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Envisioning Education
in a Post-Work
Leisure-Based Society

A Dialogical Approach

Eugene Matusov
Envisioning Education in a Post-Work
Leisure-Based Society
 Eugene Matusov

Envisioning Education
in a Post-Work
Leisure-Based Society
A Dialogical Approach
Eugene Matusov
School of Education
University of Delaware
Newark, DE, USA

ISBN 978-3-030-46372-4 ISBN 978-3-030-46373-1 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-46373-1

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer
Nature Switzerland AG, part of Springer Nature 2020
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the
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 Contents

1 Introduction 1

2 Necessities-Based Society and Technological Education 21

3 Inherent Alienation of Labor and Work 47

4 Changes in the Economy: Technological Unemployment

and Creative Authorial Labor 71

5 Genuine Leisure: “Eat to Live, Don’t Live to Eat” 109

6 Necessities in a Leisure-Based Society: Economy,

Politics, and Social Obligations 155

7 The Cultural Value of Leisure: Contra and Pro 191

8 Education in a Leisure-Based Society 225

9 Students and Teachers as Authors in a Bakhtinian

Critical Dialogue 255

v
vi CONTENTS

10 Conclusion: Organization of Education in a Post-work

Leisure-Based Society 287

Name Index 315

Subject Index 321

 List of Figures

Fig. 1.1 The future teachers’ reaction to the statement “The class is
canceled” (Matusov, 2009, p. 359) 5
Fig. 9.1 2 + 2 = 1 (Source Picture by Ana Marjanovic-Shane, with
permission by the artist) 260
Fig. 9.2 2 + 2 = 2 (Source Picture by Ana Marjanovic-Shane, with
permission by the artist) 260
Fig. 9.3 2 + 2 = 3 (Source Author) 261
Fig. 9.4 2 + 2 = 5 (Source Author) 261

vii
 CHAPTER 1

Introduction

When I started teaching future teachers at the University of Delaware

about 23 years ago, I was faced with a puzzling phenomenon. Like many
other teacher educators (e.g., Pinar & Grumet, 1976), I wanted my
students to learn from good and bad teachers they had experienced or
observed in their past. I asked my undergraduate students to remember
their good and bad teachers and to provide instances or events of their
distinct teaching, characterizing these teachers as good or bad. In addi-
tion, I asked them to develop a reflective analysis of why they judged
these teachers as good or bad and what made these teachers good or
bad from my students’ point of view. My students usually liked this exer-
cise. They provided many keen observations on their past teachers and a
thoughtful analysis of what made these teachers “good” or “bad.” Good
teachers were often portrayed as knowledgeable and passionate learners
of their academic subject who deeply and personally care about their stu-
dents. Good teachers were interested in their students: how they think
and feel about the studied topics, what was going on in their lives, and so
on. Good teachers allowed their students to deviate from the prescribed
assignments and school rules and made the assignments and classroom
rules situationally meaningful, fair, and compassionate for their students.
In contrast, bad teachers were portrayed as dull, disinterested, distrusting,
and uncaring, if not even mean, at times. Bad teachers were rigid with the
prescribed assignments and school rules and did not want to change them
regardless of circumstances or a lack of meaning for their students. So far,
so good.

© The Author(s) 2020 1

E. Matusov, Envisioning Education in a Post-Work Leisure-Based Society,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-46373-1_1
2 E. MATUSOV

However, when I provided my students with diverse problematic sce-

narios, asking them what they would do as future teachers if they faced
these situations, they often proposed pedagogical actions similar to those
that they had described as actions of their bad teachers in their past. For
example, in a scenario of a first-grader, advanced in math, who does not
complete his math assignments because “the assignments are boring,” as
the boy tells, most of my students would punish the boy with bad grades
rather than diversify the assignment to make it interesting and challenging
for the boy. My students justified their pedagogical decision by fairness to
the other students and compliance with the universal school rules. They
often described the boy in the scenario negatively as a disrupter of the
classroom discipline, a troublemaker, a beggar for adult attention, a kid
who tries to take advantage, and so on, rather than as a good learner of
math who needs a different type of instruction. Many of my students
were concerned about their professional reputation in the eyes of the
school administrators, parents, and other students. They were also con-
cerned about the amount of work and their own pedagogical mastery
should they take the other pathway of the development of an individual-
ized assignment for the boy.
My puzzlement grew when I provided them with their own descrip-
tions and analyses of good and bad teachers that my students had expe-
rienced in their past. However, my students refused to see any parallel
between their descriptions of their own bad teachers and their proposed
pedagogical actions! As one student of mine eloquently put it, “We didn’t
like it [the pedagogical actions of their bad teachers in the past], because
we were students. We didn’t understand what was good for us. Students
often try to take advantage of their teachers and lazy out of schoolwork.”
“So, they [those bad teachers] were actually good? Right?” asked I. “No,
they were bad teachers. But now, as we’re learning to become teachers
ourselves, we’ve realized that it [i.e., actions of bad teachers] was neces-
sary,” replied one of my students. “So, are you saying that it’s necessary
to be a bad teacher when you become a teacher?” I continued challeng-
ing their position. “No,” they replied, “it’s not like that.” However, they
could not explain to me, and apparently to themselves, what exactly they
meant. The frustration was growing in the classroom. It was not their
frustration with the apparent contradiction between their judgments as
former students and their proposed pedagogical actions as future teachers,
but rather their frustration with me, their professor, who kept challenging
them in a Socratic dialogue. It was very rare when a student or two could
 1 INTRODUCTION 3

