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MECHATRONICS
MECHATRONICS
ELECTRONIC CONTROL SYSTEMS IN MECHANICAL
ELECTRONIC CONTROL
AND ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS IN MECHANICAL
ENGINEERING
AND ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
WILLIAM BOLTON
WILLIAM BOLTON
SEVENTH EDITION
SEVENTH EDITION
M E C H AT RO N I C S
F01 Mechatronics 50977 Contents.indd 1 30/08/2018 07:09

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MECHATRONICS
ELECTRONIC CONTROL SYSTEMS IN
MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL
ENGINEERING
Seventh Edition
William Bolton
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First published 1995 (print)

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Bolton, W. (William), 1933- author.
Title: Mechatronics : electronic control systems in mechanical and electrical
engineering / William Bolton.
Description: Seventh edition. | Harlow, England ; New York : Pearson
Education Limited, 2019. | Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2018029322| ISBN 9781292250977 (print) | ISBN 9781292251004
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Contents
Preface xi 3. Signal conditioning 78
Chapter objectives 78
I. Introduction 1 3.1 Signal conditioning 78
3.2 The operational amplifier 79
1. Introducing mechatronics 3 3.3 Protection 90
3.4 Filtering 91
3.5 Wheatstone bridge 92
Chapter objectives 3 3.6 Pulse modulation 97
1.1 What is mechatronics? 3 3.7 Problems with signals 98
1.2 The design process 5 3.8 Power transfer 100
1.3 Systems 6 Summary 101
1.4 Measurement systems 8 Problems 101
1.5 Control systems 9
1.6 Programmable logic controller 21
1.7 Examples of mechatronic systems 22 4. Digital signals 103
Summary 26
Problems 27
4.1 Digital signals 103
4.2 Analogue and digital signals 103
II. Sensors and signal conditioning 29 4.3 Digital-to-analogue and analogue-to-digital
converters 107
2. Sensors and transducers 31 4.4 Multiplexers 113
4.5 Data acquisition 114
4.6 Digital signal processing 116
Chapter objectives 31 4.7 Digital signal communications 118
2.1 Sensors and transducers 31 Summary 119
2.2 Performance terminology 32 Problems 120
2.3 Displacement, position and proximity 37
2.4 Velocity and motion 54
2.5 Force 57
5. Digital logic 121
2.6 Fluid pressure 57
2.7 Liquid flow 61
2.8 Liquid level 62 Chapter objectives 121
2.9 Temperature 63 5.1 Digital logic 121
2.10 Light sensors 69 5.2 Logic gates 122
2.11 Selection of sensors 70 5.3 Applications of logic gates 130
2.12 Inputting data by switches 71 5.4 Sequential logic 135
Summary 74 Summary 143
Problems 75 Problems 143

vi CONTENTS
6. Data presentation systems 146 9. Electrical actuation systems 222
Chapter objectives 146 Chapter objectives 222

6.1 Displays 146 9.1 Electrical systems 222
6.2 Data presentation elements 147 9.2 Mechanical switches 222
6.3 Magnetic recording 152 9.3 Solid-state switches 224
6.4 Optical recording 157 9.4 Solenoids 231
6.5 Displays 157 9.5 Direct current motors 232
6.6 Data acquisition systems 162 9.6 Alternating current motors 241
6.7 Measurement systems 166 9.7 Stepper motors 243
6.8 Testing and calibration 169 9.8 Direct current servomotors 250
Summary 171 9.9 Motor selection 251
Problems 172 Summary 255
Problems 255
III. Actuation 175 IV. Microprocessor systems 257
7. Pneumatic and hydraulic actuation 10. Microprocessors and microcontrollers 259

systems 177
Chapter objectives 177 10.1 Control 259
7.1 Actuation systems 177 10.2 Microprocessor systems 259
7.2 Pneumatic and hydraulic systems 177 10.3 Microcontrollers 270
7.3 Directional control valves 181 10.4 Applications 296
7.4 Pressure control valves 186 10.5 Programming 297
7.5 Cylinders 188 Summary 300
7.6 Servo and proportional control valves 192 Problems 300
7.7 Process control valves 193
Summary 198
Problems 198 11. Assembly language 301

11.1 Languages 301
8. Mechanical actuation systems 201 11.2 Assembly language programs 302
11.3 Instruction sets 304
11.4 Subroutines 317
11.5 Look-up tables 321
8.1 Mechanical systems 201
11.6 Embedded systems 324
8.2 Types of motion 202
Summary 327
8.3 Kinematic chains 204
Problems 328
8.4 Cams 208
8.5 Gears 210
8.6 Ratchet and pawl 214
12. C language 329
8.7 Belt and chain drives 214
8.8 Bearings 216
8.9 Electromechanical linear actuators 218 Chapter objectives 329
Summary 219 12.1 Why C? 329
Problems 220 12.2 Program structure 329

CONTENTS vii
12.3 Branches and loops 336 15.5 Open Systems Interconnection communication
12.4 Arrays 340 model 415
12.5 Pointers 342 15.6 Serial communication interfaces 418
12.6 Program development 343 15.7 Parallel communication interfaces 427
12.7 Examples of programs 345 15.8 Wireless communications 430
12.8 Arduino programs 348 Summary 431
Summary 352 Problems 432
Problems 352
13. Input/output systems 354 16. Fault finding 433
Chapter objectives 354 Chapter objectives 433

13.1 Interfacing 354 16.1 Fault-detection techniques 433
13.2 Input/output addressing 355 16.2 Watchdog timer 434
13.3 Interface requirements 357 16.3 Parity and error coding checks 435
13.4 Peripheral interface adapters 364 16.4 Common hardware faults 437
13.5 Serial communications interface 369 16.5 Microprocessor systems 438
13.6 Examples of interfacing 372 16.6 Evaluation and simulation 441
Summary 380 16.7 PLC systems 442
Problems 380 Summary 445
Problems 445
14. Programmable logic controllers 382

V. System models 447
14.1 Programmable logic controller 382
14.2 Basic PLC structure 382 17. Basic system models 449
14.3 Input/output processing 386
14.4 Ladder programming 387 Chapter objectives 449
14.5 Instruction lists 391 17.1 Mathematical models 449
14.6 Latching and internal relays 394 17.2 Mechanical system building blocks 450
14.7 Sequencing 396 17.3 Electrical system building blocks 458
14.8 Timers and counters 397 17.4 Fluid system building blocks 462
14.9 Shift registers 400 17.5 Thermal system building blocks 469
14.10 Master and jump controls 401 Summary 472
14.11 Data handling 402 Problems 473
14.12 Analogue input/output 404
Summary 406
Problems 407
18. System models 475
15. Communication systems 409

18.1 Engineering systems 475
Chapter objectives 409 18.2 Rotational–translational systems 475
15.1 Digital communications 409 18.3 Electromechanical systems 476
15.2 Centralised, hierarchical and distributed 18.4 Linearity 479
control 409 18.5 Hydraulic–mechanical systems 481
15.3 Networks 412 Summary 484
15.4 Protocols 414 Problems 484

viii CONTENTS
22.8 Controller tuning 564

19. Dynamic responses of systems 485 22.9 Velocity control 566
22.10 Adaptive control 567
Chapter objectives 485 Summary 569
19.1 Modelling dynamic systems 485 Problems 569
19.2 Terminology 486
19.3 First-order systems 488
19.4 Second-order systems 494 23. Artificial intelligence 571
19.5 Performance measures for second-order systems 501
19.6 System identification 504
Summary 505 Chapter objectives 571
Problems 506 23.1 What is meant by artificial intelligence? 571
23.2 Perception and cognition 572
23.3 Fuzzy logic 575
20. System transfer functions 509 Summary 585
Problems 586

20.1 The transfer function 509
20.2 First-order systems 512 VI. Conclusion 587
20.3 Second-order systems 514
20.4 Systems in series 516 24. Mechatronic systems 589
20.5 Systems with feedback loops 517
20.6 Effect of pole location on transient response 519 Chapter objectives 589
Summary 522 24.1 Mechatronic designs 589
Problems 522 24.2 Robotics 600
24.3 Case studies 606
Summary 625
Problems 625
21. Frequency response 524
Research assignments 625
Design assignments 625
21.1 Sinusoidal input 524
21.2 Phasors 525
21.3 Frequency response 527
Appendices 627
21.4 Bode plots 530
21.5 Performance specifications 539 A The Laplace transform 629
21.6 Stability 541
Summary 543 A.1 The Laplace transform 629
Problems 544 A.2 Unit steps and impulses 630
A.3 Standard Laplace transforms 632
A.4 The inverse transform 636
Problems 638
22. Closed-loop controllers 546

B Number systems 639
22.1 Control processes 546
22.2 Two-step or on/off mode 548
22.3 Proportional mode of control 550 B.1 Number systems 639
22.4 Integral mode of control 552 B.2 Binary mathematics 640
22.5 Derivative mode of control 555 B.3 Floating numbers 643
22.6 PID controller 557 B.4 Gray code 643
22.7 Digital control systems 559 Problems 644

CONTENTS ix
C.4 Karnaugh maps 649

C Boolean algebra 645 Problems 652
C.1 Laws of Boolean algebra 645

C.2 De Morgan’s laws 646 Answers 654
C.3 Boolean function generation from truth tables 647 Index 669

