How To Write Qualitative Research

Marcus B. Weaver-Hightower
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 How to Write
Qualitative Research

Qualitative research has exploded in popularity in nearly every discipline from the social sciences to health
fields to business. While many qualitative textbooks explain how to conduct an interview or analyze
fieldnotes, rarely do they give more than a few scant pages to the skill many find most difficult: writing.
That’s where How to Write Qualitative Research comes in. Using clear prose, helpful examples,
and lists, it breaks down and explains the most common writing tasks in qualitative research, and each
chapter suggests step-​by-​step how-​to approaches writers can use to tackle those tasks.
Topics include:

• writing about and with qualitative data

• composing findings
• organizing chapters and sections
• using grammar for powerful writing
• revising for clarity
• writing conclusions, methods sections, and theory
• creating and writing about visuals
• writing different types of qualitative research and different document types

Each chapter features real-​world examples from both professionals and students, hands-​on practice
activities, and template sentences that show qualitative writers how to get started.
This text provides the perfect companion for writers of almost any skill level, from undergraduates
to professionals. Whether you are writing a course paper, a dissertation, or your next book, How to
Write Qualitative Research will help you write clearer, more effective qualitative research.

Marcus B. Weaver-​Hightower is Professor of Educational Foundations and Research at the University

of North Dakota, USA. He has written award-​winning qualitative research on gender, education, food
policy, and qualitative methods, and he has guided dozens of students through successful qualitative
dissertations.
How to Write
Qualitative Research

Marcus B. Weaver-​Hightower
First published 2019
by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN
and by Routledge
711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 2019 Marcus B. Weaver-​Hightower
The right of Marcus B. Weaver-​Hightower to be identified as author of this work
has been asserted by him in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright,
Designs and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilized
in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or
hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information
storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks,
and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
A catalog record for this book has been requested
ISBN: 978-​1-​138-​06630-​4 (hbk)
ISBN: 978-​1-​138-​06631-​1 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-​1-​315-​15926-​3 (ebk)
Typeset in Frutiger
by Out of House Publishing
Visit the eResources: www.routledge.com/9781138066311
To Michael Apple, who models how to research deeply,
think fairly, and write accessibly.
 Contents

Tables and figures ix

Acknowledgements xii

Introduction 1

PART I: G E N E RA L WR I TI NG PR O C ESSES F OR QU A LITAT IVE RE S E A RCH E RS  7

1 Writing happens throughout qualitative research 9

2 Writing with structure 19

3 Writing with grammar in mind 39

4 Revising is the soul of puts the soul in writing 67

PART II: W RIT IN G YO UR STUDY 89

5 Writing to show you were there 91

6 Writing about and with qualitative data 107

7 Writing valid qualitative findings, assertions, and conclusions 131

8 Writing about theory and literature 152

9 Writing about qualitative methods 171

10 Writing with and about visuals 193

11 Writing different genres of qualitative research 225

 viii  Contents

12 Writing different kinds of documents 239

Wrapping up: 10 maxims for good qualitative writing 254

References 255
Index 266
 Tables and figures

Tables

8.1 A planning table for identifying organization, gaps, and necessary citations 160
9.1 Transcription conventions (based on Jefferson, 2004) 181
10.1 Attendance by committee members at Australian legislative hearings
(Weaver-​Hightower, 2006) 196
10.2 Participant information example (Karasouli et al., 2014) 199
10.3 Timeline of major events in the production and implementation of Boys:
Getting it Right (House of Representatives Standing Committee on
Education and Training, 2002). Reprinted from Weaver-Hightower (2008c) 205
10.4 Topics for analyzing visuals, adapted from Clarke (2005, pp. 227–​228) 223

Figures

1.1 A page from my fieldnotes on “designed dependency” and its translation

to the finished book (Weaver-​Hightower, 2008c, pp. 101, 107) 13
2.1 A page from my dissertation outline 21
2.2 Some approaches to writing interesting titles you might try, with examples 23
2.3 Breakdown of Johansson and Toraldo’s (2017) abstract 25
2.4 Sample transitions and signal words 31
2.5 Ending paragraph from Barken and Lowndes (2018, p. 69) 37
3.1 Basic rules for commas 59
3.2 Taking a concept from abstract to concrete: Microagressions 65
3.3 Taking a concept from concrete to abstract: Comic book 65
4.1 Suggested general “waves” of revision 70
4.2 Marcus’ wordiness list 73
5.1 Context paragraph from Thordarson (2016) 94
5.2 Photograph of a South African township school 97
6.1 An example of the SQC model (Milner, 2004) 115
6.2 An example paragraph from Kuhaneck et al. (2010) 116
 x   Tables and figures

