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Woodhead Publishing Series in Food
Science, Technology and Nutrition

Cereal Grains
Assessing and Managing Quality

Second Edition

Editors
Colin Wrigley
QAAFI, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD, Australia

Ian Batey
Sunset Cereal Services, Meadowbank, NSW, Australia

Diane Miskelly
Westcott Consultants, Goulburn, NSW, Australia

An imprint of Elsevier • elsevier.com

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Contents

List of Contributors xxi

Woodhead Publishing Series in Food Science, Technology and Nutrition xxiii
Preface to the Second Edition xxxix
Preface to the First Edition xli

Part I
Cereal-Grain Quality
1. Assessing and Managing Quality at all Stages
of the Grain Chain
Colin Wrigley
1.1 Introduction3
1.2 The Creation of Products from the Cereal Grains6
1.3 Grain Quality7
1.4 The Grain Chain7
1.4.1 Breeding 8
1.4.2 Grain Growing 10
1.4.3 Grain Receival 10
1.4.4 Whole-Grain Processing 11
1.4.5 Milling and Baking 12
1.4.6 The Consumer 13
1.4.7 Consumer Feedback 15
1.5 The Assessment of Grain Quality15
1.5.1 No Nasty Surprises 16
1.5.2 Assessing Grain Quality Along the Grain Chain 17
1.5.3 Technical Approaches to Assessing Grain Quality 17
1.5.4 Standard Methods of Analysis 18
1.5.5 ‘Instant’ Technologies of Quality Assessment 18
1.6 The Management of Grain Quality19
1.6.1 Breeding to Grain-Quality Targets 19
1.6.2 Sowing and Growing the Grain 20
1.6.3 Grain Receival 21
1.6.4 Grain Trading 21
1.6.5 Processing 22
1.7 Future Trends22
Sources of Further Information23
References24

v
vi Contents

2. The Cereal Grains: Providing our Food, Feed and Fuel Needs
Colin Wrigley
2.1 Introduction27
2.2 Cereal Grains and People29
2.2.1 Cereal Grains in our Diet 29
2.2.2 Cereal grains in our Culture 30
2.2.3 Cereal Grains in our Languages, Customs and Festivities 31
2.2.4 Cereal Grains in Antiquity 32
2.3 The Agricultural Grains33
2.3.1 Relationships Between the Agricultural Grains 33
2.3.2 Systematic Naming of the Agricultural Grains 34
2.4 The Dicot Agricultural Grains36
2.5 The Monocot Agricultural Grains37
2.6 Future Trends38
References39

3. The Diversity of Uses for Cereal Grains

Ian Batey
3.1 Introduction41
3.2 Food43
3.3 Feed44
3.4 Industrial Uses45
3.5 Utilisation of Individual Cereals46
3.5.1 Wheat 47
3.5.2 Rice 48
3.5.3 Maize (Corn) 49
3.6 Grain Substitution49
3.7 Whole-Plant Utilisation50
3.8 Future Trends51
Sources of Further Information52
References52

4. Cereal-Grain Morphology and Composition

Colin Wrigley
4.1 Introduction55
4.2 The Study of Plant, Head and Grain Morphology56
4.3 The Cereal Flower and Pollination57
4.4 Plant Morphology59
4.5 Head Morphology61
4.6 Glume Morphology65
4.7 Grain Morphology66
4.7.1 Common Wheat Grain 67
4.7.2 Durum Wheat Grain 70
4.7.3 Triticale Grain 70
4.7.4 Barley Grain 71
 Contents vii

4.7.5 Oat Grain 73

4.7.6 Rice Grain 74
4.7.7 Corn Grain (Maize) 74
4.8 The Use of Morphology to Assess and Manage Quality75
4.9 Ultrastructural Morphology of the Grain75
4.10 The Use of Grain Composition to Assess and Manage Quality78
4.10.1 Starch 79
4.10.2 Proteins 79
4.10.3 Fats 81
4.10.4 Fibre 82
4.11 The Management of Grain Processing Based on Composition82
4.11.1 Milling 82
4.11.2 Heat Treatment 83
4.11.3 Alkali Treatment 84
4.12 Future Trends84
Sources of Further Information84
References85

Part II
Grain-Quality Characteristics for Specific Cereals
5. Wheat: Grain-Quality Characteristics and Management
of Quality Requirements
Surjani Uthayakumaran and Colin Wrigley
5.1 Introduction91
5.2 Wheat as a Genus93
5.2.1 Taxonomy 95
5.2.2 Origins 96
5.2.3 Genetic Constitution 96
5.2.4 Plant and Grain Morphology 97
5.3 Wheat Production98
5.3.1 Grain Yields 98
5.3.2 Volume of Production 100
5.3.3 World Trade 100
5.4 Unique Products From Wheat101
5.5 Wheat Proteins106
5.5.1 Classification of Wheat Endosperm Proteins 107
5.5.2 Genetics and Functional Properties
of Endosperm Proteins 107
5.6 Wheat Carbohydrates110
5.7 Wheat Lipids112
5.8 Wheat Micronutrients113
5.8.1 Vitamin B Complex 114
5.8.2 Vitamin E 114
5.8.3 Carotenoids 115
5.8.4 Minerals and Trace Elements 115
viii Contents

5.9 Assessing Grain Quality116

5.9.1 Physical Aspects 116
5.9.2 Variety 116
5.9.3 Growth and Storage Conditions 117
5.9.4 Chemical Composition 117
5.10 Managing Grain Quality118
5.10.1 Breeding and Genotype Selection 118
5.10.2 Farm Management 119
5.10.3 Grain Receival, Segregation and Storage 120
5.10.4 Processing 121
5.10.5 Satisfying the Consumer 122
5.10.6 Nutrition and Intolerances 122
5.11 Future Prospects123
Sources of Further Information125
References126

6. Durum Wheat: Grain-Quality Characteristics

and Management of Quality Requirements
Ray Hare
6.1 Durum Wheat: Overview135
6.1.1 Origin of Durum 135
6.1.2 Genetic Relationship of Durum to Other Wheats 136
6.1.3 Production 137
6.1.4 Processing and Products 137
6.2 Grain, Processing and Consumer Quality137
6.2.1 Grain Quality 138
6.2.2 Semolina Quality 144
6.2.3 Pasta Quality 145
6.2.4 Standard Methods of Quality Analysis 150
6.2.5 In-depth Review of Durum Wheat Quality Science
and Technology 150
References150

