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Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing 831
Katarzyna Arkusz
Romuald Będziński · Tomasz Klekiel
Szczepan Piszczatowski Editors
Biomechanics
in Medicine
and Biology
Proceedings of the International
Conference of the Polish Society of
Biomechanics, Zielona Góra, Poland,
September 5–7, 2018
Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing
Volume 831
Series editor
Janusz Kacprzyk, Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland
e-mail: kacprzyk@ibspan.waw.pl
The series “Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing” contains publications on theory,
applications, and design methods of Intelligent Systems and Intelligent Computing. Virtually all
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areas of modern intelligent systems and computing such as: computational intelligence, soft computing
including neural networks, fuzzy systems, evolutionary computing and the fusion of these paradigms,
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More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/11156

Katarzyna Arkusz Romuald Będziński
•
Tomasz Klekiel Szczepan Piszczatowski

•
Editors
Biomechanics
in Medicine and Biology
Proceedings of the International Conference
of the Polish Society of Biomechanics,
Zielona Góra, Poland, September 5–7, 2018
123
Editors
Katarzyna Arkusz Tomasz Klekiel
Division of Biomedical Engineering, Division of Biomedical Engineering,
Department of Mechanical Engineering Department of Mechanical Engineering
University of Zielona Góra University of Zielona Góra
Zielona Góra, Poland Zielona Góra, Poland
Romuald Będziński Szczepan Piszczatowski

Division of Biomedical Engineering, Division of Biocybernetics and Biomedical
Department of Mechanical Engineering Engineering, Department of Mechanical
University of Zielona Góra Engineering
Zielona Góra, Poland Bialystok University of Technology
Białystok, Poland
ISSN 2194-5357 ISSN 2194-5365 (electronic)

Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing
ISBN 978-3-319-97285-5 ISBN 978-3-319-97286-2 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-97286-2
Library of Congress Control Number: 2018949384
© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019

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Preface
The field of biomechanics and biomedical engineering is constantly changing, and

every year, scientists try to apply physics and other mathematically based forms of
analysis to discover the limits and capabilities of biological systems. Biomechanics
and new technologies are crucial to providing human health and delivering new
solutions in medicine, especially with respect to the problems related to an ageing
population. In high-performance sports, practitioners employ a variety of tests and
tools, mainly to predict performance and flag when an injury will occur.
We proudly present the Proceedings of the International Conference of the
Polish Society of Biomechanics “BIOMECHANICS 2018”, which was held in
Zielona Góra from 5 to 7 September 2018, which discusses recent research inno-
vations in biomechanics. The conference was organized by the Polish Society of
Biomechanics and Biomedical Engineering Division of the University of Zielona
Góra. This conference has been held in Poland on a regular basis since 1981. The
primary goal of the conference is to provide an opportunity for participants from all
corners of the world to share and exchange ideas and experiences relating to
biomechanics. The “BIOMECHANICS 2018” conference was a great opportunity
for an exchange of ideas and presentations of the latest developments in all the areas
within the field of biomechanics including biofluid mechanics, biomaterials and
biosensors, biotribology, cardiovascular biomechanics, cellular and molecular
biomechanics, clinical biomechanics, computational imaging and simulation tech-
nologies in biomechanics, human movement, impact/injury biomechanics, mus-
culoskeletal biomechanics, neuro-biomechanics, rehabilitation biomechanics, soft
and hard tissue biomechanics, spine, sport biomechanics and technology.
This volume includes 26 papers accepted for publication from among those
submitted on the “BIOMECHANICS 2018” conference. Aiming for the high sci-
entific merit of the meeting and international recognition of the proceedings, all
submissions were subjected to a thorough peer review process (minimum of two
independent reviews per paper) and only those with consistent and strong recom-
mendations from the reviewers were accepted. In this proceedings volume, the
accepted papers are organized into five sections:
v
vi Preface
• Clinical Biomechanics
• Computational Imaging and Simulation Technologies in Biomechanics
• Impact/Injury Biomechanics
• Soft and Hard Tissue Biomechanics
• Sport Biomechanics and Technology
The “BIOMECHANICS 2018” conference promotes innovative activities in the
field of modern clinical achievements, imaging processing and simulation method
activities, allowing for a better understanding of the mechanisms of functioning in
human tissues and organs in the interaction with elements of biomedical engi-
neering, i.e. stents, implants and artificial organs. Equally interesting is the beha-
viour of human tissues under loads caused by excessive effort or rapid overloading
in the area of sports. The participants of the “BIOMECHANICS 2018” conference
presented many interesting and diverse research and analysis methods to better
explain how the human body works, which translates into the development of
treatment methods.
We believe that this book will become a great reference tool for scientists
working in the areas of biomechanics. Readers are kindly encouraged to contact the
corresponding authors for further details about their research.
Katarzyna Arkusz
Romuald Będziński
Tomasz Klekiel
Szczepan Piszczatowski
Organization
The International Conference of the Polish Society of Biomechanics

“BIOMECHANICS 2018” was organized by the Polish Society of Biomechanics
and Biomedical Engineering Division of the University of Zielona Góra.
BIOMECHANICS 2018 Scientific Committee
General Chair
Romuald Będziński University of Zielona Góra, Poland
Vice-chair
Szczepan Piszczatowski Białystok University of Technology, Poland
Ricardo Alves de Sousa, Portugal Jarosław Filipiak, Poland

Jorge Ambrosio, Portugal Marc Geers, Holland
Jan Awrejcewicz, Poland Sanjay Gupta, India
Wojciech Blajer, Poland Marek Gzik, Poland
Lajos Borbás, Hungary Paweł Jarmużek, Poland
Tadeusz Burczyński, Poland Grzegorz Juras, Poland
Krzysztof Buśko, Poland Aleksander Kabsch, Poland
Luca Cristofolini, Italy Krzysztof Kędzior, Poland
Adam Czaplicki, Poland Natalia Kiziłowa, Poland
Jan R. Dąbrowski, Poland Michał Kleiber, Poland
Manuel Doblare, Spain Tomasz Klekiel, Poland
Lechosław Dworak, Poland Krzysztof Kwiatkowski, Poland
Igor Emri, Slovenia Damien Lacroix, UK
Stephan Ferguson, Switzerland Tomasz Łodygowski, Poland
vii
viii Organization
Andrzej Maciejczak, Poland Halina Podbielska, Poland

Ewa Majchrzak, Poland John Rasmussen, Denmark
Jerzy Małachowski, Poland Gwendolen Reilly, UK
Ryszard Maroński, Poland Alicja Rutkowska-Kucharska, Poland
Andrzej Mastalerz, Poland Patrik Schmuki, Germany
Daniel Matej, Czech Republic Konstanty Skalski, Poland
Robert Michnik, Poland Małgorzata Syczewska, Poland
Grzegorz Milewski, Poland Marek Synder, Poland
Karol Miller, Australia Ioan Szava, Romania
Zbigniew Nawrat, Poland Vladimir Tregubov, Russia
Tadeusz Niezgoda, Poland Czesław Urbanik, Poland
Yuriy Nyashin, Russia Andrzej Wit, Poland
Urszula Pasławska, Poland Wojciech Wolański, Poland
Celina Pezowicz, Poland Daniel Zarzycki, Poland
BIOMECHANICS 2018 Organizing Committee
General Chair
Katarzyna Arkusz University of Zielona Góra, Poland
Vice-chair
Tomasz Klekiel University of Zielona Góra, Poland
Secretary
Agnieszka Mackiewicz University of Zielona Góra, Poland
Agnieszka Kaczmarek-Pawelska
Jagoda Kurowiak
Marta Nycz
Ewa Paradowska
Monika Ratajczak
Rafał Rudyk
Urszula Skiruk
Acknowledgement
We would like to thank all participants, plenary speakers and paper reviewers for
their scientific and personal contributions to the BIOMECHANICS 2018
conference.
Many thanks and much appreciation are due to the peer reviewers from Belgium,
Czech Republic, Hungary, Italy, Poland, Portugal, Slovakia and the UK who have
greatly contributed to a critical selection of the best papers and whose remarks and
suggestions have significantly helped the authors improve the quality of their
papers.
International Conference of the Polish Society of Biomechanics -

BIOMECHANICS 2018 was financed under contract 777P-DUN/2018 from the
resources of Ministry of Science and Higher Education allocatied for activities
which disseminate the science.
ix
Contents
Clinical Biomechanics
Human Red Blood Cell Properties and Sedimentation Rate:
A Biomechanical Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Natalya Kizilova, Liliya Batyuk, and Vitalina Baranets
Modeling of Pulse Wave Propagation and Reflection Along
Human Aorta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Natalya Kizilova, Helen Solovyova, and Jeremi Mizerski
The Influence of Woman’s Mastectomy on Breathing Kinematics . . . . . 36
Frantisek Lopot, David Rawnik, Klara Koudelkova, Petr Kubovy,
and Petr Stastny
Impedimetric Method to Monitor Biological Layer Formation on
Central Venous Catheters for Hemodialysis Made of Carbothane . . . . . 45
Ewa Paradowska, Marta Nycz, Katarzyna Arkusz, Bartosz Kudliński,
and Elżbieta Krasicka-Cydzik
Towards Understanding of Mechanics of Hernia Managed by
Synthetic Mesh in Laparoscopic Operation: A Single Case Study . . . . . 56
Agnieszka Tomaszewska, Izabela Lubowiecka, and Czesław Szymczak
Numerical Analysis of the Blood Flow in an Artery with Stenosis . . . . . 68
Michał Tomaszewski and Jerzy Małachowski
Computational Imaging and Simulation Technologies in Biomechanics

Influence of Elevated Temperature During Crimping on Results of
Numerical Simulation of a Bioresorbable Stent Deployment Process . . . 81
Jakub Bukała, Krzysztof Damaziak, Jerzy Małachowski,
and Łukasz Mazurkiewicz
xi
xii Contents
Comparison of Methods for Computing a Target Point

for Aspirations and Biopsies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Adam Ciszkiewicz and Grzegorz Milewski
Predictive Models in Biomechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
John Rasmussen
Automatic Processing and Analysis of the Quality Healing
of Derma Injury . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Elena Semenova, Oleg Gerasimov, Elizaveta Koroleva, Nafis Ahmetov,
Tatyana Baltina, and Oskar Sachenkov
Application of Artificial Neural Networks in the Human
Identification Based on Thermal Image of Hands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
Tomasz Walczak, Jakub Krzysztof Grabski, Martyna Michałowska,
and Dominika Szadkowska
Impact/Injury Biomechanics
Stability of the EMG Signal Level Within a Six-Day Measuring Cycle . . . 125
Robert Barański
Prediction of the Segmental Pelvic Ring Fractures Under Impact
Loadings During Car Crash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
Tomasz Klekiel, Katarzyna Arkusz, Grzegorz Sławiński,
and Romuald Bȩdziński
Analysis of the Lower Limb Model Response Under Impact Load . . . . 150
Tomasz Klekiel, Grzegorz Sławiński, and Romuald Bȩdziński
Numerical Analysis of the Biomechanical Factors of a Soldier Inside
a Vehicle with the Pulse Load Resulting from a Side Explosion . . . . . . . 163
Grzegorz Sławiński, Piotr Malesa, and Marek Świerczewski
Soft and Hard Tissue Biomechanics

