Marieb Human Anatomy & Physiology

(12th edition) Katja Hoehn

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Marieb Human
Anatomy &
Physiology

Katja Hoehn
Lawrence W. Haynes
Matthew A. Abbott

T WEL FTH E D I TI O N
Marieb Human
Anatomy
& Physiology
TWELFTH EDITION

Katja Hoehn, M.D., Ph.D.

Mount Royal University

Lawrence W. Haynes, Ph.D.

Matthew A. Abbott, Ph.D.

Des Moines Area Community College
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Cataloging-in-Publication Data is available on file at the Library of Congress.

$PrintCode

ISBN-10: 0138242739
ISBN-13: 9780138242732

About the Authors
The author team’s contributions reflect their expertise as biolo-
gists and medical researchers and their teaching sensibilities
gained from years of experience at diverse institutions. Katja
Hoehn was handpicked by Elaine Marieb back in 2002 to become
her coauthor starting with the 7th edition of the textbook.
Elaine N. Marieb
Elaine N. Marieb (1936–2018) received
her Ph.D. in zoology from the University of
Massachusetts at Amherst. Shortly after she
joined the faculty of the biology department at
­Holyoke Community College, Elaine famously enrolled in a nursing
degree program while she was teaching anatomy and physiology to
aspiring nursing students. This unique experience gave Elaine spe-
cial insights into the foundational knowledge that nurses needed to
master. Armed with this insight and a clear talent for teaching and
writing, Elaine authored Human Anatomy & Physiology, which
became an immediate hit with instructors and students.
A critical part of Elaine’s legacy is The Elaine Nicpon
Marieb Charitable Foundation. The foundation has helped
fund numerous science and nursing programs and scholarships
at the College of Nursing at the University of Massachusetts,
Florida Gulf Coast University, Holyoke Community College,
and Mount Holyoke College as well as sponsoring the Human
Anatomy & Physiology Society (HAPS) Marieb, Hoehn,
Haynes, & Abbott Award for Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion.
Katja Hoehn
Katja Hoehn is a professor emerita in the
Department of Biology at Mount Royal
University in Calgary, Canada. Katja’s first
love is teaching. Her teaching excellence
has been recognized by several awards during her 30 years
at Mount Royal University. Katja received her M.D. (with
Distinction) from the University of Saskatchewan, and her Ph.D.
in pharmacology from Dalhousie University. She has written
numerous research papers in neuroscience and pharmacology,
and received a Dalhousie Medical Research Foundation Award
for excellence in medical research, and a Career Achievement
Award from Mount Royal University. Katja likes to spend time
outdoors hiking, skiing, and competing in long-course triath-
lons. She also plays Irish flute down at the local pub.
We dedicate this work to our students both
present and past, who always inspire us to
“push the envelope.”
Lawrence W. Haynes
Lawrence W. Haynes was awarded both
his bachelor’s (in biological sciences, 1980)
and Ph.D. (in physiology, 1984) degrees by
the University of California, Davis. After
research stints at the University of Texas Medical Branch in
Galveston and the Howard Hughes Medical Institute at Johns
Hopkins School of Medicine, he joined the Department of
Physiology at the University of Calgary Medical School in
1989, where he enjoyed teaching ­medical students and gradu-
ate students. His main area of interest has always been photo-
transduction, and he has published a number of papers on the
cGMP-gated channels of photoreceptors. He has been involved
with this book (behind the scenes) for as long as his partner,
Katja, and has authored or revised many Interactive Physiol-
ogy modules and figure animations. Together, Larry and Katja
provide financial support for students in the form of the Hoehn-
Haynes scholarship that they established in 2006 for nursing
students at Mount Royal University. Larry likes to ski and hike
with Katja . . . but draws the line at triathlons.
Matthew A. Abbott
Matthew A. Abbott earned his bachelor’s
degree in biology at Grinnell College and his
Ph.D. in genetics at Iowa State University.
In 2007, he joined the faculty at Des Moines
Area Community College, where he is passionately devoted to
helping students learn anatomy and physiology as they prepare for
a career in nursing or other allied health fields. For many years,
he has contributed to ancillary materials for this textbook as a
reviewer and author. Dr. Abbott is a member of the Human Anat-
omy and Physiology Society (HAPS) and the Iowa Association
of Community College Biology Teachers (IACCBT). In addition
to his love for teaching, he enjoys biking and has participated in
RAGBRAI, an annual bicycle ride across his home state of Iowa,
over 25 times.
iii
Preface
T
oday’s students have access to an enormous amount of
information about anatomy and physiology. As educators,
