Americans fear that rising numbers of immigrants will
population has always had widely differing origins. Early threaten traditional A merican political values and cul-
commentators, such as Alexis de Tocqueville, wrote of ture. Others are confident
the three races of North America—Europeans, A fricans, that n ewcomers will adopt
and Indians. Many years were to pass, however, before American values. working class Today,
persons with no more than
African Americans and American Indians—and later, Even as new Hispanic a high school diploma.
Hispanic Americans—were widely accepted as members and Asian citizens assimi- Formerly, families in which
of the national community. Immigrants from Europe late into American culture, the head of household was
found acceptance to be easier. Still, most Americans they remain more likely to employed in manual or
unskilled labor.
expected that white immigrants would abandon their vote for Democrats than

An Older Society In 2010, Americans aged 65 or
Figure 1–2 D ISTRIBUTION OF THE U.S. POPULATION
above made up 13 percent of the total population. By
BY RACE AND HISPANIC ORIGIN, 2040, however, that figure is expected to exceed 21 per-
2010 TO 2050 cent. The aging of America means that in future years
By 2050, minorities will constitute a majority of the U.S. there will be more retired people collecting Social Secu-
population. What consequences could follow from the rity, Medicare, and private pensions, compared with the
changes shown below? number of working adults. Inevitably, the question of
how to share the national income among the generations
will become an ever-greater problem. In many foreign
2010 63.7 16.3 4.7 12.2 3.0 countries, however, the aging population poses a much
greater threat than in the United States. Our population is
expected to grow throughout the coming century. Nations
such as Germany, Japan, Russia, and even China can
2020 59.6 19.0 5.8 12.4 3.2 expect to see their populations shrink, which will make
it much harder for them to support their older citizens.
Socialization and Crime The people of the

Year
2030 55.5 21.6 6.7 12.6 3.7 United States are not only older and more diverse, but
they are also, on the whole, better behaved. Few peo-
ple realize it, but crime rates have fallen dramatically
in recent decades. For example, the murder rate per
2040 51.3 24.1 7.6 12.7 4.3 100,000 persons peaked at 10.2 in 1980. By 2014, it was
4.5, almost an all-time low. Measurements of sexual vio-
lence, divorce, births to teenage mothers, and many oth-
ers are headed in a positive direction.
2050 47.3 26.5 8.4 12.8 5.0 Since 2014, the murder rate appears to have gone up
slightly, but it remains far below what it was in the 1980s
and 1990s. The uptick is partly due to a rate increase
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 in a limited number of neighborhoods in cities such as
Percent
Baltimore and Chicago, and it appears to be associated
White Hispanic Asian Black Other with a breakdown in trust between law enforcement and
Data for 2010 are from the 2010 census. Data for 2020 through 2050 are
community members.
Census Bureau projections. Digging into crime statistics reveals an unexpected
Figures do not necessarily sum to 100%, because of rounding. Hispanics fact: crime rates overall are down among minority youth—
may be of any race. The chart categories “White,” “Black,” “Asian,” and “Other”
are limited to non-Hispanics.
and up among middle-age whites. California has the most
“Other” consists of the following non-Hispanic groups: “American Indian,”
complete statistics. According to a recent report, in that
“Alaska Native,” “Native Hawaiian,” “Other Pacific Islander,” and “Two or More state about as many minority youth were arrested for fel-
Races.”
onies in 2008 as middle-age whites. By 2014, more than
Sources: U.S. Bureau of the Census and authors’ calculations.
twice as many middle-age whites were arrested as minority
youth.5 Death rates for rural whites are up—by 48 percent
among white women ages 35 to 39. This is happening at
a time when death rates for every other group are falling.
Republicans. In other words, demographic change may These results may be due to an epidemic of drug and alco-
provide a substantial future benefit to the Democratic hol abuse among rural whites, another sign of a cultural
Party. In recent elections, however, this benefit has been and economic crisis that helped elect Donald Trump.
counteracted by another effect. A growing number of
non-Hispanic whites—especially older ones—have been
drawn to conservatism by their concern over the chang- C RITI C A L THINKING
ing nature of American society. As we have observed, ▸▸ It’s an old saying: “Your freedom to swing your arm ends
such concerns played a role in electing Donald Trump as where my nose begins.” Can you think of other examples
president in 2016. We take a closer look at the immigra- where one person’s liberty interests conflict with those of
tion issue in this chapter’s Perception vs. Reality feature. another person?
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which all these impressions are made, and from which reactions
come. Suppose there is something outside. I see the blackboard.
How does the knowledge come? The blackboard itself is unknown, I
can never know it. It is what the German philosophers call the “thing
in itself.” That blackboard, that “X,” is acting on my mind, and the
chitta reacts. The chitta is like a lake; throw a stone upon it, and as
soon as the stone strikes it a reactionary wave comes towards the
stone. This wave is what you really know. And this wave is not like
the stone at all, it is a wave. So that blackboard, “X,” is the stone
which strikes the mind and the mind throws up a wave towards that
object which strikes it, and this wave which is thrown towards it is
what we call the blackboard. I see you. You as reality are unknown
and unknowable. You are “X” and you act upon my mind, and the
mind throws a wave towards the point from which the action came,
and that wave is what I call Mr. or Mrs. So-and-So.