Risk Assessment Regarding the Injuries of the Lower Limbs of the
Driver of a Military Vehicle in the Case of an Explosion Under
the Vehicle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
Grzegorz Sławiński, Marek Świerczewski, and Piotr Malesa
Modeling Viscoelastic Behavior of Pig’s Skin in the Respect
to Its Anisotropy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
Aneta Liber-Kneć and Sylwia Łagan
FEM Analysis of Hyperelastic Behavior of Pig’s Skin
with Anatomical Site Consideration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
Sylwia Łagan, Agnieszka Chojnacka-Brożek, and Aneta Liber-Kneć
Contents xiii
Trabecular Bone Microstructural FEM Analysis for Out-Of

Plane Resolution Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
Artur Cichański and Krzysztof Nowicki
Sport Biomechanics and Technology

Analysis of Skeletal Muscle System Loads for the Most Optimal
Positions During Lifting in Different Load Distances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
Bieniek Andrzej, Szczygioł Anna, Michnik Robert, Chrzan Miłosz,
Wodarski Piotr, and Jurkojć Jacek
Strength, Flexibility and Temperature Changes During Step
Aerobics Training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
Piotr Borkowski, Jolanta Grażyna Zuzda, and Robert Latosiewicz
On Different Methods for Calculating the Flight Height in the
Vertical Countermovement Jump Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
Jakub Krzysztof Grabski, Tomasz Walczak, Martyna Michałowska,
Patrycja Pastusiak, and Marta Szczetyńska
High Efficient Weightlifting Barbell Tracking Algorithm Based
on Diamond Search Strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
Ching-Ting Hsu, Wei-Hau Ho, and Jen-Shi Chen
Are Leg Electromyogram Profiles Symmetrical During Full Squat? . . . 263
Henryk Król and Krzysztof Kmiecik
Does Vibration Affect Upper Limb During Nordic Walking? . . . . . . . . . 276
Wojciech Wolański, Michał Burkacki, Sławomir Suchoń, Julia Gruszka,
Marek Gzik, Krzysztof Gieremek, and Joanna Gorwa
Loaded Treadmill Training Improves the Spatio-Temporal
Parameters in Children with Spastic Diplegia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
Mariam A. Ameer and Walaa S. Mohammad
Author Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
Clinical Biomechanics
Human Red Blood Cell Properties
and Sedimentation Rate:
A Biomechanical Study
Natalya Kizilova1(&), Liliya Batyuk2, and Vitalina Baranets3

1
Warsaw University of Technology,
Nowowiejska street, 24, 00-665 Warsaw, Poland
n.kizilova@gmail.com
2
Kharkov National Medical University,
Nauki avenue, 2, Kharkiv 61022, Ukraine
3
Kharkov National University, Svobody square, 4, Kharkiv 61022, Ukraine
Abstract. Human blood is widely used for clinical diagnostics due to its easy
accessibility and high sensitivity for any metabolic disorders and diseases. In the
paper different mechanical and electric properties of red blood cells
(RBC) useful for diagnostics are discussed. The experimental data on the ery-
throcyte sedimentation rate (ESR) test in its standard procedure and continuous
computer assisted assessment are presented. The review of mathematical
approaches for reasonable ESR estimation is given. The continuous model of
blood as three phase suspension is used for numerical estimation of aggregate
ability of RBC. The problem on RBC aggregation and sedimentation in a thin
vertical tube is considered. A numerical solution of the formulated hyperbolic
problem is obtained by the method of characteristics. Numerical computations
have been carried out for a wide range of RBC parameters proper to healthy
state and patients with cancer, drug and food allergy. It is shown the continuous
sedimentation curves give more diagnostic information than the standard ESR
value. Based on the experimental and theoretical study, a biomechanical inter-
pretation of the ESR curves is proposed.
Keywords: Biomechanics Erythrocyte sedimentation rate

Medical diagnostics
1 Introduction
Blood is a unique tissue circulating between all the cells, tissues and organs of the body
and carrying the organic and mineral components as well as products of the tissue
metabolism, new growth, cellular apoptosis, and other physiological processes [1]. In
that way, blood is the most proper tissue for easy and detailed diagnosis of the body
metabolism and state [2]. Any sort of ionic, osmotic or other disease-related changes
produce noticeable variations of the membrane surface properties of the red blood cells
(RBC) that compose *40–49% of the blood volume [1, 2]. Therefore, the electric
(electric surface charge, electric conductivity, dielectric permittivity), mechanical
(density, membrane shape, thickness, deformability, fluidity) and other physical
© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019

K. Arkusz et al. (Eds.): BIOMECHANICS 2018, AISC 831, pp. 3–22, 2019.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-97286-2_1
4 N. Kizilova et al.
(adhesiveness) properties of RBC can be used for early diagnostics of pathological

processes [2]. One of the most common and easy clinical tests is the erythrocyte
sedimentation rate (ESR) test. The ESR value is the height of the clean blood plasma
(BP) zone formed over the RBC zone during gravitational sedimentation of RBC in the
blood sample placed into a thin vertical tube. There are several distinct test method-
ology (Wintrobe, Westergren, Panchenkov) with different blood type (arterial or
venous), length (10–30 cm) and diameter (1–4 mm) of the tube, and duration of the test
(1–3 h) accepted in different countries [2, 3]. The ESR is an excellent index of
inflammatory state associated with cancers, infections, and autoimmune diseases like
systemic vasculitis, temporal arteritis, polymyalgia rheumatica, and others. Inflam-
mations cause abnormal proteins to appear in blood and change the surface properties
of RBC that promotes their aggregation and faster sedimentation [4–6]. Disregarding
the long history of the ESR test [7] and its numerous modifications [2], recently
published reviews and research papers on novel aspects of anomalous high [8, 9] and
low [10] ESR, its applicability to the elderly [9] and young [11] patients, as well as in
pregnancy [12] revealed new approaches for the test procedures and data analyses.
During the last decades novel approaches for ESR-based diagnosis of hypercholes-
terolemia [13], heart failure [14], osteomyelitis [15], and other specific diseases have
been proposed.
In this paper a short comprehensive review on the RBC physical properties and
aggregation ability, and on mathematical models for EBS modelling and computation
of the ESR (normal, pathologically fast or short) is given. The results of measurements
of ESR in healthy volunteers and patients with drag and food allergy are presented.
1.1 Electric and Mechanical Properties of RBC

Blood as a concentrated suspension of red blood cells (RBC) is characterized by
passive electric properties like electric impedance, conductivity, and dielectric per-
mittivity. Electromechanical properties of BP and blood cells (erythrocytes, leucocytes
and platelets) determine RBC and platelets interaction and aggregation, blood rheology
and blood clot formation, blood flow through the vessels and tubes of biomedical units
[1, 2, 16]. Passive electric property is electric resistivity Z ¼ d/=I that is the ratio of the
applied electric potential d/ to the electric current I measured in the sample. Electric
resistivity of biological tissues depends on water contents, ionic strength of BP,
membrane conductivity and some other biophysical factors. When a constant electric
potential d/ is applied to a tissue, the electric current I through it decreases due to
generation a counter directed electromotive force E, and the Ohm’s law is
Z ¼ ðd/ EÞ=I. To avoid the electromotive force induction, the measurements are
usually conducted in oscillating electromagnetic fields (EMF), and the complex
impedance Z ~ ¼ Z þ iX, where X is the reactance is measured. The values Z; X for
different tissues in healthy state and at different diseases have been measured and
classified in biophysical handbooks [2].
The biological tissues are not ideal dielectrics and their dielectric properties are
described by complex dielectric permittivity e ¼ e þ ie0 , where e is the real permit-
tivity, e0 ¼ r=ð2pfÞ, r ¼ Z1 is electric conductivity, f is the EMF frequency. The ratio
Human Red Blood Cell Properties and Sedimentation Rate 5
ae ¼ atanðe0 =eÞ determines the tangent of dielectric loss due to transfer of some EMF
energy into heat and dielectric relaxation [16, 17].
RBC and other cells in aqueous conditions at physiological pH values have neg-
ative electric surface charge re ¼ q=S, where q is the charge of the cell, S is its surface
area, produced by dissociation of the membrane proteins, ion absorption and water
hydration layers formed at the cellular surfaces [16]. The surface charge of healthy
RBC was found within the limits re ¼ 3 103 1:5 102 S/m2 . The surface charge
can be quantitatively estimated by electrophoretic mobility (EPM) of the cells in
external static electric field, which is the ratio of the cell velocity to the strength of the
applied field. Healthy RBC demonstrate EPM = 1.1 – 1.3 lm=s=V=cm [16].
The dielectric permittivity of native blood [17, 18] and RBC suspensions [19, 20]
have been thoroughly examined for the medical diagnostic purposes. In the external
EMF electric and dielectric properties of biological tissues demonstrate dispersion, i.e.
dependence of e and r on the EMF frequency f: a – dispersion at low frequencies
(f = 10 – 103 Hz), b – dispersion in the radio wave range (f = 104 – 108 Hz), and c –
dispersion in the microwave range (f > 1010 Hz). In the native blood and RBC sus-
pensions a – dispersion is almost absent; b – dispersion is determined by noticeable
decrease in capacity of the cell membranes, and dipole polarization of hemoglobin,
membrane and BP proteins; and c – dispersion is determined by polarization of water
molecules, and structure and behavior of the hydration shells of RBC [13, 14]. The e
and r values for native human blood at low and high frequency limits are e = 7350,
r = 0.49 S/m and e = 160, r = 0.9 S/m accordingly [17].
Mechanical properties of RBC (size, shape, deformability, viscoelasticity) are related
to their electrical characteristics. Inside the organism blood moves through the blood
vessels at a strong influence of electric fields generated by contracting heart, skeletal and
smooth muscles, and therefore the electric properties of RBC and BP influence their
movement, blood viscosity, and efficiency of the transport of oxygen, carbon dioxide,
mineral, organic and other components. Blood viscosity as a main determinant in
hemodynamics, depends on RBC concentration, size, shape and deformability, protein
concentration in BP, temperature, and shear rate in the flow [1, 16]. In the inflammation
state, cancer, necrosis and other severe diseases the fragments of membranes, specific
proteins and viruses can modify the RBC membranes, change their hydration shells [20],
decrease their surface charge [16] and, therefore, increase their aggregate ability that leads
to high ESR [3–6, 8, 9]. When the RBC membranes are overloaded by absorbed particles
and cations, cholesterol or other substances their charge is decreased and their membrane
become thicker that essentially increases RBC rigidity and decreases their deformability
and ability to pass through the capillaries [1, 2].
The most relevant quantitative estimations of the RBC electromechanical properties
and aggregate ability for medical diagnostics purposes can be carried out by EPM
based estimations of the electric charge [2, 16], microwave dielectric spectroscopy
[17–20], and ESR tests [1, 2].
1.2 RBC Aggregation in Health and Pathology