7. Rye: Grain-Quality Characteristics and Management

of Quality Requirements
Colin Wrigley and Walter Bushuk
7.1 Introduction153
7.2 Worldwide Production and Regional Distribution154
7.3 The Origins and Taxonomy of Rye158
7.4 The Genetic Constitution of Rye159
7.5 F1 Hybrid Rye and Genetic Improvements160
7.6 Distinctive Aspects of the Plant and Grain Morphology of Rye161
7.7 The Composition of the Rye Grain162
7.7.1 Polysaccharides 162
7.7.2 Protein and Amino-Acid Composition 164
7.7.3 Anti-Nutritional Factors and Vitamins 165
 Contents ix

7.8 Grain Defects in Rye166

7.9 Utilisation and Nutritional Advantages of Rye167
7.9.1 Rye in Food Products 167
7.9.2 Nutritional Advantages of Rye-Based Foods 169
7.9.3 Rye as a Feed Grain 169
7.10 Distinctive Aspects of Analysis for Rye Grain170
7.11 Distinctive Aspects of Managing Rye-Grain Quality172
7.12 Future Prospects173
Sources of Further Information174
References175

8. Triticale: Grain-Quality Characteristics and Management

of Quality Requirements
Colin Wrigley and Walter Bushuk
8.1 Introduction179
8.2 The History and Genetics of Triticale179
8.3 Worldwide Production and Regional Distribution182
8.4 Head and Grain Morphology184
8.5 Grain Composition184
8.6 Utilisation and Nutritional (dis)advantages188
8.7 Grain-Quality Analysis and Management; Potential Defects190
8.8 Future Trends192
Sources of Further Information192
References192

9. Barley: Grain-Quality Characteristics and Management

of Quality Requirements
Marta S. Izydorczyk and Michael Edney
9.1 Introduction195
9.2 Unique Morphological and Biochemical Characteristics of Barley196
9.2.1 Composition and Properties of Barley Cell Walls 196
9.2.2 Potential for Synthesis of Excess Enzymes by Aleurone Cells 199
9.2.3 Hull Retention 200
9.2.4 Proteins Unique to Barley 200
9.2.5 Elevated Levels of Tocopherol and Tocotrienol 203
9.3 Production and Major Uses of Barley204
9.3.1 Malting Barley 205
9.3.2 Feed Barley 208
9.3.3 Food Barley 208
9.4 Specific Quality Requirements for Barley209
9.4.1 Malt Barley 209
9.4.2 Feed Barley 219
9.4.3 Food Barley 219
9.5 Maintaining Barley Quality222
9.5.1 Breeding for Quality 222
9.5.2 Effects of Growing Conditions 223
x Contents

9.5.3 Storage Conditions 225

9.5.4 Processing 226
9.6 Future226
9.7 Further Information227
References228

10. Oats: Grain-Quality Characteristics and Management

of Quality Requirements
Pamela Zwer
10.1 Introduction235
10.2 Classification, Origin and History236
10.3 Unique Morphological and Biochemical
Characteristics237
10.3.1 Starch 238
10.3.2 Storage Proteins 239
10.3.3 Lipids 240
10.3.4 β-glucan240
10.3.5 Antioxidants 241
10.3.6 Flavour 242
10.4 Nutrition243
10.4.1 Functional Food and Health Claims 243
10.4.2 Coeliac Disease 245
10.5 Production and Major Uses of Oat245
10.5.1 Food 246
10.5.2 Feed 246
10.5.3 Non-Food 247
10.6 Quality Requirements for Oats247
10.6.1 Food 247
10.6.2 Feed 248
10.6.3 Non-Food 249
10.7 Maintaining and Improving Oat Quality249
10.7.1 Breeding for Quality 249
10.7.2 Molecular Tools for Quality Improvement 250
10.7.3 Storage Conditions 252
10.7.4 Processing 252
10.8 Future252
Source of Further Information254
References254

11. Corn: Grain-Quality Characteristics and Management

of Quality Requirements
Zoltán Győri
11.1 Introduction: The Importance of Corn (Maize) Production
in the International Arena257
11.2 Utilisation of Corn258
 Contents xi

11.3 The Structure and Chemical Composition of Corn260

11.3.1 Moisture Content 261
11.3.2 Carbohydrates 264
11.3.3 Nitrogenous Compounds 265
11.3.4 Lipids 267
11.3.5 Other Substances 267
11.4 Determination of Corn Quality268
11.4.1 Physical Properties of Kernel and Bulk Corn 268
11.4.2 Standard Analyses of Corn Quality 270
11.5 Effects of Agronomy and Storage on Quality273
11.5.1 Major Factors Determining Corn Quality 273
11.6 Milling Technologies277
11.7 Complex Utilisation of Corn279
11.8 Tortilla Production282
11.9 The State of Affairs with GM Corn in the World282
11.10 Future Trends285
Sources of Further Information286
References287

12. Rice: Grain-Quality Characteristics and Management

of Quality Requirements
Melissa Fitzgerald
12.1 Introduction291
12.2 Unique Characteristics of Rice293
12.3 Traits of Quality293
12.3.1 Physical Traits 294
12.3.2 Cooking and Sensory Traits 298
12.3.3 Nutritional Traits 303
12.4 Environmental Effects on Rice Quality305
12.5 Future Challenges306
References307

13. Sorghum and Millets: Grain-Quality Characteristics

and Management of Quality Requirements
John R.N. Taylor and Kwaku G. Duodu
13.1 Introduction317
13.2 Taxonomy and Grain Production318
13.3 Grain Structure and Chemistry320
13.4 Traditional, Novel and Emerging Uses323
13.5 Sorghum and Millet End-Use Quality Requirements
and Their Assessment325
13.5.1 Animal Feed 325
13.5.2 Dry Milling 329
13.5.3 Traditional Foods 330
13.5.4 Malting, Brewing and Grain Bioethanol 331
13.5.5 Baked Goods—Focus on Gluten-Free Foods 334
xii Contents

13.6 Sorghum and Millet Quality Management Systems335

13.6.1 Codex Alimentarius Commission Standards 335
13.6.2 United States Sorghum Standards 338
13.6.3 Australian Sorghum Standards 338
13.6.4 South African and Botswana Sorghum Standards 339
13.6.5 Namibian Pearl Millet Standards 340
13.6.6 Organic Food Standards 341
13.7 Future Directions342
13.7.1 Impact of Molecular Biology on Sorghum
and Millet End-Use Quality 342
13.7.2 Biofortification of Sorghum and Millets 343
13.7.3 Health-Promoting Foods—Functional Foods
and Nutraceuticals 344
Sources of Further Information344
References345