There are two elements in this, one from inside and the other from
outside, and the combination of these two, “X” plus mind, is our
external universe. All knowledge is by reaction. In the case of a
whale it has been determined by calculation how long after its tail is
struck, its mind reacts upon the tail and the tail feels the pain. Take
the case of the pearl oyster, in which the pearl is formed by the
oyster throwing its own juice around the grain of sand that enters the
shell and irritates him. There are two things which cause the pearl.
First the oyster’s own juice, and second the blow from outside. So
this table is “X” plus my mind. The very attempt to know it will be
made by the mind; therefore the mind will give some of its own
substance to enable it to understand, and when we understand it, it
has become a compound thing,—“X” plus the mind. Similarly in
internal perception; when we want to know ourselves. The real Self,
which is within us, is also unknown and unknowable. Let us call it
“Y.” When I want to know myself as Mr. So-and-So it is “Y” plus the
mind. That “Y” strikes a blow on the mind, and when I want to know
myself I must throw a blow upon the mind also. So our whole world
is “X” plus mind (the external world), and “Y” plus mind (the internal
world). We shall see later how this Advaitist idea can be
demonstrated mathematically.
“X” and “Y” are simply the algebraic unknown quantities. We have
seen that all knowledge is a combination, and this world, the
universe, is a combination, and intelligence is similarly a
combination. If it is internal intelligence it is “Y” plus the mind, if an
external object, it is “X” plus the mind. Knowledge is a combination of
“Y” plus the mind and matter is a combination of “X” plus the mind.
We first take the internal group. Intelligence which we see in Nature
cannot be wholly in Nature, because intelligence itself is a compound
of “Y” plus the mind. “Y” comes from the Self. So the intelligence that
we know is a compound of the power of the light of the soul plus
nature. Similarly, the existence which we know must be a compound
of “X” plus the mind. We find therefore that in these three factors, I
exist, I know and I am blessed, the idea that I have no want, which
comes from time to time, is the central idea, the grand basic idea of
our life, and when it becomes limited, and becomes a compound, we
think it happiness and misery. These factors manifest as existence
phenomenal, knowledge phenomenal, and love phenomenal. Every
man exists, and every man must know, and every man is made for
bliss. He cannot help it. So through all existence; animals and plants,
from the lowest to the highest existence, all must love. You may not
call it love; but they must all exist, must all know and must all love.
So this existence which we know is a compound of “X” and the mind,
and knowledge also is a compound of that “Y” inside plus mind, and
that love also is a compound of that “Y” and mind. Therefore these
three factors which come from inside and are combining themselves
with the external things to manufacture phenomenal existence,
knowledge and love, are called by the Vedantists “Existence
Absolute, Knowledge Absolute, Bliss Absolute.”
That Absolute Existence which is limitless, which is unmixed,
uncombined, which knows no change, is the free soul, and that Real
Existence, when it gets mixed up, muddled up, as it were, with the
elements of Nature is what we call human existence. It is limited and
manifests as plant life, animal life, human life, just as infinite space is
apparently limited by the walls of this room, or by any other
enclosure. That Knowledge Absolute means not the knowledge we
know, not intelligence, not reason, not instinct, but that which when it
becomes manifested we call by these names. When that Knowledge
Absolute becomes limited we call it intuition, and when it becomes
still more limited we call it reason, instinct, etc. That Knowledge
Absolute is Vijnâna. The nearest translation of it is “all-knowingness.”
There is no combination in it. It is the nature of the soul. That Bliss
Absolute when it becomes limited we call love, attraction for the
gross body, or the fine bodies, or for ideas. These are but distorted
manifestations of this blessedness which is not a quality of the soul,
but the essence, the inherent nature of the soul. Absolute Existence,
Absolute Knowledge, and Absolute Blessedness are not qualities of
the soul, but its essence; there is no difference between them and
the soul. And the three are one; we see the one thing in three
different lights. They are beyond all knowledge and by their reflection
Nature appears to be intelligent.
It is that eternal Knowledge Absolute of the Self percolating through
the mind of man that becomes our reason and intelligence. It varies
according to the medium through which it is shining. There is no
difference as soul between me and the lowest animal, only his brain
is a poorer medium through which the knowledge shines, and we call
it instinct. In man the brain is much finer, so the manifestation is
much clearer, and in the highest man it has become entirely clear,
like a piece of glass. So with existence; this existence which we
know, this limited bit of existence is simply a reflection of that
Existence Absolute which is the nature of the soul. So with bliss; that
which we call love or attraction is but the reflection of the eternal
blessedness of the Self, because with these manifestations come
limitations, but the unmanifested, the natural, essential existence of
the soul is unlimited, to that blessedness there can be no limit. But in
human love there are limitations. I may love you one day, I may
cease to love you the next. My love increases one day, decreases
the next, because it is only a limited manifestation. The first thing
therefore that we find against Kapila is that he conceives the soul to
be a mere qualitiless, colorless, inactive something. Vedânta teaches
that it is the essence of all Existence, Knowledge, and Bliss; infinitely
higher than all knowledge that we know, infinitely more blessed than
any human love that we can think of, infinitely existing. The soul
never dies. Death and birth are simply unthinkable in connection with
the Self, because it is Existence Absolute.