see this contradiction at all. And even worse, my students’ rather oppres-
sive pedagogical actions, in my judgments and their own judgments as
past students, were not only limited to given scenarios but often spilled
out to their teaching practicum of working with real and not just imagi-
nary children.
I was frustrated and struggled with this paradox for a few semesters.
How come my students could not see the obvious contradiction? Why
couldn’t they see a discontinuity between their portrayal and critique of
their past bad teachers and their willingness to do exactly the same when
they faced a problematic situation as future teachers? Were they stupid?!
Guided by a Socratic pedagogy, I worked hard to develop a smart intellec-
tual argument, a smart intellectual provocation, a smart intellectual twist
to help them realize that they contradicted themselves. I tried to apply
my new creative ideas in class, but nothing helped. I consulted with my
colleagues, teacher educators, but in vain. I felt pedagogically helpless.
Then, one day, I turned my puzzle around. Instead of asking myself
why my students could not see the obvious discontinuity between their
past student school experience and their current proposed pedagogical
actions as future students, I asked myself what the continuity was between
their experiences as students in the past (and the present) and them imag-
ining themselves as future teachers. The answer came to me immediately:
it was their survival. In their past (and present), they had tried hard to sur-
vive as students in their schools—now, they were trying to imagine how
to survive as teachers. If I were correct, the survival made their apparently
conflicting experiences continuous and, thus, non-contradictory!
Hence, in order to help my students see the described contradiction, I
needed to move them away from their survival mode. Reflecting on my
students’ current classes, including my own, I came to the conclusion that
all their classes were mostly driven by survival—survival to pass success-
fully their classes and get good grades. The survival mode was masterfully
calculated, designed, and induced by their teachers, including me, and
built into their school experiences via an elaborate system of rewards and
punishments by grade marks, tests, exams, assignments, and classroom
management. But not only school life; life outside school, with its jobs,
bureaucracies, and obligations is highly driven by what can be broadly
called “survival.” Survival is omnipresent in our society, if not our histori-
cal existence as Homo Sapiens for the last 300,000 years of our biological,
cultural, and historical existence on planet Earth. It has created a powerful
ideology. I will develop this central theme of the book later.
4 E. MATUSOV

In order to move my students away from the grip of survival, I had to

change the pedagogical regime of my classes and introduce ontological,
rather than intellectual, provocations. “Ontological educational provoca-
tions” challenge the students’ lives rather than just a state of their reason
(Matusov, 2009). Descriptions of my experimentation with my pedagog-
ical regime away from designing students’ survival mode can be found in
this book and elsewhere (Matusov, 2015; Matusov & Marjanovic-Shane,
2017). Here I will introduce my ontological provocation challenging my
students’ survival mode as future teachers.
At the beginning of the semester, I started one of my class meetings
with the following activity (Matusov, 2009, pp. 359–360). I gave my
students small index cards and asked them to describe their immediate
response to the following situation in one or a few words or a drawing.
“You come to a class, any class, and see a note on the door, ‘The class
is canceled.’” I asked my students not to write their names on the card.
After the students finished, I asked one of the students to collect the
cards, mixed them up, and read with an intonation intended by the
authors. Meanwhile, I drew pictures of three big faces on the class
blackboard: smiling , neutral , and frowning (see Fig. 1.1).
I invited my students to code their replies using these three pictures.
The students liked it. Often the card comments go like that, “YES!!!,”
“Sleep!,” “Thank GOD!,” “Friends,” “Relief,” “Party!,” and so on.
Rarely, there were neutral comments, “No class,” “I wonder why.” Even
rarer (if ever in some classes), there were upsetting comments, “Too
bad…”, “I’m disappointed.” The tally under the smiling face was getting
an overwhelming majority of the comments.
So far, my students did not find anything surprising about it. So, I
problematized it for them, “Folks, I found this result a bit strange,” I
pointed at the tallies under the three faces. “You seemed to hate school
but want to be teachers. Why?! I can understand a chemistry student who
hates school but wants to become a chemist, so she decides to suffer a bit
more in college. But you want school, which you hate, to be your pro-
fession. You hate school as students but want to be teachers. Are you
sadists? Do you get pleasure from torturing your future students?!” My
students usually protested. “No,” exclaimed they, “we don’t hate school.
We like school. We are just happy to do other things for a change.” “OK,”
replied I, trying not to let them out of my hook. “Let’s test your hypoth-
esis. Imagine that you go to see a movie with your friends that you heard
was good. You come to the cinema and see a note posted, ‘The movie is
 1 INTRODUCTION 5

Fig. 1.1 The future teachers’ reaction to the statement “The class is canceled”
(Matusov, 2009, p. 359)

canceled today.’ You are happy because you can go back home to sleep.
Would it be like that?” The students agreed that they would NOT be
happy. So, I continue, “So, why are you so happy when a class is can-
celed but upset when a movie is canceled?” Some students replied, “Be-
cause school is boring. It is such a chore.” I summarized, “So, deep down
you do not like school. Why do you want to become teachers? Why do
you want to spend a huge chunk of your life to create boredom and a
chore for your students?” The mood in my class usually changed. My
students became quiet and super-attentive. I sensed that some of my stu-
dents started sinking into despair, so I gave them a hand.
I asked, “What kind of teacher do you want to be? Do you want to
be a teacher whose students are happy when she or he gets sick, and the
class is canceled? Or do you want to be a teacher whose students are upset
when their class is canceled? Or some kind of other teacher – what this
6 E. MATUSOV