our biggest challenge is to help students focus on mastering
the basic concepts of this field. Providing this firm foundation
will help students to become lifelong learners who can criti-
cally evaluate new information, connect that information to the
Unifying Themes
Three unifying themes that have helped to organize and set the
tone of this textbook continue to be valid and are retained in
this edition. These themes are:
Interrelationships of body organ systems. This theme empha-
sizes the fact that nearly all regulatory mechanisms have inter-
actions with several organ systems. The respiratory system,
for example, cannot carry out its role of gas exchange in the
body if there are problems with the cardiovascular system that
prevent the normal delivery of blood throughout the body. The
System Connections feature and Make Connections questions
throughout the book help students connect new information
to old information and think of the body as a community of
dynamic parts instead of a number of independent units.
Homeostasis. Homeostasis is the normal and most desirable
condition of the body. Its loss is always associated with past
or present pathology. This theme is not included to emphasize
pathological conditions, but rather to illustrate what happens
in the body “when things go wrong” and homeostasis is lost.
Whenever students see a red balance beam symbol accompa-
nied by an associated clinical topic, their understanding of how
the body works to stay in balance is reinforced.
Complementarity of structure and function. This theme
encourages students to understand the structure of some body
part (ranging from a molecule to an organ) in order to under-
stand the function of that structure. For example, muscle cells
can produce movement because they are contractile cells.
New to the Twelfth Edition
• NEW! Updated Content:
We include the newest research on mRNA vaccines, the
glymphatic system, localized protein synthesis in the
axon of a neuron, a fourth meningeal membrane (SLYM)
iv
foundation they have already established, and apply it in a clini-
cal setting. How can we help students build a strong foundation
in anatomy and physiology? We believe that this new edition of
our textbook will help learners by building on the strengths of
previous editions while using new and innovative ways to help
students visualize connections between various concepts.
that divides the subarachnoid space into two compart-
ments, revised developmental pathway of neutrophils
and monocytes, new evidence for the association of
specific viruses with the development of diabetes and
multiple sclerosis, updated hypertension values reflect-
ing 2021 AHA guidelines, and many more topics.
Updated and new Homeostatic Imbalance and other clin-
ical features reflect advances in our understanding and
treatment of disorders: e.g., opiate addiction, Duchenne
muscular dystrophy, sickle-cell anemia, amyotrophic lat-
eral sclerosis, cystic fibrosis, and glomerulonephritis.
• NEW! Focus Figures and updated figures to enhance
students’ visual learning:
Added five new Focus Figures that use a “big picture”
layout and dramatic art to guide the student through dif-
ficult physiological processes in a step-by-step way, or
provide an engaging overview of a topic that students can
build on as they progress through a chapter, e.g., NEW
Focus Figure 21.1 An Overview of the Immune Sys-
tem uses a castle analogy to provide an overview of the
multiple lines of defense in the body. Other new Focus
Figures are: 14.1 Sympathetic and Parasympathetic
­Divisions, 22.1 The Mechanics of Breathing at Rest, 25.1
Three Major Renal Processes, and 27.1 Meiosis.
Updated art throughout to improve its teaching effective-
ness, in many cases adding blue “instructor’s voice” text
within the figure to help guide students and increase their
understanding.
• NEW! Figure Animations are embedded in the eTextbook
and reinforce book-specific concepts in focused animations
of key figures from the textbook. Each animation includes
embedded “Quick Check” questions that provide the correct
answer as soon as the student answers the question. Interac-
tive activities of the animations are also assignable in Mas-
tering A&P. New figure animations are:
Baroreceptor Reflexes (Figure 19.11)
 Preface v
An Overview of the Immune System (new Focus • UPDATED! ADA accessibility to reflect the latest WCAG
Figure 21.1) guidelines to ensure our products are fully accessible to all
Hormonal Control of the Ovarian and Uterine Cycles learners. Extra efforts have been made to develop and update
(Figure 27.24) our design and art program to make them accessible and useful
for readers with impairments. This included adjusting ­contrast,
colors, and label placement within illustrations. Special
thought and consideration went into rethinking the keys within
figures so the keys were understandable for all readers.