14. Ancient Wheats and Pseudocereals for Possible

use in Cereal-Grain Dietary Intolerances
Ferenc Békés, Regine Schoenlechner and Sándor Tömösközi
14.1 Introduction353
14.2 Cereal-Related Health Disorders355
14.2.1 Protein-Related Disorders 355
14.2.2 Carbohydrate-Related Disorders 358
14.3 Ancient Wheat Relatives359
14.3.1 Einkorn 359
14.3.2 Emmer 361
14.3.3 Kamut 361
14.3.4 Spelt 362
14.3.5 Pseudocereals 363
14.3.6 The Chemical and Nutritional Composition
of Pseudocereals 365
14.3.7 Functional Properties of Pseudocereals 367
14.3.8 Utilisation of Pseudocereals for Food Products 368
14.4 Gluten-Free Management and Gluten Analysis371
14.5 Analysis and Quality Management
of Low FODMAP Food Products375
14.6 Further Safety-Related Quality Aspects377
14.7 Conclusions378
References378

Part III
Grain-Quality Analysis and Management
15. Food Safety Aspects of Grain and Cereal Product Quality
Anton J. Alldrick
15.1 Introduction393
 Contents xiii

15.2 The Role of Agronomy395

15.2.1 Phytotoxins 395
15.2.2 Heavy Metals 398
15.2.3 Mycotoxins 401
15.2.4 Plant Protection Products (Pesticides) 405
15.2.5 Man-Made Contaminants 406
15.3 Grain Processing (Flour Milling)406
15.4 Food Processing409
15.4.1 Microbiological Safety 410
15.4.2 Food Additives 411
15.4.3 Process Contaminants 412
15.4.4 Food Allergy and Coeliac Disease 412
15.4.5 Criminal Activities 414
15.5 Conclusions415
15.6 Disclaimer416
References416

16. Breeding for Grain-Quality Traits

Zoltán Bedő, László Láng and Mariann Rakszegi
16.1 Introduction425
16.2 Classical Breeding for Quality Improvement425
16.3 Molecular Breeding Technologies428
16.4 Transgenic Technology430
16.5 Mutation Breeding433
16.6 Selection for Protein Content and Bread-Making
Quality434
16.7 Breeding for Starch Improvement in Cereals437
16.8 Selection for Cereals with Increased Dietary Fibre
and Phytochemical Content439
16.9 Role of Environment and Climate Change
on Breeding for Quality Traits444
16.10 Conclusions446
References446

17. Identification of Grain Variety

and Quality Type
Crispin A. Howitt and Diane Miskelly
17.1 Introduction453
17.2 Variety Identification453
17.2.1 Visual Classification Into Classes 454
17.2.2 Biochemical Characterisation for Variety
Identification Based on Protein Composition 455
17.2.3 Barley and Maize 458
17.2.4 DNA-Based Variety Identification 458
17.2.5 Applications of Variety Identification Methods 461
17.2.6 Future Challenges for Variety Identification 463
xiv Contents

17.3 Identification of Quality Type Using Molecular Markers464

17.3.1 Markers for Quality Traits in Wheat 465
17.3.2 Barley Malting Quality 472
17.3.3 Markers for Enhancing the Nutritional Value of Maize 476
17.4 Future Trends for Marker-Assisted Selection of Quality478
17.5 Conclusions479
Sources of Further Information480
References480

18. The Effects of Growth Environment and Agronomy

on Grain Quality
Michael Gooding
18.1 Introduction493
18.2 Growing Conditions and Environment494
18.3 Sowing500
18.4 Weed Control501
18.5 Disease Control503
18.6 Crop Nutrition506
18.7 Lodging and Growth Regulation508
18.8 Future Trends509
Sources of Further Information510
References510

19. Analysis of Grain Quality at Receival

Stephen Delwiche and Diane Miskelly
19.1 Introduction513
19.2 The US Grain Inspection System514
19.2.1 Official Inspection Example: Wheat 517
19.3 The Canadian Grain Inspection System522
19.4 The Australian Grain Inspection System530
19.4.1 Wheat 530
19.4.2 Barley 534
19.4.3 Future Trends for Australian Grain 536
19.5 The European Union (EU) Grain Inspection System536
19.5.1 United Kingdom 537
19.5.2 France 540
19.5.3 Germany 540
19.6 The Argentine Grain Inspection System540
19.7 The Black Sea Countries’ Grain Inspection System543
19.7.1 Ukraine 543
19.7.2 Russia 544
19.7.3 Kazakhstan 544
19.8 Traditional Equipment Used in Wheat Inspection at Receival547
19.8.1 Sampling Devices 547
19.8.2 Human Visual Analysis 548
19.8.3 Bulk Density (Test Weight) 549
 Contents xv

19.8.4 Moisture Content 549

19.8.5 Sieves and Dockage Tester 550
19.8.6 Protein Content 550
19.8.7 Wheat Hardness 551
19.8.8 ELISA Test Kits for Mycotoxins 552
19.8.9 Falling Number 552
19.8.10 NIR Spectroscopy 554
19.9 New Technologies for Use at Grain Receival555
19.9.1 Digital Imaging 556
19.9.2 Hyperspectral Imaging 557
19.9.3 ELISA Test Kits for Insect Activity 557
19.9.4 PCR-Based Detection Methods 558
19.9.5 Electronic Noses 558
19.9.6 X-ray Imaging for Internal Insects 559
19.10 Future Trends559
Acknowledgement563
Sources of Further Information and Advice563
References564

20. Maintaining Grain Quality During Storage and Transport

Ian Batey
20.1 Introduction571
20.2 Generic Characteristics of Storage572
20.2.1 Control of Grain Moisture Levels 576
20.2.2 Control of Insects 577
20.2.3 Storage of Barley 580
20.2.4 Storage of Rice 582
20.2.5 Storage of Wheat 584
20.3 Transport585
20.4 Future Trends587
20.5 Sources of Further Information and Advice589
References589

21. Biosecurity: Safe-Guarding Quality at All Stages

of the Grain Chain
David R. Eagling, Bill Magee, Pat J. Collins, Yong Lin Ren, Yang Cao
and Fujun Li
21.1 Biosecurity Definitions and the Concept of the Biosecurity
Continuum591
21.1.1 Biosecurity Definitions 591
21.1.2 Biosecurity as a Continuum 592
21.1.3 Biosecurity—Offshore Activities 592
21.1.4 Biosecurity—Border Activities 593
21.1.5 Biosecurity—Onshore (Post-Border) Activities 593
21.2 Grains in the Context of Plant-Biosecurity Systems
to Safeguard Quality594
21.2.1 Risk Assessment and Development of Import Conditions 594
xvi Contents