Healthy RBCs demonstrate reversible rouleaux formation, i.e. elongated aggregates
composed by chains of RBC stacked together as coins. The aggregates are easily
destroyed by shear stress in the blood flow through the vessels or tubes of the external
blood circulation/oxygenation systems. In the slow flows and in the stagnant regions of
secondary flows the RBC can form more complex aggregates of >100 cells, thus,
hampering the circulation and increasing the RBC sedimentation, because larger
aggregates settle faster in the gravity field.
Microscopic methods for estimation of RBC aggregation rate are based on direct
counting of the average number of cells in the chains on the dry smears (smeared drop
of blood deposited on a glass slide) or on micro images of diluted blood [21, 22].
Optical methods based on light scattering patterns in the colloidal systems and sus-
pensions are also used for the RBC aggregation rate estimation [21, 23].
According to electron microscope images, there are narrow gaps between the
flattened sides of RBC, and the width of the gap corresponds to the length of a bridge
molecule, which is fibrin in normal blood, and other polymer molecule at experimental
conditions (polylysine, dextrans, etc.) [21]. The bigger number of bridges provides
stronger binding of RBC in the aggregates. Adhesions of the bridge molecules at RBC
surfaces are reversible and can be destroyed by shear stresses and chemical influences
[22]. At physiological pH when RBC have negative surface charge and the bridge
molecules have positive charged ends, aggregation is determined by the electrostatic
forces, while for neutral or negatively charges ends it is determined by van-der-Vaals
forces and hydrogen binds which are less stable for deformations. In that way, the
microphysical theories of RBC aggregation are based on physics of double electric
layers and hydrate shells, electric and viscoelastic interactions of cellular surfaces and
bridge molecules [23, 24].
The Monte-Carlo simulations of geometry and fractal properties of the aggregates
composed by absorption of particles with determined electric potentials revealed that
aggregation is a very complex phenomena even in binary mixtures and needs additional
experimental and theoretical studies [25]. RBC aggregation is much more complex
process that is influenced by pH of blood, cell shape, electric and adhesive properties,
and deformability. Different medicines and toxins produced by microorganisms and
viruses cause various changes in the mechanical and electric properties of RBC and
BP. The simplest microphysical model of RBC aggregation is based on Newton
dynamic law [26]
dvi X h
mi ¼ f ij þ f i ; ð1Þ
dt i6¼j
where mi is the mass of i-th particle, vi is its velocity, f ij is the force acting on i-th
particle from j-th particle, f i is the hydrodynamic force.
h
Generally speaking, the forces f ij could be divided into attraction forces f pro-
a
ij
moting particle approaching, interaction and binding, and repulsive forces f ij . One of
r
the repulsive forces is the elastic repulsion f ij determined by physical occupation of

e
space by the contacting particles, their elastic deformation and interaction as vis-
coelastic fluid-filled charged shells. Then f ij ¼ f ij þ f ij where
a e
3=2
f e ¼ k ri þ rj dij nij if dij ri þ rj ; ð2Þ
ij
0 dij [ ri þ rj
where ri; j are radiuses of the i-th and j-th particles interacting, dij is the distance
between their physical centers, nij is the unit vector directed from j-th to i-th particle.
Interaction of two particles depends on their Morse potentials

Uij ¼ Dij e2Bðd0 dij Þ 2eBðd0 dij Þ ;

where Dij are the coefficients describing surface properties, dij ¼ dij ri rj are the
distances between the surfaces of the interacting particles, d ¼ d0 if dij \ri þ rj , B is the
scalar coefficient which is inverse to the double electric layer thickness.
Then the attraction force can be written as
@Uij
~ A ¼ 2Dij AB e2Bðd0 dij Þ eBðd0 dij Þ ~
a
f ij ¼ nij ; ð3Þ
@dij
where A is the area of the contact surface of the particles.

The values B; d0 ; Dij can be taken as computed for ideal charged surfaces and
corrected then according to experimental data. Hydrodynamic force is usually esti-
mated from the Stokes law for rigid particle and slow flow at low Reynolds numbers
~ h
vi ~
f i ¼ klri ð~ v1 Þ; ð4Þ
where l is the fluid viscosity, ~ vi and ~

v1 are the velocities of the particle and undis-
turbed flow, k is the shape coefficient that is k ¼ 6p for a sphere.
For the concentrated suspensions (C > 5%) l ¼ lðC; c_ Þ, where C is the concen-
tration of particles, c_ is the flow shear rate. More detailed models account for non-
steady flow, inertia, Magnus effect, and the following expression can be used instead of
(10) [24]:
~ h d
vi ~
f i ¼ klri ð~ v1 k2 qr3i ð~
v1 Þ þ k1 lD~ vi ~v1 Þ
dt
Zt ð5Þ
pffiffiffiffiffiffi 2 d ds
þ k3 qri ð~
3
~1 Þ ð~
xi x vi ~
v1 Þ þ k4 lqri ð~ v1 Þ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ;
vi ~
ds ts
1
where x~i and x~1 are angular velocities of the i-th particle and fluid, k14 are particle
specific coefficients.
Numerical computations on the model (1)–(5) revealed significant variations in the
RBC aggregation rate produced by particle shape coefficient, concentration, electric
charge and rigidity [24]. The presented microrheological model of RBC movement,
interaction and aggregation will be used in the next chapters for the continual modeling
of blood as a multiphase fluid.
1.3 Continuous Modeling of RBC Aggregation and Sedimentation

In the continual mechanics approach the blood is considered as a multiphase suspension
of free RBC (1) and RBC aggregates (2) suspended in the BP (3). During the aggre-
gation and disaggregation the solid phases exchange their mass, momentum and energy
when free RBC pass on from the phase 1 into phase 3 and vice versa. Mass, momentum
and energy balance equations can be obtained from thermodynamics of the multiphase
continua. The BP is usually modeled as an incompressible Newtonian liquid [27, 28]. In
the single phase approach the mass and momentum balance equations have the simplest
form
d!v
vÞ ¼ 0; q
divð~ ¼ rp þ divð2lêÞ; ð6Þ
dt
and must be completed by the equation of aggregation kinetics
dN
¼ C þ ðN; Ie Þ C ðN; Ie Þ; ð7Þ
dt
where N is the number of aggregates per unit volume, ~ v is the velocity, p is the
hydrostatic pressure, ê is the strain rate tensor, Ie is the second invariant of ê, q is
density, l ¼ lðIe Þ is the dynamic viscosity, C are the aggregation and disaggregation
rates accounting for different physical mechanisms (4).
Expression for C can be reconstructed from the microrheological theory (1)–(5) or
by dimension analysis. For instance, a good approximation for the quasi-steady pulsatile
flow of thixotropic liquid in the cylindrical tube can be obtained by assuming [27, 28]

þ 1c þ 1c 2lIe
C ¼ a Ie N0 n þ a Ie N0 n ð1 nÞvð1 nÞf ; ð8Þ
r
where n ¼ N=N0 is the dimensionless numerical concentration of the aggregates, N0 is
their initial concentration, a ¼ const [ 0, c are shape coefficients (c = 0 for
spherical particles), r is the critical stress destroying the aggregates, v is the Heviside
function, f is a monotonous non-decreasing dimensionless function.
Different types of flows of thixotropic suspensions of aggregating particles in tubes
and channels, flow stability and aggregation stability have been studied based on the
model (6)–(8) [28, 29].
The more detailed model accounting for liquid capture inside the aggregates fol-
lowed by its progressive squeezing out from the aggregates, i.e. the exchange between
the phases 2 and 3, has been developed in [27]. The model is based on the mass and
momentum balance Eq. (6), while the following balance equations for numerical (N),
mass (C) and volumetric (H) concentrations of the aggregates are accepted instead of (8)
dN ! dH ! dC !
¼ div J N þ CN ; ¼ div J H þ CH ; ¼ div J C ; ð9Þ
dt dt dt
where CH is the BP capture inside the aggregates, ~