teacher might look like?” Many students enthusiastically jumped into this
discussion.
They started dreaming. They started exploring their professional
desires. They were excited and not just anxious about their choice to
become a teacher. I sensed that in this discussion, they became free from
the tight grips of their existential survival. Maybe just until the end of the
class. They wanted to be good teachers, not just surviving teachers. They
wanted to explore what it meant to be a good teacher for them. Their
genuine teacher education began.
And then a student asked, “But is it possible to be a good teacher?!”
She meant whether it is possible to be a good teacher, not just for one
moment, for one student, in one topic,—but at all moments, for all stu-
dents, for all curricular topics. Well, maybe not always,—not all movies are
good,—but enough for the teacher’s students to be excited about his/her
teaching and to be looking forward to it. As an enthusiastic Progres-
sive teacher, chasing for the Holy Grail of comprehensively good teach-
ing (Matusov, Marjanovic-Shane, & Gradovski, 2019, Chapter 2.3), back
then I answered positively to the students’ profound question, citing to
the students my favorite Progressive educator and psychologist Jerome
Bruner, “…any subject could be taught to any child at any age in some
form that was honest” (Bruner, 1986, p. 129). “We just need to find an
honest way of teaching!” I told my students. My answer was optimistic,
within a grasp of any teacher who wants to be good and knows how to
do that.
Gradually, I started abandoning my Progressive beliefs and their unre-
alistic and dangerous optimism (see my criticism of Progressive Education
in Matusov, 2015, 2020b, submitted). I started realizing that the survival
mode powerfully and inescapably penetrates the core of human life. Until
its grip on human existence is not weakened, good exciting teaching and
good exciting education can exist only on the margins and in small local
oases of institutionalized education. Let me illustrate this point with the
following example.
One of my pedagogical experimentations involved the Open Syllabus
pedagogical regime, where my students were engaged in designing their
own curriculum, organization, and instruction for the class with my help
(Matusov, 2015). For example, I created a Curricular Map—a list of cur-
ricular topics relevant to the class that students could amend with their
own relevant topics. At the end of each class, the students chose which to
study next. Initially, I tried this pedagogical regime with elective courses
 1 INTRODUCTION 7

for my education undergraduate and graduate students. It worked well

for a few students but did not work well for many other students. Thus,
one undergraduate student who stopped attending our class wrote to me
in an email,

In short, I am having a terrible semester. I have bit off more than I can
chew in having a part time job and taking 2 honors classes as well as
extracurricular activities. When I miss class it is because I am either working
extra hours at work or I am cramming for my next exam. I realize I have
not been the ideal participant in our class but I can assure you I do really
enjoy our EducXXX class and the topics we discuss. Urban education is
a passion of mine and I looked forward to this class until I became so
stressed this semester. It [is] probably obvious to you, as well as to myself,
that because of our open syllabus and “no grades” policy, that I have used
this class as a cushion for my heavy workload. I apologize because I know
I have taken advantage of what was supposed to [be] beneficial to my
learning and our class. I don’t know how to make up for the class time
that I have missed except to tell you that I really have enjoyed what I have
been there for and that I have tried to use webtalk [i.e., a class online
forum] to understand the days I missed. I hope you see that when I am in
class I enjoy participating and have a lot to offer (email, November, 2012).
(Matusov, 2015, pp. A198–A199)

Later, at the end of the semester, the student reflected on this phe-
nomenon a bit more. She said that if this class had grades, she would
have allocated sufficient time and effort for it but probably enjoyed it
much less. She was puzzled why she was spending time and energy on
things that she did not much care about and did not spend time on things
she cared about a great deal. She asked rhetorically, “Why the hell did I
miss such wonderful opportunities in our class to learn and grow?!” She
was very upset with herself calling it “self-betrayal” and “self-sabotage”
of her own genuine education and passions. Unfortunately, she was not
alone in this experience.
In my analysis, this student perceived her genuine education, in which
she could have freedom to pursue her passions, education that she could
have owned, as a frivolous luxury that she could not afford because of sur-
vival and necessity demands of her life: work, preparation for exams, and
so on. To some degree, I agree with my student’s perception that genuine
education, addressing a student’s interests, curiosity, personal growth, is
8 E. MATUSOV

a frivolous luxury. The Greek word “school” (σχoλείo) literally meant

“leisure” (σχoλή) (Arendt, 1958). Genuine education is a form of leisure.
At the same, as I will argue in the book, genuine education as a form
of leisure—education that is not driven by survival and necessities—is a
fundamental existential need of humanity. I found the insights by psy-
chologist Abraham Maslow to articulate what constitutes authentic edu-
cation and its conditions. Following Maslow’s hierarchy of human needs,
leisurely education belongs to the top of the pyramid—the existential
need for self-actualization and self-transcendence (Maslow, 1943). This
top need becomes prioritized after the four bottom needs—physiolog-
ical, safety, love/belonging, and esteem, the needs that Maslow called
“deficiency needs” (or “d-needs”)—are mostly satisfied. This prioritiza-
tion of needs may not be true for each person in each situation, but
it seems to be true on a societal level. From the dawn of humanity,
our social prioritization has overwhelmingly been on d-needs. The exis-
tential needs for self-actualization, self-fulfillment, self-realization, and
self-transcendence—what I call “ex-needs”—have remained peripheral
and frivolous preoccupations outside of the socially valued and recog-
nized main life, although some philosophers, theologians, and intellectu-
als argued for them for thousands of years. In modern society, the ex-
needs are viewed as peripheral, limited to either very young, very old
(retired people), or the rich—i.e., people who can afford carefree leisure.
The more society satisfies d-needs, the more societal opportunities for ex-
needs can emerge. And the reverse seems to be true: when people are
preoccupied with d-needs, it is often more difficult for them to engage in
ex-needs.
I argue that leisure is the human condition of the existential needs to
be fully realized in a post-work society (cf. Arendt, 1958). Leisure allows
people to transcend their nature, their given culture, their given society,
their given psychology, their given social roles and positions, their neces-
sities, and their d-needs. By “leisure,” I do not mean just free time, just
being free from work or chores; I do not mean re-creation, a restoration
of workers’ emotional, physical, and psychological well-being; nor do I
mean the establishment and maintenance of a high social status based on
an opposition to the work culture, common for the rich of the so-called
“leisure class” (Veblen, 2007).
 1 INTRODUCTION 9