The second point where we will contend with Kapila is with regard to
his idea of God. Just as this series of limited manifestations of
Nature, beginning with the individual intellect and ending with the
individual body, requires the Self behind as the ruler and governor on
the throne, so in the Cosmos, we must enquire what the universal
Intelligence, the universal Mind, the universal fine and gross
materials have as their ruler and governor? How will that series
become complete without one universal Self behind it as its ruler and
governor? If we deny that there is a universal governor, we must
deny there is a soul behind the lesser series, because the whole
universe is a repetition of the same plan. When we know one lump of
clay we know the nature of all clay. If we can analyze one human
being, we shall have analyzed the whole universe, because it is all
built on the same plan. Therefore if it be true that behind this
individual series there stands one who is beyond all nature, who is
not composed of materials, the purusha, the very same logic will
apply to this universe, and this universe too will require such a Soul.
The Universal Soul which is behind the modifications of Nature is
called by Vedânta Isvara, the Supreme Ruler, God.
Now comes the more difficult point to fight. There can be but one
Soul. To begin with, we can give the Sânkhyas a good blow by taking
up their theories and proving that each soul must be omnipresent,
because it is not composed of anything. Everything that is limited
must be limited by something else. Here is the existence of the table.
Its existence is circumscribed by many things, and we find that every
limitation presupposes some limiting thing. If we think of space, we
have to think of it as a little circle, but beyond that is more space. We
cannot imagine a limited space in any other way. It can only be
understood and perceived through the infinite. To perceive the finite,
in every case we must apprehend the infinite; both stand or fall
together. When you think of time, you have also to think of time
beyond any particular period of time. The latter is limited time and
the larger is unlimited time. Wherever you endeavor to perceive the
finite, you will find it impossible to separate it from the infinite. If this
be the case, we shall prove thereby that this Self must be infinite,
omnipresent. Then comes a fine question. Can the omnipresent, the
infinite be two? Suppose there are two infinites, one will limit the
other. Suppose there are two infinites,—A and B; the infinite “A”
limits the infinite “B,” because the infinite “B” you can say is not the
infinite “A,” and the infinite “A” it can be said is not the infinite “B.”
Therefore there can be but one infinite. Secondly, the infinite cannot
be divided. Infinity divided into any number of parts must still be
infinity, for it cannot be separated from itself. Suppose there is an
infinite ocean of water, could you take up one drop from there? If you
could, that ocean would no longer be infinite, that drop would limit it.
The infinite cannot be divided by any means.
But there are stronger proofs that the Self is One. Not only so, but
that the whole universe is one. We will once more take up our “X”
and “Y”. We have shown how what we call the external world is “X”
plus mind, and the internal world “Y” plus mind. “X” and “Y” are both
unknown quantities, unknown and unknowable. What is the mind?
The mind is the “time, space and causation.” This idea is the nature
of the mind. You can never think without time, you can never
conceive of anything without space, and you can never imagine
anything without causation. These three are the forms in which both
“X” and “Y” are caught, and which become the mind. Beyond that
there is nothing to the mind. Take off these three forms which of
themselves do not exist,—what remains? It is all one; “X” and “Y” are
one. It is only this mind, this form, that has limited them apparently,
and made them differ as internal and external world. “X” and “Y” are
both unknown and unknowable. We cannot attribute any quality to
them. As such they are both the same. That which is qualitiless and
attributeless and absolute must be one. There cannot be two
absolutes. When there are no qualities there can be only One. “X”
and “Y” are both without qualities because they take qualities only in
the mind, therefore this “X” and “Y” are one.
The whole universe is One. There is only One Self in the universe,
only One Existence, and that One Existence, when it is passing
through the forms of time, space and causation, is called buddhi, fine
matter, gross matter, etc. All physical and mental forms, everything in
the universe is that One, appearing in various ways. When a little bit
of it gets into this network of time, space and causation, it apparently
takes forms; remove the network and it is all One. This whole
universe is all one, and is called in the Advaitist philosophy
Brahman. Brahman appearing behind the universe is called God;
appearing behind the little universe—the microcosm, is the soul. This
very “Self” or Âtman therefore is God in man. There is only one
Purusha, and He is called God, and when God and man are
analyzed they are one. The universe is you yourself, the unbroken
you; you are throughout this universe. “In all hands you work,
through all mouths you eat, through all nostrils you breathe, through
all minds you think.” The whole universe is you; this universe is your
body; you are the universe, both formed and unformed. You are the
soul of the universe, its body also. You are God, you are the angels,
you are man, you are the animals, you are the plants, you are the
minerals, you are everything; all manifestation is you. Whatever
exists is you—the real “You”—the one undivided Self—not the little,
limited personality that you have been regarding as yourself.
The question now arises,—how have you, that Infinite Being, broken
into parts, become Mr. So-and-So, and the animals and so on? The
answer is that all this division is only apparent. We know that the
infinite cannot be divided, therefore this idea that you are a part has
no reality, and never will have: and this idea that you are Mr. So-and-
So was never true at any time; it is but a dream. Know this and be
free. That is the Advaitist conclusion. “I am neither the mind, nor the
body, nor am I the organs; I am Existence-Knowledge-Bliss
Absolute; I am He, I am He,” This is knowledge, and everything
besides this is ignorance. Everything that is, is but ignorance, the
result of ignorance. Where is knowledge for me, for I am knowledge
itself! Where is life for me, for I am life itself! Life is a secondary
manifestation of my nature. I am sure I live, for I am life, the one
Being, and nothing exists except through me, and in me, and as me.
I am manifested through elements, but I am the one free. Who seeks
freedom? Nobody seeks freedom. If you think that you are bound,
you remain bound; you make your own bondage. If you realize that
you are free, you are free this moment. This is knowledge,
knowledge of freedom. Freedom is the goal of all Nature.