7.1 Basic argument model, adapted from Toulmin (2003) 132

7.2 A member checking example for Weaver-​Hightower’s (2011a) study
on school food reformers 146
8.1 Theoretical framework paragraphs from Olli et al. (2014) 162
8.2 Example literature paragraphs from Leker’s (2017) dissertation
on stereotype threat in STEM 165
8.3 Diagram of Lin’s (2001) theory of reflective adaptation in a
Hong Kong classroom 168
9.1 Example of a negative case analysis from Weaver-​Hightower (2008c) 186
9.2 The methods section from Weaver-​Hightower (2010). With permission
of Taylor and Francis, www.tandfonline.com 189
10.1 A comic strip 194
10.2 Conceptual framework of Judith Butler’s (1990) theory of gender
performativity (Weaver-​Hightower, 2011b) 197
10.3 A mind map of data from a study of Mary Breckenridge’s life
(Baugh, McNallen, & Frazelle, 2014) 198
10.4 A conversation analysis transcript example (Beeke et al., 2014). No changes
were made. https://​creativecommons.org/​licenses/​by/​3.0/​legalcode 201
10.5 Codebook from study on informational texts in kindergartens. Moses,
Serafini, and Loyd, “Looking Closely at Informational Texts: Considering the
Role(s) of Mentor Texts for Kindergarten Children,” Journal of Research in
Childhood Education, ©2016 The Association for Childhood Education,
www.acei.org, reprinted by permission of Taylor & Francis Ltd,
www.tandfonline.com, on behalf of the Association for Childhood Education 203
10.6 Kalash’s (2009) data analysis chart, moving from codes to final assertions 203
10.7 Timeline of gender and education policy in Australia
(Weaver-​Hightower, 2008c) 204
10.8 Life history calendar. Reprinted from Social Science Research, Vol 28,
Axinn, Pearce & Ghimire, “Innovations in Life History Calendar
Applications,” p. 258, copyright 1999, with permission from Elsevier 206
10.9 Visual relationship timeline. From Goldenberg, Finneran, Andes and
Stephenson (2016), “Using Participant-​Empowered Visual Relationship
Timelines in a Qualitative Study of Sexual Behaviour,” Global Public Health;
Taylor & Francis Ltd, www.tandfonline.com, reprinted by permission
of the publisher 207
10.10 Example organization chart. Members of the Australian House of
Representatives’ Committee on Education and Training during the
40th Parliament. The photographs are public domain 208
 Tables and figures   xi

10.11 Ecology diagram for US school lunch policy. Reprinted from Robert
and Weaver-​Hightower, School Food Politics (2011, p. 8) 209
10.12 Procedural diagram example (Weaver-​Hightower, 2014) 211
10.13 Map of serious crime near elementary schools over eight days.
Map data by Google 212
10.14 Ropes course diagram and overview map 213
10.15 Word cloud of personal health record blogs. Reprinted from
Chinta & Raghavan (2015). No changes were made;
https://​creativecommons.org/​licenses/​by/​4.0/​ 214
10.16 Photograph of statue informally called “Cock Rock” 215
10.17 Drawing of school uniform variations for girls and boys 216
10.18 Grounded theory of tourism behavior at a resort in Hawaii.
Reprinted from Martin and Woodside (2008, p. 253), Journal of
Travel & Tourism Marketing. Used by permission of Taylor and
Francis, www.tandfonline.com 217
10.19 A comparison of two tables, one with “chartjunk” (Table A) and
one without (Table B) 218
10.20 Franklin Sage’s (2017) indigenous research methodology figure.
Used by permission of the author 219
12.1 A sample Fulbright grant rationale (unpublished manuscript) 244
12.2 A comparison of bad and good slide design 251
newgenprepdf

Acknowledgements

I owe thanks to many people for their help, either for inspiring this book or for guiding it to comple-
tion. My deepest apologies to anyone I have neglected here.
Thanks to the many anonymous reviewers of my work over the years who have taught me to
write better –​whether I wanted them to or not!
At Routledge, Hannah Shakespeare provided insightful guidance and trust, and Matthew
Bickerton excelled with even the smallest of details.
My colleagues and students at the University of North Dakota have been great teachers about
writing and research. Special thanks to Renee Nilsen for incredibly helpful comments that gave me
a learner’s perspective, and to Renuka de Silva for her careful editing. I also thank my departmental
colleagues, particularly Cheryl and Josh, Kathy, Richard, Rob, Sam, Steve, and Virginia.
Michael Apple showed me (and so many of us) that accessible writing can be smart and theor-
etically savvy, too. Many of my other professors during grad school did similarly for me, including Jim
Gee, David Bloome, and Deb Brandt.
Most importantly, I owe thanks to my family –​my wife, my children, and my angel babies.
Becky is the best foxhole companion one could want in the trenches of writing –​and in life. Thanks,
Sweetie, for all the advice and readings, not to mention for bearing with me all these years. And Evie,
now that Daddy’s done writing the book, we can finally finish that Lego Wonder Woman castle. And
Harrison, after that, you and I can try out that new VR helmet you got. Sorry to keep you both waiting.
 Introduction