Preface
The term mechatronics was ‘invented’ by a Japanese engineer in 1969, as a

combination of ‘mecha’ from mechanisms and ‘tronics’ from electronics. The
word now has a wider meaning, being used to describe a philosophy in engi-
neering technology in which there is a co-ordinated, and concurrently devel-
oped, integration of mechanical engineering with electronics and intelligent
computer control in the design and manufacture of products and processes.
As a result, many products which used to have mechanical functions have had
many replaced with ones involving microprocessors. This has resulted in
much greater flexibility, easier redesign and reprogramming, and the ability
to carry out automated data collection and reporting.
A consequence of this approach is the need for engineers and technicians
to adopt an interdisciplinary and integrated approach to engineering. Thus
engineers and technicians need skills and knowledge that are not confined to
a single subject area. They need to be capable of operating and communicating
across a range of engineering disciplines and linking with those having more
specialised skills. This book is an attempt to provide a basic background to
mechatronics and provide links through to more specialised skills.
The first edition was designed to cover the Business and Technology Edu-
cation Council (BTEC) Mechatronics units for Higher National Certificate/
Diploma courses for technicians and designed to fit alongside more specialist
units such as those for design, manufacture and maintenance determined by
the application area of the course. The book was widely used for such courses
and has also found use in undergraduate courses in both Britain and the
United States. Following feedback from lecturers in both Britain and the
United States, the second edition was considerably extended and with its extra
depth it was not only still relevant for its original readership, but also suitable
for undergraduate courses. The third edition involved refinements of some
explanations, more discussion of microcontrollers and programming,
increased use of models for mechatronic systems, and the grouping together
of key facts in the Appendices. The fourth edition was a complete reconsidera-
tion of all aspects of the text, both layout and content, with some regrouping
of topics, movement of more material into Appendices to avoid disrupting the
flow of the text, new material – in particular an introduction to artificial intel-
ligence – more case studies and a refinement of some topics to improve clarity.
Also, objectives and key point summaries were included with each chapter.
The fifth edition kept the same structure but, after consultation with many
users of the book, many aspects had extra detail and refinement added.
The sixth edition involved a restructuring of the constituent parts of the
book as some users felt that the chapter sequencing did not match the general
teaching sequence. Other changes included the inclusion of material on

xii PREFACE
Arduino and the addition of more topics in the Mechatronic systems chapter.
The seventh edition has continued the evolution of the book with updating of
mechatronic system components, clarification of some aspects so they read
more easily, the inclusion of information on the Atmega microcontrollers, a
discussion and examples of fuzzy logic and neural control systems, and yet
more applications and case studies. The number of Appendices has been
reduced as they had grown over previous editions and it was felt that some
were now little used. A revised and extended version of the Appendix
concerning electrical circuit analysis has ben moved to the Instructor’s Guide
as Supporting material: Electrical components and circuits, and so is available
to an instructor for issue to students if required.
The overall aim of the book is to give a comprehensive coverage of mecha-
tronics which can be used with courses for both technicians and undergradu-
ates in engineering and, hence, to help the reader:
• acquire a mix of skills in mechanical engineering, electronics and comput-
ing which is necessary if he/she is to be able to comprehend and design
mechatronic systems;
• become capable of operating and communicating across the range of engi-
neering disciplines necessary in mechatronics;
• be capable of designing mechatronic systems.
Each chapter of the book includes objectives and a summary, is copiously
illustrated and contains problems, answers to which are supplied at the end
of the book. Chapter 24 comprises research and design assignments together
with clues as to their possible answers.
The structure of the book is as follows:
• Chapter 1 is a general introduction to mechatronics.
• Chapters 2–6 form a coherent block on sensors and signal conditioning.
• Chapters 7–9 cover actuators.
• Chapters 10–16 discuss microprocessor/microcontroller systems.
• Chapters 17–23 are concerned with system models.
• Chapter 24 provides an overall conclusion in considering the design of
mechatronic systems.
An Instructor’s Guide, test material and PowerPoint slides are available for
lecturers to download at: www.pearsoned.co.uk/bolton.
A large debt is owed to the publications of the manufacturers of the
equipment referred to in the text. I would also like to thank those reviewers
who painstakingly read through through the sixth edition and my proposals
for this new edition and made suggestions for improvement.
W. Bolton

Part I
Introduction
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Chapter one Introducing mechatronics
Objectives
The objectives of this chapter are that, after studying it, the reader should be able to:
• Explain what is meant by mechatronics and appreciate its relevance in engineering design.
• Explain what is meant by a system and define the elements of measurement systems.
• Describe the various forms and elements of open-loop and closed-loop control systems.
• Recognise the need for models of systems in order to predict their behaviour.
1.1 What is
mechatronics? The term mechatronics was ‘invented’ by a Japanese engineer in 1969, as a
combination of ‘mecha’ from mechanisms and ‘tronics’ from electronics. The
word now has a wider meaning, being used to describe a philosophy in engineer-
ing technology in which there is a co-ordinated, and concurrently developed,
integration of mechanical engineering with electronics and intelligent computer
control in the design and manufacture of products and processes. As a result,
mechatronic products have many mechanical functions replaced with electronic
ones. This results in much greater flexibility, easy redesign and reprogramming,
and the ability to carry out automated data collection and reporting.
A mechatronic system is not just a marriage of electrical and mechanical
systems and is more than just a control system; it is a complete integration of
all of them in which there is a concurrent approach to the design. In the design
of cars, robots, machine tools, washing machines, cameras and very many
other machines, such an integrated and interdisciplinary approach to engi-
neering design is increasingly being adopted. The integration across the tra-
ditional boundaries of mechanical engineering, electrical engineering,
electronics and control engineering has to occur at the earliest stages of the
design process if cheaper, more reliable, more flexible systems are to be devel-
oped. Mechatronics has to involve a concurrent approach to these disciplines
rather than a sequential approach of developing, say, a mechanical system,
then designing the electrical part and the microprocessor part. Thus mecha-
tronics is a design philosophy, an integrating approach to engineering.
Mechatronics brings together areas of technology involving sensors and
measurement systems, drive and actuation systems, and microprocessor sys-
tems (Figure 1.1), together with the analysis of the behaviour of systems and
control systems. That essentially is a summary of this book. This chapter is
an introduction to the topic, developing some of the basic concepts in order
to give a framework for the rest of the book in which the details will be
developed.

4 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCING MECHATRONICS
Figure 1.1 The basic elements

Digital Digital
of a mechatronic system. actuators sensors
Mechanical
system
Analogue Analogue
actuators sensors
Microprocessor
system for control
1.1.1 Examples of mechatronic systems
Consider the modern autofocus, auto-exposure camera. To use the camera all
you need to do is point it at the subject and press the button to take the picture.
The camera can automatically adjust the focus so that the subject is in focus and
automatically adjust the aperture and shutter speed so that the correct exposure
is given. You do not have to manually adjust focusing and the aperture or shutter
speed controls. Consider a truck’s smart suspension. Such a suspension adjusts
to uneven loading to maintain a level platform, adjusts to cornering, moving
across rough ground, etc., to maintain a smooth ride. Consider an automated
production line. Such a line may involve a number of production processes which
are all automatically carried out in the correct sequence and in the correct way
with a reporting of the outcomes at each stage in the process. The automatic
camera, the truck suspension and the automatic production line are examples of
a marriage between electronics, control systems and mechanical engineering.
1.1.2 Embedded systems
The term embedded system is used where microprocessors are embedded

into systems and it is this type of system we are generally concerned with in
mechatronics. A microprocessor may be considered as being essentially a col-
lection of logic gates and memory elements that are not wired up as individual
components but whose logical functions are implemented by means of soft-
ware. As an illustration of what is meant by a logic gate, we might want an
output if input A AND input B are both giving on signals. This could be
implemented by what is termed an AND logic gate. An OR logic gate would
give an output when either input A OR input B is on. A microprocessor is
thus concerned with looking at inputs to see if they are on or off, processing
the results of such an interrogation according to how it is programmed, and
then giving outputs which are either on or off. See Chapter 10 for a more
detailed discussion of microprocessors.
For a microprocessor to be used in a control system, it needs additional
chips to give memory for data storage and for input/output ports to enable it
to process signals from and to the outside world. Microcontrollers are micro-
processors with these extra facilities all integrated together on a single chip.
An embedded system is a microprocessor-based system that is designed
to control a range of functions and is not designed to be programmed by the end
user in the same way that a computer is. Thus, with an embedded system, the
user cannot change what the system does by adding or replacing software.

1.2 THE DESIGN PROCESS 5
As an illustration of the use of microcontrollers in a control system, a

modern washing machine will have a microprocessor-based control system
to control the washing cycle, pumps, motor and water temperature. A mod-
ern car will have microprocessors controlling such functions as anti-lock
brakes and engine management. Other examples of embedded systems are
digital cameras, smart cards (credit-card-sized plastic cards embedded with
a microprocessor able to store and process data), mobile phones (their SIM
cards are just smart cards able to manage the rights of a subscriber on a net-
work), printers, televisions, temperature controllers and indeed almost all
the modern devices we have grown so accustomed to use to exercise control
over situations.
1.2 The design

process The design process for any system can be considered as involving a number
of stages.
1 The need
The design process begins with a need from, perhaps, a customer or client.
This may be identified by market research being used to establish the needs
of potential customers.
2 Analysis of the problem
The first stage in developing a design is to find out the true nature of the
problem, i.e. analysing it. This is an important stage in that not defining
the problem accurately can lead to wasted time on designs that will not
fulfil the need.
3 Preparation of a specification
Following the analysis, a specification of the requirements can be pre-
pared. This will state the problem, any constraints placed on the solution,
and the criteria which may be used to judge the quality of the design. In
stating the problem, all the functions required of the design, together
with any desirable features, should be specified. Thus there might be a
statement of mass, dimensions, types and range of motion required, accu-
racy, input and output requirements of elements, interfaces, power
requirements, operating environment, relevant standards and codes of
practice, etc.
4 Generation of possible solutions
This is often termed the conceptual stage. Outline solutions are prepared
which are worked out in sufficient detail to indicate the means of obtaining
each of the required functions, e.g. approximate sizes, shapes, materials
and costs. It also means finding out what has been done before for similar
problems; there is no sense in reinventing the wheel.
5 Selections of a suitable solution
The various solutions are evaluated and the most suitable one selected.
Evaluation will often involve the representation of a system by a model and
then simulation to establish how it might react to inputs.
6 Production of a detailed design
The detail of the selected design has now to be worked out. This might
require the production of prototypes or mock-ups in order to determine
the optimum details of a design.