By genuine leisure, I mean the realization of people’s existential

needs for self-actualization, self-fulfillment, self-realization, and self-
transcendence. Genuine leisure requires people’s unconditional well-
being and an unconditional safety net, resources for their creativity, a
social environment of people with similar and dissimilar leisurely inter-
ests, good health, and education promoting people’s authorship. Genuine
leisure requires different societal cultural values and a different organiza-
tion of the society (e.g., economy, politics), which I am going to discuss
in this book (see Chapter 5).
In the Age of d-needs and necessities, in which we have been living
now, education, in general, and institutional mass education, in particu-
lar, is usually viewed as instrumental and technological. Education is often
viewed as a means for goals belonging to some other human spheres, such
as the economy, upward social mobility, maintaining the middle class,
upper-class distinction, nationalism, hegemonic ideology, reproduction
of culture, patriotism, social justice, equality, democratic participation,
citizenship, social cohesion, health, safety, and so on. This educational
servitude is an instrumental aspect of modern education. A technologi-
cal aspect of education manifests itself in making students predictably and
reliably arrive at the important curricular endpoints, preset by the soci-
ety, school authority, educational experts, employers, politicians, teachers,
parents, and at times even students themselves. These preset curricular
endpoints can be certain knowledge, like the atomic structure, or cer-
tain skills, like reading or addition of fractions with different denomina-
tions, or certain dispositions and attitudes, like punctuality or uncondi-
tional commitment to any assignment ordered by the authorities.
In contrast, in the Age of Leisure, when genuine leisure will domi-
nate over survival, labor, and work—i.e., over satisfaction of d-needs,—
I expect that education will be primarily intrinsic: education for educa-
tion’s sake, where its process will take priority over its outcome. Intrinsic
education is about promoting people’s authorship in particular practices.
In contrast to instrumental education, people do not want to shorten
their intrinsic education (Matusov, Baker, Fan, Choi, & Hampel, 2017).
Instead, they consider intrinsic education as an important part of life itself.
Of course, currently, intrinsic education exists on the margins of modern
education both institutionalized and informal. There have been pockets
of intrinsic education (often rather distorted) throughout the history of
education here and there—mostly for well to do people (but not always).
However, these pockets, or oases, remain as such in time and place and
10 E. MATUSOV

scope because they are embedded in the otherwise necessities-based soci-

ety. However, this may (or may not) change in the not very distant future.
Rapidly increasing computerization, automatization, robotization,
telecommunication, and advances in AI—both Artificial Intelligence
(machine intelligence replacing people) and Augmented Intelligence
(machine intelligence enhancing human intelligence)—may reduce an
economic need for human labor and work (Markoff, 2015), an economic
phenomenon, which is often referred as “technological unemployment”
(Keynes, 1930 / 1963). Although this can be a very painful process, it
may create economic conditions for the emergence of the Age of Leisure
in a “post-work” society, a possibility that is not guaranteed in itself but
based on people’s political will. In this Age, genuine leisure will become
the dominant way of being for people in a “post-work” society. I put
the word “post-work” is the quotation marks, because I expect that jobs,
d-needs, and necessities will remain but on a limited scale and they will
not dominate mainstream societal cultural values, social relationships, and
practices as it has been now and in the past (Chapter 4).

∗ ∗ ∗

The book is started with my description, analysis, and critique of mod-

ern mainstream institutionalized education with its hegemony of instru-
mental technological education that suppresses and disvalues intrinsic
education (Chapter 2). As I will argue, this instrumental, technological,
education is mostly based on pattern recognition and pattern production
(mediated or unmediated) rather than on meaning-making. This form of
education makes learned knowledge mostly conventional (like language
patterns) rather than conceptual (Matusov, 2020a). I criticize conven-
tional instrumental education for its systematic creation of alienation of
students from their education, authorial agency, and life itself. I also dis-
cuss a necessities-based society that generates and supports this type of
education.
The rest of the book is devoted to my vision, analysis, and discussion
of education in the Age of Leisure in a “Post-Work” Society, the con-
cept of leisure, and the Leisure Age, a “post-work” leisure-based society,
and the role of education in it. I will argue that the dominant type of
education in this “post-work” leisure-based society will be intrinsic edu-
cation as a form of authentic leisure. I will discuss intrinsic education as
the promotion of peoples’ voices and authorship in diverse practices of
22 E. MATUSOV

or repeatedly like a machine.”1 Even the word “computer” was initially

referred to as a person who made various calculations2 . In my view, histor-
ically, the relationship should be probably inverse: “a machine is a piece of
equipment with moving parts that does something efficiently, quickly, or
repeatedly like people who act like machines.” But, this sounds circular.
To avoid this circularity, I focus on a functional, rather than structural,
definition of a machine: instead of defining what a machine is made of
(e.g., parts)—its structure, I focus on what it does—its function. I define
machine like quality in the following way.
A “good machine” is a piece of equipment, animal, person, or a group
of people that/who is able to:

1. Predictably arrive at a particular desired effect, well defined, and pre-

set in advance. The result can be different. It can involve arriving at a
specific desired temperature (e.g., a heater, refrigerator, microwave),
or moving people (e.g., a car, ship, airplane, horse, rickshaw, human
carrier), or depositing to or withdrawing money from a bank (e.g.,
bank teller, ATM), and so on.
2. Extinguish any of its own desires and goals except ones that are
aimed at an effective, efficient, and successful accomplishment of #1.
A machine, with its own desires and goals unrelated to its primary
function defining it as a machine, would interfere with its primary
function and will be viewed as unreliable, inefficient, and malfunc-
tioning.
3. Be replaceable with another similar machine with regard to the func-
tion it does.
4. Be reliably reproduced on demand.

The first two principles define a technological practice that Aristo-

tle (2000) called “poïesis.” Poïesis is a practice, in which its goal, the
desire, the outcome, and the definition of quality are predefined and pre-
set before the practice itself. Aristotle’s own example of such a practice-as-
poïesis was shoemaking because a shoemaker knew the goal, the outcome,

1 http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/machine.
2 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer. I am thankful to Sergeiy Sendler for direct-
ing me to this fact.
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[296]

Schimkewitsch, Zeitschr. f. wiss. Zool. lix. 1895, p. 46.