21.2.2 International Standard Setting 594

21.2.3 Offshore Audits and Verification 594
21.2.4 Border Activities 594
21.2.5 Post-Entry Quarantine 595
21.2.6 Domestic Quarantine 595
21.2.7 Pest Management 595
21.2.8 Surveillance 595
21.2.9 Diagnostics 595
21.2.10 Emergency Response 596
21.2.11 Export Inspection and Certification 596
21.2.12 Implementing and Resourcing Approaches to Biosecurity596
21.3 The Changing Nature of Biosecurity Risk in Grains597
21.3.1 Production 597
21.3.2 Harvest and Storage 598
References602

Part IV
Processing Cereal Grains to Optimize Product Quality
22. Assessing and Managing Wheat-Flour Quality Before,
During and After Milling
Diane Miskelly and Dai Suter
22.1 Introduction607
22.2 Procurement of Wheat for Processing607
22.3 Choice of Wheats for Blending608
22.4 History of Milling608
22.5 Wheat Milling609
22.5.1 The Milling Process 610
22.5.2 Extraction Rate Versus Grist Rate 613
22.5.3 Mill Products and Their Uses 613
22.6 Quality Assessment During and After Milling615
22.6.1 Moisture Content 615
22.6.2 Protein Content 615
22.6.3 Measurement of Flour Colour and Flour Purity 615
22.6.4 Starch Damage and Water Absorption 618
22.6.5 Water Absorption 618
22.6.6 Physical Dough Properties 620
22.6.7 Evaluation of Starch Pasting Properties 621
22.6.8 Wet Chemistry Versus Near Infrared
Spectroscopy (NIR) 623
22.6.9 Stream Selection—Straight Run and Divide Flours 624
22.6.10 Flour Treatments and Additives 626
22.6.11 End-Product Performance for Specific
End-Product Functions 627
22.6.12 Predictive Quality Tests 627
22.6.13 Food Safety 628
22.6.14 Quality Systems 628
 Contents xvii

22.7 Whole-Grain Flour Testing629

22.8 Healthy Grain630
22.9 Wheat Intolerance631
22.10 Sustainable Farming and Effects of Climate Change632
22.11 Future Trends632
Sources of Further Information and Advice633
References633

23. Industrial Processing of Grains Into Co-Products

of Protein, Starch, Oils and Fibre
Ian Batey, Colin Wrigley and Diane Miskelly
23.1 Introduction635
23.2 Starch636
23.2.1 Uses of Cereal Starches in General 637
23.2.2 Corn Starch 638
23.2.3 Wheat Starch 639
23.2.4 Starch From Other Grains 641
23.3 Protein641
23.3.1 Maize Protein 642
23.3.2 Wheat Gluten 642
23.4 Other Components643
23.4.1 Oils 643
23.4.2 Non-Starch Polysaccharides 644
23.5 Biofuels645
23.6 Bioplastics646
23.7 Resistant Starch646
23.8 Future Trends647
References649

24. Optimisation of End-Product Quality

for the Consumer
Diane Miskelly
24.1 Introduction653
24.2 Meeting Consumer-Perceived Quality Needs654
24.3 The Bread Family654
24.3.1 Leavened Pan and Hearth Bread 655
24.3.2 Flat Breads 658
24.3.3 Tortillas (Corn) 661
24.3.4 Steamed Breads 662
24.3.5 Whole-Grain, Multigrain and Composite Breads 663
24.3.6 Sourdough 664
24.4 Noodles664
24.4.1 White-Salted Noodles 666
24.4.2 Yellow-Alkaline Noodles 666
24.4.3 Other Noodles 667
xviii Contents

24.5 Biscuits, Cookies, Wafers and Snack Foods669

24.5.1 Cookies 669
24.5.2 Hard-Sweet and Semi Hard-sweet Biscuits 670
24.5.3 Crackers 670
24.5.4 Wafers 671
24.5.5 Specifications and Assessment of Quality 672
24.5.6 Snack Foods 673
24.6 Cakes674
24.6.1 Chemically Leavened Cakes 674
24.6.2 Doughnuts 675
24.7 Pasta and Couscous676
24.7.1 Pasta 676
24.7.2 Assessing Pasta Quality 677
24.7.3 Couscous 677
24.8 Breakfast Cereals678
24.8.1 RTE Cereals 678
24.8.2 Hot Cereals, Porridge 679
24.9 Cereals Eaten as the Entire Grain680
24.9.1 Rice 680
24.9.2 Popcorn 680
24.9.3 Pearled Barley 681
24.9.4 Bulgur 682
24.10 Beverages From Grains683
24.10.1 Fermented Beverages 683
24.10.2 Distilled Beverages 683
24.11 Feed Uses684
24.12 Industrial Uses684
24.12.1 Products Derived From Starch 684
24.12.2 Biofuels 685
24.13 Future Trends686
Sources of Further Information686
References687

Part V
Summary and Appendices
25. Grain Quality: The Future is With the Consumer,
the Scientist and the Technologist
Colin Wrigley, Ian Batey and Diane Miskelly
25.1 Introduction691
25.2 The Big Picture692
25.2.1 The Scientist 693
25.2.2 The Technologist 694
25.2.3 The Consumer 694
25.2.4 Designing the Future in Terms of G X E X M X P 696
 Contents xix

25.3 Breeding for Grain Quality696

25.3.1 New Genes for Novel Genotypes 696
25.3.2 Genetic Engineering 697
25.3.3 Traditional Breeding 698
25.3.4 Genotype Versus Phenotype 699
25.3.5 Greater Precision in Selecting for Specific
Quality Traits 700
25.4 Grain Growing700
25.4.1 Grain Quality, Harvest and Financial Viability 701
25.4.2 The Entrepreneurial Grain Growers of the Future 701
25.4.3 Organic or Intensive Management? 702
25.4.4 The Data-Rich Approach to Farm Management 704
25.4.5 Climates of the Future 706
25.5 Grain Receival and Segregation708
25.5.1 Improved Quality-Screening Methods 708
25.5.2 Identity Preservation 709
25.6 Grain Storage and Transport710
25.6.1 Whole Grain 710
25.6.2 Milled Products 711
25.7 Grain Processing711
25.7.1 Milling 711
25.7.2 Ingredients to Improve Nutrition, Processing
and Product Quality 712
25.7.3 No More Colour Problems with Noodles? 713
25.7.4 Gluten-Free Foods 713
25.7.5 A Greater Diversity of Uses for Grains
and Their by-Products 714
25.7.6 Biofuels 715
25.8 Nutritional Benefits of Grain—Real and Perceived715
25.8.1 Whole-Grain Foods 715
25.8.2 Functional Foods 716
25.9 Government Concerns, Population Pressures
and World-Trade Policies Relating to Cereal Grains717
25.10 Conclusions718
Sources of Further Information718
References719