IV
THE FREE SOUL
We have seen that the analysis of the Sânkhyas stops with the
duality of existence, Nature and souls. There are an infinite number
of souls, which, being simple, cannot die, and must therefore be
separate from Nature. Nature in itself changes and manifests all
these phenomena, and the soul, according to the Sânkhyas is
inactive. It is a simple by itself, and Nature works out all these
phenomena for the liberation of the soul, and liberation consists in
the soul discriminating that it is not Nature. At the same time we
have seen that the Sânkhyas were bound to admit that every soul
was omnipresent. Being a simple the soul cannot be limited,
because all limitation comes either through time, space, or
causation. The soul being entirely beyond these cannot have any
limitation. To have limitation one must be in space, which means the
body, and that which is body must be in Nature. If the soul had form,
it would be identified with Nature; therefore the soul is formless, and
that which is formless cannot be said to exist here, there, or
anywhere. It must be omnipresent. Beyond this the Sânkhya
philosophy does not go.
The first argument of the Vedantists against this is that this analysis
is not a perfect one. If this Nature be a simple, and the soul is also a
simple, there will be two simples, and all the arguments that apply in
the case of the soul to show that it is omnipresent, will apply in the
case of Nature, and Nature too will be beyond all time, space, and
causation, and as the result there will be no change or manifestation.
Then will come the difficulty of having two simples, or two absolutes,
which is impossible. What is the solution of the Vedantist? His
solution is that, just as the Sânkhyas say, it requires some sentient
being as the motive power behind, which makes the mind think and
Nature work, because Nature in all its modifications, from gross
matter up to Mahat (Intelligence) is simply insentient. Now, says the
Vedantist, this sentient being which is behind the whole universe is
what we call God, and consequently this universe is not different
from Him. It is He Himself who has become this universe. He not
only is the instrumental cause of this universe, but also the material
cause. Cause is never different from effect, the effect is but the
cause reproduced in another form. We see that every day. So this
Being is the cause of Nature. All the forms and phases of Vedânta,
either dualistic, or qualified-monistic, or monistic, first take this
position,—that God is not only the instrumental but also the efficient
cause of this universe, that everything which exists is He. The
second step in Vedânta is that these souls are also a part of God,
one spark of that Infinite Fire. “As from a mass of fire millions of
small particles fly, even so from this Ancient One have come all
these souls.” So far so good, but it does not yet satisfy. What is
meant by a part of the Infinite? The Infinite is indivisible; there cannot
be parts of the Infinite. The Absolute cannot be divided. What is
meant therefore that all these sparks are from Him? The Advaitist,
the non-dualistic Vedantist, solves the problem by maintaining that
there is really no part; that each soul is really not a part of the
Infinite, but actually is the Infinite Brahman. Then how can there be
so many? The sun reflected from millions of globules of water
appears to be millions of suns, and in each globule is a miniature
picture of the sun-form; so all these souls are but reflections and not
real. They are not the real “I” which is the God of this universe, the
one undivided Being of the universe. And all these little different
beings, men and animals, etc., are but reflections, and not real. They
are simply illusory reflections upon Nature. There is but one Infinite
Being in the universe, and that Being appears as you and as I, but
this appearance of division is after all delusion. He has not been
divided, but only appears to be divided. This apparent division is
caused by looking at Him through the network of time, space, and
causation. When I look at God through the network of time, space,
and causation, I see Him as the material world. When I look at Him
from a little higher plane, yet through the same network, I see Him as
an animal, a little higher as a man, a little higher as a god, but yet He
is the One Infinite Being of the universe, and that Being we are. I am
That, and you are That. Not parts of It, but the whole of It. “It is the
Eternal Knower standing behind the whole phenomena; He Himself
is the phenomena.” He is both the subject and the object, He is the
“I” and the “You.” How is this? “How to know the knower?” The
Knower cannot know himself. I see everything but cannot see
myself. The Self, the Knower, the Lord of all, the Real Being, is the
cause of all the vision that is in the universe, but it is impossible for
Him to see Himself or know Himself, excepting through reflection.
You cannot see your own face excepting in a mirror, and so the Self
cannot see its own nature until it is reflected, and this whole universe
therefore is the Self trying to realize Itself. This reflection is thrown
back first from the protoplasm, then from plants and animals, and so
on and on from better and better reflectors, until the best reflector,—
the perfect man,—is reached. Just as a man who, wanting to see his
face, looks first in a little pool of muddy water, and sees just an
outline. Then he comes to clearer water, and sees a better image,
then to a piece of shining metal, and sees a still better image, and at
last to a looking-glass, and sees himself reflected as he is. Therefore
the perfect man is the highest reflection of that Being, who is both
subject and object. You now find why man instinctively worships
everything, and how perfect men are instinctively worshipped as God
in every country. You may talk as you like, but it is they who are
bound to be worshipped. That is why men worship Incarnations,
such as Christ or Buddha. They are the most perfect manifestations
of the eternal Self. They are much higher than all the conceptions of
God that you or I can make. A perfect man is much higher than such
conceptions. In him the circle becomes complete; the subject and
the object become one. In him all delusions go away and in their
place comes the realization that he has always been that perfect
Being. How came this bondage then? How was it possible for this
perfect Being to degenerate into the imperfect? How was it possible
that the free became bound? The Advaitist says he was never
bound, but was always free. Various clouds of various colors come
before the sky. They remain there a minute and then pass away. It is
the same eternal blue sky stretching there forever. The sky never
changes; it is the cloud that is changing. So you are always perfect,
eternally perfect. Nothing ever changes your nature, or ever will. All
these ideas that I am imperfect, I am a man, or a woman, or a sinner,
or I am the mind, I have thought, I will think, all are hallucinations;
you never think, you never had a body; you never were imperfect.