[297]

Hatschek, Arb. Zool. Inst. Wien, iii. 1881, p. 79.

[298]

Fraipont, "Le Genre Polygordius," Fauna u. Flora des Golfes v.

Neapel, Monogr. xiv. 1887.

[299]

T. J. Parker, Lessons in Elementary Biology, London, 1891, p. 267,

gives a full account of the anatomy and development of
Polygordius.

[300]

"Die Capitelliden," Fauna u. Flora d. Golfes v. Neapel, Monogr. xvi.

1887, p. 350.

[301]

Encyclopaedia Britannica, 9th ed., Art. "Mollusca," p. 652.

[302]

Benham, "The Post-Larval Stage of Arenicola," J. Mar. Biol. Assoc.

iii. (n.s.) 1893, p. 48.

[303]

The blood is colourless in Syllidae and Nephthydidae.

[304]

Ehlers states that some Eunicidae have green blood.

[305]

Benham, Quart. J. Micr. Sci. xxxix. 1896, p. 1.

[306]

Schaeppi, Jena. Zeit. xxviii. 1894, p. 217.

[307]

Goodrich, Quart. J. Micr. Sci. xxxiv. 1893, p. 387.

[308]

Benham, Quart. J. Micr. Sci. xxxii. 1891, p. 325. See also Bourne
(nephridium of Polynoë), Tr. Linn. Soc. (Zool.), ii. 1883, p. 357;
Meyer, for nephridium of Terebellidae, Sabellidae, and Cirratulidae,
in Mt. Zool. Stat. Neapel, vii. 1887, p. 592.

[309]

It is worthy of note that in Aeolosoma alone amongst the

Oligochaeta does the brain lie in the prostomium in the adult.

[310]

Andrews, "The Eyes of Polychaetes," J. Morph. vii. 1892, p. 169.

[311]

Wistinghausen, "Entwick. v. N. dumerilii," Mt. Zool. Stat. Neapel, x.

1891, p. 41.

[312]

This is a modification of the classification proposed by me at the

meeting of the British Association at Oxford, 1894 (see Report, p.
696). For further characteristics of these Orders and sub-Orders
see below Chap. XII. Ehlers, "Die Borstenwürmer," 1864, gives a
historical survey of the group, and enumerates the earlier
classifications.

[313]

In Coabangia (see p. 284) the anus is near the anterior end, on the
ventral surface.
[314]

It is doubtful whether these organs are palps or only lateral lips.

[315]

Pruvot traced the nerve supply to these organs, and thus

established their homology. Arch. d. Zool. Expér. (ser. 2) iii. 1885,
p. 211.

[316]

Meyer, "Stud. ub. d. Körperbau der Anneliden," Mt. Zool. Stat.

Neapel, vii. 1887, p. 592; viii. 1888, p. 462. In this work a great
number of important and interesting anatomical facts are recorded
with respect to the Terebelliformia and Sabelliformia, as well as
certain details as to the structure and development of the
nephridia.

[317]

In some of the members of this family paired lateral tentacles

appear to exist.

[318]

It is possible that some of these may be peristomial.

[319]

Individual cases in which chaetae are present have been

recorded.

[320]

Meyer, loc. cit.

[321]

Haswell, P. Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales, vii. 1883, p. 251.

[322]
Eisig, "Die Capitelliden," Fauna u. Flora G. v. Neapel, Monogr. xvi.
1887, p. 331.

[323]

Compare with this the muscular organ of Dinophilus, p. 243,

Protodrilus, and a similar structure which occurs in Terebellids.

[324]

Korschelt, "Über Ophryotrocha puerilis," Zeitschr. f. wiss. Zool. lv.

1893, p. 224.

[325]

Eisig, Mt. Zool. Stat. Neapel, ii. 1881, p. 255.

[326]

They are specially large also in the Typhloscolecidae; while

Racovitza (Ann. Mag. N. H. (ser. 6), xv. 1895, p. 279) has recently
suggested that the caruncle of Amphinomidae belongs to the
category of nuchal organs, and compares it with the ciliated
lappets of Pterosyllis.

[327]

Ehlers, Zeitschr. f. wiss. Zool. liii. 1892, p. 217.

[328]

See Claparède and Metschnikoff, "Beit. zur Kennt. d. Entwick der

Chaetopoden," Zeitschr. f. wiss. Zool. xix. 1869, p. 163; and
Fewkes, "On the Development of certain Worm Larvae," Bulletin
Mus. Harvard, xi. 1883, p. 167.

[329]

For an account of the anatomy and development of a

Trochosphere, see Hatschek, on Eupomatus, in Arbeit. Zool. Inst.
Wien, vi. 1885. Also Meyer, Mt. Zool. Stat. Neapel, viii. 1888, p.
462; and for Polynoid larva see Häcker, Zool. Jahrb. Abth. Anat.
viii. 1895, p. 245.

[330]

See Meyer (ref. on p. 261).

[331]

Many of the Polynoids are sexually dimorphic.

[332]

Claparède, "Annélides Chétopodes du Golfe de Naples,"

Supplement, 1870; and Wistinghausen, Mt. Zool. Stat. Neapel, x.
1891, p. 41.

[333]

Claparède used the term "epigamous" for this phase; Ehlers

employed the term "epitokous," whilst he called the "Nereid" phase
"atokous," under the impression that the worm did not become
mature in this condition.

[334]

Malaquin gives a detailed account of the asexual reproduction in

Syllidae in Recherches sur les Syllidiens, Lille, 1893, and in Revue
Biol. d. Nord de la France, iii. 1891. See also St. Joseph, "Les
annelides polychétes des côtes de Dinard," Ann. Sci. Nat. Zool.
(7th ser.) i. 1886, p. 134.