JN; H; C are the corresponding dif-
fusion fluxes; according to reversible thermodynamic approach they are linear func-
tions of the corresponding thermodynamic forces, namely
~ DHN DHI
JH ¼ DHH rH DHC rC rN rIe : ð10Þ
N Ie
Some simplified problem formulations based on (6), (9), (10) and analysis of the
model parameters were given in [28, 30, 31].
2 Materials and Methods
The experimental study has been carried out in the Allergy Lab of Kharkov Institute of
Dermatology (Ukraine). The native venous blood samples were collected from 20
patients (10 males and 10 females; average age 59 9 years) and split into small
portions V = 1 ml. One portion was studied as a control test while into other portions
small amounts of the drugs prescribed to the patient by his/her doctor were added. All
the portions have been placed in the standard glass tubes (d = 1 mm, L = 100 mm) and
microtubes (d = 0.5 mm, L = 50 mm). The tubes were placed in a rack in a vertical
position for 3 h at the room temperature. The height h of the transparent layer of blood
plasma in the upper part of each tube has been measured each 10 min. As a result of the
study the sedimentation curves hðtÞ have been obtained for each tube. The standard
ESR value was computed at t = 1 h of sedimentation.
The curves have been smoothed by a Bayesian filter and the time derivative curves
h0 ðtÞ have been computed. The typical results of the simultaneous ESR test for the
blood of the same patient in the standard tubes and the microtubes are presented in
Fig. 1. Thick solid lines in Fig. 1a–d correspond to the control sample and the
ESR <10 mm indexes correspond to healthy individuals [2]. The addition of the
potential allergen influences on the sedimentation rate by some acceleration or decel-
eration of the ESR process. Since ESR is determined by the aggregate ability of the
RBC in the sample, that means a direct influence on the allergen on the RBC surface.
The cases with no allergy for the added drugs are presented in Fig. 1a–d by thin solid
lines, while the cases with the confirmed allergy denoted by dashed lines.
The curves h0 ðtÞ exhibit similar dynamics (Fig. 1b) with the noticeable maximum at
t ¼ tmax ; which corresponds to the maximal velocity of sedimentation followed then by
some decrease in the ESR. The decrease in the ESR is caused by the influence of the
settled aggregates accumulated at the bottom of the sedimentation tube [33]. The time
tmax was shown to be a good diagnostic index, which almost independent on the initial
concentration of RBC and BP viscosity, and reflects the RBC aggregation rate only [24].
When ESR test is carried out in a microcapillary, a smaller amount of blood is
needed and the behavior of the ESR curves in the standard (Fig. 1a) and micro
(Fig. 1c) tubes is similar. The difference between the control sample and the sample
affected by potential allergens were more distinct in the microtubes (Fig. 1c). The
maximal velocity was reached in the microtubes well earlier (t = 35 min) and the
dispersion was more noticeable. The peaks in the h0 ðtÞ curves in the microcapillary are
more acute, i.e. the corresponding time intervals are shorter that allows more precise
ESR estimation from the curves. The secondary peaks in ESR at t = 80 min have been
detected in the microcapillaries only (Fig. 1d). In that way, when tmax is used as a
Fig. 1. Experimental curves h(t) (a, c) and h/(t) (b,d) in the standard tubes (a, b) and the
microtubes (c, d); solid lines correspond to the control, dashed and dotted lines – to two different
potential allergens (medicines).
diagnostic index instead of ESR, the test in the microtubes gives the results earlier, in
30–40 min of the sedimentation process. Thus, the diagnostic information here can be
obtained faster, more accurate, and by using a smaller portion of the blood when the
microtubes are used.
The results of 20 simultaneous ESR tests with the blood of the same patient
conducted in the microtubes are presented in Fig. 2. The variety of the dynamics can be
explained by the instability of sedimentation of a suspension of aggregating particles
Fig. 2. Measured h/(t) curves and tmax location for 20 native blood samples of the same patient.
[24]. Anyway, for all the curves tmax values are located in quite narrow limits providing
a high exactness in diagnosis of the drug allergy from the ESR tests in the microtubes.
3 Mathematical Problem Formulation
The mixture model of the blood as a three-phase continuous media composed of the
free BP (phase 1), RBC aggregates (phase 2) and BP captured inside the aggregates
(phase 3) includes the mass and momentum balance equations, and aggregate kinetics
equations [27, 28]
@qa
@t
þ divðqa~
va Þ ¼ ha ;
! a
adv
q dt ¼ divðP ^ Þ þ qa~
a
f þ~
a
R ;
a
ð11Þ
@N ! 2
þ divðN v Þ ¼ C;
@t
where a ¼ 1; 2; 3 is the phase number, qa are the densities of the phases, ha and ~
a
R are
the mass and momentum exchange due to the aggregation and BP capture, P are the^ a
stress tensors, ~
a
f are the external forces, C is the RBC aggregation rate. In this model
h2 ¼ 0 and h3 is the rate of BP capture during the aggregation.
According to the mixture theory
q1 ¼ ð1 HÞqf ; q2 ¼ Cqs ; q3 ¼ ðH CÞqf ; ð12Þ
where qs ; qf are physical densities of RBC and BP.

Since the tube is thin (d \\ L), the radial and azimuthal motion can be neglected
in comparison with vertical sedimentation and (11) can be written in 1d form.
Then substitution of (12) into the first Eq. (11) gives:
@ ð1 HÞ @ ð1 HÞv1
þ ¼ h;
@t @x
@C @Cv2
þ ¼ 0; ð13Þ
@t @x
@ ðH CÞ @ ðH CÞv3
þ ¼ h;
@t @x
where v2 are vertical components of velocity vectors, h ¼ h3 =qf .

Summation of (13) gives the incompressibility condition for the mixture
@
ð1 HÞv1 þ Cv2 þ ðH CÞv3 ¼ 0: ð14Þ
@x
From the impermeability condition at the bottom of the tube
ð1 HÞv1 þ Cv2 þ ðH CÞv3 ¼ 0 ð15Þ
and now from (14) one can obtain that (15) is valid at any cross section of the tube.
According to the thermodynamic model of 3-phase thixotropic fluid [27, 28]

P1lk ¼ p þ p1H ð1 HÞ l1 e1ii dlk 2l2 e1lk ;

P2lk ¼ p p1s p2s p3s p3H C l3 e2ii xii dlk 2l4 ðelk xlk Þ;

P2lk þ rlk ¼ p p1s p2s p3s p3H C l5 xii dlk 2l6 xlk ;

P3lk ¼ p p2H p3H ðH CÞ l7 e3ii dlk 2l8 e3lk ; ð16Þ
@H @C
R1l ¼ F v2l v1l p þ p1s ;
@xl @xl
@ ðH CÞ 3 @C
R3l ¼ D v2l v3l þ p p2H þ ps þ p3H ;
@xl @xl
where lj ; F; D are thermodynamic coefficients.

Substituting (16) into (14) and neglecting inertia, viscous stresses and assuming
pas ¼ paH ¼ 0 ða ¼ 1; 3Þ, ell ¼ 0 one can obtain the following momentum equations
@p
ð1 HÞ þ ð1 HÞqf G þ F v2 v1 ¼ 0;
@x
@p @p2s C @ ðH CÞ
C þ þ p2H F v2 v1 D v2 v3 þ Cqs G ¼ 0; ð17Þ
@x @x
@x
@ p p2H
ðH C Þ þ D v2 v3 þ ðH CÞqf G;
@x
where G(x) is external non-uniform force; in the gravity field G(x) = g.
From (15), (17) we have
Hð1 HÞ ðH CÞ2
v1 ¼ n1 þ n2 ;
F D
ð1 HÞ2 ðH CÞ2 ð18Þ
v2 ¼ n1 þ n2 ;
F D
ð1 HÞ2 ðH CÞð1 H þ CÞ
v3 ¼ n1 þ n2 ;
F D
@ @ p2
where n1 ¼ Cðqs qf ÞG þ @x p2s C þ p2H ðH CÞ ; n2 ¼ n1 @ xH :
Now let us introduce an average volume of aggregates w ¼ C=N instead of N.

Then from (18) one can derive the hyperbolic quasi-linear system of partial differential
equations
@w @w Cw2
þ v2 ¼ ;
@t @x C
@H @H @C @w
þ c11 þ c12 þ c13 ¼ h; ð19Þ
@t @x @x @x
@C @H @C @w
þ c21 þ c22 þ c23 ¼ 0;
@t @x @x @x
where
@v1 @v1 @v1

c11 ¼ v1 ð1 HÞ ; c12 ¼ ð1 HÞ ; c13 ¼ ð1 HÞ ;
@H @C @v
@v2
@v 2
@v 2
c21 ¼ C ; c22 ¼ v2 þ C ; c23 ¼ C ;
" @H @C # @w " #
2
Hð1 HÞ ðH CÞ ð1 HÞ2 ðH CÞ2
v ¼
1
þ Cðqs qf ÞG; v ¼ 2
þ Cðqs qf ÞG:
F D F D
The system (19) must be solved at the following initial and boundary conditions
Hð0; xÞ ¼ H0 ; Cð0; xÞ ¼ C0 ; wð0; xÞ ¼ w0 ;

ð20Þ
v1 ðt; LÞ ¼ 0; v2 ðt; LÞ ¼ 0;
where H0 ; C0 ; w0 are initial values that are supposed to be constant in the sample.
Solution of (19) and (20) can be found by the method of characteristics. The system
(19) has three families of characteristics

dx
¼ v2 ;
dt 1
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ð21Þ

dx c11 þ c22 ðc11 c22 Þ2 þ 4c12 c21
¼
dt 2;3 2
with corresponding conditions
dw Cv2
¼ ;
"dt

C #
ð22Þ
dx dH dC
c22 h þ c12 ¼0:
dt 2;3 dt dt
Let us introduce the following velocities of the solid and fluid phases
vs ¼ ð1 HÞ2 Cðqs qf ÞG=F;

ð23Þ
vf ¼ ðH CÞ2 Cðqs qf ÞG=D;
then v1 ¼ Hvs =ð1 HÞ þ vf ; v2 ¼ vs þ vf and the expressions for the coefficients

in (19) will be
@vs @vf @vs @vf
c11 ¼ vs þ vf þ H ð1 HÞ ; c22 ¼ vs þ vf þ C þC ;
@H @H @C @C ð24Þ
@vs @vf @vs @vf
c12 ¼H ð1 HÞ ; c21 ¼ C þC :
@C @C @H @H
Substitution of (23) into (21) and (22) gives

dx
¼ vs þ vf ;
dt
1
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ð25Þ
dx 1
¼ vs þ vf þ A 1 1 B=A2 ;
dt 2;3 2
dw Cv2
¼ ;
dt C
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
1 dH dC
A1 ð1 þ 1 B=A Þ A2 ð1 1 B=A2 Þ
2
h þ c12 ¼ 0;
2 dt dt
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
1 dH dC
A1 1 1 B=A2 A2 1 þ 1 B=A2 h þ c12 ¼ 0;
2 dt dt
ð26Þ
where
@vs @vf @vs @vf
A1 ¼ H ð1 HÞ ; A2 ¼ C þC ; A ¼ A1 þ A2 ;
@H
@H @C @C
@vs @vf @vs @vf
B ¼ 4C :
@H @C @C @H
Based on the dimension analysis, one may have
2=3
F ¼ lw2=3 /1 ðH; C; vi Þ; D ¼ lv0 /2 ðH; C; ni Þ; ð27Þ
where /1 ; /2 are dimensionless functions that can be derived from experiments in the
form
/1 ¼ aHð1 HÞg1 ; /2 ¼ bCð1 C=HÞg2
where a; b; g1 ; g2 are positive constants.