I remember when I discovered the power of writing. It was eighth grade, and Meredith, the girl I was
“going with,” could manipulate my head and heart with every note she clandestinely passed in class.
She wrote superbly, and when I realized the power that skill had over me, I knew I had to become
better at writing.
Many great stories and songs, I suppose, start with such a romance. Yet great stories also revolve
around tragedy. Or comedy. Action and adventure. Travel. Oppression or adversity and overcoming
them. The collision of strangers. Fantastic new worlds, cultures, and creatures. By writing about
these –​trading ideas by making marks on a page –​humans express the wonders that billions of
versions of life can hold. When written well, ideas can transform lives, cultures, and history. Or, to crib
Mr. Keaton in the movie Dead Poets Society –​and more compelling to me as that eighth-​grader –​
good writing can “woo women.” Or men. Or both.
Rather than changing history or snaring mates, though, I have more modest goals for helping
you. I hope How to Write Qualitative Research will live up to its title and help you write good quali-
tative research. Done well, qualitative research can change ways of thinking in academia, in profes-
sional practice, in policy and politics, and in societies. It can give insights into ways of living, practices,
contexts, relationships, and human impacts so that people better understand ourselves and others.
Perhaps this book will help you in making those impacts yourself.
As my title also suggests, this book provides “how to” advice. The book longs to snuggle up
beside your laptop while keystrokes are being put to page. It wants to be decorated with sticky
flags and scribblings in the margin. I have thus tried to make it practical and logical, with many
examples that clarify processes. Having geared the book toward the pragmatic, I anticipate that those
with deeply held stances toward scientificity (of whatever variety, conservative or progressive) will
have numerous objections. I look forward to hearing those objections; feel free to email me. I am
not unaware of the complexities of epistemology, ontology, aesthetics, and power dynamics that
qualitative representation invokes. I am, however, attempting both to write across vast disciplinary
differences and trying to avoid burdening new qualitative writers with the paralysis that sometimes
accompanies deep dives into philosophical reflexivity. Many other books can help with that.
The approach to writing I advocate may not appeal to all. I prefer clarity. Writing, to me, princi-
pally seeks to communicate ideas, not to impress others with huge, specialized vocabulary and long
multi-​clause sentences. Don’t get me wrong: Sometimes ideas are complicated and only struggling
can untangle their knots. Importantly, though, I argue that writers, not readers, must do the struggling
 2  Introduction

to clarify ideas. Too often academics mistake impenetrable writing for insightful writing, perhaps
believing that, if they were smarter, they could write the same 98-​word sentences written by some
famous philosopher or sociologist. It’s not true. That’s why a whole academic industry has grown up
around translating famous philosophers and sociologists into plain language! Students, especially,
need to realize that obscurity does not equal brilliance and clarity does not equal obviousness (see
also Howard S. Becker, 2008, Chapter 2). This book hopefully demonstrates what clarity can do for
your writing.
This book also reflects my reader-​ centered view of writing. Readers can only base their
understanding on what writers supply. Most qualitative writing doesn’t happen live, like in text
messages, where the reader and writer negotiate understanding in short exchanges, so writers must
be clear at submission. Readers can make decisions only on existing words, not what one meant
to say. If a reader of qualitative research didn’t “get” what a writer “meant,” the writer almost
always deserves the blame. Effective writing, then, requires anticipating readers’ needs and desires as
much as possible. Throughout this book I pull back the curtain on the shadowy mindset of “average
readers” so you can anticipate their wants and needs.
Writing qualitative research, at its core, involves translating the complex, deep experience of
fieldwork or data analysis into an understandable story for readers. Readers want to see and feel the
scenes you witnessed; they want a sense of “being there.” But they don’t want to wade through every
note you wrote and every transcript you collected. Instead, your job as a writer involves selecting and
organizing experiences from the field so that readers get only the most necessary information. Not
“just the facts,” but purposely selected facts that explain something that matters. You supplement
these facts with descriptions and explanations that give life, context, theoretical understanding, dig-
nity, and importance to the humans involved.
These are not easy tasks. Yet conveying your participants’ world becomes easier with systematic
writing knowledge. This book aims to provide some of that systematic knowledge. You can learn
qualitative writing, just as anything else. The qualitative writer is an artisan, meaning they use artistry,
yes, but also craft and technical ability. You should strive to learn the qualitative writing trade if you
truly care about your research participants, readers, discipline, and students.
Even though qualitative writing is learnable, I am chastened by Kamler and Thompson’s (2008)
article, “The Failure of Dissertation Advice Books,” which I came across while composing this book.
(How to Write Qualitative Research does not primarily address dissertations, though I suspect many
readers might first write qualitative research for their dissertations). As Kamler and Thompson rightly
argued, many guidebooks for writing make four problematic moves:

(a) An expert–​novice relationship is produced and reproduced, (b) the process of writing a
dissertation is simplified to a series of linear steps, (c) writing advice is packaged as a set of
overgeneralized rules, and (d) the texts are emphatic and offer a paradox of reassurance and
fear. (p. 509)
 Introduction  3

I almost certainly fall into some of these traps in the following pages –​I didn’t call the book One
Possible Way of Writing Qualitative Research, for instance –​but I have assiduously tried to avoid
traps by doing some alternatives they recommended (p. 512). These include assuming that you, dear
reader, bring expertise to the writing, offering my advice as somewhat tentative and not applicable to
every writing situation, and framing that advice as situated broadly within the social context of aca-
demia, which students particularly are striving to join.