You are the blessed Lord of this universe, the one Almighty ruler of
everything that is and ever will be, the one mighty ruler of these suns
and stars and moons and earths and plants, and all the little bits of
our universe. It is through you the sun shines, and the stars shed
their lustre, and the earth becomes beautiful. It is through your
blessedness that they all love and are attracted to each other. You
are in all, and you are all. Whom to avoid, and whom to take? You
are the all in all. When this knowledge comes delusion immediately
vanishes.
I was once travelling in the desert in India. I travelled for over a
month and always found the most beautiful landscapes before me,
beautiful lakes and all that. One day I was very thirsty and I wanted
to have a drink at one of these lakes, but when I approached that
lake it vanished. Immediately with a blow came into my brain the
idea that this was a mirage about which I had read all my life, and
then I remembered and smiled at my folly, that for the last month all
the beautiful landscapes and lakes I had been seeing were this
mirage, but I could not distinguish them then. The next morning I
again began my march; there was the lake and the landscape, but
with it immediately came the idea, “This is a mirage.” Once known it
had lost its powers of illusion. So this illusion of the universe will
break one day. The whole of this will vanish, melt away. This is
realization. Philosophy is no joke or talk. It will be realized; this body
will vanish, this earth and everything will vanish, this idea that I am
the body, or the mind, will for some time vanish, or if the Karma is
ended it will disappear never to come back; but if one part of the
Karma remains,—as a potter’s wheel after the potter has finished the
pot, will sometimes go on from the past momentum—so this body,
when this delusion has vanished altogether, will go on for some time.
Again this world will come, men and women and animals will come,
just as the mirage came the next day, but not with the same force,
along with it will come the idea that I know its nature now, and it will
cause no bondage, no more pain, nor grief, nor misery. Whenever
anything miserable will come, the mind will be able to say, “I know
you as hallucination.” When a man has reached that state he is
called jivan mukta, “living free,” free even while living. The aim and
end in this life for the Jnâna Yogi is to become this jivan mukta, living
freedom. He is jivan mukta who can live in this world without being
attached. He is like the lotus leaves in water, which are never wet by
the water. He is the highest of human beings, nay, the highest of all
beings, for he has realized his identity with the Absolute, he has
realized that he is one with God. So long as you think you have the
least difference from God, fear will seize you, but when you have
known that you are He, that there is no difference, entirely no
difference, that you are He, all of Him, and the whole of Him, all fear
ceases. “There who sees whom? Who worships whom? Who talks to
whom? Who hears whom? Where one sees another, where one
talks to another, where one hears another, it is in law. Where none
sees none, where none speaks to none that is the highest, that is the
great, that is the Brahman.” Being That, you are always That. What
will become of the world then? What good shall we do to the world?
Such questions do not arise. “What becomes of my gingerbread if I
become old?” says the baby. “What becomes of my marbles if I
grow, so I will not grow,” says the boy. “What will become of my dolls
if I grow old?” says the little child. It is the same question in
connection with this world; it has no existence in the past, present, or
future. If we have known the Âtman as It is, if we have known that
there is nothing else but this Âtman, that everything else is but a
dream, with no existence in reality, then this world with its poverties,
its miseries, its wickedness and its goodness will cease to disturb us.
If they do not exist, for whom and for what shall we take trouble?
This is what the Jnâna Yogis teach. Therefore, dare to be free, dare
to go as far as your thought leads, and dare to carry that out in your
life. It is very hard to come to jnânam. It is for the bravest and most
daring, who dare to smash all idols, not only intellectual, but in the
senses. This body is not I; it must go. All sorts of curious things may
come out of this. A man stands up and says I am not the body,
therefore my headache must be cured, but where is the headache if
not in his body? Let a thousand headaches and a thousand bodies
come and go. What is that to me? “I have neither birth nor death;
father nor mother I never had; friends and foes I have none, because
they are all I; I am my own friend and I am my own enemy; I am
Existence-Knowledge-Bliss Absolute; I am He, I am He.” If in a
thousand bodies I am suffering from fever and other ills, in millions of
bodies I am healthy. If in a thousand bodies I am starving, in other
thousand bodies I am feasting. If in thousands of bodies I am
suffering misery, in thousands of bodies I am happy. Who shall
blame whom, who praise whom? Whom to seek, whom to avoid? I
seek none, nor avoid any, for I am all the universe, I praise myself, I
blame myself, I suffer for myself, I am happy at my own will, I am
free. This is the Jnâni, brave and daring. Let the whole universe
tumble down; he smiles and says it never existed. It was all an
hallucination; we see the universe tumble down; where was it?
Where has it gone?