Finally, we have from (27)
2=3
F ¼ alHð1 HÞg1 ðH=CÞ2=3 w2=3 ; D ¼ blCð1 C=HÞg2 w0 : ð28Þ
Substitution of (28) into (18) gives the expressions for velocities

2 þ g1 2=3
1=3
ð1HÞ2 ð1C=HÞg2 w0 ðqs qf ÞG
vs ¼ ð1HÞ ðC=HÞal w ðqs qf ÞG
2=3
; vf ¼ bl :
Now one can obtain
@vs 1 þ ð3g1 þ 5ÞH @us 1
¼ vs ; ¼ vs
@H 3Hð1 HÞ @C 3C
ð29Þ
@vf 2 þ g2 C=H @uf 2 þ g2
¼ vf ; ¼ vf
@H HC @C HC
Accounting for (29), the coefficients A1 ; A2 ; A; B; c12 in (26) will have the form
1 þ ð3g1 þ 5ÞH ð2 þ g2 C=HÞð1 HÞ

A1 ¼ vs vf
3ð1 HÞ HC
1 ð2 þ g2 ÞC
A 2 ¼ us uf
3 HC
ðg þ 2ÞH 2ð1 H þ CÞ þ g2 C=H
A¼ 1 vs vf ð30Þ
1H HC
4C 1 þ ð3g1 þ 5ÞH ð2 þ g2 C=HÞ
B¼ ð2 þ g2 Þ v s vf
HC 3Hð1 HÞ 3C
H ð1 HÞð2 þ g2 Þ
c12 ¼ vs þ vf :
3C HC
Now numerical computations on (25) and (26) can be carried out. At the beginning
of the RBC sedimentation vf \\vs because (H − C)/(1 − H) << 1. Then one can
neglect the terms * vf =vs and rewrite (25) and (26) in a simple form

dx dx ðg2 þ 2ÞH dx
¼ vs ; ¼ 1 vs ; ¼ vs ; ð31Þ
dt 1 dt 2 1H dt 3

dw Cv2 1 þ ð3g1 þ 5ÞH dH H dC dH H dC
¼ ; h þ ¼ 0; ¼ h: ð32Þ
dt C 3ð1 HÞ dt 3C dt dt C dt
At the end of the test the RBC are no longer in a free fall and us \\uf [32]. In this
case one can neglect in (26) the terms * us =uf and assume H*1, and have (26) and
(27) as the following

dx dx 2ð1 H þ CÞ þ g2 C=H dx
¼ vf ; ¼ vf ; ¼ vf ; ð33Þ
dt 1 dt 2 HC dt 3

dw Cv2 dH 2 þ g2 dC
¼ ; h þ ¼ 0;
dt C dt 2 þ g2 C=H dt
ð34Þ
dH dC
C h þ ð1 HÞ ¼ 0:
dt dt
As one can see from (26), the first characteristics is always positive (ðdx=dtÞ1 [ 0),

third one is negative (ðdx=dtÞ3 \0), while the second one dx dt 3 [ 0 when H 2

0; ðg1 þ 3Þ3 and dx 3
dt 3 \0 when H 2 ðg1 þ 3Þ ; 1 .
Numerical computations on (26) and (27) have been carried out using the model
parameters for the blood samples examined in the experiments (see Chap. 2)
H0 ¼ 30 50%; lf ¼ ð1:1 1:7Þ 103 Pa s; G ¼ g;

qf ¼ 1030 1080 kg=m3 ; qs ¼ 1050 1150 kg=m3 :
4 Results and Discussions
When the BP capture inside the aggregates can be neglected, from (26) and (27) one
can obtain two characteristics; the positive one started from the top of the tube x = 0
and the negative one started from the bottom x = L (Fig. 3). For simplicity, the vertical
axes is located down along the gravity field (Fig. 3a) and the regions 1, 2, 3 (Fig. 3b)
correspond to the zones of clear BP, settling aggregates and compact RBC network
[32]. The two characteristics meet at t = tmax when the ESR reach its maximal value
(Fig. 3). At t > tmax the compact RBC network influence the settling aggregates that
reducing the ESR.
Based on (25)–(27), the following expression for the time tmax has been obtained
2 !0:6 3
1 4 5kH0 fðH0 Þ
tmax ¼ þ1 15; ð35Þ
kH0 3½1 cðH0 Þ ð1 H0 Þ2
where cðHÞ ¼ 1 þ ðH=vÞ=ð@v=@HÞ.

When the BP capture inside the aggregates is essential, three families of charac-
teristics produce four regions by their cross sections (Fig. 4a, b). Depending whether
the third characteristics is positive or negative, two different distributions can be seen.
The first zone again corresponds to the clear BP region, while zone 2 is field with single
RBC and small aggregates distributed in BP. Zone 3 corresponds to the aggregating
RBCs and settling aggregates, while zone 4 is the compact zone composed by the
resting aggregates with a small amount of BP. Depending on the model parameters the
height h2 of the zone 2 may be small (h2 << h3, Fig. 4a) or big (h2 >> h3, Fig. 4b) at
the same values h1, h4. In the experiments both cases have been observed. The zone 2
has been present and semi-transparent pink or red colored region. Most likely, the zone
Fig. 3. Schematic representation of the sedimentation dynamics at different times (a) according
to two families of characteristics (I, II) (b).
Fig. 4. Schematic representation of the sedimentation dynamics according to three character-

istics (I, II, III) with positive (a) and negative (b) 2-nd characteristic.
2 correspond to the BP released at high vertical velocities from the aggregates due to
instability and rapid compression of the RBC network in the zone 3 [32].
The software allowed numerical computations of the concentrations and velocities
in each zone based on the method of characteristics has been developed. The mesh
composed by three families of characteristics is depicted in Fig. 5. The convergence
has been reached very fast starting with the division of the length X 2 ½0; 1 into 20
segments. The location of the cross section point (tmax ) is strongly determined by the
model parameters.
Some numerical results are presented in Figs. 6 and 7a–c. Three types of sedi-
mentation dynamics have been observed. At some combinations of the model
parameters the ESR almost linear increases during the first 20–35 min of sedimentation
and then sedimentation almost stopped (Figs. 6a and 7a). In other cases the ESR curves
are S-shaped with initial slow ESR replaced by faster sedimentation, which is decel-
erated then till to the constant sedimentation velocity (Figs. 6c and 7c). When initial
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towards the whole free colored population of the United States. I
understand that policy to comprehend: First, the complete
suppression of all anti-slavery discussion; second, the expulsion
of the entire free people of the United States; third, the
nationalization of slavery; fourth, guarantees for the endless
perpetuation of slavery and its extension over Mexico and
Central America. Sir, these objects are forcibly presented to us in
the stern logic of passing events, and in all the facts that have
been before us during the last three years. The country has
been and is dividing on these grand issues. Old party ties are
broken. Like is finding its like on both sides of these issues, and
the great battle is at hand. For the present the best
representative of the slavery party is the Democratic party. Its
great head for the present is President Pierce, whose boast it
was before his election, that his whole life had been consistent
with the interests of slavery—that he is above reproach on that
score. In his inaugural address he reassures the South on this
point, so there shall be no misapprehension. Well, the head of
the slave power being in power it is natural that the pro-slavery
elements should cluster around his administration, and that is
rapidly being done. The stringent protectionist and the free-
trader strike hands. The supporters of Fillmore are becoming the
supporters of Pierce. Silver Gray Whigs shake-hands with
Hunker Democrats, the former only differing from the latter in
name. They are in fact of one heart and one mind, and the union
is natural and perhaps inevitable. Pilate and Herod made
friends. The key-stone to the arch of this grand union of forces of
the slave party is the so-called Compromise of 1850. In that
measure we have all the objects of our slaveholding policy
specified. It is, sir, favorable to this view of the situation, that the
whig party and the democratic party bent lower, sunk deeper,
and strained harder in their conventions, preparatory to the late
presidential election to meet the demands of slavery. Never did
parties come before the northern people with propositions of
such undisguised contempt for the moral sentiment and religious
ideas of that people. They dared to ask them to unite with them
in a war upon free speech, upon conscience, and to drive the
Almighty presence from the councils of the nation. Resting their
platforms upon the fugitive slave bill they have boldly asked this
people for political power to execute its horrible and hell-black
provisions. The history of that election reveals with great
clearness, the extent to which slavery has “shot its leprous
distillment” through the lifeblood of the nation. The party most
thoroughly opposed to the cause of justice and humanity
triumphed, while the party only suspected of a leaning toward
those principles was overwhelmingly defeated, and some say
annihilated. But here is a still more important fact, and still better
discloses the designs of the slave power. It is a fact full of
meaning, that no sooner did the democratic party come into
power than a system of legislation was presented to all the
legislatures of the Northern States designed to put those States
in harmony with the fugitive slave law, and with the malignant
spirit evinced by the national government towards the free
colored inhabitants of the country. The whole movement on the
part of the States bears unmistakable evidence of having one
origin, of emanating from one head, and urged forward by one
power. It was simultaneous, uniform, and general, and looked
only to one end. It was intended to put thorns under feet already
bleeding; to crush a people already bowed down; to enslave a
people already but half free; in a word, it was intended and well
calculated to discourage, dishearten, and if possible to drive the
whole free colored people out of the country. In looking at the
black law then recently enacted in the State of Illinois one is
struck dumb by its enormity. It would seem that the men who
passed that law, had not only successfully banished from their
minds all sense of justice, but all sense of shame as well; these
law codes propose to sell the bodies and souls of the blacks to
provide the means of intelligence and refinement for the whites;
to rob every black stranger who ventures among them to
increase their educational fund.
“While this kind of legislation is going on in the States, a pro-
slavery political board of health is being established at
Washington. Senators Hale, Chase, and Sumner are robbed of
their senatorial rights and dignity as representatives of sovereign
States, because they have refused to be inoculated with the pro-
slavery virus of the times. Among the services which a senator is
expected to perform, are many that can only be done efficiently
as members of important committees, and the slave power in the
Senate, in saying to these honorable senators, you shall not
serve on the committees of this body, took the responsibility of
insulting and robbing the States which has sent them there. It is
an attempt at Washington to decide for the States who the
States shall send to the Senate. Sir, it strikes me that this
aggression on the part of the slave power did not meet at the
hands of the proscribed and insulted senators the rebuke which
we had a right to expect from them. It seems to me that a great
opportunity was lost, that the great principle of senatorial
equality was left undefended at a time when its vindication was
sternly demanded. But it is not to the purpose of my present
statement to criticize the conduct of friends. Much should be left
to the discretion of anti-slavery men in Congress. Charges of
recreancy should never be made but on the most sufficient
grounds. For of all places in the world where an anti-slavery man
needs the confidence and encouragement of his friends, I take
Washington—the citadel of slavery—to be that place.
“Let attention now be called to the social influences
operating and coöperating with the slave power of the time,
designed to promote all its malign objects. We see here the
black man attacked in his most vital interests: prejudice and hate
are systematically excited against him. The wrath of other
laborers is stirred up against him. The Irish, who, at home,
readily sympathize with the oppressed everywhere, are instantly
taught when they step upon our soil to hate and despise the
negro. They are taught to believe that he eats the bread that
belongs to them. The cruel lie is told them, that we deprive them
of labor and receive the money which would otherwise make its
way into their pockets. Sir, the Irish-American will find out his
mistake one day. He will find that in assuming our avocation, he
has also assumed our degradation. But for the present we are
the sufferers. Our old employments by which we have been
accustomed to gain a livelihood are gradually slipping from our
hands: every hour sees us elbowed out of some employment to
make room for some newly arrived emigrant from the Emerald
Isle, whose hunger and color entitle him to special favor. These
white men are becoming house-servants, cooks, stewards,
waiters, and flunkies. For aught I see they adjust themselves to
their stations with all proper humility. If they cannot rise to the
dignity of white men, they show that they can fall to the
degradation of black men. But now, sir, look once more! While
the colored people are thus elbowed out of employment; while a
ceaseless enmity in the Irish is excited against us; while State
after State enacts laws against us; while we are being hunted
down like wild beasts; while we are oppressed with a sense of
increasing insecurity, the American Colonization Society, with
hypocrisy written on its brow, comes to the front, awakens to
new life, and vigorously presses its scheme for our expatriation
upon the attention of the American people. Papers have been
started in the North and the South to promote this long cherished
object—to get rid of the negro, who is presumed to be a standing
menace to slavery. Each of these papers is adapted to the
latitude in which it is published, but each and all are united in
calling upon the government for appropriations to enable the
Colonization Society to send us out of the country by steam.
Evidently this society looks upon our extremity as their
opportunity, and whenever the elements are stirred against us,
they are stimulated to unusual activity. They do not deplore our
misfortunes, but rather rejoice in them, since they prove that the
two races cannot flourish on the same soil. But, sir, I must
hasten. I have thus briefly given my view of one aspect of the
present condition and future prospects of the colored people of
the United States. And what I have said is far from encouraging
to my afflicted people. I have seen the cloud gather upon the
sable brows of some who hear me. I confess the case looks bad
enough. Sir, I am not a hopeful man. I think I am apt to
undercalculate the benefits of the future. Yet, sir, in this
seemingly desperate case, I do not despair for my people. There
is a bright side to almost every picture, and ours is no exception
to the general rule. If the influences against us are strong, those
for us are also strong. To the inquiry, will our enemies prevail in
the execution of their designs—in my God, and in my soul, I
believe they will not. Let us look at the first object sought for by
the slavery party of the country, viz., the suppression of the anti-
slavery discussion. They desire to suppress discussion on this
subject, with a view to the peace of the slaveholder and the
security of slavery. Now, sir, neither the principle nor the
subordinate objects, here declared, can be at all gained by the
slave power, and for this reason: it involves the proposition to
padlock the lips of the whites, in order to secure the fetters on
the limbs of the blacks. The right of speech, precious and
priceless, cannot—will not—be surrendered to slavery. Its
suppression is asked for, as I have said, to give peace and
security to slaveholders. Sir, that thing cannot be done. God has
interposed an insuperable obstacle to any such result. “There
can be no peace, saith my God, to the wicked.” Suppose it were
possible to put down this discussion, what would it avail the
guilty slaveholder, pillowed as he is upon the heaving bosoms of
ruined souls? He could not have a peaceful spirit. If every anti-
slavery tongue in the nation were silent—every anti-slavery
organization dissolved—every anti-slavery periodical, paper,
pamphlet, book, or what not, searched out, burned to ashes, and
their ashes given to the four winds of heaven, still, still the
slaveholder could have no peace. In every pulsation of his heart,
in every throb of his life, in every glance of his eye, in the breeze
that soothes, and in the thunder that startles, would be waked up
an accuser, whose cause is, ‘thou art verily guilty concerning thy
brother.’”
This is no fancy sketch of the times indicated. The situation