7 Production of working drawings

The selected design is then translated into working drawings, circuit dia-
grams, etc., so that the item can be made.
It should not be considered that each stage of the design process just flows on
stage by stage. There will often be the need to return to an earlier stage and give
it further consideration. Thus, at the stage of generating possible solutions there
might be a need to go back and reconsider the analysis of the problem.
1.2.1 Traditional and mechatronic designs
Engineering design is a complex process involving interactions between many

skills and disciplines. With traditional design, the approach was for the mechan-
ical engineer to design the mechanical elements, then the control engineer to
come along and design the control system. This gives what might be termed a
sequential approach to the design. However, the basis of the mechatronics
approach is considered to lie in the concurrent inclusion of the disciplines of
mechanical engineering, electronics, computer technology and control engi-
neering in the approach to design. The inherent concurrency of this approach
depends very much on system modelling and then simulation of how the model
reacts to inputs and hence how the actual system might react to inputs.
As an illustration of how a multidisciplinary approach can aid in the solution
of a problem, consider the design of bathroom scales. Such scales might be
considered only in terms of the compression of springs and a mechanism used
to convert the motion into rotation of a shaft and hence movement of a pointer
across a scale; a problem that has to be taken into account in the design is that
the weight indicated should not depend on the person’s position on the scales.
However, other possibilities can be considered if we look beyond a purely
mechanical design. For example, the springs might be replaced by load cells
with strain gauges and the output from them used with a microprocessor to
provide a digital readout of the weight on an light-emitting diode (LED) dis-
play. The resulting scales might be mechanically simpler, involving fewer com-
ponents and moving parts. The complexity has, however, been transferred to
the software.
As a further illustration, the traditional design of the temperature control
for a domestic central heating system has been the bimetallic thermostat in a
closed-loop control system. The bending of the bimetallic strip changes as the
temperature changes and is used to operate an on/off switch for the heating
system. However, a multidisciplinary solution to the problem might be to use
a microprocessor-controlled system employing perhaps a thermistor as the
sensor. Such a system has many advantages over the bimetallic thermostat
system. The bimetallic thermostat is comparatively crude and the temperature
is not accurately controlled; also, devising a method for having different tem-
peratures at different times of the day is complex and not easily achieved. The
microprocessor-controlled system can, however, cope easily with giving preci-
sion and programmed control. The system is much more flexible. This
improvement in flexibility is a common characteristic of mechatronic systems
when compared with traditional systems.
1.3 Systems
In designing mechatronic systems, one of the steps involved is the creation of
a model of the system so that predictions can be made regarding its behaviour
when inputs occur. Such models involve drawing block diagrams to represent

1.3 SYSTEMS 7
Figure 1.2 Examples of Input: Output: Input: Output:

systems: (a) spring, (b) motor, Spring Motor
force extension electric rotation
(c) thermometer. power
(a) (b)
Input: Output:
Thermometer
temp. number
on a scale
(c)
systems. A system can be thought of as a box or block diagram which has an

input and an output and where we are concerned not with what goes on inside
the box, but with only the relationship between the output and the input. The
term modelling is used when we represent the behaviour of a real system by
mathematical equations, such equations representing the relationship between
the inputs and outputs from the system. For example, a spring can be consid-
ered as a system to have an input of a force F and an output of an extension x
(Figure 1.2(a)). The equation used to model the relationship between the
input and output might be F = kx, where k is a constant. As another example,
a motor may be thought of as a system which has as its input electric power
and as output the rotation of a shaft (Figure 1.2(b)).
A measurement system can be thought of as a box which is used for
making measurements. It has as its input the quantity being measured and its
output the value of that quantity. For example, a temperature measurement
system, i.e. a thermometer, has an input of temperature and an output of a
number on a scale (Figure 1.2(c)).
1.3.1 Modelling systems
The response of any system to an input is not instantaneous. For example, for
the spring system described by Figure 1.2(a), though the relationship between
the input, force F, and output, extension x, was given as F = kx, this only
describes the relationship when steady-state conditions occur. When the force
is applied it is likely that oscillations will occur before the spring settles down
to its steady-state extension value (Figure 1.3). The responses of systems are
functions of time. Thus, in order to know how systems behave when there are
inputs to them, we need to devise models for systems which relate the output
to the input so that we can work out, for a given input, how the output will
vary with time and what it will settle down to.
As another example, if you switch on a kettle it takes some time for the
water in the kettle to reach boiling point (Figure 1.4). Likewise, when a
Figure 1.3 The response to an

input for a spring.
Extension
Input: Output:
Spring
force at extension Final reading
time 0 which changes
with time
0 Time

Figure 1.4 The response to an

input for a kettle system. 1008C
Input: Output:
Temperature
Kettle
electricity temperature
of water
208C
0 2 min
Time
Figure 1.5 An automobile Input: force Output: speed

driving system. on pedal Accelerator Fuel Automobile along road
pedal engine
microprocessor controller gives a signal to, say, move the lens for focusing in
an automatic camera, then it takes time before the lens reaches its position for
correct focusing.
Often the relationship between the input and output for a system is
described by a differential equation. Such equations and systems are discussed
in Chapter 17.
1.3.2 Connected systems
In other than the simplest system, it is generally useful to consider the system
as a series of interconnected blocks, each such block having a specific function.
We then have the output from one block becoming the input to the next block
in the system. In drawing a system in this way, it is necessary to recognise that
lines drawn to connect boxes indicate a flow of information in the direction
indicated by an arrow and not necessarily physical connections. An example
of such a connected system is the driving system of an automobile. We can
think of there being two interconnected blocks: the accelerator pedal which
has an input of force applied by a foot to the accelerator pedal system and
controls an output of fuel, and the engine system which has an input of fuel
and controls an output of speed along a road (Figure 1.5). Another example
of such a set of connected blocks is given in the next section on measurement
systems.
1.4 Measurement
systems Of particular importance in any discussion of mechatronics are measurement
systems. Measurement systems can, in general, be considered to be made
up of three basic elements (as illustrated in Figure 1.6):
1 A sensor responds to the quantity being measured by giving as its output
a signal which is related to the quantity. For example, a thermocouple is a
temperature sensor. The input to the sensor is a temperature and the out-
put is an e.m.f., which is related to the temperature value.
2 A signal conditioner takes the signal from the sensor and manipulates it
into a condition which is suitable either for display or, in the case of a control
system, for use to exercise control. Thus, for example, the output from a

1.5 CONTROL SYSTEMS 9
Figure 1.6 A measurement Quantity Signal related Signal in suitable Value

system and its constituent being to quantity form for of the
measured measured Signal display quantity
elements. Sensor Display
conditioner
Figure 1.7 A digital thermometer Quantity Signal related Signal in suitable Value
system. being to quantity form for of the
measured: measured: display: quantity
Sensor Amplifier Display
temperature potential bigger
difference voltage
thermocouple is a rather small e.m.f. and might be fed through an amplifier

to obtain a bigger signal. The amplifier is the signal conditioner.
3 A display system displays the output from the signal conditioner. This
might, for example, be a pointer moving across a scale or a digital readout.
As an example, consider a digital thermometer (Figure 1.7). This has an input
of temperature to a sensor, probably a semiconductor diode. The potential
difference across the sensor is, at constant current, a measure of the tempera-
ture. This potential difference is then amplified by an operational amplifier
to give a voltage which can directly drive a display. The sensor and operational
amplifier may be incorporated on the same silicon chip.
Sensors are discussed in Chapter 2 and signal conditioners in Chapter 3.
Measurement systems involving all elements are discussed in Chapter 6.
1.5 Control systems

A control system can be thought of as a system which can be used to:
1 control some variable to some particular value, e.g. a central heating system
where the temperature is controlled to a particular value;
2 control the sequence of events, e.g. a washing machine where when the dials
are set to, say, ‘white’ and the machine is then controlled to a particular
washing cycle, i.e. sequence of events, appropriate to that type of clothing;
3 control whether an event occurs or not, e.g. a safety lock on a machine
where it cannot be operated until a guard is in position.
1.5.1 Feedback
Consider an example of a control system with which we are all individually

involved. Your body temperature, unless you are ill, remains almost constant
regardless of whether you are in a cold or hot environment. To maintain this
constancy your body has a temperature control system. If your temperature
begins to increase above the normal you sweat; if it decreases you shiver. Both
these are mechanisms which are used to restore the body temperature back to its
normal value. The control system is maintaining constancy of temperature. The
system has an input from sensors which tell it what the temperature is and then
compare this data with what the temperature should be and provide the appro-
priate response in order to obtain the required temperature. This is an example
of feedback control: signals are fed back from the output, i.e. the actual

Figure 1.8 Feedback control: Required Required

temperature Body temperature Room
(a) human body temperature, Body Furnace and
temperature temperature
(b) room temperature with temperature its control
central heating, (c) picking up control system system
a pencil.
Feedback of data Feedback of data

about actual temperature about actual temperature
(a) (b)
The required Hand moving

hand position towards
Control system the pencil
for hand position
and movement
Feedback of data
about actual position
(c)
temperature, in order to modify the reaction of the body to enable it to restore

the temperature to the ‘normal’ value. Feedback control is exercised by the con-
trol system comparing the fed-back actual output of the system with what is
required and adjusting its output accordingly. Figure 1.8(a) illustrates this feed-
back control system.
One way to control the temperature of a centrally heated house is for a
human to stand near the furnace on/off switch with a thermometer and switch
the furnace on or off according to the thermometer reading. That is a crude
form of feedback control using a human as a control element. The term feed-
back is used because signals are fed back from the output in order to modify
the input. The more usual feedback control system has a thermostat or control-
ler which automatically switches the furnace on or off according to the differ-
ence between the set temperature and the actual temperature (Figure 1.8(b)).
This control system is maintaining constancy of temperature.
If you go to pick up a pencil from a bench there is a need for you to use a
control system to ensure that your hand actually ends up at the pencil. This is
done by your observing the position of your hand relative to the pencil and
making adjustments in its position as it moves towards the pencil. There is a
feedback of information about your actual hand position so that you can modify
your reactions to give the required hand position and movement (Figure 1.8(c)).
This control system is controlling the positioning and movement of your hand.
Feedback control systems are widespread, not only in nature and the home
but also in industry. There are many industrial processes and machines where
control, whether by humans or automatically, is required. For example, there
is process control where such things as temperature, liquid level, fluid flow,
pressure, etc., are maintained constant. Thus in a chemical process there may
be a need to maintain the level of a liquid in a tank to a particular level or to a
particular temperature. There are also control systems which involve consis-
tently and accurately positioning a moving part or maintaining a constant
speed. This might be, for example, a motor designed to run at a constant speed
or perhaps a machining operation in which the position, speed and operation
of a tool are automatically controlled.