Appendix 1 Composition of Grains and Grain Products

Denise L. King, Bhaskarani Jasthi and Janet Pettit
A1.1 Introduction727
A1.2 Preparation of the Nutrient Tables749
A1.3 Nutrient Contents of Grain and Grain-Related Products749
Sources of Further Information750
References750
xx Contents

Appendix 2 Equivalence Between Metric, US and Chinese

Units for the Grain Industry
Colin Wrigley
A2.1 Introduction751
A2.2 Historical Confusions with Units of Measurement756
A2.3 The International System of Units (SI System)758
A2.4 Imperial Units in Two Versions758
A2.5 The US Bushel—Both Dry Volume and Mass760
A2.6 Chinese Units of Measurement 761
A2.7 Conclusions761
Sources of Further Information762
References762

Index763
List of Contributors

Anton J. Alldrick, Campden BRI, Chipping Campden, United Kingdom

Ian Batey, Sunset Cereal Services, Meadowbank, NSW, Australia
Zoltán Bedő, Agricultural Institute, Centre for Agricultural Research, Hungarian
Academy of Sciences, Martonvásár, Hungary
Ferenc Békés, FBFD PTY LTD, North Parramatta, NSW, Australia
Walter Bushuk, Department of Food Science, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB,
Canada
Yang Cao, Academy of State Administration of Grain, Beijing, China
Pat J. Collins, Department of Agriculture and Fisheries, Agri-Science Queensland,
Brisbane, QLD, Australia
Stephen Delwiche, USDA-ARS, Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, Food Quality
Laboratory, Beltsville, MD, United States
Kwaku G. Duodu, Institute for Food, Nutrition and Well-being and Department of Food
Science, University of Pretoria, Hatfield, Pretoria, South Africa
David R. Eagling, Plant Biosecurity Cooperative Research Centre, Canberra, ACT,
Australia
Michael Edney, Canadian Grain Commission, Grain Research Laboratory, Winnipeg,
MB, Canada
Melissa Fitzgerald, School of Agriculture and Food Science, University of Queensland,
St. Lucia, QLD, Australia
Michael Gooding, Formerly University of Reading, Berkshire, United Kingdom
Zoltán Győri, Institute of Human Nutrition, University of Debrecen, Debrecen, Hungary
Ray Hare, Durum Wheat Improvement, Tamworth Agricultural Institute, New South
Wales Department of Primary Industries, Tamworth, NSW, Australia
Crispin A. Howitt, CSIRO Agriculture and Food, Canberra, ACT, Australia
Marta S. Izydorczyk, Canadian Grain Commission, Grain Research Laboratory,
Winnipeg, MB, Canada
Bhaskarani Jasthi, Nutrition Coordinating Center, Epidemiology and Community
Health, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, United States

xxi
xxii List of Contributors

Denise L. King, Nutrition Coordinating Center, Epidemiology and Community Health,

University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, United States
László Láng, Agricultural Institute, Centre for Agricultural Research, Hungarian
Academy of Sciences, Martonvásár, Hungary
Fujun Li, Academy of State Administration of Grain, Beijing, China
Bill Magee, Plant Biosecurity Cooperative Research Centre, Canberra, ACT, Australia
Diane Miskelly, Westcott Consultants, Goulburn, NSW, Australia
Janet Pettit, Nutrition Coordinating Center, Epidemiology and Community Health,
University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, United States
Mariann Rakszegi, Agricultural Institute, Centre for Agricultural Research, Hungarian
Academy of Sciences, Martonvásár, Hungary
Yong Lin Ren, School of Biological Science and Biotechnology, Murdoch University,
Perth, WA, Australia
Regine Schoenlechner, Institute of Food Technology, Department of Food Science and
Technology, University of Natural Resources & Technology, Vienna, Austria
Dai Suter, Pymble, NSW, Australia
John R.N. Taylor, Institute for Food, Nutrition and Well-being and Department of Food
Science, University of Pretoria, Hatfield, Pretoria, South Africa
Sándor Tömösközi, Department of Applied Biotechnology and Food Sciences, BUTE,
Budapest, Hungary
Surjani Uthayakumaran, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
Colin Wrigley, QAAFI, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD, Australia
Pamela Zwer, South Australian Research & Development Institute, SARDI, Adelaide,
SA, Australia
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Another random document with
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into the shape of soup. Mouth will not admit of hard
food. This hospital is not far from the Savannah jail,
and when the gate is open we can see it. It is said
that some one was hung there not long ago. Papers
referred to it and I asked a guard and he nodded
“Yes.” Have seen one “hanging bee,” and never want
to see another one. Last of my three pecks of sweet
potatoes almost gone. For a dollar, Confed., bought
two quarts of guber peas (pea-nuts), and now I have
got them can’t eat them. Sell them for a dollar per
quart—two dollars for the lot. It is thus that the
Yankee getteth wealth. Have loaned one cane to
another convalescent and go around with the aid of
one only. Every day a marked improvement. Ain’t so
tall as I “used to was.” Some ladies visited the
hospital to-day to see live Yankees, who crowded
around. They were as much of a curiosity to us as we
were to them.
Oct. 30.—It is said prisoners from main prison are
being removed every day, and the sick will go last.
Quite a batch of the nearest well ones were sent
from here to-day to go with the others. Am to be a
nurse pretty soon. Don’t think I could nurse a sick
cat, still it’s policy to be one. Winn tells me that he
has made money dickering at trade with the rebels
and prisoners. He has trusted me to twelve dollars
worth of things and says he don’t expect or want pay.
The twelve dollars amounts to only one dollar and
twenty cents in our money. The surgeon who has
had charge of us has been sent away to the front. It
seems he had been wounded in battle and was doing
home duty until able to again go to his command.
Shall always remember him for his kind and skillful
treatment. Came round and bid us all good bye, and
sick sorry to lose him. Are now in charge of a hospital
steward, who does very well. The atmosphere here
makes gentlemen of everybody. Papers say that the
city must be fortified, and it is being done.
Considerable activity about the place. Trains run
through at all hours of the night, evidently shifting
their troops to other localities. Later—Since the
surgeon went away the rebels are drinking up our
whiskey, and to-night are having a sort of carnival,
with some of the favorite nurses joining in; singing
songs, telling stories, and a good time generally.
They are welcome to my share.
Oct. 31.—Reported that the well prisoners have all
left this city for Millen and we go to-night or to-
morrow. I am duly installed as nurse, and walk with
only one cane. Legs still slightly drawn up. Hub
Dakin, Land and myself now mess together. Am
feeling very well. Will describe my appearance. Will
interest me to read in after years, if no one else. Am
writing this diary to please myself, now. I weigh one
hundred and seventeen pounds, am dressed in rebel
jacket, blue pants with one leg torn off and fringed
about half way between my knee and good sized
foot, the same old pair of miss matched shoes I wore
in Andersonville, very good pair of stockings, a
“biled” white shirt, and a hat which is a compromise
between a clown’s and the rebel white partially stiff
hat; am poor as a tad-pole, in fact look just about like
an East Tennesseean, of the poor white trash order.
You might say that I am an “honery looking cuss” and
not be far out of the way. My cheeks are sunken,
eyes sunken, sores and blotches both outside and
inside my mouth, and my right leg the whole length of
it, red, black and blue and tender of touch. My eyes,
too, are very weak, and in a bright sun I have to draw
the slouch hat away down over them. Bad as this
picture is, I am a beauty and picture of health in
comparison to my appearance two months ago.
When taken prisoner was fleshy, weighing about one
hundred and seventy or seventy-five, round faced, in
fact an overgrown, ordinary, green looking chap of
twenty. Had never endured any hardships at all and
was a spring chicken. As has been proven however, I
had an iron constitution that has carried me through
and above all a disposition to make the best of
everything no matter how bad, and considerable will
power with the rest. When I think of the thousands
and thousands of thorough-bred soldiers, tough and
hearty and capable of marching thirty, forty, and even
fifty miles in twenty-four hours and think nothing of it,
I wonder and keep wondering that it can be so, that I
am alive and gaining rapidly in health and strength.
Believe now that no matter where we are moved to, I
shall continue to improve, and get well. Succumbed
only at the last in Andersonville, when no one could
possibly keep well. With this general inventory of
myself and the remark that I haven’t a red cent, or
even a Confederate shin-plaster, will put up my diary
and get ready to go where ever they see fit to send
us, as orders have come to get ready. Later—We
are on the Georgia Central Railroad, en-route for
Millen, Ga., which is ninety miles from Savannah,
and I believe north. Are in box cars and very crowded
with sick prisoners. Two nurses, myself being one of
them, have charge of about a hundred sick. There
are, however, over six hundred on the train.
 R E M O V E D TO M I L L E N .