during all the administration of President Pierce was only less
threatening and stormy than that under the administration of James
Buchanan. One sowed, the other reaped. One was the wind, the
other was the whirlwind. Intoxicated by their success in repealing the
Missouri compromise—in divesting the native-born colored man of
American citizenship—in harnessing both the Whig and Democratic
parties to the car of slavery, and in holding continued possession of
the national government, the propagandists of slavery threw off all
disguises, abandoned all semblance of moderation, and very
naturally and inevitably proceeded under Mr. Buchanan, to avail
themselves of all the advantages of their victories. Having legislated
out of existence the great national wall, erected in the better days of
the republic, against the spread of slavery, and against the increase
of its power—having blotted out all distinction, as they thought,
between freedom and slavery in the law, theretofore, governing the
Territories of the United States, and having left the whole question of
the legislation or prohibition of slavery to be decided by the people of
a Territory, the next thing in order was to fill up the Territory of
Kansas—the one likely to be first organized—with a people friendly
to slavery, and to keep out all such as were opposed to making that
Territory a free State. Here was an open invitation to a fierce and
bitter strife; and the history of the times shows how promptly that
invitation was accepted by both classes to which it was given, and
the scenes of lawless violence and blood that followed.
All advantages were at first on the side of those who were for
making Kansas a slave State. The moral force of the repeal of the
Missouri compromise was with them; the strength of the triumphant
Democratic party was with them; the power and patronage of the
federal government was with them; the various governors, sent out
under the Territorial government, was with them; and, above all, the
proximity of the Territory to the slave State of Missouri favored them
and all their designs. Those who opposed the making Kansas a
slave State, for the most part were far away from the battleground,
residing chiefly in New England, more than a thousand miles from
the eastern border of the Territory, and their direct way of entering it
was through a country violently hostile to them. With such odds
against them, and only an idea—though a grand one—to support
them, it will ever be a wonder that they succeeded in making Kansas
a free State. It is not my purpose to write particularly of this or of any
other phase of the conflict with slavery, but simply to indicate the
nature of the struggle, and the successive steps, leading to the final
result. The important point to me, as one desiring to see the slave
power crippled, slavery limited and abolished, was the effect of this
Kansas battle upon the moral sentiment of the North: how it made
abolitionists before they themselves became aware of it, and how it
rekindled the zeal, stimulated the activity, and strengthened the faith
of our old anti-slavery forces. “Draw on me for $1,000 per month
while the conflict lasts,” said the great-hearted Gerrit Smith. George
L. Stearns poured out his thousands, and anti-slavery men of smaller
means were proportionally liberal. H. W. Beecher shouted the right
word at the head of a mighty column; Sumner in the Senate spoke
as no man had ever spoken there before. Lewis Tappan representing
one class of the old opponents of slavery, and William L. Garrison
the other, lost sight of their former differences, and bent all their
energies to the freedom of Kansas. But these and others were
merely generators of anti-slavery force. The men who went to
Kansas with the purpose of making it a free State, were the heroes
and martyrs. One of the leaders in this holy crusade for freedom,
with whom I was brought into near relations, was John Brown,
whose person, house, and purposes I have already described. This
brave old man and his sons were amongst the first to hear and heed
the trumpet of freedom calling them to battle. What they did and
suffered, what they sought and gained, and by what means, are
matters of history, and need not be repeated here.
When it became evident, as it soon did, that the war for and
against slavery in Kansas was not to be decided by the peaceful
means of words and ballots, but that swords and bullets were to be
employed on both sides, Captain John Brown felt that now, after long
years of waiting, his hour had come, and never did man meet the
perilous requirements of any occasion more cheerfully,
courageously, and disinterestedly than he. I met him often during this
struggle, and saw deeper into his soul than when I met him in
Springfield seven or eight years before, and all I saw of him gave me
a more favorable impression of the man, and inspired me with a
higher respect for his character. In his repeated visits to the East to
obtain necessary arms and supplies, he often did me the honor of
spending hours and days with me at Rochester. On more than one
occasion I got up meetings and solicited aid to be used by him for
the cause, and I may say without boasting that my efforts in this
respect were not entirely fruitless. Deeply interested as
“Ossawatamie Brown” was in Kansas he never lost sight of what he
called his greater work—the liberation of all the slaves in the United
States. But for the then present he saw his way to the great end
through Kansas. It would be a grateful task to tell of his exploits in
the border struggle, how he met persecution with persecution, war
with war, strategy with strategy, assassination and house-burning
with signal and terrible retaliation, till even the blood-thirsty
propagandists of slavery were compelled to cry for quarter. The
horrors wrought by his iron hand cannot be contemplated without a
shudder, but it is the shudder which one feels at the execution of a
murderer. The amputation of a limb is a severe trial to feeling, but
necessity is a full justification of it to reason. To call out a murderer at
midnight, and without note or warning, judge or jury, run him through
with a sword, was a terrible remedy for a terrible malady. The
question was not merely which class should prevail in Kansas, but
whether free-state men should live there at all. The border ruffians
from Missouri had openly declared their purpose not only to make
Kansas a slave state, but that they would make it impossible for free-
state men to live there. They burned their towns, burned their farm-
houses, and by assassination spread terror among them until many
of the free-state settlers were compelled to escape for their lives.
John Brown was therefore the logical result of slaveholding
persecutions. Until the lives of tyrants and murderers shall become
more precious in the sight of men than justice and liberty, John
Brown will need no defender. In dealing with the ferocious enemies
of the free-state cause in Kansas he not only showed boundless
courage but eminent military skill. With men so few and odds against
him so great, few captains ever surpassed him in achievements,
some of which seem too disproportionate for belief, and yet no voice
has yet called them in question. With only eight men he met, fought,
whipped, and captured Henry Clay Pate with twenty-five well-armed
and well-mounted men. In this battle he selected his ground so
wisely, handled his men so skillfully, and attacked his enemies so
vigorously, that they could neither run nor fight, and were therefore
compelled to surrender to a force less than one-third their own. With
just thirty men on another memorable occasion he met and
vanquished 400 Missourians under the command of General Read.
These men had come into the territory under an oath never to return
to their homes in Missouri till they had stamped out the last vestige
of the free-state spirit in Kansas. But a brush with old Brown instantly
took this high conceit out of them, and they were glad to get home
upon any terms, without stopping to stipulate. With less than 100
men to defend the town of Lawrence, he offered to lead them and
give battle to 1,400 men on the banks of the Waukerusia river, and
was much vexed when his offer was refused by General Jim Lane
and others, to whom the defense of the place was committed. Before
leaving Kansas he went into the border of Missouri and liberated a
dozen slaves in a single night, and despite of slave laws and
marshals, he brought these people through a half dozen States and
landed them safe in Canada. The successful efforts of the North in
making Kansas a free State, despite all the sophistical doctrines, and
the sanguinary measures of the South to make it a slave State,
exercised a potent influence upon subsequent political forces and
events in the then near future. It is interesting to note the facility with
which the statesmanship of a section of the country adapted its
convictions to changed conditions. When it was found that the
doctrine of popular sovereignty (first I think invented by General
Cass, and afterwards adopted by Stephen A. Douglas) failed to
make Kansas a slave State, and could not be safely trusted in other
emergencies, southern statesmen promptly abandoned and
reprobated that doctrine, and took what they considered firmer
ground. They lost faith in the rights, powers, and wisdom of the
people and took refuge in the Constitution. Henceforth the favorite
doctrine of the South was that the people of a territory had no voice
in the matter of slavery whatever; that the Constitution of the United
States, of its own force and effect, carried slavery safely into any
territory of the United States and protected the system there until it
ceased to be a territory and became a State. The practical operation
of this doctrine would be to make all the future new States
slaveholding States, for slavery once planted and nursed for years in
a territory would easily strengthen itself against the evil day and defy
eradication. This doctrine was in some sense supported by Chief
Justice Taney, in the infamous Dred Scott decision. This new ground,
however, was destined to bring misfortune to its inventors, for it
divided for a time the democratic party, one faction of it going with
John C. Breckenridge and the other espousing the cause of Stephen
A. Douglas; the one held firmly to the doctrine that the United States
Constitution, without any legislation, territorial, national, or otherwise,
by its own force and effect, carried slavery into all the territories of
the United States; the other held that the people of a territory had the
right to admit slavery or reject slavery, as in their judgment they
might deem best. Now, while this war of words—this conflict of
doctrines—was in progress, the portentous shadow of a stupendous
civil war became more and more visible. Bitter complaints were
raised by the slaveholders that they were about to be despoiled of
their proper share in territory won by a common valor, or bought by a
common treasure. The North, on the other hand, or rather a large
and growing party at the North, insisted that the complaint was
unreasonable and groundless; that nothing properly considered as
property was excluded or meant to be excluded from the territories;
that southern men could settle in any territory of the United States
with some kinds of property, and on the same footing and with the
same protection as citizens of the North; that men and women are
not property in the same sense as houses, lands, horses, sheep,
and swine are property, and that the fathers of the Republic neither
intended the extension nor the perpetuity of slavery; that liberty is
national, and slavery is sectional. From 1856 to 1860 the whole land
rocked with this great controversy. When the explosive force of this
controversy had already weakened the bolts of the American Union;
when the agitation of the public mind was at its topmost height; when
the two sections were at their extreme points of difference; when
comprehending the perilous situation, such statesmen of the North
as William H. Seward sought to allay the rising storm by soft,
persuasive speech, and when all hope of compromise had nearly
vanished, as if to banish even the last glimmer of hope for peace
between the sections, John Brown came upon the scene. On the
night of the 16th of October, 1859, there appeared near the
confluence of the Potomac and Shenandoah rivers, a party of 19
men—14 white and 5 colored. They were not only armed
themselves, but they brought with them a large supply of arms for
such persons as might join them. These men invaded the town of
Harper’s Ferry, disarmed the watchman, took possession of the
arsenal, rifle factory, armory, and other government property at that
place, arrested and made prisoners of nearly all the prominent
citizens in the neighborhood, collected about 50 slaves, put bayonets
into the hands of such as were able and willing to fight for their
liberty, killed 3 men, proclaimed general emancipation, held the
ground more than thirty hours, were subsequently overpowered and
nearly all killed, wounded, or captured by a body of United States
troops under command of Col. Robert E. Lee, since famous as the
rebel General Lee. Three out of the nineteen invaders were captured
while fighting, and one of them was Capt. John Brown—the man
who originated, planned, and commanded the expedition. At the time
of his capture Capt. Brown was supposed to be mortally wounded,
as he had several ugly gashes and bayonet wounds on his head and
body, and apprehending that he might speedily die, or that he might
be rescued by his friends, and thus the opportunity to make him a
signal example of slaveholding vengeance, would be lost, his
captors hurried him to Charlestown, 10 miles further within the
border of Virginia, placed him in prison strongly guarded by troops,
and before his wounds were healed he was brought into court,
subjected to a nominal trial, convicted of high-treason and inciting
slaves to insurrection, and was executed.
His corpse was given up to his woe-stricken widow, and she,
assisted by anti-slavery friends, caused it to be borne to North Elba,
Essex county, N. Y., and there his dust now reposes amid the silent,
solemn, and snowy grandeurs of the Adirondacks. This raid upon
Harper’s Ferry was as the last straw to the camel’s back. What in the
tone of southern sentiment had been fierce before became furious
and uncontrollable now. A scream for vengeance came up from all
sections of the slave States and from great multitudes in the North.
All who were supposed to have been any way connected with John
Brown were to be hunted down and surrendered to the tender
mercies of slaveholding and panic-stricken Virginia, and there to be
tried after the fashion of John Brown’s trial, and of course to be
summarily executed.
On the evening when the news came that John Brown had taken
and was then holding the town of Harper’s Ferry, it so happened that
I was speaking to a large audience in National Hall, Philadelphia.
The announcement came upon us with the startling effect of an
earthquake. It was something to make the boldest hold his breath. I
saw at once that my old friend had attempted what he had long ago
resolved to do, and I felt certain that the result must be his capture
and destruction. As I expected, the next day brought the news that
with two or three men he had fortified and was holding a small
engine house, but that he was surrounded by a body of Virginia
militia, who thus far had not ventured to capture the insurgents, but
that escape was impossible. A few hours later and word came that
Colonel Robert E. Lee with a company of United States troops had
made a breach in Capt. Brown’s fort, and had captured him alive
though mortally wounded. His carpet bag had been secured by
Governor Wise, and that it was found to contain numerous letters
and documents which directly implicated Gerritt Smith, Joshua R.
Giddings, Samuel G. Howe, Frank P. Sanborn, and myself. This
intelligence was soon followed by a telegram saying that we were all
to be arrested. Knowing that I was then in Philadelphia, stopping with
my friend, Thomas J. Dorsey, Mr. John Hern, the telegraph operator,
came to me and with others urged me to leave the city by the first
train, as it was known through the newspapers that I was then in
Philadelphia, and officers might even then be on my track. To me
there was nothing improbable in all this. My friends for the most part
were appalled at the thought of my being arrested then or there, or
while on my way across the ferry from Walnut street wharf to
Camden, for there was where I felt sure the arrest would be made,
and asked some of them to go so far as this with me merely to see
what might occur, but upon one ground or another they all thought it
best not to be found in my company at such a time, except dear old
Franklin Turner—a true man. The truth is, that in the excitement
which prevailed my friends had reason to fear that the very fact that
they were with me would be a sufficient reason for their arrest with
me. The delay in the departure of the steamer seemed unusually
long to me, for I confess I was seized with a desire to reach a more
northern latitude. My friend Frank did not leave my side till “all
ashore” was ordered and the paddles began to move. I reached New
York at night, still under the apprehension of arrest at any moment,
but no signs of such event being made, I went at once to the Barclay
street ferry, took the boat across the river and went direct to
Washington street, Hoboken, the home of Mrs. Marks, where I spent
the night, and I may add without undue profession of timidity, an
anxious night. The morning papers brought no relief, for they
announced that the government would spare no pains in ferretting
out and bringing to punishment all who were connected with the
Harper’s Ferry outrage, and that papers as well as persons would be
searched for. I was now somewhat uneasy from the fact that sundry
letters and a constitution written by John Brown were locked up in
my desk in Rochester. In order to prevent these papers from falling
into the hands of the government of Virginia, I got my friend Miss
Ottilia Assing to write at my dictation the following telegram to B. F.
Blackall, the telegraph operator in Rochester, a friend and frequent
visitor at my house, who would readily understand the meaning of
the dispatch:
“B. F. Blackall, Esq.,