Pearson eTextbook
The Pearson eTextbook is a simple-to-use, mobile-optimized,
personalized reading experience. It allows students to easily
highlight, take notes, listen to the textbook, and review vocabu-
lary all in one—even when offline. Students using the Pearson
eTextbook will reap all the benefits of the new text features,
while also benefiting from the following new and existing inter-
active features, which are integrated directly into the online text:
• EXPANDED! Over 200 animations and videos embedded
• UPDATED! Terminology throughout to include the most in the Pearson eTextbook bring A&P concepts to life fea-
relevant topics and preferred terminology turing Making Connections videos, figure animations, A&P
Updated text to ensure that it covers the most recent Flix videos, Interactive Physiology animations, and more.
Human Anatomy and Physiology Society Learning • Embedded “Check Your Understanding” multiple-
Outcomes choice questions with feedback will help students assess
Preferred terminology conforms to Terminologia Ana- their understanding as they read through each section.
tomica, Terminologia Histologica, and Terminologia
Embryologica
Mastering A&P
• NEW! Active Reading Guide supports students in actively Mastering A&P is the most widely used online assessment and
reading their A&P text. Students can download editable tutorial program for A&P, providing an extensive library of
sheets from the Study Area in Mastering A&P. They’re also hundreds of animations, tutorials, and questions that are graded
available with an Answer Key in the Instructor Resources in automatically.
Mastering. • NEW! Interactive Reading Assignments provides
• NEW! Quick Reference—Pearson eTextbook Integrated students with an all-in-one learning experience: all of their
Media by Chapter on the inside front cover provides easy assignments including reading are integrated into one place.
reference to key animations and videos available for each Instructors can choose to assign all or specific sections of a
chapter in the eTextbook and in Mastering. Media callouts chapter as well as coaching activities, drag-and-drop assign-
are also highlighted in the relevant chapter pages. ments, dynamic study modules, and more in Mastering for
• UPDATED! DEI throughout with a DEI (diversity, equity,
­autograding.
inclusivity) lens in order to create a more inclusive experi-
ence for all student learners
Added or replaced illustrations, photographs, names, and
descriptions to include a greater diversity of people (e.g.,
race, ethnicity, body type, age, and sex)
Changed instances of “man” to “male” and “woman”
to “female” to clarify that anatomical and physiologi-
cal descriptions used in this book pertain to biological
sex (based on chromosomes, gene expression, and the
actions of hormones), while also noting that structures
associated with biological sex show a wide degree of
variation and do not always fall neatly into these two
­categories
Changed stigmatizing terms such as “alcoholic” to
“person with an alcohol use disorder”
Updated discussion on HDL levels as a predictor of
heart disease risk to reflect differences among people
of different racial backgrounds
vi Preface
• NEW! Assignment Manager makes it easier and quicker
to create assignments in Mastering.
• NEW! Gap Finder: A&P Diagnostic Assessment con-
tains approximately 130 questions based on 5 topics: Study
Skills, Math Essentials, Chemistry Basics, Cell Biology
Basics, and Biology Basics. Instructors can deselect as
many questions as they want. There’s no minimum number
they have to adhere to in order for the program to work.
• UPDATED! Dynamic Study Modules have been updated
to reflect new content in the 12th edition. In addition,
shadow questions—different versions of the same ques-
tion—have been created for select questions to help keep
students from memorizing questions. We’ve expanded the
pool of questions for Gap Finder DSM on Study Skills,
Math Essentials, Chemistry Basics, Cell Biology Basics,
and Biology Basics.