1.5.2 Open- and closed-loop systems
There are two basic forms of control system, one being called open loop
and the other closed loop. The difference between these can be illustrated
by a simple example. Consider an electric fire which has a selection switch
which allows a 1 kW or a 2 kW heating element to be selected. If a person
used the heating element to heat a room, they might just switch on the 1 kW
element if the room is not required to be at too high a temperature. The
room will heat up and reach a temperature which is only determined by the
fact that the 1 kW element was switched on and not the 2 kW element. If
there are changes in the conditions, perhaps someone opening a window,
there is no way the heat output is adjusted to compensate. This is an example
of open-loop control in that there is no information fed back to the element
to adjust it and maintain a constant temperature. The heating system with
the heating element could be made a closed-loop system if the person has a
thermometer and switches the 1 kW and 2 kW elements on or off, according
to the difference between the actual temperature and the required tempera-
ture, to maintain the temperature of the room constant. In this situation
there is feedback, the input to the system being adjusted according to
whether its output is the required temperature. This means that the input
to the switch depends on the deviation of the actual temperature from the
required temperature, the difference between them being determined by a
comparison element – the person in this case. Figure 1.9 illustrates these two
types of system.
An example of an everyday open-loop control system is the domestic
toaster. Control is exercised by setting a timer which determines the length
of time for which the bread is toasted. The brownness of the resulting toast is
determined solely by this preset time. There is no feedback to control the
degree of browning to a required brownness.
To illustrate further the differences between open- and closed-loop sys-
tems, consider a motor. With an open-loop system the speed of rotation of the
shaft might be determined solely by the initial setting of a knob which affects
the voltage applied to the motor. Any changes in the supply voltage, the char-
acteristics of the motor as a result of temperature changes, or the shaft load
Input: Controller, Electric Output:

Switch
decision to i.e. person Hand Electric fire a temperature
switch on activated power change
or off
(a)
Comparison
element
Input: Controller, Electric Output:
Switch
required Deviation i.e. person Hand Electric fire a constant
temperature signal activated power temperature
Measuring
Feedback of temperature-related signal device
(b)
Figure 1.9 Heating a room: (a) an open-loop system, (b) a closed-loop system.

will change the shaft speed but not be compensated for. There is no feedback
loop. With a closed-loop system, however, the initial setting of the control
knob will be for a particular shaft speed and this will be maintained by feed-
back, regardless of any changes in supply voltage, motor characteristics or
load. In an open-loop control system the output from the system has no effect
on the input signal. In a closed-loop control system the output does have an
effect on the input signal, modifying it to maintain an output signal at the
required value.
Open-loop systems have the advantage of being relatively simple and con-
sequently low cost with generally good reliability. However, they are often
inaccurate since there is no correction for error. Closed-loop systems have the
advantage of being relatively accurate in matching the actual to the required
values. They are, however, more complex and so more costly with a greater
chance of breakdown as a consequence of the greater number of components.
1.5.3 Basic elements of a closed-loop system
Figure 1.10 shows the general form of a basic closed-loop system. It consists
of five elements:
1 Comparison element
This compares the required or reference value of the variable condition
being controlled with the measured value of what is being achieved and
produces an error signal. It can be regarded as adding the reference signal,
which is positive, to the measured value signal, which is negative in this case:
error signal = reference value signal - measured value signal
The symbol used, in general, for an element at which signals are summed is
a segmented circle, inputs going into segments. The inputs are all added,
hence the feedback input is marked as negative and the reference signal posi-
tive so that the sum gives the difference between the signals. A feedback loop
is a means whereby a signal related to the actual condition being achieved is
fed back to modify the input signal to a process. The feedback is said to be
negative feedback when the signal which is fed back subtracts from the
input value. It is negative feedback that is required to control a system.
Positive feedback occurs when the signal fed back adds to the input
signal.
2 Control element
This decides what action to take when it receives an error signal. It may
be, for example, a signal to operate a switch or open a valve. The control
Comparison
element
Control Correction
+ Process
Reference - Error signal unit unit Controlled
value variable
Measuring
Measured value device
Figure 1.10 The elements of a closed-loop control system.

plan being used by the element may be just to supply a signal which
switches on or off when there is an error, as in a room thermostat, or per-
haps a signal which proportionally opens or closes a valve according to the
size of the error. Control plans may be hard-wired systems in which the
control plan is permanently fixed by the way the elements are connected
together, or programmable systems where the control plan is stored
within a memory unit and may be altered by reprogramming it. Controllers
are discussed in Chapter 10.
3 Correction element
The correction element produces a change in the process to correct or
change the controlled condition. Thus it might be a switch which switches
on a heater and so increases the temperature of the process or a valve
which opens and allows more liquid to enter the process. The term actua-
tor is used for the element of a correction unit that provides the power to
carry out the control action. Correction units are discussed in Chapters 7,
8 and 9.
4 Process element
The process is what is being controlled. It could be a room in a house with
its temperature being controlled or a tank of water with its level being
controlled.
5 Measurement element
The measurement element produces a signal related to the variable condi-
tion of the process that is being controlled. It might be, for example, a
switch which is switched on when a particular position is reached or a
thermocouple which gives an e.m.f. related to the temperature.
With the closed-loop system illustrated in Figure 1.10 for a person controlling
the temperature of a room, the various elements are:
Controlled variable – the room temperature

Reference value – the required room temperature
Comparison element – the person comparing the measured value
with the required value of temperature
Error signal – the difference between the measured and
required temperatures
Control unit – the person
Correction unit – the switch on the fire
Process – the heating by the fire
Measuring device – a thermometer
An automatic control system for the control of the room temperature could
involve a thermostatic element which is sensitive to temperature and switches
on when the temperature falls below the set value and off when it reaches it
(Figure 1.11). This temperature-sensitive switch is then used to switch on the
heater. The thermostatic element has the combined functions of comparing
the required temperature value with that occurring and then controlling the
operation of a switch. It is often the case that elements in control systems are
able to combine a number of functions.
Figure 1.12 shows an example of a simple control system used to maintain
a constant water level in a tank. The reference value is the initial setting of the
lever arm arrangement so that it just cuts off the water supply at the required

Thermostatic element
Comparison
element
Input: Output:
Controller Switch Heater
required Deviation Electric required
temperature signal power temperature
Measuring
Feedback of temperature-related signal device
Figure 1.11 Heating a room: a closed-loop system.
Lever
Water input
Hollow ball Pivot
Comparison
element: the lever Pivoted lever The flap Water level in tank
Control Correction
+ Process
Reference - Error signal unit unit Controlled
value: the variable:
initial setting water level
Measuring
Measured value device
The floating ball and lever
Figure 1.12 The automatic control of water level.
level. When water is drawn from the tank the float moves downwards with
the water level. This causes the lever arrangement to rotate and so allows
water to enter the tank. This flow continues until the ball has risen to such a
height that it has moved the lever arrangement to cut off the water supply.
The system is a closed-loop control system with the elements being:
Controlled variable – water level in tank

Reference value – initial setting of the float and lever position
Comparison element – the lever
Error signal – the difference between the actual and
initial settings of the lever positions
Control unit – the pivoted lever
Correction unit – the flap opening or closing the water
supply
Process – the water level in the tank
Measuring device – the floating ball and lever
The above is an example of a closed-loop control system involving just

mechanical elements. We could, however, have controlled the liquid level by
means of an electronic control system. We thus might have had a level sensor

Potentiometer Amplifies difference

for setting between reference
reference value and feedback values Bevel gear
D.C. Differential Rotating
supply amplifier shaft
Motor
Tachogenerator
Speed measurement
Differential amplifier
Process, Output:
Amplifier Motor
Reference rotating shaft constant
value speed
shaft
Measurement
tachogenerator
Figure 1.13 Shaft speed control.
supplying an electrical signal which is used, after suitable signal conditioning,

as an input to a computer where it is compared with a set value signal and the
difference between them, the error signal, then used to give an appropriate
response from the computer output. This is then, after suitable signal condi-
tioning, used to control the movement of an actuator in a flow control valve
and so determine the amount of water fed into the tank.
Figure 1.13 shows a simple automatic control system for the speed of rota-
tion of a shaft. A potentiometer is used to set the reference value, i.e. what
voltage is supplied to the differential amplifier as the reference value for the
required speed of rotation. The differential amplifier is used both to compare
and amplify the difference between the reference and feedback values, i.e. it
amplifies the error signal. The amplified error signal is then fed to a motor
which in turn adjusts the speed of the rotating shaft. The speed of the rotating
shaft is measured using a tachogenerator, connected to the rotating shaft by
means of a pair of bevel gears. The signal from the tachogenerator is then fed
back to the differential amplifier:
Controlled variable – speed of rotation of shaft

Reference value – setting of slider on potentiometer
Comparison element – differential amplifier
Error signal – the difference between the output from
the potentiometer and that from the
tachogenerator system
Control unit – the differential amplifier
Correction unit – the motor
Process – the rotating shaft
Measuring device – the tachogenerator

1.5.4 Analogue and digital control systems
Analogue systems are ones where all the signals are continuous functions of
time and it is the size of the signal which is a measure of the variable (Figure 1.14(a)).
The examples so far discussed in this chapter are such systems. Digital signals
can be considered to be a sequence of on/off signals, the value of the variable
being represented by the sequence of on/off pulses (Figure 1.14(b)).
Where a digital signal is used to represent a continuous analogue signal,
the analogue signal is sampled at particular instants of time and the sample
values each then converted into effectively a digital number, i.e. a particular
sequence of digital signals. For example, we might have for a three-digit signal
the digital sequence of:
no pulse, no pulse, no pulse representing an analogue signal of 0 V;
no pulse, no pulse, a pulse representing 1 V;
no pulse, pulse, no pulse representing 2 V;
no pulse, pulse, pulse representing 3 V;
pulse, no pulse, no pulse representing 4 V;
pulse, no pulse, pulse representing 5 V;
pulse, pulse, no pulse representing 6 V;
pulse, pulse, pulse representing 7 V.
Because most of the situations being controlled are analogue in nature and it
is these that are the inputs and outputs of control systems, e.g. an input of
temperature and an output from a heater, a necessary feature of a digital con-
trol system is that the real-world analogue inputs have to be converted to
digital forms and the digital outputs back to real-world analogue forms. This
involves the uses of analogue-to-digital converters (ADCs) for inputs and
digital-to-analogue converters (DACs) for the outputs.
Figure 1.15(a) shows the basic elements of a digital closed-loop control
system; compare it with the analogue closed-loop system in Figure 1.10.
The reference value, or set point, might be an input from a keyboard. ADC
and DAC elements are included in the loop in order that the digital control-
ler can be supplied with digital signals from analogue measurement systems
Signal
(a) 0
Time
Analogue 7 V Analogue 7 V Analogue 6 V Analogue 4 V

Signal
(b) 0
Time
Figure 1.14 Signals: (a) analogue and (b) the digital version of the analogue signal showing the
stream of sampled signals.