“Tell Lewis (my oldest son) to secure all the important papers
in my high desk.”
I did not sign my name, and the result showed that I had rightly
judged that Mr. Blackall would understand and promptly attend to the
request. The mark of the chisel with which the desk was opened is
still on the drawer, and is one of the traces of the John Brown raid.
Having taken measures to secure my papers the trouble was to
know just what to do with myself. To stay in Hoboken was out of the
question, and to go to Rochester was to all appearance to go into the
hands of the hunters, for they would naturally seek me at my home if
they sought me at all. I, however, resolved to go home and risk my
safety there. I felt sure that once in the city I could not be easily
taken from there without a preliminary hearing upon the requisition,
and not then if the people could be made aware of what was in
progress. But how to get to Rochester became a serious question. It
would not do to go to New York city and take the train, for that city
was not less incensed against the John Brown conspirators than
many parts of the South. The course hit upon by my friends, Mr.
Johnston and Miss Assing, was to take me at night in a private
conveyance from Hoboken to Paterson, where I could take the Erie
railroad for home. This plan was carried out and I reached home in
safety, but had been there but a few moments when I was called
upon by Samuel D. Porter, Esq., and my neighbor, Lieutenant-
Governor Selden, who informed me that the governor of the State
would certainly surrender me on a proper requisition from the
governor of Virginia, and that while the people of Rochester would
not permit me to be taken South, yet in order to avoid collision with
the government and consequent bloodshed, they advised me to quit
the country, which I did—going to Canada. Governor Wise in the
meantime, being advised that I had left Rochester for the State of
Michigan, made requisition on the governor of that State for my
surrender to Virginia.
The following letter from Governor Wise to President James
Buchanan (which since the war was sent me by B. J. Lossing, the
historian,) will show by what means the governor of Virginia meant to
get me in his power, and that my apprehensions of arrest were not
altogether groundless:
[Confidential.]
Richmond, Va., Nov. 13, 1859.
To His Excellency, James Buchanan, President of the United States, and to the
Honorable Postmaster-General of the United States:
Gentlemen—I have information such as has caused me,

upon proper affidavits, to make requisition upon the Executive of
Michigan for the delivery up of the person of Frederick Douglass,
a negro man, supposed now to be in Michigan, charged with
murder, robbery, and inciting servile insurrection in the State of
Virginia. My agents for the arrest and reclamation of the person
so charged are Benjamin M. Morris and William N. Kelly. The
latter has the requisition, and will wait on you to the end of
obtaining nominal authority as post-office agents. They need be
very secretive in this matter, and some pretext for traveling
through the dangerous section for the execution of the laws in
this behalf, and some protection against obtrusive, unruly, or
lawless violence. If it be proper so to do, will the postmaster-
general be pleased to give to Mr. Kelly, for each of these men, a
permit and authority to act as detectives for the post-office
department, without pay, but to pass and repass without
question, delay or hindrance?
Respectfully submitted by your obedient servant,
Henry A. Wise.
There is no reason to doubt that James Buchanan afforded

Governor Wise all the aid and coöperation for which he was asked. I
have been informed that several United States marshals were in
Rochester in search of me within six hours after my departure. I do
not know that I can do better at this stage of my story than to insert
the following letter, written by me to the Rochester Democrat and
American:
Canada West, Oct 31st, 1859.