What this book doesn’t do

Fair warning: This book cannot cover everything you need to know about conducting qualitative
research. It focuses on writing. It does not, for instance, teach you how to plan or to collect and ana-
lyze data. Instead it explains how to write about methods and data. Many other texts teach the nuts
and bolts of research design and methods. This one belongs to a much smaller set focusing solely on
qualitative writing. (Other books I would recommend for qualitative writing include those by Wolcott
[2009], Biklen and Casella [2007], Woods [2006], and Golden-​Biddle and Locke [2007]. No slight
intended to any others I have not listed here.)
This book tends toward heuristics –​or “rules of thumb” –​and away from algorithms –​or math-
ematical formulas (Rose, 1980). Writing does have some algorithms, things that always work if you
do certain procedures. Mostly, though, writing has heuristics, things that feel or sound right for the
circumstance. If you are hoping that I’m going to give you the exact right thing to say about your
specific data, you will come away disappointed. No one can tell you that. I do have some ideas and
best practices to share, though.
I won’t pretend that I know everything about writing, nor can I put everything into this book. If
you have ideas for what I’ve left out or friendly suggestions about why I’m totally wrong, I invite you
to share those with me. My email address is mwh@und.edu.

About me

Writing about writing seems boastful just in the undertaking. So probably every book I’ve read on writing
does exactly what I’m about to do, which is to rationalize why I have the moxie to write about writing.
I am not a perfect writer myself and frequently have peer reviewers fuss at me for various foibles.
I do think of my qualitative writing as pretty strong, though, and I have earned some successes and
awards based on it. My curriculum vitae includes a qualitative monograph and numerous qualitative
articles that use a variety of qualitative methods.
I also have much experience with reading others’ writing. I earned my bachelor’s degree in English
and spent three years reading high schoolers’ essays. I got my masters in English education and a
 4  Introduction

doctorate in curriculum and instruction. I have peer reviewed for more than 30 academic journals and
for national grant programs in three countries. I have edited three essay collections. In my day job,
I have taught both basic and advanced qualitative research courses at the graduate level for nearly
15 years. I have read and directed dozens of dissertations in numerous disciplines. So I know many
rules and traditions, and I know what skillful writing looks and sounds like. This book grows from
what I have learned and relies on the insights of other writing guide authors.

Using this book

I intentionally constructed this book to be used in multiple ways. If you don’t like my order, it’s your
book, so read it however you like.
First, you can of course read cover to cover, front to back, straight through. Instructors of qualita-
tive research courses might prefer this tack. Or those who consider skipping around a heresy –​some-
thing that would provoke cold sweats –​might prefer going straight through.
For the straight-​through crowd, my chapter order might seem somewhat strange. Instead of
following the traditional qualitative manuscript order –​introduction, literature review, methods,
findings, discussion –​and telling you how to write each in sequence, I have divided the chapters into
two parts based on skillsets. Learning skillsets rather than chapter types gives you freedom to write
to fit your specific study, whether it has five traditional chapters or twelve experimental ones. Part I
discusses the writing process specific to qualitative research, beginning with writing’s central role in
all stages of qualitative research, then how to structure a manuscript and the writing within, then
grammar (gently!), and ending with the most important skill, revision. Part II focuses on putting your
study onto screen or page. I provide some tried and true methods for creating your presence in the
research, using data as evidence, crafting defensible findings, using literature and theory, describing
methods, and working with visuals. The final two chapters discuss how to write different “genres” of
qualitative research and different kinds of documents.
This book might also be read a second way. You may want to read single chapters, as needed.
As you write your dissertation, book, white paper, or other document, you can read the chapter on
whatever section you need help on.
For students and instructors, each chapter has pedagogical features for classroom use. Chapter
summaries seek to solidify understanding of the chapter. Throughout I provide real world examples
of qualitative writing that show what to do rather than simply telling you. And I have included lists,
tables, and figures that provide steps or templates to follow.
In Part II, on the specifics of writing your own study, I include template sentences at the end
of most chapters. These can give you a jump start; you don’t normally directly slot them into your
writing, but they prompt you to think about the relationships of ideas and how you might phrase
them. Templates offer those not already immersed in a discipline (students, in particular) practice
 16   Writing throughout qualitative research