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or there, or that when a man dies he is born again in another body,
either in heaven or in another world, or somewhere. These are all
hallucinations. Nobody is ever born or dies, really speaking. There is
neither heaven nor hell, nor this world; all three never really existed.
Tell a child a lot of ghost stories, and let him go out into the street in
the evening. There is a little stump of a tree. What does the child
see? A ghost, with hands stretched out, ready to grab him. Suppose
a man comes from the corner of the street, wanting to meet his
sweetheart; he sees that stump of the tree as the girl. A police-man
coming from the street corner sees the stump as a thief. The thief
sees it as a police-man. It is the same stump of a tree that was seen
in various ways. The stump is the reality, and the visions of the
stump are the projections of the various minds. There is one Being,
this Self; It neither comes nor goes. When a man is ignorant, he
wants to go to heaven or some place, and all his life he has been
thinking and thinking of this, and when this earth dream vanishes he
sees this world as a heaven, with devas and angels flying about, and
all such things. If a man all his life desires to meet his forefathers he
gets them all, from Adam downwards, because he creates them. If a
man is still more ignorant and has always been frightened by
fanatics with ideas of hell, when he dies he will see this very world as
hell, with all sorts of punishments. All that is meant by dying or being
born is simply changes in the plane of vision. Neither do you move,
nor does that move upon which you project your vision. You are the
permanent, the unchangeable. How can you go and come? It is
impossible; you are omnipresent. The sky never moves, but the
clouds move over the surface of the sky, and we may think that the
sky itself moves. Just as you go into a railway train, and you think
the land is moving. It is not so, but it is the train which is moving. You
are where you are; this dream, these various clouds move. One
dream follows another without connection. There is no such thing as
law or connection in this world, but we are thinking that there is a
great deal of connection. All of you have probably read “Alice in
Wonderland.” It is the most wonderful book for children written in this
century. When I read it I was delighted, it was always in my head to
write that sort of a book for children. What pleased me most in it was
what you think most incongruous, that there is no connection there.
One idea comes and jumps into another, without any connection.
When you were children you thought that the most wonderful
connection. So this man brought back his thoughts of childhood,
perfectly connected to him as a child, and composed this book for
children. And all these books which men write, trying to make
children swallow their own ideas as men are nonsense. We too are
grown up children, that is all. The world is the same unconnected
thing,—“Alice in Wonderland,”—with no connection whatever. When
we see things happen a number of times in a certain sequence, we
call it cause and effect, and say that the thing will happen again.
When this dream changes another dream will seem quite as
connected as this. When we dream, the things we see all seem to be
connected; during the dream we never think they are incongruous; it
is only when we wake that we see the want of connection. When we
wake from this dream of the world and compare it with the Reality, it
will be found all incongruous nonsense, a mass of incongruity
passing before us, we do not know whence or whither, but we know
it will end; and this is called Mâyâ, and is like masses of fleeting,
fleecy clouds. They represent all this changing existence, and the
sun itself, the unchanging, is you. When you look at that unchanging
Existence from the outside, you call it God, and when you look at it
from the inside you call it yourself. It is but one. There is no God
separate from you, no God higher than you, the real “you.” All the
gods are little beings to you, all the ideas of God and Father in
heaven are but your reflection. God Himself is your image. “God
created man after His own image.” That is wrong. Man creates God
after his own image. That is right. Throughout the universe we are
creating gods after our own image. We create the god, and fall down
at his feet and worship; and when this dream comes, we love it!
This is a good point to understand,—that the sum and substance of
this morning’s lecture is that there is but One Existence, and that
One Existence seen through different constitutions appears either as
the earth, or heaven, or hell, or God, or ghosts, or men or demons,
or world, or all these things. But among these many “He who sees
that One in this ocean of death, he who sees that One Life in this
floating universe, who realizes that One who never changes, unto
him belongs eternal peace; unto none else, unto none else.” This
One Existence has to be realized. How, is the next question. How is
it to be realized? How is this dream to be broken, how shall we wake
up from this dream that we are little men and women, and all such
things? We are the Infinite Being of the universe, and have become
materialized into these little beings, men and women, depending
upon the sweet word of one man, or the angry word of another man
and so forth. What a terrible dependence, what a terrible slavery! I
who am beyond all pleasure and pain, whose reflection is the whole
universe, little bits of whose life are the suns and moons and stars,—
I am held down as a terrible slave. If you pinch my body I feel pain. If
one says a kind word I begin to rejoice. See my condition,—slave of
the body, slave of the mind, slave of the world, slave of a good word,
slave of a bad word, slave of passion, slave of happiness, slave of
life, slave of death, slave of everything. This slavery has to be
broken. How? “This Âtman has first to be heard, then reasoned upon
and then meditated upon.” This is the method of the Advaita Jnâni.
The truth has to be heard, then reflected upon and then to be
constantly asserted. Think always—“I am Brahman”; every other
thought must be cast aside as weakening. Cast aside every thought
that says that you are men or women. Let body go, and mind go, and
gods go, and ghosts go. Let everything go but that One Existence.
“Where one hears another, where one sees another, that is but
small; where one does not hear another, where one does not see
another, that is infinite.” That is the highest, when the subject and the
object become one. When I am the listener and I am the speaker,
when I am the teacher and I am the taught, when I am the creator
and I am the created,—then alone fear ceases; there is not another
to make us afraid. There is nothing but myself, what can frighten
me? This is to be heard day after day. Get rid of all other thoughts.
Everything else must be thrown aside, and this is to be repeated
continually, poured through the ears until it reaches the heart, until
every nerve and muscle, every drop of blood tingles with the idea
that I am He, I am He. Even at the gate of death say “I am He.”
There was a man in India, a Sannyâsin, who used to repeat
“Shivoham” (“I am Bliss Eternal”), and a tiger jumped on him one day
and dragged him away and killed him, and as long as he was living
the sound came “Shivoham, Shivoham.” Even at the gate of death,
in the greatest danger, in the thick of the battle-field, at the bottom of
the ocean, on the tops of the highest mountains, in the thickest of the
forest, tell yourself “I am He, I am He.” Day and night say “I am He.”
It is the greatest strength; it is religion. “The weak will never reach
the Âtman.” Never say: “O Lord, I am a miserable sinner.” Who shall
help you? You are the help of the universe. What in this universe can
help you? Where is the man, or the god, or the demon to help you?
What can prevail over you? You are the god of the universe; where
can you seek for help? Never help came from anywhere but from
yourself. In your ignorance, every prayer that you made and that was
answered, you thought was answered by some Being, but you
answered the prayer yourself, unknowingly. The help came from
yourself, and you fondly imagined that some one was sending help
to you. There is no help for you outside of yourself; you are the
creator of the universe. Like the silkworm you have built a cocoon
around yourself. Who will save you? Cut your own cocoon and come
out as the beautiful butterfly, as the free soul. Then alone you will
see Truth. Ever tell yourself “I am He.” These are words that will burn
up the dross that is in the mind, words that will bring out the
tremendous energy which is within you already, the infinite power
which is sleeping in your heart. This is to be brought out by
constantly hearing the truth and nothing else. Wherever there is
thought of weakness, approach not the place. Avoid all weakness if
you want to be Jnâni.
Before you begin to practise, clear your mind of all doubts. Fight and
reason and argue, and when you have established it in your mind
that this and this alone can be the truth and nothing else, do not
argue any more; close your mouth. Hear not argumentation, neither
argue yourself. What is the use of any more arguments? You have
satisfied yourself, you have decided the question. What remains?
The truth has now to be realized, therefore why waste valuable time
in vain arguments? The truth has now to be meditated upon and
every idea that strengthens you must be taken up and every thought
that weakens you must be rejected. The Bhakta meditates upon
forms and images and all such things and upon God. This is the
natural process, but a slower one. The Yogi meditates upon various
centres in his body and manipulates powers in his mind. The Jnâni
says the mind does not exist, neither the body. This idea of the body
and of the mind must go, must be driven off; therefore it is foolish to
think of them. It would be like trying to cure one ailment by bringing
in another. His meditation therefore is the most difficult one, the
negative; he denies everything, and what is left is the Self. This is
the most analytical way. The Jnâni wants to tear away the universe
from the Self by the sheer force of analysis. It is very easy to say, “I
am a Jnâni,” but very hard to really be one. “The way is long; it is, as
it were, walking on the sharp edge of a razor, yet despair not. Awake,
arise, and stop not until the goal is reached,” say the Vedas.
So what is the meditation of the Jnâni? He wants to rise above every
idea of body or mind, to drive away the idea that he is the body. For
instance, when I say “I, Swâmi,” immediately the idea of the body
comes. What must I do then? I must give the mind a hard blow and
say, “No, I am not the body, I am the Self.” Who cares if disease
comes or death in the most horrible form? I am not the body. Why
make the body nice? To enjoy the illusion once more? To continue
the slavery? Let it go, I am not the body. That is the way of the Jnâni.
The Bhakta says: “The Lord has given me this body that I may safely
cross the ocean of life and I must cherish it until the journey is
accomplished.” The Yogi says: “I must be careful of the body so that
I may go on steadily and finally attain liberation.” The Jnâni feels that
he cannot wait, he must reach the goal this very moment. He says: “I
am free through eternity, I am never bound; I am the God of the
universe through all eternity. Who shall make me perfect? I am
perfect already.” When a man is perfect he sees perfection in others.
When he sees imperfection, it is his own mind projecting itself. How
can he see imperfection if he has not got it in himself? So the Jnâni
does not care for perfection or imperfection. None exists for him. As
soon as he is free, he does not see good and evil. Who sees evil and
good? He who has it in himself. Who sees the body? He who thinks
he is the body. The moment you get rid of the idea that you are the
body, you do not see the world at all. It vanishes forever. The Jnâni
seeks to tear himself away from this bondage of matter by the force
of intellectual conviction. This is the negative way,—the “neti, neti”
(“not this, not this”).
VI
UNITY OF THE SELF
To illustrate the conclusion arrived at in our last lesson, I will read to
you from one of the Upanishads, showing how these ideas were
taught in India from the most ancient times.
Yajnavalkya was a great sage. You know the rule in India was that
every man must give up the world when he became old. So
Yajnavalkya said to his wife: “My beloved, here is all my money and
my possessions, and I am going away.” She replied: “Sir, if I had this
whole earth full of wealth would that give me immortality?”
Yajnavalkya said: “No, that cannot be. Your life will be that of the
rich, and that will be all, but wealth cannot give you immortality.” She
replied: “That through which I shall become immortal, what shall I do
to gain that? If you know that, tell me.” Yajnavalkya replied: “You
have always been my beloved; you are more beloved now by this
question. Come, take your seat, and I will tell you, and when you
have heard, meditate upon it.” He continued: “It is not for the sake of
the husband that the wife loves the husband, but for the sake of the
Âtman (the Self) that she loves the husband, because she loves the
Self. None loves the wife for the sake of the wife, but it is because he
loves the Self that he loves the wife. None loves the children for the
sake of the children, but because he loves the Self, therefore he
loves the children. None loves wealth on account of the wealth, but
because he loves the Self, therefore he loves wealth. None loves the
Brahmin for the sake of the Brahmin, but because he loves the Self,
he loves the Brahmin. So none loves the Kshatriya for the sake of
the Kshatriya, but because he loves the Self. Neither does anyone
love the world on account of the world, but because he loves the
Self. None similarly loves the gods on account of the gods, but
because he loves the Self. None loves anything for that thing’s sake,
but it is for the Self of that thing that he loves it. This Self therefore, is
to be heard, is to be reasoned, and is to be meditated upon. Oh my
Maitreyi, when that Self has been heard, when that Self has been
seen, when that Self has been realized, then all these things become
known.”
What does this mean? Before us we find a curious philosophy. That
the Self shines through all these various things which we call the
world. The statement has been made that every love is selfishness
in the lowest sense of the word; because I love myself, therefore I
love another; it cannot be. There have been philosophers in modern
times who have said that self is the only motive power in the world.
That is true, and yet it is wrong. This self is but the shadow of that
real Self which is behind. It appears wrong and evil because it is
limited. That very love we have for the Self, which is the universe,
appears to be evil, because it is seen through limitation. Even when