Mr. Editor:
I notice that the telegraph makes Mr. Cook (one of the
unfortunate insurgents at Harper’s Ferry, and now a prisoner in
the hands of the thing calling itself the Government of Virginia,
but which in fact is but an organized conspiracy by one part of
the people against another and weaker) denounce me as a
coward, and assert that I promised to be present in person at the
Harper’s Ferry insurrection. This is certainly a very grave
impeachment whether viewed in its bearings upon friends or
upon foes, and you will not think it strange that I should take a
somewhat serious notice of it. Having no acquaintance whatever
with Mr. Cook, and never having exchanged a word with him
about Harper’s Ferry insurrection, I am disposed to doubt if he
could have used the language concerning me, which the wires
attribute to him. The lightning when speaking for itself, is among
the most direct, reliable, and truthful of things; but when
speaking of the terror-stricken slaveholders at Harper’s Ferry, it
has been made the swiftest of liars. Under its nimble and
trembling fingers it magnifies 17 men into 700 and has since
filled the columns of the New York Herald for days with its
interminable contradictions. But assuming that it has told only
the simple truth as to the sayings of Mr. Cook in this instance, I
have this answer to make to my accuser: Mr. Cook may be
perfectly right in denouncing me as a coward; I have not one
word to say in defense or vindication of my character for
courage; I have always been more distinguished for running than
fighting, and tried by the Harper’s-Ferry-insurrection-test, I am
most miserably deficient in courage, even more so than Cook
when he deserted his brave old captain and fled to the
mountains. To this extent Mr. Cook is entirely right, and will meet
no contradiction from me, or from anybody else. But wholly,
grievously and most unaccountably wrong is Mr. Cook when he
asserts that I promised to be present in person at the Harper’s
Ferry insurrection. Of whatever other imprudence and
indiscretion I may have been guilty, I have never made a
promise so rash and wild as this. The taking of Harper’s Ferry
was a measure never encouraged by my word or by my vote. At
any time or place, my wisdom or my cowardice, has not only
kept me from Harper’s Ferry, but has equally kept me from
making any promise to go there. I desire to be quite emphatic
here, for of all guilty men, he is the guiltiest who lures his
fellowmen to an undertaking of this sort, under promise of
assistance which he afterwards fails to render. I therefore
declare that there is no man living, and no man dead, who if
living, could truthfully say that I ever promised him, or anybody
else, either conditionally, or otherwise, that I would be present in
person at the Harper’s Ferry insurrection. My field of labor for the
abolition of slavery has not extended to an attack upon the
United States arsenal. In the teeth of the documents already
published and of those which may hereafter be published, I
affirm that no man connected with that insurrection, from its
noble and heroic leader down, can connect my name with a
single broken promise of any sort whatever. So much I deem it
proper to say negatively. The time for a full statement of what I
know and of all I know of this desperate but sublimely
disinterested effort to emancipate the slaves of Maryland and
Virginia from their cruel taskmasters, has not yet come, and may
never come. In the denial which I have now made, my motive is
more a respectful consideration for the opinions of the slave’s
friends than from my fear of being made an accomplice in the
general conspiracy against slavery, when there is a reasonable
hope for success. Men who live by robbing their fellowmen of
their labor and liberty have forfeited their right to know anything
of the thoughts, feelings, or purposes of those whom they rob
and plunder. They have by the single act of slaveholding,
voluntarily placed themselves beyond the laws of justice and
honor, and have become only fitted for companionship with
thieves and pirates—the common enemies of God and of all
mankind. While it shall be considered right to protect oneself
against thieves, burglars, robbery, and assassins, and to slay a
wild beast in the act of devouring his human prey, it can never
be wrong for the imbruted and whip-scarred slaves, or their
friends, to hunt, harass, and even strike down the traffickers in
human flesh. If any body is disposed to think less of me on
account of this sentiment, or because I may have had a
knowledge of what was about to occur, and did not assume the
base and detestable character of an informer, he is a man
whose good or bad opinion of me may be equally repugnant and
despicable.
Entertaining these sentiments, I may be asked why I did not
join John Brown—the noble old hero whose one right hand has
shaken the foundation of the American Union, and whose ghost
will haunt the bed-chambers of all the born and unborn
slaveholders of Virginia through all their generations, filling them
with alarm and consternation. My answer to this has already
been given; at least impliedly given—“The tools to those who
can use them!” Let every man work for the abolition of slavery in
his own way. I would help all and hinder none. My position in
regard to the Harper’s Ferry insurrection may be easily inferred
from these remarks, and I shall be glad if those papers which
have spoken of me in connection with it, would find room for this
brief statement. I have no apology for keeping out of the way of
those gentlemanly United States marshals, who are said to have
paid Rochester a somewhat protracted visit lately, with a view to
an interview with me. A government recognizing the validity of
the Dred Scott decision at such a time as this, is not likely to
have any very charitable feelings towards me, and if I am to
meet its representatives I prefer to do so at least upon equal
terms. If I have committed any offense against society I have
done so on the soil of the State of New York, and I should be
perfectly willing to be arraigned there before an impartial jury;
but I have quite insuperable objections to being caught by the
hounds of Mr. Buchanan, and “bagged” by Gov. Wise. For this
appears to be the arangement. Buchanan does the fighting and
hunting, and Wise “bags” the game. Some reflections may be
made upon my leaving on a tour to England just at this time. I
have only to say that my going to that country has been rather
delayed than hastened by the insurrection at Harper’s Ferry. All
know that I had intended to leave here in the first week of
November.
Frederick Douglass.”
CHAPTER X.
THE BEGINNING OF THE END.
My connection with John Brown—To and from England—Presidential contest

—Election of Abraham Lincoln.
WHAT was my connection with John Brown, and what I knew of his
scheme for the capture of Harper’s Ferry, I may now proceed to
state. From the time of my visit to him in Springfield, Mass., in 1847,
our relations were friendly and confidential. I never passed through
Springfield without calling on him, and he never came to Rochester
without calling on me. He often stopped over night with me, when we
talked over the feasibility of his plan for destroying the value of slave
property, and the motive for holding slaves in the border States. That
plan, as already intimated elsewhere, was to take twenty or twenty-
five discreet and trustworthy men into the mountains of Virginia and
Maryland, and station them in squads of five, about five miles apart,
on a line of twenty-five miles; each squad to co-operate with all, and
all with each. They were to have selected for them, secure and
comfortable retreats in the fastnesses of the mountains, where they
could easily defend themselves in case of attack. They were to
subsist upon the country roundabout. They were to be well armed,
but were to avoid battle or violence, unless compelled by pursuit or
in self-defense. In that case, they were to make it as costly as
possible to the assailing party, whether that party should be soldiers
or citizens. He further proposed to have a number of stations from
the line of Pennsylvania to the Canada border, where such slaves as
he might, through his men, induce to run away, should be supplied
with food and shelter and be forwarded from one station to another
till they should reach a place of safety either in Canada or the
Northern States. He proposed to add to his force in the mountains
any courageous and intelligent fugitives who might be willing to
remain and endure the hardships and brave the dangers of this
mountain life. These, he thought, if properly selected, on account of
their knowledge of the surrounding country, could be made valuable
auxiliaries. The work of going into the valley of Virginia and
persuading the slaves to flee to the mountains, was to be committed
to the most courageous and judicious man connected with each
squad.
Hating slavery as I did, and making its abolition the object of my
life, I was ready to welcome any new mode of attack upon the slave
system which gave any promise of success. I readily saw that this
plan could be made very effective in rendering slave property in
Maryland and Virginia valueless by rendering it insecure. Men do not
like to buy runaway horses, nor to invest their money in a species of
property likely to take legs and walk off with itself. In the worse case,
too, if the plan should fail, and John Brown should be driven from the
mountains, a new fact would be developed by which the nation
would be kept awake to the existence of slavery. Hence, I assented
to this, John Brown’s scheme or plan for running off slaves.
To set this plan in operation, money and men, arms and
ammunition, food and clothing, were needed; and these, from the
nature of the enterprise, were not easily obtained, and nothing was
immediately done. Captain Brown, too, notwithstanding his rigid
economy, was poor, and was unable to arm and equip men for the
dangerous life he had mapped out. So the work lingered till after the
Kansas trouble was over, and freedom was a fact accomplished in
that Territory. This left him with arms and men, for the men who had
been with him in Kansas, believed in him, and would follow him in
any humane but dangerous enterprise he might undertake.
After the close of his Kansas work, Captain Brown came to my
house in Rochester, and said he desired to stop with me several
weeks; “but,” he added, “I will not stay unless you will allow me to
pay board.” Knowing that he was no trifler and meant all he said, and
desirous of retaining him under my roof, I charged three dollars a
week. While here, he spent most of his time in correspondence. He
wrote often to George L. Stearns of Boston, Gerrit Smith of

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Tomasz Klekiel Szczepan Piszczatowski

Romuald Będziński Szczepan Piszczatowski

ISSN 2194-5357 ISSN 2194-5365 (electronic)

Library of Congress Control Number: 2018949384

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Szczepan Piszczatowski Białystok University of Technology, Poland

Ricardo Alves de Sousa, Portugal Jarosław Filipiak, Poland

Andrzej Maciejczak, Poland Halina Podbielska, Poland

BIOMECHANICS 2018 Organizing Committee

Katarzyna Arkusz University of Zielona Góra, Poland

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Keywords: Biomechanics Erythrocyte sedimentation rate

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(adhesiveness) properties of RBC can be used for early diagnostics of pathological

1.1 Electric and Mechanical Properties of RBC

1.2 RBC Aggregation in Health and Pathology

the repulsive forces is the elastic repulsion f ij determined by physical occupation of

where A is the area of the contact surface of the particles.

where l is the fluid viscosity, ~ vi and ~

1.3 Continuous Modeling of RBC Aggregation and Sedimentation

where CH is the BP capture inside the aggregates, ~

2 Materials and Methods

3 Mathematical Problem Formulation

q1 ¼ ð1 HÞqf ; q2 ¼ Cqs ; q3 ¼ ðH CÞqf ; ð12Þ

where qs ; qf are physical densities of RBC and BP.

where v2 are vertical components of velocity vectors, h ¼ h3 =qf .

From the impermeability condition at the bottom of the tube

ð1 HÞv1 þ Cv2 þ ðH CÞv3 ¼ 0 ð15Þ

where lj ; F; D are thermodynamic coefﬁcients.

Now let us introduce an average volume of aggregates w ¼ C=N instead of N.

@v1 @v1 @v1

Hð0; xÞ ¼ H0 ; Cð0; xÞ ¼ C0 ; wð0; xÞ ¼ w0 ;

with corresponding conditions

vs ¼ ð1 HÞ2 Cðqs qf ÞG=F;

then v1 ¼ Hvs =ð1 HÞ þ vf ; v2 ¼ vs þ vf and the expressions for the coefﬁcients

Substitution of (23) into (21) and (22) gives

Based on the dimension analysis, one may have

/1 ¼ aHð1 HÞg1 ; /2 ¼ bCð1 C=HÞg2

where a; b; g1 ; g2 are positive constants.

Finally, we have from (27)

Substitution of (28) into (18) gives the expressions for velocities

1 þ ð3g1 þ 5ÞH ð2 þ g2 C=HÞð1 HÞ

H0 ¼ 30 50%; lf ¼ ð1:1 1:7Þ 103 Pa s; G ¼ g;