[335]

Alex. Agassiz, Boston J. Nat. Hist. vii. 1863, p. 384.

[336]

Huxley, Edinb. New Philosoph. Journ. 1855, i. p. 113.

[337]
"Challenger" Reports, vol. xii. 1885, "Polychaeta," p. 198; and Oka,
Zoolog. Centralbl. ii. 1895, p. 591.

[338]

Two new heads have been observed in Typosyllis variegata by

Langerhans, and two new tails in another Syllis.

[339]

Dalyell, The Powers of the Creator revealed, etc., vol. ii. 1853, p.
225 et seq.

[340]

von Kennel, Arb. Zool. Instit. Würzburg, vi. 1883, p. 259.

[341]

Leidy, Proc. Acad. Nat. Hist. Philadelphia, 1883, p. 204.

[342]

Giard, C. R. Soc. Biol. v. 1893, p. 473.

[343]

See M‘Intosh, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (ser. 4) ii. 1868, p. 276.

[344]

Lankester has suggested that a strong acid is secreted for the

purpose, see Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (ser. 4) i. 1868, p. 233.

[345]

M‘Intosh, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (ser. 6) xiii. 1894, p. 1.

[346]

Dalyell, The Powers of the Creator revealed, ii. 1853, p. 217.

[347]
Watson, Journ. R. Mic. Soc. 1890, p. 685; see also Dalyell, loc. cit.
ii. p. 195.

[348]

Schmiedeberg, Mt. Zool. Stat. Neapel, iii. 1882, p. 373.

[349]

For pelagic forms, see Camille Viguier, Arch. de Zool. Expér. (ser.
2) iv. 1886, p. 347; also Reibisch, Die pelag. Phyllodociden u.
Typhloscoleciden d. Plankton Exped. 1895.

[350]

Lankester, Journ. Anat. and Physiol. 1868, p. 114; and 1870, p.

119; see also MacMunn, "On the Chromatology of the Blood in
some Invertebrates," Quart. J. Micr. Sci. xxv. 1885, p. 469.

[351]

For coloured pictures of worms consult Schmarda, "Neue

wirbellose Thiere," 2nd part, 1861; Milne Edwards in Cuvier's
"Règne Animal" (Ed. Disciples de Cuvier).

[352]

Semper, Animal Life, "Internat. Sci. Series," 1881, p. 401.

[353]

The experiments were made by Mr. Garstang at the Laboratory of

the Marine Biological Association, and are recorded by Poulton in
The Colours of Animals, "Internat. Sci. Series," 1890, p. 201.

[354]

Panceri, Atti Acad. Sci. Napoli, vii. 1875.

[355]

M‘Intosh, H.M.S. "Challenger" Reports, "Polychaeta," vol. xii. p. ix.

[356]

For an account of these worms see M‘Intosh, loc. cit. p. 257.

[357]

For a list of parasitic Polychaetes see St. Joseph, Ann. Sci. Nat.
(ser. 7) v. 1888, p. 141.

[358]

Semper, loc. cit. p. 340.

[359]

See "Challenger Reports," and St. Joseph, loc. cit.

[360]

"Challenger" Reports, loc. cit. p. xxx.

[361]

See Hornell, Fauna of Liverpool Bay, Report III. 1892, p. 126.

[362]

Zittel, Handbuch d. Palaeontologic (Palaeozoologie), i. 1876-80, p.

562.

[363]

Ehlers, Zeitschr. f. wiss. Zool. xviii. 1868, p. 241.

[364]

The Chaetopteridae may have to be placed elsewhere in the

system, as they are peculiarly modified, and present features
recalling the Cryptocephala, from which it is possible they have
descended.

[365]
Meyer (Mt. Zool. Stat. Neapel, vii. 1887, p. 669, note) suggests
that the tentacular filaments of Cirratulids are really prostomial, but
have shifted back on to the peristomium, or even farther.

[366]

It is probable that the genital ducts of Sternaspis and

Chlorhaemids are modified nephridia.

[367]

The character of head and parapodium in each family will be

gathered from the figures accompanying the general description in
Chap. X., so that detailed description is unnecessary. In all cases
the chaetae form valuable specific characters.

The examples of the various families are British, unless the

opposite is expressly stated; but most of them are not confined to
our shores, and the foreign localities are usually given. No attempt
is made to enumerate all the British species.

The following books may be found useful for identifying the

worms:—

Claparède, Recherches anat. sur les Annélides observées dans les

Hebrides, 1861; Annélides Chétopodes du golfe de Naples, 1868, and
Suppl., 1870.
Cunningham and Ramage, "Polychaeta Sedentaria of the Firth of Forth,"
Trans. Roy. Soc. Edinburgh, xxxiii. 1888, p. 635.
Ehlers, Die Borstenwürmer, 1868.
Johnston, "British Museum Catalogue of Non-Parasitical Worms," 1865.
M‘Intosh, "British Annelida," Trans. Zool. Soc. ix. 1877, p. 371; "Invert.
Marine Fauna of St. Andrews; Annelida," Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (4) xiv. 1874,
p. 144.
Malmgren, "Nordiska Hafs-Annulater," Öfversigt af K. Vet.-Akad.
Förhandlingar, 1865, pp. 51, 181, 355; and "Annulata Polychaeta," ibid.
1867, p. 127.
 St. Joseph, "Les Annélides Polychétes des côtes de Dinard," Ann. Sci. Nat.
(Zool.) (7) vol. i. 1886, p. 127; v. 1888, p. 141; xvii. 1894, p. 1; xx. 1895, p.
185.

[368]

Malaquin, Recherches sur les Syllidiens, 1893; for structure of the

gizzard, see also Haswell, Quart. J. Micr. Sci. xxvi. 1886, p. 471;
and xxx. 1889, p. 31.

[369]

See M‘Intosh's Memoirs, loc. cit.