Before going into the practical part, we will take up one more
intellectual question. So far the logic is tremendously rigorous. If man
reasons, there is no place for him to stand until he comes to this, that
there is but One Existence, that everything else is nothing. There is
no other way left for rational mankind but to take this view. But how
is it that what is infinite, ever perfect, ever blessed, Existence-
Knowledge-Bliss Absolute has come under these delusions? It is the
same question that has been asked all the world over. In the vulgar
form the question becomes “How did sin come into this world?” This
is the most vulgar and sensuous form of the question, and the other
is the more philosophic form, but the answer is the same. The same
question has been asked in various grades and fashions, but in its
lower forms it finds no solution, because the stories of apples and
serpents and women do not give the explanation. In that state, the
question is childish and so is the answer. But the question has
assumed very high proportions now. “How this illusion came?” And
the answer is as fine. The answer is that we cannot expect any
answer to an impossible question. The very question is impossible in
terms. You have no right to ask that question. Why? What is
perfection? That which is beyond time, space and causation. That is
perfect. Then you ask how the perfect became imperfect. In logical
language the question may be put in this form—“How did that which
is beyond causation become caused?” You contradict yourself. You
first admit it is beyond causation, and then ask what causes it. This
question can only be asked within the limits of causation. As far as
time and space and causation extend, so far can this question be
asked. But beyond that it will be nonsense to ask it, because the
question is illogical. Within time, space and causation it can never be
answered, and what answer may lie beyond these limits can only be
known when we have transcended them, therefore the wise will let
this question rest. When a man is ill, he devotes himself to curing his
disease, without insisting that he must first learn how he came to
have it.
There is another form of this question, a little lower, but more
practical and illustrative. What produced this delusion? Can any
reality produce delusion? Certainly not. We see that one delusion
produces another, and so on. It is delusion always that produces
delusion. It is disease that produces disease, and not health that
produces disease. The wave is the same thing as the water, the
effect is the cause in another form. The effect is delusion, and
therefore the cause must be delusion. What produced this delusion?
Another delusion. And so on without beginning. The only question
that remains for you to ask is, does not this break your monism,
because you get two existences in the universe, one yourself, and
the other the delusion? The answer is,—delusion cannot be called
an existence. Thousands of dreams come into your life, but do not
form any part of your life. Dreams come and go; they have no
existence; to call delusion existence will be sophistry. Therefore
there is only one individual existence in the universe, ever free, and
ever blessed, and that is what you are. This is the last conclusion
reached by the Advaitists. It may then be asked, what becomes of all
these various forms of worship? They will remain; they are simply
groping in the dark for light, and through this groping light will come.
We have just seen that the Self cannot see Itself. Our knowledge is
within the network of Mâyâ (unreality), and beyond that is freedom;
within the network there is slavery, it is all under law. Beyond that
there is no law. So far as the universe is concerned, existence is
ruled by law, and beyond that is freedom. As long as you are in the
network of time, space and causation, to say you are free is
nonsense, because in that network all is under rigorous law,
sequence and consequence. Every thought that you think is caused,
every feeling has been caused; to say that the will is free is sheer
nonsense. It is only when the infinite existence comes, as it were,
into this network of Mâyâ that it takes the form of will. Will is a portion
of that being caught in the network of Mâyâ, and therefore “free-will”
is a misnomer. It means nothing,—sheer nonsense. So is all this talk
about freedom. There is no freedom in Mâyâ.
Every one is as much bound in thought, word, deed, and mind, as a
piece of stone or this table. That I talk to you now is as rigorously in
causation as that you listen to me. There is no freedom until you go
beyond Mâyâ. That is the real freedom of the soul. Men, however
sharp and intellectual, however clearly they see the force of the logic
that nothing here can be free, are all compelled to think they are
free; they cannot help. No work can go on until we begin to say we
are free. It means that the freedom we talk about is the glimpse of
the blue sky through the clouds, and that the real freedom—the blue
sky itself,—is behind. True freedom cannot exist in the midst of this
delusion, this hallucination, this nonsense of the world, this universe
of the senses, body and mind. All these dreams, without beginning
or end, uncontrolled and uncontrollable, ill-adjusted, broken,
inharmonious, form our idea of this universe. In a dream, when you
see a giant with twenty heads chasing you, and you are flying from
him, you do not think it is inharmonious; you think it is proper and
right. So is this law. All that you call law is simply chance without
meaning. In this dream state you call it law. Within Mâyâ, so far as
this law of time, space and causation exists, there is no freedom,
and all these various forms of worship are within this Mâyâ. The idea
of God and the ideas of brute and of man are within this Mâyâ, and
as such equally hallucinations; all of them are dreams. But you must
take care not to argue like some extraordinary men of whom we hear
at the present time. They say the idea of God is a delusion, but the
idea of this world is true. Both ideas stand or fall by the same logic.
He alone has the right to be an atheist who denies this world, as well
as the other. The same argument is for both. The same mass of
delusion extends from God to the lowest animal, from a blade of
grass to the Creator. They stand or fall by the same logic. The same
person who sees falsity in the idea of God ought also to see it in the
idea of his own body, or his own mind. When God vanishes, then
also vanish the body and mind, and when both vanish, that which is
the Real Existence remains forever. “There the eyes cannot go, nor
the speech, nor the mind. We cannot see it, neither know it.” And we
now understand that so far as speech and thought and knowledge,
and intellect go, it is all within this Mâyâ, within bondage. Beyond
that is Reality. There neither thought, nor mind, nor speech, can
reach.
So far it is intellectually all right, but then comes the practice. The
real work in these classes is the practice. Are any practices
necessary to realize this one-ness? Most decidedly. It is not that you
become this Brahman. You are already that. It is not that you are
going to become God or perfect; you are already perfect, and
whenever you think you are not, it is a delusion. This delusion which
says that you are Mr. So-and-So, or Mrs. So-and-So, can be got rid
of by another delusion, and that is practice. Fire will eat fire, and you
can use one delusion to conquer another delusion. One cloud will
come and brush away another cloud, and then both will go away.