ANOTHER CHANGE AND NOT A BAD ONE—ALMOST A HOSTAGE

OF WAR—ELECTION DAY AND A VOTE FOR LITTLE MAC—ONE
YEAR A PRISONER OF WAR, ETC., ETC.

Camp Lawton, Millen, Ga., Nov. 1.—Arrived at our

destination not far from midnight, and it was a
tedious journey. Two died in the car I was in. Were
taken from the cars to this prison in what they call
ambulances, but what I call lumber wagons. Are now
congregated in the south-east corner of the stockade
under hastily put up tents. This morning we have
drawn rations, both the sick and the well, which are
good and enough. The stockade is similar to that at
Andersonville, but in a more settled country, the
ground high and grassy, and through the prison runs
a stream of good pure water, with no swamp at all. It
is apparently a pleasant and healthy location. A
portion of the prison is timber land, and the timber
has been cut down and lays where it fell, and the
men who arrived before us have been busily at work
making shanties and places to sleep in. There are
about six thousand prisoners here, and I should
judge there was room for twelve or fifteen thousand.
Men say they are given food twice each day, which
consists of meal and fresh beef in rather small
quantities, but good and wholesome. The rebel
officer in command is a sociable and kindly disposed
man, and the guards are not strict, that is, not cruelly
so. We are told that our stay here will be short. A
number of our men have been detailed to cook the
food for the sick, and their well being is looked to by
the rebel surgeon as well as our own men. The same
surgeon who for the last ten days had charge of us in
Savannah has charge of us now. He does not know
over and above much but on the whole does very
well. Barrels of molasses (nigger toe) have been
rolled inside and it is being issued to the men, about
one-fourth of a pint to each man, possibly a little
more. Some of the men, luxuriantly, put their
allowances together and make molasses candy of it.
One serious drawback is the scarcity of dishes, and
one man I saw draw his portion in his two hands,
which held it until his comrade could find a receptacle
for it.
Nov. 2.—Have seen many of my old comrades of
Andersonville, among whom is my tried friend Sergt.
Wm. B. Rowe; were heartily glad to see one another;
also little Bullock who has improved wonderfully in
appearance. Everyone is pleased with this place and
are cheerful, hoping and expecting to be released
before many weeks; they all report as having been
well treated in Savannah and have pleasant
recollections of that place; from what could be seen
of the city by us prisoners it seems the handsomest
one in America. Should judge it was a very wealthy
place. My duties as nurse are hard, often too much
so for my strength, yet the enforced exercise does
me good and continue to improve all the time. A cane
will be necessary to my locomotion for a long time as
am afraid myself permanently injured; my cane is not
a gold headed one; it is a round picket which has
been pulled off some fence. Very cheering accounts
of the war doings. All who want to can take the oath
of allegiance to the confederacy and be released; am
happy to say though that out of all here, but two or
three has done so, and they are men who are a
detriment to any army. The weather now is beautiful,
air refreshing, water ditto; all happy and contented
and await coming events with interest. Part of the
brook, the lower part, is planked and sides boarded
up for sanitary privileges; water has also been
dammed up and a fall made which carries off the filth
with force. Plenty of wood to do cooking with and the
men putter around with their cooking utensils such as
they have. Sort of prize fight going on now.
 Nov. 3.—About a hundred convalescents were
taken outside to-day to be sent away to our lines the
officials told us. At a later hour the commander came
inside and said he wanted twelve men to fall into line
and they did so, myself being one of the twelve; he
proceeded to glance us over and on looking at me
said: “Step back out of the ranks, I want only able-
bodied men.” I stepped down and out considerably
chagrinned, as the general impression was that they
were to go to our lines with the convalescents who
had been taken outside before. He marched off the
twelve men and it then leaked out that they were to
be sent to some prison to be held as hostages until
the end of the war. Then I felt better. It is said all the
sick will be taken outside as soon as they get
quarters fixed up to accommodate them. Think that I
shall resign my position as nurse. Would rather stay
with the “boys.” Land is no longer with the sick but
has been turned into the rank and file, also Dakin.
Dakin, Rowe and Land are all together, and if the
sick are taken outside I shall join my old comrades
and mess with them. But few die now; quite a
number died from the removal, but now all seem to
be on the mend. I am called, contrary to my
expectations, a good nurse; certainly have pity for
the poor unfortunates, but lack the strength to take
care of them. It needs good strong men to act as
nurses.
Nov. 4.—The fine weather still continues. Just
warm enough, and favorable for prisoners. Food now
we get but once a day—not all we want, but three
times as much as issued at Andersonville and of
good quality. The officer in command, as I have said
before, is a kind hearted man, and on his
appearance inside he was besieged by hundreds of
applications for favors and for the privilege of going
outside on parole of honor. He began granting such
favors as he could, but has been besieged too much
and now stays outside. Has, however, put up a letter
box on the inside so that letters will reach him, and
every day it is filled half full. Occasionally he takes to
a letter and sends inside for the writer of it, and that
one answered is the occasion of a fresh batch, until it
is said that the poor man is harrassed about as much
as the President of the United States is for fat offices.
As I have before remarked in my diary, the Yankee is
a queer animal.
Nov. 5.—Hostages taken out. Everything is bright
and pleasant and I see no cause to complain,
therefore won’t. To-morrow is election day at the
North; wish I was there to vote—which I ain’t. Will
here say that I am a War Democrat to the backbone.
Not a very stiff one, as my backbone is weak.
 Nov. 6.—One year ago to-day captured.
Presidential election at the North between Lincoln
and McClellan. Some one fastened up a box, and all
requested to vote, for the fun of the thing. Old
prisoners haven’t life enough to go and vote; new
prisoners vote for present administration. I voted for
McClellan with a hurrah, and another hurrah, and still
another. Had this election occurred while we were at
Andersonville, four-fifths would have voted for
McClellan. We think ourselves shamefully treated in
being left so long as prisoners of war. Abe Lincoln is
a good man and a good president, but he is
controlled by others who rule the exchange business
as well as most other things. Of course our likes and