[370]

Herein are included the various genera formed by Kinberg,

Malmgren, and others.

[371]

It appears to be the same as P. grubiana Clap.

[372]

Marenzeller has shown that Johnston's P. scolopendrina is not

identical with that of Savigny, and suggests the above name for it.

[373]

F. Buchanan, "Report on Polychaetes, Part I." Sci. Proc. Roy.

Dublin Soc. vii. (n.s.) 1893, p. 169.

[374]

Polyodontes Ran. deserves mention as being a large, rare form

with peculiar pedal gland; cf. Eisig (ref. on p. 268), p. 324; and
Buchanan, Quart. J. Micr. Sc. xxxv. 1894, p. 433.

[375]

Many authorities regard this species as synonymous with

Savigny's P. laminosa.
[376]

According to a verbal communication from Mr. J. Hornell of Jersey,

they belong to P. maculata Müll., while Mr. Garstang believes them
to belong to Eulalia viridis.

[377]

These segmentally-arranged brown spots may perhaps be

photogenic.

[378]

Greef, Acta Ac. German., xxxix. 1877.

[379]

Greef, Zeitschr. f. wiss. Zool. xlii. 1885, p. 432.

[380]

Buchanan, Quart. J. Micr. Sci. xxxv. 1894, p. 445.

[381]

Buchanan, Sci. Proc. R. Dublin Soc. viii. (n.s.) 1893, p. 169.

[382]

Reibisch, Phyllodociden u. Typhloscoleciden d. Plankton Exped.

1895.

[383]

The British species is usually referred to as C. insignis Baird, but

Joyeux Laffuie (Arch. Zool. Exp. (ser. 2) viii. 1890, p. 244) has
shown that there is only one European species. It is possible that
there is a closer affinity with the Sabelliformia than is at present
supposed.

[384]

Compare Sternaspis, p. 336.

[385]

For literature, see Benham, Quart. J. Micr. Sci. xxxix. part 1, 1896,
p. 1.

[386]

F. Buchanan, Quart. J. Micr. Sci. xxxi. 1890, p. 175.

[387]

In some genera there are no gills, e.g. Leaena.

[388]

These characters are not necessarily generic.

[389]

Eisig, "Die Capitelliden," Fauna u. Flora G. v. Neapel, Monogr. xvi.

1887.

[390]

Ed. Meyer., Arch. mikr. Anat. xxi. 1882, p. 769.

[391]

Vejdovsky, Denk. Akad. Wien, xliii. 1882, part 2, p. 33; and

Rietsch, Ann. Sci. Nat. (Zool.) ser. 6, xiii. 1882, art. 5.

[392]

For anatomy see Meyer, Mt. Zool. Stat. Neapel, vii. 1887.

[393]

Andrews, Journ. Morph. v. 1891, p. 271.

[394]

A. G. Bourne, Quart. J. Micr. Sci. xxiii. 1883, p. 168.

[395]
Closely allied is Manayunkia Leidy, which occurs in fresh-water
lakes of America. Another fresh-water genus is Coabangia Giard,
which perhaps deserves the creation of a special family. The anus
is ventral and anterior. The chaetae are peculiarly arranged, dorsal
uncini being present only on four segments. The first body
segment carries a ventral bundle of five great "palmate" chaetae.

[396]

For the anatomy see Meyer, Mt. Stat. Neapel, vii. 1887; see also
above, p. 306.

[397]

von Graff, "Myzostomida," "Challenger" Reports, part 27, vol. x.

1884; and "Supplement," part 61, vol. xx. 1887.

[398]

Marenzeller, Anz. Akad. Wien, xxxii. p. 192.

[399]

Mt. Zool. Stat. Neapel, xii. 1896, p. 227; where, too, see literature.

[400]

Beard, Mt. Zool. St. Neap. v. 1884, p. 544.

[401]

Quart. J. Micr. Sci. (n.s.) vol. iv. 1864, p. 258; and v. pp. 7, 99.

[402]

Zeitschr. wiss. Zool. xix. 1869, p. 563.

[403]

De Lumbrici terrestris Historia naturali, Brussels, 1829.

[404]
Naturg. ein. Wurm-Arten d. süssen u. salzigen Wasser,
Copenhagen, 1771.

[405]

Trans. Roy. Soc. Victoria, vol. i. 1888, p. 1.

[406]

Phil. Trans. clxxxvi. 1895, A, p. 383.

[407]

Mém. cour. Ac. Belg. lii. 1890-93.

[408]

Quart. J. Micr. Sci. xxxi. 1890, p. 83.

[409]

Beddard, Ibid. xxxiii. 1892, p. 325.

[410]

Beddard, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (6) xiii. 1894, p. 205.

[411]

Mém. Soc. Zool. France, iii. 1890, p. 223.

[412]

Vegetable Mould and Earthworms, London, 1881.

[413]

Zool. Anz. xi. 1888, p. 72.

[414]

See Fletcher, P. Linn. Soc. N.S.W. (2) iii. 1889, p. 1542.

[415]

In Sitzungs-Ber. Böhm. Ges. 1889, p. 183.

[416]

See Dr. Rosa in Ann. Hofmus. Wien, vi. 1891, p. 379.

[417]

Entwickelungsgeschichtliche Untersuchungen, Prag, Heft i. 1888,

p. 33.

[418]

See Kleinenberg, Quart. J. Micr. Sci. xix., 1879, p. 206.

[419]

Both Col. Feilden and Mr. Trevor-Battye found specimens in

Kolguiev.

[420]

Neue wirbellose Thiere, Leipzig, ii. 1861, p. 11.

[421]

Kew Bull. Misc. Information, No. 46, 1890.

[422]

Rev. Biol. Nord France, i. 1889, p. 197.

[423]

SB. Ges. naturf. Berlin, 1893, p. 19.

[424]

System u. Morph. d. Oligochaeten, Prag, 1884.