What are these practices then? We must always bear in mind that
we are not going to be free, but are free already. Every idea that we
are bound is a delusion. Every idea that we are happy or unhappy, is
a tremendous delusion; and another delusion will come,—that we
have got to work and worship and struggle to be free,—and this will
chase out the first delusion, and then both will stop.
The fox is considered very unholy by the Mohammedans, also by the
Hindus. Also, if a dog touches any bit of food it has to be thrown out,
it cannot be eaten by any man. In a certain Mohammedan house a
fox entered and took a little bit of food from the table, ate it up and
fled. The man was a poor man, and had prepared a very nice feast
for himself, and that feast was made unholy, and he could not eat it.
So he went to a Mulla, a priest, and said: “This has happened to me;
a fox came and took a mouthful out of my meal; what can be done? I
had prepared a feast and wanted so much to eat it, and now comes
this fox and destroys the whole affair.” The Mulla thought for a
minute, and then found only one solution and said: “The only way is
for you to get a dog, and make him eat a bit out of the same plate,
because dog and fox are eternally quarrelling. The food that was left
by the fox will go into your stomach, and that not eaten by the dog
will go there, and both will be purified.” We are very much in the
same Predicament. This is an hallucination that we are imperfect,
and we take up another, that we have to practice to become perfect.
Then one will chase the other, as we can use one thorn to extract
another and then throw both away. There are people for whom it is
sufficient knowledge to hear, “Thou art That.” With a flash this
universe goes away and the real nature shines, but others have to
struggle hard to get rid of this idea of bondage.
The first question is, who are fit to become Jnâna Yogis? Those who
are equipped with these requisites. First, renunciation of all fruits of
work and of all enjoyments in this life or another life. If you are the
creator of this universe whatever you desire you will have, because
you will create it for yourself. It is only a question of time. Some get it
immediately; with others the past samskâras (impressions) stand in
the way of getting their desires. We give the first place to desires for
enjoyment, either in this or another life. Deny there is any life at all,
because life is only another name for death. Deny that you are a
living being. Who cares for life? Life is one of these hallucinations
and death is its counterpart. Joy is one part of these hallucinations,
and misery the other part, and so on. What have you to do with life
or death? These are all creations of the mind. This is called giving up
desires of enjoyment either in this life or another.
Then comes controlling the mind, calming it so that it will not break
into waves and have all sorts of desires; holding the mind steady, not
allowing it to get into waves from external or internal causes,
controlling the mind perfectly just by the power of will. The Jnâna
Yogi does not take any one of these physical helps, or mental helps,
simply philosophic reasoning, knowledge and his own will, these are
the instrumentality he believes in. Next comes Titikshâ, forbearance,
bearing all miseries without murmuring, without complaining. When
an injury comes, do not mind it. If a tiger comes, stand there. Who
flies? There are men who practice titikshâ, and succeed in it. There
are men who sleep on the banks of the Ganges in the mid-summer
sun of India, and in winter float in the waters of the Ganges for a
whole day; they do not care. Men sit in the snow of the Himâlayas,
and do not care to wear any garment. What is heat? What is cold?
Let things come and go, what is that to me, I am not the body. It is
hard to believe this in these Western countries, but it is better to
know that it is done. Just as your people are brave to jump at the
mouth of a cannon, or into the midst of the battle-field, so our people
are brave to think and act out their philosophy. They give up their
lives for it. “I am Existence-Knowledge-Bliss Absolute; I am He; I am
He.” Just as the Western ideal is to keep up luxury in practical life, so
ours is to keep up the highest form of spirituality, to demonstrate that
religion is not merely frothy words, but can be carried out, every bit
of it, in this life. This is titikshâ, to bear everything, not to complain of
anything. I myself have seen men who say “I am the soul; what is the
universe to me? Neither pleasure, nor pain, nor virtue, nor vice, nor
heat, nor cold are anything to me.” That is titikshâ; not running after
the enjoyments of the body. What is religion? To pray: “give me this
and that”? Foolish ideas of religion! Those who believe them have no
true idea of God and soul. My Master used to say the vulture rises
high and high until he becomes a speck, but his eye is always in the
piece of rotten carrion on the earth. After all, what is the result of
your ideas of religion? To cleanse the streets, and have more bread
and clothes. Who cares for bread and clothes? Millions come and go
every minute. Who cares? Why care for the joys and vicissitudes of
this little world? Go beyond that if you dare; go beyond law, let the
whole universe vanish, and stand alone. “I am Existence-Absolute,
Knowledge-Absolute, Bliss-Absolute; I am He; I am He.”