• NEW! Practice Anatomy Lab 4.0 featuring fully interac-
tive 3-D models and custom assignability in Mastering.
• EXPANDED! Interactive Physiology 2.0 helps students
advance beyond memorization to a genuine understand-
ing of the toughest topics in A&P. Fully accessible on all
mobile devices. I.P. 2.0 tutorials are assignable as coaching
activities in Mastering A&P. New topics include Carbon
Dioxide Transport & Exchange, and Propagation of an
Action Potential.
• NEW! Histology Videos include 10 new videos of histol-
ogy tissues that provide short, focused walk-throughs of
commonly covered tissue types in A&P.
• Study Area features the Pearson eTextbook, practice tests
and quizzes, animations and videos, Interactive Physiology
2.0, Practice Anatomy Lab 4.0, PhysioEx, Pearson Interac-
tive Labs, lab videos, clinical case studies, and more.
NEW! Active Reading Guide supports students in
actively reading their A&P text. Students can download
editable sheets from the Study Area in Mastering A&P.
NEW! TEAS and HESI exam practice questions help
students prep for nursing school entrance exam with 150
TEAS and 300 HESI multiple-choice questions with
wrong-answer feedback for all questions.
• Instructor Resources. This area of Mastering provides one-
stop shopping for PowerPoint Lecture Presentations, all fig-
ures in JPEG and PPT format, Instructor Guide, Test Bank,
animations, videos, Interactive Physiology (including the
worksheets), Clinical Case Studies with Teaching Strategies
and case study worksheets, PAL 4.0 Resources and Test
Bank, and PhysioEx Resources and Test Bank.
NEW! Teaching Strategies for Active Learning is an
invaluable resource for instructors looking for strategies
for actively engaging students in the classroom. Edited
by Cathy Whiting, this manual includes over 40 hands-on
activities for key topics in A&P submitted by thought lead-
ers across the country. Each activity is tied to HAPS Learn-
ing Outcomes and includes estimated time for the activity.
• Learning Catalytics allows students to use their smart-
phone, tablet, or laptop to respond to questions in class. For
more information, visit learningcatalytics.com.
Available Lab Manuals and Atlas
Human Anatomy & Physiology Laboratory Manual (Cat 13e,
Main 12e, Pig 13e)
by Elaine N. Marieb and Lori A. Smith
978-0-13463233-9 (Cat 13e), 978-0-13480635-8 (Main 12e),
978-0-1340636-5 (Pig 13e)
This best-selling lab manual features a wide variety of experi-
ments for students concentrating in health care programs. Each
exercise leads students toward an understanding of the struc-
ture and function of the human body. The lab manual uses art-
work from Marieb/Hoehn’s Human Anatomy & Physiology text
but can accompany any A&P textbook. Available in 3 versions
(Main, Cat, Fetal Pig). The Cat and Pig versions respectively
include cat and fetal pig dissection exercises.
A Photographic Atlas for Anatomy & Physiology by Nora
Hebert, Ruth E. Heisler, Jett Chinn, Karen M. Krabbenhoft,
and Olga Malakhova
978-0-32186925-8
This full-color photographic atlas helps students learn and
identify key anatomical structures in the lab. Featuring pho-
tos from Practice Anatomy Lab™ and other sources, the Atlas
includes over 250 cadaver dissection photos, histology pho-
tomicrographs, and cat dissection photos plus over 50 photos
of anatomical models from leading manufacturers such as 3B
Scientific®, Denoyer Geppert Science, Altay Scientific, and
Ward’s. Two-page spreads with cadaver and anatomical model
photos side by side help students to better learn and identify
structures. The Atlas is composed of 13 chapters, organized
by body system, and includes a final chapter with cat dissec-
tion photos. In each chapter, students will first explore gross
anatomy, as seen on cadavers and anatomical models, and then
conclude with relevant histological images.
Chapter-by-Chapter Changes in the
Twelfth Edition
Chapter 1 The Human Body: An Orientation
• Clarified how the terms sex and gender pertain to the pre-
sentation of material in this text.