a wife loves a husband, whether she knows it or not, she loves the
husband for that Self. It is selfishness as it is manifested in the world,
but that selfishness is really but a small part of that “Self-ness.”
Whenever one loves, one has to love in and through the Self.
This Self has to be known. Those that love the Self without knowing
what It is, their love is selfishness. Those that love knowing what that
Self is, their love is free, they are sages. None loves the Brahmin for
the Brahmin, but because he loves the Self, which is appearing
through the Brahmin. “Him the Brahmin gives up who sees the
Brahmin as separate from the Self. Him the Kshatriya gives up who
sees the Kshatriya as separate from the Self. The world gives him up
who sees this world as separate from the Self. The gods give him up
who believes the gods to be separate from the Self. All things give
him up who knows them as separate from the Self. These Brahmins,
these Kshatriyas, this world, these gods, whatever exists, everything
is that Self.” Thus Yajnavalkya explains what he means by that love.
The difficulty comes when we particularize this love. Suppose I love
a woman; as soon as that woman is particularized, is separated,
from that Âtman (the Self), my love will not be eternal; it has become
selfish and is likely to end in grief, but as soon as I see that woman
as the Âtman, that Love becomes perfect, and will never suffer. So,
as soon as you are attached to anything in the universe detaching it
from the universe as a whole—from the Âtman—then comes a
reaction. With everything that we love outside the Self, grief and
misery will be the result. If we enjoy everything in the Self, and as
the Self, no misery or reaction will come. This is perfect bliss.
How to come to this ideal? Yajnavalkya goes on to tell us the
process by which to reach that state. The universe is infinite; how
can we take every particular thing and look at it as the Âtman,
without knowing the Âtman? “With a drum, when we are at a
distance, we cannot conquer the sound by trying to control the sound
waves, but as soon as we come to the drum, and put our hand on it,
the sound is conquered. When the conch shell is being blown, we
cannot conquer the sound, until we come near and get hold of the
shell, and then it is conquered. When the vina is being played, as
soon as we come to the vina, we can control the centre of the sound,
whence the sound is proceeding. As when some one is burning
damp fuel, all sorts of smoke and sparks of various kinds rise, even
so from this great One has been breathed out history and
knowledge; everything has come out of Him. He breathed out, as it
were, all knowledge. As to all water the one goal is the ocean, as to
all touch the hand is the one centre, as to all smell the nose is the
one centre, as of all taste the tongue is the one centre, as of all form
the eyes are the one centre, as of all sounds the ears are the one
centre, as of all thought the mind is the one centre, as of all
knowledge the heart is the one centre, as of all work the hands are
the one centre, as of all speech the organ of speech is the one
centre, as the concentrated salt is through and through the waters of
the sea, yet not to be seen by the eyes; even so, oh Maitreyi, is this
Âtman not to be seen by the eyes, yet He permeates this universe.
He is everything. He is concentrated knowledge. The whole universe
rises from Him, and again goes down unto Him. Reaching Him, we
go beyond knowledge.” We here get the idea that we have all come
just like sparks from Him, and that when we know Him then we go
back, and become one with Him again.
Maitreyi became frightened, just as everywhere people become
frightened. She said: “Sir, here is exactly where you have thrown a
confusion over me. You have frightened me by saying there will be
no more gods; all individuality will be lost. When I reach that stage
shall I know that Âtman, shall I reach the unconscious state and lose
my individuality, or will the knowledge remain with me that I know
Him? Will there be no one to recognize, no one to feel, no one to
love, no one to hate? What will become of me?” “O Maitreyi!” replied
her husband, “think not that I am speaking of an unconscious state,
neither be frightened. This Âtman is indestructible, eternal in His
essence; the stage where there are two is a lower one. Where there
are two there one smells another, one sees another, one hears
another, one welcomes another, one thinks of another, one knows
another. But when the whole has become that Âtman, who is to be
smelled by whom, who is to be seen by whom, who is to be heard by
whom, who is to be welcomed by whom, who is to be known by
whom? Who can know Him by whom everything is known? This
Âtman can only be described as “neti, neti” (not this, not this).
Incomprehensible, He cannot be comprehended by the intellect.
Unchangeable, He never fades. Unattached, He never gets mixed
up with Nature. Perfect, He is beyond all pleasure and pain. Who
can know the Knower? By what means can we know Him? By no
means; this is the conclusion of the sages, O Maitreyi! Going beyond
all knowledge, is to attain Him and to attain immortality.”
So far the idea is, that it is all One Infinite Being, that is the Real
Individuality, when there is no more division, no more parts and
parcels, no more such low and illusory ideas. And yet, in and through
every part of this little individuality is shining that Infinite, the Real
Individuality. Everything is a manifestation of the Âtman. How to
reach to that? Yajnavalkya told us in the beginning that—“This
Âtman is first to be heard, then to be reasoned, then to be meditated
upon.” Thus far he has spoken about the Self, the Âtman, as being
the essence of everything in this universe. Then reasoning on the
Infinite nature of that Self and the finite nature of the human mind he
comes to the conclusion that it is impossible for the finite mind to
know the Knower of all—the Self. What is to be done then if we
cannot know the Self? Yajnavalkya tells Maitreyi that It can be
realized, although It cannot be known, and he enters upon a
discourse as to how It is to be meditated upon. This universe is
helpful to every being and every being is also helping this universe,
for they are both part and parcel of each other, the development of
the one helps the development of the other; but to the Âtman, the
self-effulgent One, nothing can be helpful because It is perfect and
infinite. All that is bliss, even in the lowest sense, is but the reflection
of It. All that is good is the reflection of that Âtman, and when that
reflection is less clear it is called evil. When the Âtman is less
manifested it is called darkness—evil, and when it is more
manifested it is called light—goodness. That is all. This good and evil
are only a question of degree, the Âtman more manifested or less
manifested. Just take the example of our own lives. How many
things we see in our childhood which we think to be good, but which
really are evil, and how many things seem to be evil which are good?
How our ideas change! How an idea becomes higher and higher!
What we thought very good at one time, we do not think so good
now. Thus good and evil depend on the development of our minds,
and do not exist objectively. The difference is only in the degree. All
is a manifestation of that Âtman; It is being manifested in everything,
only when the manifestation is very poor we call it evil, and when it is
clearer we call it good. That Âtman Itself is beyond both good and
evil. So everything that is in the universe is first to be meditated upon
as all good, because it is a manifestation of that perfect One. He is
neither evil nor good; He is perfect and the perfect can be only one.
The good can be many, and the evil many, there will be degrees of
variation between the good and the evil; but the perfect is only one,
and that perfect One when seen through certain covering we call
different degrees of good, and when seen through other covering we
call evil. Our ideas of good and evil as two distinct things are mere
superstition. There is only more good and less good and the less
good we call evil. These mistaken ideas of good and evil have
produced all sorts of dualistic delusions. They have gone deep into
the hearts of human beings, terrorizing men and women in all ages.
All the hatred with which we hate others is caused by these foolish
ideas which we have imbibed since our childhood. Our judgment of
humanity becomes entirely false; we make this beautiful earth a hell,
but as soon as we can give up these false ideas of good and evil, it
will become a heaven.
“This earth is blissful (‘sweet’ is the literal translation) to all beings,
and all beings are sweet to this earth; they all help each other. And
all this sweetness is the Âtman, that effulgent, immortal One.” That
one sweetness is manifesting itself in various ways. Wherever there
is any love, any sweetness in any human being, either in a saint or a
sinner, either in an angel or a murderer, either in the body or the
mind or the senses, it is all He. How can there be anything but the
One? Whatever is the lowest physical enjoyment is He, and the
highest spiritual enjoyment is also He. There is no sweetness but
He. Thus says Yajnavalkya. When you come to that state, and look
upon all things with the same eyes; when you see in the drunkard’s
pleasure in drink only that sweetness, or in the saints’ meditation
only that sweetness, then you have got the truth, and then alone you
will know what happiness means, what peace means, what love
means. But as long as you make these vain distinctions, silly,
childish, foolish superstitions, all sorts of misery will come. But that
immortal One, the effulgent One, He is the background of the whole
universe, it is all His sweetness. This body is a miniature universe,
as it were; and through all the powers of the body, all the enjoyments
of the mind, shines that effulgent One. That self-effulgent One who is
in the body, He is the Âtman. “This world is so sweet to all beings,
and every being is so sweet to it!” But the self-effulgent One, the
Immortal is the bliss in this world. In us also, He is that bliss. He is
the Brahman. “This air is so sweet to all beings, and all beings are so
sweet to this air.” But He who is that self-effulgent immortal Being in
the air, He is also in this body. He is expressing Himself as the life of
all beings. “This sun is so sweet to all beings, and all beings are so
sweet to this sun.” He who is the self-effulgent Being in the sun, Him
we reflect as smaller lights. What can there be but His reflection? He
is in the body, and it is His reflection which makes us see the light.
“This moon is so sweet to all beings, and all beings are so sweet to
this moon.” But that self-effulgent and immortal One who is the soul
of that moon, He is in us expressing himself as mind. “This lightning
is so sweet to all beings and all beings are sweet to this lightning,”
but the self-effulgent and immortal One is the soul of this lightning,
and is also in us, because all is that Brahman. This Brahman, this
Âtman, this Self, is the King of all beings. These ideas are very
helpful to men; they are for meditation. For instance, meditate on the
earth, think of the earth, at the same time knowing that we have in us
that which is in the earth, that both are the same. Identify the body
with the earth, and identify the soul with the Soul behind. Identify the
air with the soul that is in the air and that is in you and so on. All
these are one, manifested in different forms. To realize this unity is
the end and aim of all meditation, and this is what Yajnavalkya was
trying to explain to Maitreyi.
VII
THE HIGHEST IDEAL OF JNÂNA YOGA
As this is the last of these classes it is better that I give a brief
resumé of all that I have been trying to tell you. In the Vedas and
Upanishads we find records of some of the very earliest religious
ideas of the Hindus, ideas that long antedated the time of Kapila,
ancient as this great sage is. He did not propound the Sânkhya
philosophy as a new theory of his own. His task was to throw the
light of his genius on the vast mass of religious theories that were
existing in his time and bring out a rational and coherent system. He
succeeded in giving India a psychology that is accepted to the
present day by all the diverse and seemingly opposing philosophical
systems to be found among the Hindus. His masterly analysis and
his comprehensive statement of the processes of the human mind
have not yet been surpassed by any later philosopher and he
undoubtedly laid the foundation for the Advaita philosophy, which
accepted his conclusions as far as they went and then pushed them
a step farther, thus reaching a final unity beyond the duality that was
the last word of the Sânkhyas.
Among the religious ideas that preceded the time of Kapila the first
groups that we see coming up,—I mean among recognized religious
ideas, and not the very low ones, which do not deserve the name of
religion,—all include the idea of inspiration, and revealed book and
so forth. In the earliest step, the idea of creation is very peculiar; it is
that the whole universe is created out of zero, at the will of God; that
all this universe did not exist, and out of nothingness all this has
come. In the next stage we find this conclusion is questioned. The
first step in Vedânta asks this question: How can existence be
produced out of non-existence? If this universe is existent it must
have come out of something, because it was easy for them to see
that there is nothing coming out of nothing anywhere. All work that is
going on by human hands requires materials. Naturally, therefore,
the ancient Hindus rejected the first idea that this world was created
out of nothing, and sought some material out of which this world was
created. The whole history of religion, in fact, is this search for
material. Out of what has all this been produced? Apart from the
question of the efficient cause, or God, apart from the question
whether God created the universe, the great question of all
questions has been, out of what did God create it? All the
philosophies are turning, as it were, on this question.
One solution is that nature and God and soul are eternal existences,
as if three parallel lines are running eternally, of which nature and
soul comprise what they call the dependent, and God the
independent Being. Every soul, like every particle of matter, is
perfectly dependent on the will of God. These and many other ideas
we find already existing when the Sânkhya psychology was brought
forward by Kapila. According to it, perception comes by the
transmission of the suggestion, which causes perception first to the
eyes, from the eyes to the organs, from the organs to the mind, the
mind to the buddhi and from the buddhi to something which is a unit,
which they call the Âtman. Coming to modern physiology we know
that they have found centres for all the different sensations. First are
found the lower centres, then a higher grade of centres, and these
two will exactly correspond with the actions of the buddhi and the