[425]
See my text-book of Zoogeography (Cambridge, 1895) for fuller
treatment.

[426]

Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (6) ix. 1892, p. 12.

[427]

Darwin, Vegetable Mould and Earthworms, p. 121.

[428]

"An Attempt to classify Earthworms," Quart. J. Micr. Sci. xxxi.

1890, p. 201.

[429]

Oxford, 1895.

[430]

See especially Vejdovsky, Syst. u. Morph. Olig. Prag, 1884.

[431]

Vejdovsky, Monographie der Enchytraeiden, Prag, 1879.

Michaelsen, "Synopsis der Enchytraiden," Abh. Ver. Hamburg, xi.
1889, p. 1.

[432]

J. P. Moore, "The Anatomy of Bdellodrilus," J. Morphol. x. 1895, p.

497.

[433]

Beddard, Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin. xxxv. 1890, p. 629, and xxxvi.
1892, p. 1.

[434]
A. G. Bourne, "On the Naidiform Oligochaeta," Quart. J. Micr. Sci.
xxxii. 1891, p. 335.

[435]

F. E. Beddard, Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin. xxxvi. 1892, p. 273.

[436]

Vejdovsky, System u. Morph. d. Oligochaeten, Prag, 1884.

[437]

"Anatomical Notes on Sutroa," Zoe. ii. 1892, p. 321.

[438]

"Pacific Coast Oligochaeta," Mem. California Acad. Sci. vol. ii.

[439]

Quart. J. Micr. Sci. xxxvi. 1894, p. 307.

[440]

See Spencer, Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict. v. 1893, and Fletcher, P. Linn.
Soc. N.S.W. 1886-1888, for Australian forms; Rosa, Ann. Mus. civ.
Genova, vi. 1886, x. 1890, and xii. 1892, for Oriental species, etc.

[441]

See Fletcher and Spencer, already quoted, for Australian species.

[442]

Eisen, "Anat. Studies on Ocnerodrilus," Proc. Calif. Acad. (2) iii.

1892, p. 228.

[443]

Beddard, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (6) x. 1892, p. 74.

[444]
Beddard, P. Z. S. 1885 and 1895, for Antarctic Acanthodrilids;
Michaelsen, in Jahrb. Hamburg. Anst. 1888-95, for Benhamia.

[445]

For a general account of the Eudrilidae, see my Monograph of the

Order Oligochaeta, Oxford, 1895.

[446]

Nouv. Arch. Mus. Paris, viii. 1872, p. 5.

[447]

The scattered literature of this family is due to Benham,

Michaelsen, Perrier, Rosa, and others.

[448]

Rosa, "Revisione dei Lumbricidae," Mem. Acc. Torino (2), xliii.

1893, p. 399; also the Rev. H. Friend's numerous and useful
papers, and especially "A New Species of Earthworms," Proc. Roy.
Irish Ac. (3) ii. 1891-93, p. 402; and "The Earthworms of Ireland,"
Irish Nat. v. 1896, p. 69, etc.

[449]

In the tables the figures refer to the segments of the body.

Opposite the name of each species are two sets of lines; the upper
series indicate the segments occupied by the clitellum; the lower
series those occupied by the tubercula pubertatis. The dots
indicate the occasional extension of the clitellum or of the
tubercula.

[450]

"Annelés," vol. iii. 1889-90, p. 477, in the Suites à Buffon.

[451]

See v. Kennel, Zool. Jahrb. ii. 1887, p. 37.

[452]

Nouvelle Monographie des Sangsues médicinales. Paris, 1857.

[453]

Quart. J. Micr. Sci. xxvi. 1886, p. 317.

[454]

See Grube, "Annulaten" of Middendorff's Sibirische Reise,

Zoology, 1851, p. 20; and Kowalevsky, Bull. Ac. St. Petersb. v.
June 1896.

[455]

See ref. on p. 395.

[456]

Asajiro Oka, Zeitschr. wiss. Zool. lviii. 1894, p. 79.

[457]

See Bürger, quoted on p. 403.

[458]

Loc. cit.

[459]

Quart. J. Micr. Sci. xxiv. 1884, p. 419; see also ibid. xxxiv. 1893, p.
545, which is mainly a criticism of Bolsius' additions to the very
considerable literature upon the Leech nephridium.

[460]

"Spermatophores as a Means of Hypodermic Impregnation," J.

Morphol. iv. 1891, p. 361.

[461]
Zeitschr. wiss. Zool. lviii. 1894, p. 440; and Zool. Jahrb. Anat. iv.
1891, p. 697.

[462]

"Annelés," vol. iii. 1889-90, p. 493, in the Suites à Buffon.

[463]

Whitman quotes with regretful approval (Proc. Americ. Acad. xx.

1884-85, p. 76) Sir J. Dalyell's remark, "It does not appear that the
history of the leech has advanced in proportion to the number of
literati who have rendered it the subject of discussion," and adds
on his own account the following severe indictment of his
predecessors: "As a considerable share of the work done in this
direction is purely systematic, it is somewhat surprising that not a
single description of any Hirudo has been given with sufficient
accuracy and completeness for a close comparison of even its
more important external characters with those of other species."

[464]

"Hirudinées de l'Italie," etc., Boll. Mus. Zool. Torino, vol. ix. 1894,
No. 192. See also Apathy, "Süsswasser-Hirudineen," Zool. Jahrb.
Syst. iii. 1888, p. 725.

[465]

Zeitschr. f. die gesammt. Naturwiss. vi. 1872, p. 422.

[466]

But Pennant in his British Zoology has referred to a leech which is

even larger. Upon the huge Basking shark (Selache) the fishermen
sometimes observe a leech, which invariably drops off when the
fish is brought to the surface, "of a reddish colour and about 2 feet
in length"; this may be a Pontobdella.

[467]

Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (6) xii. 1893, p. 75.