dislikes make no difference to him or any one else.
Yes, one year ago to-day captured. A year is a good
while, even when pleasantly situated, but how much
longer being imprisoned as we have been. It seems
a lifetime, and I am twenty years older than a year
ago. Little thought that I was to remain all this time in
durance vile. Improving in health, disposition and
everything else. If both breeches legs were of the
same length should be supremely happy. Should
make a bon-fire to-night if I wasn’t afraid of
celebrating a defeat. Had lots of fun hurrahing for
“Little Mac.”
 Nov. 7.—A rather cold rain wets all who have not
shelter. Many ladies come to see us; don’t come
through the gate, but look at us through that
loophole. Any one with money can buy extras in the
way of food, but, alas, we have no money. Am now
quite a trader—that is, I make up a very thin dish of
soup and sell it for ten cents, or trade it for
something. Am ravenously hungry now and can’t get
enough to eat. The disease has left my system, the
body demands food, and I have to exert my
speculative genius to get it, am quite a hand at such
things and well calculated to take care of myself. A
man belonging to the Masonic order need not stay
here an hour. It seems as if every rebel officer was of
that craft, and a prisoner has but to make himself
known to be taken care of. Pretty strong secret
association that will stand the fortunes of war. That is
another thing I must do when I get home—join the
Masons. No end of things for me to do: visit all the
foreign countries that prisoners told me about, and
not forgetting to take in Boston by the way, wear silk
under clothing, join the masons, and above all
educate myself to keep out of rebel prisons. A person
has plenty of time to think here, more so than in
Andersonville; there it was business to keep alive.
Small alligator killed at lower part of the stream.
 Nov. 8.—All eager for news. Seems as if we were
on the eve of something. So quiet here that it must
predict a storm. Once in a while some pesky rebel
takes it upon himself to tell us a lot of lies to the
effect that our armies are getting beaten; that
England joins the Confederacy to whip out the North;
that there is no prospect of ending the war; that we
are not going to be exchanged at all, but remain
prisoners, etc., etc. If he is a good talker and tells his
story well it makes us all blue and down-hearted.
Then, pretty soon, we are told more joyful news
which we are ready to believe, and again take heart
and think of the good times coming. Would like to
hear the election news. Wonder who is elected? Feel
stronger every day, and have a little flesh on my
bones. As the weather gets cool, we are made
painfully aware of the fact that we are sadly deficient
in clothing. Will freeze if compelled to stay through
the winter. Coverlid still does duty although disabled
by past experience, same as all of us. We talk over
the many good traits of Battese and others who are
separated from us by death and otherwise. The
exploits of Hendryx we will never tire of narrating.
What a meeting when we can get together in future
years, and talk over the days we have lived and
suffered together. Exchange rumors fill the air. One
good sign—the rebels are making no more
improvements about this prison; they say we are not
to stay here long. We hear that our troops are
marching all through the South. Guess that is the
reason why they think of moving us all the time. All
right, Johnny Rebels, hope we are an elephant on
your hands. Jeff Davis denounced by the papers,
which is a good sign. Occasionally get one in camp,
and read it all up. No library here. Not a scrap of
anything to read; principal occupation looking for
stray news.
Nov. 9.—This diary would seem to treat of two
things principally, that of food and exchange. Try to
write of something else, but my thoughts invariably
turn to these two subjects. Prisoners of war will know
how to excuse me for thus writing. A dead line has
also been fixed up in Camp Lawton, but thus far no
one has been shot. Rebel doctors inside examining
men who may be troubled with disease prison life
might aggravate. Those selected are taken outside
and either put in hospitals or sent to our lines.
Yankee ingenuity is brought into play to magnify
diseases, and very often a thoroughly well man will
make believe that he is going to die in less than a
week unless taken away. Have laughed for an hour
at the way a fellow by the name of Sawyer fooled
them. The modus operandi will hardly bear writing in
these pages, but will do to tell. Have made a raise of
another pair of pants with both legs of the same
length, and I discard the old ones to a “poor”
prisoner. An advantage in the new pair is that there is
plenty of room, too, from being three or four sizes too
large, and the legs as long as the others were short.
My one suspender has a partner now, and all runs
smoothly. Although Bullock is fleshing up and getting
better in health, he is a wreck and always will be.
Seems to be a complete change in both body and
mind. He was a favorite in our regiment, well known
and well liked. Rowe is the same stiff, stern patrican
as of old, calmly awaiting the next turn in the wheel
of fortune.
Nov. 10.—Pleasant and rather cool. My hair is
playing me pranks. It grows straight up in the air and
only on the topmost part of my head. Where a man is
generally bald, it’s right the other way with me. If
there is anything else that can happen to make me
any more ridiculous, now is the time for it to appear.
About all I lack now is to have an eye gouged out. A
friend says that the reason my hair grows the way it
does is because I have been scared so much, and it
has stuck up straight so much, that it naturally has a
tendency that way. Perhaps that is it. If I thought we
were to stay here for any length of time would open
up a hair cutting shop; but should hate to get nicely
started in business and a trade worked up, then have
an exchange come along and knock the whole thing
in the head. We are not far from the railroad track,
and can listen to the cars going by. Very often
Confederate troops occupy them and they give the
old familiar rebel yell. Once in a while the Yanks get
up steam enough to give a good hurrah back to
them. Seems to be a good deal of transferring troops
now in the South. I watch all the movements of the
rebels and can draw conclusions, and am of the
opinion that Mr. Confederacy is about whipped and
will soon surrender. It certainly looks that way to me.
Rumors that we are to be moved.
Nov. 11.—Very well fed. There it goes again. Had
determined not to say anything more about how we
were fed, and now I have done it. However, I was not
grumbling about it any way. Will merely add that I
have an appetite larger than an elephant. Will also
say that there are rumors of exchange, for a change
—a subject that has been spoken of before. Cannot
possibly refrain from saying that I am feeling
splendidly and worth a hundred dead men yet. Have