happens live, in history, digitally, textually, visually, or otherwise. Because qualitative methods cannot
literally peer inside bodies, machines, or brains, qualitative writing avoids unqualified assumptions
about psychological states and motivations. It attends to causation located in the social world and the
explanations people in that world give. What policies, laws, cultural beliefs, or religious tenets guide
or limit how someone acts? What processes cause harmony or discord? How do the spaces humans
create enhance, restrict, or prohibit activity and meaning? What emotions and thoughts do people
explicitly attach to experiences? One calls writing qualitative only when it scrutinizes and attempts to
explain such social phenomenon.
Third, because qualitative research often engages deeply with people and places, qualitative
writing examines the day-​to-​day routines that structure human lives as well as unusual events that
disrupt or alter lives. Qualitative writing documents such events with detail and descriptive fidelity.
It doesn’t leap to generalizations without first detailing the concrete events, interactions, and words
of participants. Readers witness moments –​telling, typical, and atypical moments –​that exemplify
broader ways of life. Quantitative research often cannot see into this invisible world of context and
process, so qualitative research has an advantage here, too.
Fourth, qualitative writing attempts to bring the social world alive, to make it multi-​dimensional
on a two-​dimensional page. Qualitative writers highlight narratives and quotations that help readers
imagine the “feel” of people and places. They provide sensory details that encourage reader visual-
ization, showing rather than telling through thick descriptions (originally from Ryle, expanded on
by Geertz, 1973, Chap. 1). Geertz colorfully called this “exceedingly extended acquaintances with
extremely small matters” (p. 21). Qualitative researchers seek evidence of larger concerns –​like lit-
eracy learning, doctor effectiveness, change tolerance, kinship structures –​within the highly detailed
recounting of small, local events. Qualitative writing shows those small signals by recording as many
aspects of the social setting and participant behaviors as possible.
Fifth, qualitative research designs emerge and change as the study progresses. Qualitative
researchers don’t slavishly stick with opening hypotheses, but, instead, they respond to surprises and
the shattering of initial misunderstandings. Quantitative scholars –​poor things –​must anticipate every
answer they’ll get so they can put them into their instruments; they have little room for surprise –​
except when they add a qualitative item! Because of this inherent mutability of qualitative research,
writing a qualitative study involves detailing how methods changed, what events provoked unex-
pected insights, and even failures that happened along the way. Traditionalists might avoid discussing
failures for fear of losing credibility, but pragmatists realize failures always accompany human activity
and encourage one to do better next time.
Sixth, rather than formulas that compute the data for us, qualitative researchers employ their
own cognition to analyze the world. Qualitative researchers have only our human sense percep-
tion, our cognitive abilities, and our deep knowledge of a context gained through honest, prolonged
engagement from which to draw. Thus, qualitative writing keeps the researcher’s human specificity
in the reader’s mind. Good qualitative writing stays within the writer’s own experience and conveys
Another random document with
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gun and called it the Winchester Repeating Rifle. It is the outcrop of the old
Jennings rifle.”[221]
[221] From the Hartford Evening Post, Tuesday, Feb. 25, 1890.
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Porter: Engineering Reminiscences. N. Y., 1908.
Transactions of the Institution of Civil Engineers. London.
Transactions of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers. London.
Transactions of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers.
Journal of the Franklin Institute. Philadelphia.
 Files of “American Machinist,” New York.
Files of “Machinery,” New York.
Files of “Engineering Magazine,” New York.
Files of “Cassier’s Magazine,” New York.
Files of “Engineering News,” London.
Files of “Engineering,” London.
Much of the data in the latter portions of this book is derived from private
correspondence and personal interviews, and is, therefore, not available for
reference.
INDEX
 INDEX

Acme Wire Co.: 160.