manas (mind), but not one centre has been found which controls all
the other centres, so philosophy cannot answer what unifies all these
centres. Where and how do the centres get unified? The centres in
the brain are all different, and there is not one centre which controls
all the others; therefore, so far as it goes, the Sânkhya psychology
stands unchallenged upon this point. We must have this unification,
something upon which the sensations will be reflected to form a
complete whole. Until there is that something I cannot have any idea
of you, or the picture, or anything else. If we had not that unifying
something we would only see, then after a while hear, and then feel,
and while we heard a man talking we should not see him at all,
because all the centres are different.
This body is made of particles which we call matter, and it is dull and
insentient. So is what is called the fine body. The fine body,
according to the Sânkhyas is a little body, made of very fine
particles, so fine that no microscope can see them. What is the use
of it? It is the receptacle of what we call mind. Just as this gross
body is the receptacle of the grosser forces, so the fine body is the
receptacle of the finer forces, that which we call thought, in its
various modifications. First is the body, which is gross matter, with
gross force. Force cannot exist without matter. It can only manifest
itself through matter, so the grosser forces work through the body
and those very forces become finer; the very force which is working
in a gross form works in a fine form and becomes thought. There is
no real difference between them, simply one is the gross and the
other the fine manifestation of the same thing. Neither is there any
difference in substance between the fine body and the gross body.
The fine body is also material, only very fine material.
Whence do all these forces come? According to the Vedânta
philosophy there are two things in Nature, one of which they call
Âkâsa, which is substance, or matter, infinitely fine, and the other
they call Prâna. Whatever you see, or feel, or hear, as air or earth, or
anything, is material. And everything is a form of this âkâsa. It
becomes finer and finer, or grosser and grosser, and it changes
under the action of Prâna (universal Energy). Like âkâsa, prâna is
omnipresent, interpenetrating everything. Âkâsa is like the water,
and everything else in the universe like blocks of ice, made out of
that water and floating in it, and prâna is the power that changes the
âkâsa into all these various forms. This body is the instrument made
out of âkâsa for the manifestation of prâna in gross forms, as
muscular motion, or walking, sitting, talking, and so on. The fine
body also is made of âkâsa, a much finer form of âkâsa, for the
manifestation of the same prâna in the finer form of thought. So, first
there is this gross body, beyond that is the fine body, and beyond
that is the jiva (soul), the real man. Just as these finger nails can be
pared off a hundred times a year, and yet are still a part of our
bodies, not different, so we have not two bodies. It is not that man
has a fine and also a gross body; it is the one body, only it remains
longer when it is a fine body, and the grosser it is the sooner it
dissolves. Just as I can cut this nail a hundred times a year, so
millions of times I can shed this body in one æon, but the fine body
will remain. According to the dualists this jiva, or the real man, is very
fine, minute.
So far we have seen that man is a being who has first a gross body
which dissolves very quickly, then a fine body which remains through
æons, and lastly a jiva. This jiva, according to the Vedânta
philosophy, is eternal, just as God is eternal, and Nature is also
eternal, but changefully eternal. The material of Nature, the prâna
and the âkâsa, are eternal, but are changing into different forms
eternally. Matter and force are eternal, but their combinations vary
continually. The jiva is not manufactured, either of âkâsa, or of
prâna; it is immaterial, and therefore will remain for ever. It is not the
result of any combination of prâna and âkâsa, and whatever is not
the result of combination will never be destroyed, because
destruction is decomposition. That which is not a compound cannot
be destroyed. The gross body is a compound of âkâsa and prâna in
various forms and will be decomposed. The fine body will also be
decomposed after a long time, but the jiva is a simple, and will never
be destroyed. For the same reason, we cannot say it ever was born.
Nothing simple can be born; the same argument applies. Only that
which is a compound can be born. The whole of this nature
combined in these millions of forms is under the will of God. God is
all pervading, omniscient, formless, everywhere, and He is directing
this nature day and night. The whole of it is under His control. There
is no independence of any being. It cannot be. He is the Ruler. This
is the teaching of dualistic Vedânta.
Then the question comes, if God be the Ruler of this universe, why
did He create such a wicked universe, why must we suffer so much?
The answer is made that it is not God’s fault. It is our own fault that
we suffer. Whatever we sow that we reap. God does not do anything
to punish us. If a man is born poor, or blind, or lame, he did
something before he was born in that way, something that produced
these results. The jiva has been existing for all time, was never
created. It has been doing all sorts of things all the time. Whatever
we do we suffer for. If we do good we shall have happiness, and if
bad, unhappiness. This jiva is by its own nature pure, but ignorance
covers its nature, says the dualist. As by evil deeds it has covered
itself with ignorance, so by good deeds it can become conscious of
its own nature again. Just as it is eternal, so its nature is pure. The
nature of every being is pure. When through good deeds all its sins
and misdeeds have been washed away, then the jiva becomes pure
again, and when he becomes pure he goes after death by what is
called Devayana (the path of the gods), to heaven, or the abode of
the gods. If he has been only an ordinarily good man he goes to
what is called the “Abode of the Fathers.”
When the gross body falls, the organs of speech enter the mind. You
cannot think without words; wherever there are words there must be
thought. The mind is resolved into the prâna, and the prâna resolves
into the jiva. Then the jiva leaves the body and goes to that condition
of reward or punishment which he has earned by his past life.
Devaloka is the “place (or abode) of the gods.” The word deva (god)
means bright or shining one, and corresponds to what the Christians
and Mohammedans call “angels.” According to this teaching there
are various heavenly spheres somewhat analogous to the various
heavens described by Dante in the Divine Comedy. There are the
heaven of the fathers (or pitris), devaloka, the lunar sphere, the
electric sphere and highest of all the Brahmaloka, the heaven of
Brahma. From all the lower heavens the jiva returns again to human
birth, but he who attains to Brahmaloka lives there through all
eternity. These are the highest men who have become perfectly
unselfish, perfectly purified, who have given up all desires, do not
want to do anything except to worship and love God. There is a
second class, who do good works, but want some reward, want to go
to heaven in return. When they die the jiva goes to the lunar sphere,
where it enjoys and becomes a deva (god or angel). The gods, the
devas, are not eternal, they have to die. In heaven they will all die.
The only deathless place is Brahmaloka, where alone there is no
birth and no death. In our mythology it is said there are also the
demons, who sometimes give the gods chase. In all mythologies you
read of these fights between the demons, or wicked angels, and the
gods and sometimes the demons conquer the gods. In all
mythologies also, you find that the devas were fond of the beautiful
daughters of men. As a deva, the jiva only reaps results of past
actions, but makes no new Karma. Only man makes Karma. Karma
means actions that will produce effects, also those effects, or results
of action. When a man dies and becomes a deva he has a period of
pleasure, and during that time makes no fresh Karma; he simply
enjoys the reward of his past good works. But when the good Karma
is worked out then the other Karma begins to take effect.
In the Vedas there is no mention of hell. But afterwards the Purânas,
the later books in our Scriptures, thought that no religion could
become complete without a proper attachment of hells, and so they
invented all sorts of hells, with as many, if not more, varieties of
punishment than Dante saw in his Inferno, but our books are merciful
enough to say that it is only for a period. Bad Karma is worked out in
that state and then the souls come back to earth and get another
chance. This human form is the great chance. It is called the karmic
body, in which we decide our fate. We are running in a huge circle,
and this is the point in the circle which determines the future. So a
human body is considered the greatest body there is; man is greater
than the gods. Even they return to human birth. So far with dualistic
Vedânta.
Next comes a higher conception of Vedânta philosophy, which says
that these ideas are crude. If you say there is a God who is an
infinite Being, and a soul which is also infinite, and Nature which is
also infinite, you can go on multiplying infinites indefinitely, but that is
illogical, because each would limit the other and there would be no
real infinite. God is both the material and the efficient cause of the
universe; He projects this universe out of Himself. Does that mean
that God has become these walls, and this table, that God has
become the animal, the murderer and all the evils in the world? God
is pure, how can He become all these degenerate things? He has
not. God is unchangeable, all these changes are in Nature; just as I
am a soul and have a body, this body is not different from me in a
sense, yet I, the real “I,” in fact am not this body. For instance, I am a
child, I become a young man, an old man, but my soul has not
changed. It remains the same soul. Similarly the whole universe
comprises all Nature, and an infinite number of souls, or, as it were,
the infinite body of God. He is interpenetrating the whole of it. He
alone is unchangeable, but Nature changes and soul changes. In
what way does Nature change? In its forms; it takes fresh forms. But
the soul cannot change that way. The soul contracts and expands in
knowledge. It contracts by evil deeds; those deeds which contract
the natural knowledge and purity of the soul are called evil deeds.
Those deeds, again, which bring out the natural glory of the soul, are
called good deeds. All these souls were pure, but they have become
contracted by their own acts. Still, through the mercy of God, and by
doing good deeds, they will expand and become pure again. Every
soul has the same chance, and, in the long run, must become pure
and free itself from Nature. But this universe will not cease, because
it is infinite. This is the second theory. The first is called dualistic
Vedânta; the second teaches that there is God, soul, and Nature,
that soul and Nature form the body of God, and that these three form
one unit. Believers in this second theory are called qualified non-
dualists (Visishtadvaitins).
The last and highest theory is pure monism, or as it is known in
India, Advaita. It also teaches that God must be both the material
and the efficient cause of this universe. As such, God has become
the whole of this universe. This theory denies that God is the soul,
and the universe is the body, and the body is changing. In that case
what is the use of calling God the material cause of this universe?
The material cause is the cause become effect; the effect is nothing
but the cause in another form. Wherever you see effect, it is the
cause reproduced. If the universe is the effect, and God the cause,
this must be the reproduction of God. If it be claimed that the
universe is the body of God and that that body becomes contracted
and fine and becomes the cause, and out of that the universe is
evolved, then the advaitist says it is God Himself who has become
this universe. Now comes a very fine question. If God has become
this universe, then everything is God. Certainly; everything is God.
My body is God, and my mind is God, and my soul is God. Then why
are there so many jivas? Has God become divided into millions and
millions of jivas? How can that infinite power and substance, the one
Being of the universe become divided? It is impossible to divide
infinity. How can the pure Being become this universe? If He has
become the universe, He is changeful, and if He is changeful, He is
in Nature, and whatever is in Nature is born and dies. If God is
changeful, He must die some day. Remember that. Again, how much
of God has become this universe? If you say “X,” the algebraical
unknown quantity, then God is God minus “X” now, and therefore not
the same God as before this creation, because so much of Him has
become this universe. The answer of the non-dualist is that this
universe has no real existence, it exists in appearance only. These
devas and gods and angels and being born and dying, and all this
infinite number of souls coming up and going down, all these things
are mere dreams. All is the one Infinite. The one sun reflected on
various drops of water appears to be many, millions of globules of
water reflect so many millions of suns and in each globule will be a
perfect image of the sun, yet there is only one sun, and so it is with
all these jivas, they are but reflections of the one infinite Being. A
dream cannot be without a reality, and that reality is the one infinite
Existence. You, as body, mind, or soul, are a dream, but what you
really are is Existence-Knowledge-Bliss Absolute. Thus says the
Advaitist. All these births and rebirths, this coming and going are but
parts of the dream. You are infinite. Where can you go? The sun,
moon, and the whole universe are but a drop in your nature. How
can you be born or die? The Self was never born, never will be born,
never had father or mother, friends or foes, for it is Existence-
Knowledge-Bliss Absolute.
What is the goal, according to this philosophy? That those who
receive this knowledge are one with the universe; for them all
heavens, even Brahmaloka, are destroyed, the whole dream
vanishes, and they find themselves the eternal God of the universe.
They attain their real individuality, infinitely beyond these little selves
which we now think of so much importance. No individuality will be
lost; an infinite and eternal Individuality will be realized. Pleasures in
little things will cease. We are finding pleasure in this little body, in
this little individuality. How much greater the pleasure when this
whole universe is in our one body? If there be pleasure in these
separate bodies, how much more when all bodies are one? The man
who has realized this has attained to freedom, has gone beyond the