two dollars in Confederate money and if I can sell
this half canteen of dish-water soup shall have
another dollar before dark. “Who takes it? Ah, here
ye are! Sold again; business closed for to-night,
gentlemen. Early in the morning shall have a fresh
supply of this delicious soup, with real grease floating
on top.” Shutters put up and we settle down for the
night without depositing in the bank. Shan’t go to
sleep until ten or eleven o’clock, but lay and think,
and build those air castles that always fall with a
crash and bury us in the debris. Often hear the
baying of hounds from a distance, through the night
—and such strange sounds to the Northern ear.
Good night. In rather a sentimental mood. Wonder if
she is married?
Nov. 12.—Everything quiet and running smoothly.
Waiting for something. Have just heard the election
news—Mr. Lincoln again elected, and “Little Mac”
nowhere. Just about as I expected. Returns were
rather slow in coming in, evidently waiting for the
Camp Lawton vote. Well, did what I could for
George; hurrahed until my throat was sore and
stayed so for a week; know that I influenced twenty
or thirty votes, and now can get no office because
the political opponent was elected. ’Tis ever thus.
Believe I would make a good postmaster for this
place. There is none here and should have applied
immediately, if my candidate had been elected. More
sick taken away on the cars; rebels say to be
exchanged. Appears to be a sort of mystery of late,
and can’t make head nor tail of their movements.
Would not be surprised at any hour to receive news
to get ready for our lines. Don’t know that I have felt
so before since my imprisonment. Have lived rather
high to-day on capital made yesterday and early this
morning. Just my way—make a fortune and then
spend it.
Nov. 13.—To-day had an incident happen to me;
hardly an incident, but a sort of an adventure. When I
was nurse on one or two occasions I helped the
hospital steward make out his report to his superiors,
and in that way got a sort of reputation for knowing
how to do these things a little better than the ordinary
run of people, and rebels in particular. A rebel
sergeant came inside at just about nine o’clock this
morning and looked me up and said I was wanted
outside, and so went. Was taken to a house not far
from the stockade, which proved to be the officers
head-quarters. There introduced to three or four
officers, whose names do not occur to me, and
informed that they were in need of some one to do
writing and assist in making out their army papers,
and if I would undertake the job, they would see that I
had plenty to eat, and I should be sent North at the
first opportunity. I respectfully, gently and firmly
declined the honor, and after partaking of quite a
substantial meal, which they gave me thinking I
would reconsider my decision, was escorted back
inside. Many thought me very foolish for not taking
up with the offer. My reasons for not doing so are
these: I would be clearly working for the
Confederacy; can see no real difference in it from
actually entering their army. If I occupied that position
it would relieve some rebel of that duty, and he could
stay in the ranks and fight our men. That is one
reason. Another is the fact that instead of their letting
me go to our lines with the first that went, I would be
the very last to go, as they would need me to do duty
for them until the last moment. Was always willing to
do extra duty for our own men, such as issuing
clothing on Belle Isle, also my nursing the sick or in
any way doing for them, but when it comes to
working in any way for any rebel, I shall beg to be
excused. Might have gone out and worked in the
printing offices in Savannah had I so wished, as they
were short of men all the time, in fact could hardly
issue their papers on account of the scarcity of
printers. And so I am still loyal to the Stars and
Stripes and shall have no fears at looking my friends
in the face when I do go home.
Nov. 14.—The kaleidoscope has taken another
turn. Six hundred taken away this forenoon; don’t
know where to. As I was about the last to come to
Millen, my turn will not come for some days if only six
hundred are taken out each day. Rebels say they go
straight to our lines, but their being heavily guarded
and every possible precaution taken to prevent their
escape, it does not look like our lines to me. Probably
go to Charleston; that seems to be the jumping off
place. Charleston, for some reason or other, seems a
bad place to go to. Any city familiar with the war I
want to avoid. Shall hang back as long as I can,
content to let well enough alone. Some of my friends,
of which Bullock is one, flanked out with those going
off. What I mean by “flanked out” is crowding in when
it is not their turn and going with the crowd. Hendryx
and I did that when we left Belle Isle, and we brought
up in Andersonville. Will let those do the flanking who
want to, I don’t.
Nov. 15.—At about six or seven o’clock last night
six hundred men were taken away, making in all
twelve hundred for the day; another six hundred are
ready to go at a moment’s notice. I don’t know what
to think. Can hardly believe they go to our lines.
Seems almost like a funeral procession to me, as
they go through the gate. Rowe and Hub Dakin talk
of going to-day, if any go, having decided to flank. I
have concluded to wait until it is my turn to go. If it is
an exchange there is no danger but all will go, and if
not an exchange would rather be here than any place
I know of now. Later.—Eight hundred have gone,
with Rowe and Dakin in the crowd, and I am here
alone as regards personal friends. Could not be
induced to go with them. Have a sort of presentiment
that all is not right. Still Later.—Six hundred more
have gone, making 2,600 all together that have
departed, all heavily guarded.
Nov. 16.—A decided thinness in our ranks this
morning. Still house keeping goes right along as
usual. Rebels not knowing how to figure give us just
about the same for the whole prison as when all were
here. Had a talk with a rebel sergeant for about an
hour. Tried to find out our destination and could get
no satisfaction, although he said we were going to
our lines. Told him I was a mason, odd-fellow, had
every kind of religion (in hopes to strike his), and
flattered him until I was ashamed of myself. In a
desultory sort of way he said he “reckoned we war
goin’ nawth.” Well, I will write down the solution I
have at last come to, and we will see how near right I
am after a little. Our troops, Sherman or Kilpatrick or
some of them, are raiding through the South, and we
are not safe in Millen, as we were not safe in
Andersonville, and as was plainly evident we were
not safe in Savannah. There is the whole thing in a
nutshell, and we will see. Six hundred gone to-day.
Nov. 17.—It is now said that the prisoners are
being moved down on the coast near Florida. That
coincides with my own view, and I think it very
probable. Will try and go about to-morrow. Hardly
think I can go to-day. Later.—The to-day’s batch are