Allen, Ethan: 226.
Allen, Walter: 264.
Alvord, J. D.: 192, 197.
American Brass Co.: 236.
American industries:
reasons for delayed development, 109-114;
influence of the cotton gin, 114.
American iron:
results of exportation to England, 110-113;
early production, 115.
American Pin Co.: 234.
American Screw Co.: 125, 198, 226;
pointed screw, 126.
American Steel & Wire Co.: 225-226.
“American system”: see Interchangeable manufacture.
American Tool Works: 269.
American Watch Co.:
interchangeable system, 144, 164.
American Wire Gauge: 205.
Ames Manufacturing Co.:
gun-making machinery, etc., 138, 140, 228-229.
Amoskeag Manufacturing Co.: 123, 124, 216-217, 253.
Andover, Mass.:
scythe mill, 117.
Angell, William G.: 126.
Ansonia Brass & Copper Co.: 234.
Ansonia Clock Co.: 234.
Arkwright, Sir Richard: 6, 64, 121, 150, 161.
Armstrong, Sir William: 105.
Arnold, Asa:
partner of Pitcher, 124.
Arnold, Jeremiah O.: 125.
Arnold, Joseph:
brother of Jeremiah, 125.
Atwood, L. J.: 237.
Babbage, Charles:
calculating machine, 59.
Baldwin, Matthias:
Baldwin Locomotive Works, 256.
Bancroft, Edward:
Bancroft & Sellers, 247.
Barber-Coleman Co.: 274.
Bardons & Oliver: 183, 265.
Barker, William:
partner of Lodge, 269-270.
Barnes, B. F.: 274.
Barnes, W. F. & John, Co.: 273.
Barnes Drill Co.: 274.
Baush Machine Tool Co.:
drilling machines, 230.
Bayley, O. W.: 217.
Beach, H. L.: 165.
Beach, H. B., & Son: 165.
Beale, Oscar J.:
accurate standards, 205.
Beckley, Elias:
gun shop, 162.
Bellows, E. H.: 222.
Bement, Clarence S.: 255.
Bement, William B.: 217, 219, 249, 252-254;
estimate of, 255;
hammer, 255.
Bement & Dougherty: 254.
Bement, Miles & Co.:
 history of, 254-255.
Benedict, Aaron:
brass worker, 232.
Benedict & Burnham: 234.
Benedict & Coe:
brass workers, 232.
Bentham Jeremy: 22, 25.
Bentham, Sir Samuel: 7, 22, 49, 89, 107;
work on Portsmouth block machinery, 8, 9, 18, 22, 26, 28;
in Russia, 23, 24;
in British navy service, 24;
woodworking machinery, 24, 25;
planer, 51;
patent of 1793, 38;
slide-rest, 6, 38;
relations with Maudslay, 89.
Bessemer, Sir Henry: 96.
Besly, Charles H., & Co.: 275.
Bibliography: 295-297.
Bickford, Henry: 272.
Bidwell, Jason A.: 198, 266.
Bilgram Machine Works:
gear cutting, 259.
Billings, Charles E.: 170, 174-175, 201.
Billings & Spencer Co.: 175-176.
Blake, Eli Whitney: 160.
Blake, Philos: 160.
Blaisdell, P., & Co.: 222.
Blanchard, Thomas: 220-221;
lathe for turning gun-stocks, 6, 140, 142, 219, 220-221.
Blenkinsop:
Locomotives, 56.
Block machinery: see Portsmouth block machinery.
Bodmer, John George: 75-80;
estimate of, 79;
diametral pitch, 70 note 66;
interchangeable manufacture, 76, 131;
 firearms, 76;
two patents, 77-79;
traveling crane, 77, 80;
mill machinery, 76.
Bond, George M.:
Rogers-Bond Comparator, 180-182.
Boring machines:
Smeaton’s, 2, 13;
Wilkinson’s, 3, 10, 11, 12, 13, 60;
in 18th century, 4.
Boston, Mass.:
heavy forge, 117.
Boston & Worcester R. R.: 220.
Boulton, Matthew: 145;
on Wilkinson’s boring machine, 3;
on Wilkinson, 145.
Boulton & Watt: 3, 11, 46, 55;
relations with Wilkinson, 12, 13.
Bow-string truss: 82.
Boye & Emmes Machine Tool Co.: 268, 271.
Bramah, Joseph: 7, 8, 15, 107;
estimate of, 19, 20;
invention of slide-rest, 6, 36;
planer, 50;
hydraulic press, 18;
machine for numbering banknotes, 19;
woodworking machinery, 18, 19, 24;
other inventions, 18;
relations with Maudslay, 17, 19, 33, 34;
with Watt, 18;
with Clement, 19, 58.
Bridgeport Brass Co.:
micrometer, 211-213.
Bridgeport Machine Tool Co.: 184.
British Small Arms Commission: 138, 140, 141.
Brooker, Charles F.: 236.
Brown, David: 126, 202.
Brown, Capt. James S.: 124.
Brown, Joseph R.: 126, 202;
estimate of, 215;
“Universal” miller, 138 note 163, 196, 208-209;
linear dividing engines, 202, 204-205, 206;
vernier caliper, 203;
formed milling cutter, 206, 207;
improvements on turret screw machine, 207;
universal grinder, 214.
Brown, Moses:
textile industry, 120, 121.
Brown, Sylvanus: 124.
inventor of slide-rest, 6;
slide lathe, 120.
Brown Hoisting Machine Co.: 258.
Brown & Elton:
wire and tubing, 233.
Brown & Sharpe Manufacturing Co.: 125, Chapter XVI;
J. R. Browne & Sharpe, 202, 204;
“Universal” miller, 138 note 163, 196, 208;
linear dividing engines, 206;
precision gear cutter, 206;
turret screw machines, 207-208;
limit gauges, 210;