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Mechatronics: Electronic Control

Systems in Mechanical and Electrical

F01 Mechatronics 50977 Contents.indd 1 30/08/2018 07:09

We combine innovative learning technology with trusted

From classroom to boardroom, our curriculum materials, digital

Every day our work helps learning flourish, and

To learn more, please visit us at www.pearson.com/uk

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First published 1995 (print)

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Print edition typeset in 10/11 pt Ehrhardt MT Pro by Pearson CSC

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Preface xi 3. Signal conditioning 78

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6. Data presentation systems 146 9. Electrical actuation systems 222

Chapter objectives 146 Chapter objectives 222

III. Actuation 175 IV. Microprocessor systems 257

7. Pneumatic and hydraulic actuation 10. Microprocessors and microcontrollers 259

Chapter objectives 301

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13. Input/output systems 354 16. Fault finding 433

Chapter objectives 354 Chapter objectives 433

14. Programmable logic controllers 382

15. Communication systems 409

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22.8 Controller tuning 564

Chapter objectives 509

Chapter objectives 546

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C.4 Karnaugh maps 649

C.1 Laws of Boolean algebra 645

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The term mechatronics was ‘invented’ by a Japanese engineer in 1969, as a

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Figure 1.1 The basic elements

1.1.1 Examples of mechatronic systems

1.1.2 Embedded systems

The term embedded system is used where microprocessors are embedded

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As an illustration of the use of microcontrollers in a control system, a

1.2 The design

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7 Production of working drawings

1.2.1 Traditional and mechatronic designs

Engineering design is a complex process involving interactions between many

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Figure 1.2 Examples of Input: Output: Input: Output:

systems. A system can be thought of as a box or block diagram which has an

1.3.1 Modelling systems

Figure 1.3 The response to an

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Figure 1.4 The response to an

Figure 1.5 An automobile Input: force Output: speed

1.3.2 Connected systems

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Figure 1.6 A measurement Quantity Signal related Signal in suitable Value

thermocouple is a rather small e.m.f. and might be fed through an amplifier

1.5 Control systems