V
ONE EXISTENCE APPEARING AS MANY
We have seen how Vairâgyam, or renunciation, is the turning point in
all these various Yogas. The Karmi (worker) renounces the fruits of
his work. The Bhakta (devotee) renounces all little loves for the
almighty and omnipresent love. The Yogi renounces his experiences,
because his philosophy is that the whole Nature, although it is for the
experience of the soul, at last brings him to know that he is not in
Nature, but eternally separate from Nature. The Jnâni (philosopher)
renounces everything, because his philosophy is that Nature never
existed, neither in the past, present nor future. We have also seen
how the question of utility cannot be asked in these higher themes; it
is very absurd to ask utility, and even if it be asked, after a proper
analysis what do we find in this question of utility? The ideal of
happiness, that which brings man greater happiness is of greater
utility to him than those things which do not improve his material
conditions or bring him such great happiness. All the sciences are for
this one end, to bring happiness to humanity and that which brings
the larger amount of happiness, mankind takes and gives up that
which brings a lesser amount of happiness. We have seen how
happiness is either in the body, or in the mind, or in the Âtman. With
animals, and in the lowest of human beings, who are very much like
animals, happiness is all in the body. No man can eat with the same
pleasure as a famished dog, or a wolf; so, in the dog and the wolf the
happiness is gone entirely into the body. In men we find a higher
plane of happiness, that of thought, and in the Jnâni there is the
highest plane of happiness in the Self, the Âtman. So to the
philosopher this knowledge of the Self is of the highest utility,
because it gives him the highest happiness possible. Sense
gratifications or physical things cannot be of the highest utility to him
because he does not find in them the same pleasure that he finds in
knowledge itself; and after that, knowledge is the one goal, and is
really the highest happiness that we know. All who work in ignorance
are, as it were, the draught animals of the devas. The word deva is
here used in the sense of a wise man. All the people that work, and
toil, and labor like machines do not really enjoy life, but it is the wise
man who enjoys. A rich man buys a picture at a cost of a hundred
thousand dollars perhaps, but it is the man who understands art that
enjoys it; and if a man is without knowledge of art it is useless to him,
he is only the owner. All over the world, it is the wise man who
enjoys the happiness of the world. The ignorant man never enjoys;
he has to work for others unconsciously.
Thus far we have seen the theories of these Advaitist philosophers,
how there is but one Âtman; there cannot be two. We have seen
how in the whole of this universe there is but One Existence, and
that One Existence when seen through the senses is called the
world, the world of matter. When It is seen through the mind It is
called the world of thoughts and ideas, and when It is seen as it is,
then It is the One Infinite Being. You must bear this in mind; it is not
that there is a soul in man, although I had to take that for granted in
order to explain it at first, but that there is only One Existence, and
that one the Âtman, the Self, and when this is perceived through the
senses, through sense imageries, It is called the body. When It is
perceived through thought, It is called the mind. When It is perceived
in Its own nature, It is the Âtman, the One Only Existence. So, it is
not that there are three things in one, the body and the mind and the
Self, although that was a convenient way of putting it in the course of
explanation; but all is that Âtman, and that one Being is sometimes
called the body, sometimes the mind, and sometimes the Self,
according to different vision. There is but one Being which the
ignorant call the world. When a man goes higher in knowledge he
calls the very same Being the world of thought. Again when
knowledge itself comes, all illusions vanish, and man finds it is all
nothing but Âtman. I am that One Existence. This is the last
conclusion. There are neither three nor two in the universe; it is all
One. That One, under the illusion of Mâyâ is seen as many, just as a
rope is seen as a snake. It is the very rope that is seen as a snake.
There are not two things there, a rope separate and a snake
separate. No man sees two things there. Dualism and non-dualism
are very good philosophic terms, but in perfect perception we never
perceive the real and the false at the same time. We are all born
monists, we cannot help it. We always perceive the one. When we
perceive the rope, we do not perceive the snake at all, and when we
see the snake, we do not see the rope at all; it has vanished. When
you see illusion, you do not see real men. Suppose one of your
friends is coming from a distance in the street; you know him very
well, but through the haze and mist that is before you, you think it is
another man. When you see your friend as another man, you do not
see your friend at all, he has vanished. You are perceiving only one.
Suppose your friend is Mr. A., but when you perceive Mr. A. as Mr. B.
you do not see Mr. A. at all. In each case you perceive only one.
When you see yourself as a body, you are body and nothing else,
and that is the perception of the vast majority of mankind. They may
talk of soul and mind, and all these things, but what they perceive is
the physical form, the touch, taste, vision, and so on. Again, with
certain men, in certain states of consciousness, they perceive
themselves as thought. You know, of course, the story told of Sir
Humphrey Davy, who was making experiments before his class with
laughing-gas, and suddenly one of the tubes broke, and the gas
escaping, he breathed it in. For some moments he remained like a
statue. Afterwards he told his class that when he was in that state,
he actually perceived that the whole world is made up of ideas. The
gas, for a time, made him forget the consciousness of the body, and
that very thing which he was seeing as the body, he began to
perceive as ideas. When the consciousness rises still higher, when
this little puny consciousness is gone forever, that which is the
Reality behind shines, and we see it as the One Existence-
Knowledge-Bliss, the one Âtman, the Universal. “One that is only
knowledge itself, One that is bliss itself, beyond all compare, beyond
all limit, ever free, never bound, infinite as the sky, unchangeable as
the sky. Such an One will manifest Himself in your heart in
meditation.”
How does the Advaitist theory explain all these various phases of
heavens and hells and all these various ideas we find in all religions?
When a man dies it is said that he goes to heaven or hell, goes here

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PART I The Foundations of Our American System 1

PART II Our Liberties and Rights 72

PART III The Politics of Democracy 122

PART IV Institutions 236

PART V Public Policy 334

Appendix A The Declaration of Independence A–1

Part I Join the Debate: Is Our Government Too Large? 12

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16–3 Problems Requiring The Use of Force 362

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16–3 Problems Requiring The Use of Force 362