micrometer caliper, 211-213;
cylindrical grinder, 213;
automatic gear cutters, 214.
Brunel, Sir Isambard K.: 32.
Brunel, Sir Marc I.: 7, 26, 27, 31, 49, 107;
slide-rest, 6;
inventions, 27;
Portsmouth block machinery, 8, 9, 22, 26, 27, 28.
Bryant, William L.:
chucking grinder, 200.
Buchanan:
English writer, 50.
Builders Iron Foundry or “High Street Furnace”: 125.
Bullard, E. P.: 183-184.
vertical boring and turning mill, 184-185.
Bullard Machine Tool Co.: 184.
Burke, William A.: 253;
Amoskeag Manufacturing Co., 217;
Lowell Machine Shop, 217, 218.
Burleigh, Charles:
rock drill, 228.
Burlingame, L. D.:
history of micrometer, 213.
Burton, James H.:
Enfield gun machinery, 140.
Calipers:
“Lord Chancellor,” 45, 211;
vernier, 203;
micrometer, origin of, 211-213.
Campbell, A. C.: 237.
Camus: 64;
“The Teeth of Wheels,” 64-65, 68.
Carmichaels, of Dundee:
engine makers, 86.
Carron Iron Works: 2, 85.
Change-gear box: 182.
Chase Rolling Mills Co.: 236.
“Chordal’s Letters”: 261.
Cincinnati, Ohio:
tool building in, 266-267.
Cincinnati Bickford Tool Co.: 272.
Cincinnati Milling Machine Co.: 272.
Cincinnati Planer Co.: 271-272.
Cincinnati Screw & Tap Co.: 272.
Clement, Joseph: 7, 8, 9, 57-58, 59, 99, 107;
screw-thread practice, 10, 19, 57, 58-59, 101;
gear practice, 68;
taps and dies, 10, 19, 58;
lathes, 19, 57;
 planers, 19, 50, 52, 54, 59;
relations with Bramah, 19, 58;
with Maudslay & Field, 19, 46, 58.
Cleveland, Ohio: 183.
tool builders in, 261-266;
first multi-spindle automatic screw machines, 265.
Cleveland Twist Drill Co.: 266.
Clock industry in Connecticut: 171-172.
Coe, Israel: 236.
Coe, Lyman: 234, 236.
Coe Brass Co.: 234.
Coes Wrench Co.: 226.
Colby, Gilbert A.: 254.
Collins Co.:
axe makers, 169.
Colt, Samuel: 166-168;
interchangeable system, 137, 168;
Colt revolver, 166, 167;
erection of Armory, 167, 168.
Colt Armory: 165, 166;
erection of, 167, 168;
a “contract shop,” 178.
Conradson, Conrad N.:
turret machine, 276.
Cook, Asa: 174.
Coombs, S. C.: 222.
Corliss Machine Works: 126.
Cotton crop:
growth of, 150-151.
Cotton gin:
invention of, 131, 148 et seq.;
influence, 114, 131, 145, 149, 150-151, 161;
patent rights of, 151-158.
Cowie, Pierson: 221-222.
Cramp Ship Building Co.: 257.
Croft, James:
brass worker, 232.
Crompton, William: 114.
Cup-leather packing: 18.
Currier & Snyder: 222.
Cushman, A. F.: 173.
Darby, Abraham, 3d:
first iron bridge, 15.
Darling, Samuel:
graduating engine, 203, 204.
Davenport, James:
textile machinery, 246.
Davenport, William S.: 214.
da Vinci, Leonardo:
anticipation of modern tools, 6, 36.
Davis, Charles: 269.
Davis, Jefferson:
on Whitney’s steel-barreled muskets, 160.
Davis & Egan: 269.
D’Eichthal, Baron:
partner of Bodmer, 75.
De la Hire:
gear teeth, 63, 64, 67.
DeLeeuw, A. L.: 273, 277.
Dennison, A. L.:
American Watch Co., 144.
de Vaucanson, Jacques:
milling cutter, 206.
Diametral pitch:
“Manchester pitch,” 70 note 66;
Bodmer, 80.
Die forging: 137.
Dietz, Schumacher & Boye Co.: 268.
Dodge, Cyril: 126.
Dodge, Nehemiah:
goldsmith, 126.
Dougherty, James: 254.
Draper Machine Tool Co.: 222.
Dresses, Henry: 271.
Dresses, Mueller & Co.: 271.
Drilling machines:
in 18th century, 4.
Drop hammer:
developed in America, 5, 143, 175.
Dwight, Dr. Timothy:
on Pawtucket, 121.
Eagle Screw Co.: 126.
Earle & Williams: 219.
Eberhardt, Ulrich: 259.
Edgemoor Iron Co.: 249-250.
Egan, Thomas P.: 268, 269.
Eminent Men of Science Living in 1807-1808.
engraving by Walker, 20.
Enfield Armory: 5, 96, 103;
Nasmyth on reorganization of, 140-141;
British Small Arms Commission, 138, 140;
gun-machinery, 138-141;
Robbins & Lawrence, 191-192.
Epicyclic curve: 63, 67, 68.
Essex Machine Shop: 219.
Euler:
gearing, 64.
Evans, Oliver: 239-246;
conveyors for handling materials, 240-241, 246;
steam engine, 241-242, 245;
description of shop, 243;
steamboat, 242;
prediction of railways, 245;
“Engineer’s Guide,” 242;
“Miller’s Guide,” 244.
Fairbairn, Sir Peter: 71, 74, 107.
Fairbairn, Sir William: 62, 107;
on machine tools, 10;
with George Rennie, 54, 71;
 millwork, 71;
on “a good millwright,” 72;
Fairbairn & Lillie, 72-73, 77;
treatise on “Mills and Millwork,” 73;
iron ships, 73-74;
bridge building, 74.
Fairbairn & Co.: 268.
Fairfield, George A.: 170, 174, 176.
Fales & Jenks Machine Co.: 125.
Farrel Foundry & Machine Co.: 237.
Fay, J. A., & Co.:
woodworking machinery, 229-230, 267.
Fay, J. A., & Egan Co.: 230.
Fellows, E. R.: 199.
Fellows Gear Shaper Co.: 199.
Field, Joshua: 35, 89;
relations with Maudslay, 8, 35, 90;
founder of Institution of Civil Engineers, 90.
Fire engine:
first in America, 116.
Fitch, John:
steamboat, 82.
Fitch, Stephen:
horizontal turret, 197.
Fitchburg, Mass.: 219, 227-228.
Fitchburg Machine Works: 228;
Lo-swing lathe, 200.
Flagg, Samuel, & Co.: 221, 222.
Flather Manufacturing Co.: 228.
Flax industry:
Murray’s influence on, 57.
Foote-Burt Co.: 183;
drilling machines, 265.
Forehand & Wadsworth: 226.
Forq, Nicholas:
planer, 50.
Fosdick Machine Tool Co.: 271.
Fosdick & Plucker: 271.
Fox, James: 7, 50, 52, 53, 54.
Fox & Taylor:
manufacturers of blocks, 28.
Fox, Henderson & Co.: 192.
Francis, James B.:
hydraulic engineer, 218.
Franklin Machine Co.: 125.
Fulton, Robert: 150, 151, 161.
Gage, Warner & Whitney: 218, 228.
Gang, William E.: 268, 271.
Gang & Dietz: 271.
Gardner, Frederick M.:
disk grinding machines, 275.
Gardner Machine Co.: 276.
Garvin Machine Co.: 127.
Gascoigne, William:
principle of micrometer, 211.
Gay, Ira: 124, 216-217.
Gay, Zeba: 124, 217.
Gay & Silver Co.: 195, 197, 217;
planer, 53.
Gearing and Millwork: Chapter VI.
Geier, Frederick A.: 272-273.
“Genealogies”:
Early English Tool Builders, Fig. 5;
New England Gun-makers, Fig. 27;
Robbins & Lawrence Shop, Fig. 37;
Worcester Tool Builders, Fig. 45;
Naugatuck Brass Industry, Fig. 50.
Giddings & Lewis Manufacturing Co.: 276.
Gisholt Machine Works: 276.
Gleason Works: 183.
Globe Rolling Mill: 251.
Goddard, Benjamin: 225.
Gorham, Jabez: 127.
Gorham Manufacturing Co.:
founded, 127.
Gould & Eberhardt: 259.
Grant, John J.: 214.
Gray, G. A., Co.: 273.
“Great Eastern,” The: 32.
“Great Western,” The: 32.
Great Western Railway:
steamers, 93.
Greene, Nathaniel:
cannon factory of, 118.
Greene, Mrs. Nathaniel:
friend to Eli Whitney, 147;
connection with cotton-gin, 148-149.
Greene, Timothy: 119, 121.
Greenwood, Miles: 267.
Gridley, George O.:
automatic lathes, 194, 200.
Grilley, Henry:
founder of brass industry, 232.
Grinder:
developed in America, 5;
Brown & Sharpe’s, 213-214;
disc, 275-276.
Hakewessel, Reinholdt: 183;
Acme automatic, 265.
Hamilton, Alexander:
entertains Brunel, 8, 27.
Hamilton, Ohio:
tool builders in, 273.
Hampson, John:
with Maudslay, 98.
Hanks, Alpheus and Truman:
foundry, 165.
Harper’s Ferry Arsenal: 140, 143, 163;
established, 136;
 interchangeable equipment, 137;
rifle, 160.
Harrington & Richardson: 226.
Hartford, Conn.: 127;
manufactories of, 164, 165, 170;
gun makers of, 164, 166.
Hartford Machine Screw Co.: 170, 174, 176.
Hartness, James: 194, 197-198, 266;
designer of machine tools, 198;
flat-turret lathe, 198;
Lo-swing lathe, 200.
Haskell, Co., The William H.: 124.
Hawkins, John Isaac: 69;
on early gear tooth practice, 65-68, 70.
Hayden, Hiram W.: 234, 236.
Hendey Machine Co.:
tool-room lathe, 182.
Henn, E. C.:
Acme automatic, 265.
Herman, William: 271.
Hick, B., & Son: 75.
High Street Furnace: 125.
Hildreth, S. E.: 222.
Hobbs, Alfred C.:
picks Bramah’s lock, 16.
Holmes, Hodgin:
cotton gin, 152, 154, 156, 157.
Holmes, Israel: 232, 233, 234, 236.
Holmes, Joseph:
pioneer iron worker, 117.
Holmes & Hotchkiss: 233.
Holmes, Booth & Haydens: 234, 237.
Holtz, Frederick:
milling machine, 272.
Holtzapffel, Charles: 74, 99;
on Roberts, 60-61;
plane surfaces, 100.
Hovey, P.:
partner of Pitcher, 124.
Howe, Elias:
sewing machine, 144.
Howe, Frederick W.: 195, 196, 209, 217;
milling machines, 138, 196, 208, 209;
profiling machine, 143, 191;
turret-head screw machine, 195-196, 207;
turret lathe, 197, 199.
Howe, Hezekiah: 119.
Humphries:
suggests invention of large hammer, 93.
Hydraulic press:
invented by Bramah, 18, 34.
Industrial conditions:
new elements in 18th century, 1.
Ingersoll Milling Machine Co.: 274.
Institution of Civil Engineers:
founding of, 90.
Interchangeable manufacture:
rise of, Chapter XI;
developed in America, 5, 129;
defined, 128;
abroad, 138, 140;
in France, 129-131;
in Hartford, 164;
tools for, 142-143.
clock, watch and sewing machine industries, 144;
Bodmer, 76;
Colt, 137, 168;
Enfield, 138, 141;
Simeon North, 131, 133, 135-136, 137, 162;
Robbins & Lawrence, 191;
Eli Whitney, 131-133, 136.
International Machine Tool Co.: 275.
Involute gears: 63, 64, 67, 68, 207.