• Revised discussion of homeostasis includes the law of
mass balance, steady state, and feedforward (anticipatory)
responses.
• Improved teaching effectiveness of Figure 1.9 (planes of the
body).
• Improved teaching effectiveness of Table 1.1 (directional terms).
Chapter 2 Chemistry Comes Alive
• Updated statistics for elements that compose the human
body (Table 2.1).
• New summary Table 2.2 reinforces information about sub-
atomic particles.
• Revised discussion of the role of chemical bonding includes
free radicals.
• Improved teaching effectiveness of 2.21 (amino acids linked
together by peptide bonds), 2.24 (mechanism of enzyme
action), and 2.27 (examples of cellular work driven by
energy from ATP).
• New Homeostatic Imbalance feature describes the role of
protein structure in sickle-cell disease.
• New in-line figures illustrate fibrous and globular proteins.
• New photograph shows the process of denaturation while
frying an egg.
• New Check Your Understanding question labels the compo-
nents of an ATP molecule.
Chapter 3 Cells: The Living Units
• Updated section on passive membrane transport clarifies
that osmosis and diffusion are distinct processes.
• Improved teaching effectiveness of Figures 3.27 (cell
cycle), 3.28 (summary of DNA replication), and Table 3.1
(active versus passive transport).New in-line figures show
the large and small ribosomal subunits and the parts of a
replicated chromosome.
• New Check Your Understanding question features an illus-
tration of a cell in anaphase.
• Expanded discussion of other roles of RNA includes
updated information about microRNAs and the mRNA vac-
cines for COVID-19.
• Updated Homeostatic Imbalance feature about progeria
includes the first approved drug for this disease.
Chapter 5 The Integumentary System
• Added Related Clinical Terms “age spots” and “athlete’s
foot.”
• Updated Homeostatic Imbalance feature about alterations in
skin color and disease states.
• Improved teaching effectiveness of Figure 5.9 (cutaneous
glands).
Chapter 6 Bones and Skeletal Tissues
• Updated anatomy of blood supply to long bones.
• Improved teaching effectiveness of Figures 6.1 (bones and
cartilage of skeleton), 6.6 (types of bone cells), 6.7 (a single
osteon), 6.11 (growth at epiphyseal plate), and 6.12 (long
bone growth and remodeling).
Preface vii
Chapter 7 The Skeleton
• Updated information about treatment of carpal tunnel
­syndrome.
• Updated Figure 7.9b (sphenoid bone) to indicate the lateral
and medial pterygoid plates.
• Reorganized text about the general characteristics of verte-
brae for improved clarity.
• Improved teaching effectiveness of Figure 7.6b (inferior
aspect of skull).
Chapter 8 Joints
• Reorganized Figure 8.5 (movements at synovial joints) into
three figures: Figure 8.5 (gliding movements at synovial
joints, with clarification of the movement allowed), 8.6
(angular movements at synovial joints), and 8.7 (rotational
movements at synovial joints), and added blue “instructor’s
voice” text to improve teaching effectiveness.
• Improved teaching effectiveness of Figure 8.8 (special
movements of synovial joints).
Chapter 9 Muscles and Muscle Tissue
• Clarified that at physiological pH “lactic acid” is ”lactate”
and “pyruvic acid” is “pyruvate.”
• Updated discussion of lactate production and metabolism to
reflect current understanding.
• Updated treatment options for Duchenne muscular dystrophy.
• Improved the teaching effectiveness of Figure 9.9 (record-
ing of an action potential.
• Improved teaching effectiveness of Table 9.2 (characteris-
tics of skeletal muscle fibers).
• Added new Figure 9.10 (pulling a rope with one hand) to
show how the steps of the cross bridge cycle are analogous
to the steps it would take to pull a rope using only one hand.
Chapter 10 The Muscular System
• Updated discussion of origin and insertion clarifies that
these attachments are assigned based on the most common
action of each muscle.
• Updated discussion and illustration of the muscles of the
pelvic floor and perineum (Table 10.7 and Figure 10.13).
• Improved teaching effectiveness of Figures 10.14 (muscles
of thorax and shoulder), 10.21 (posterior muscles of hip and
thigh), and 10.26 (actions of muscles of the thigh and leg).
• Increased clarity of text in Tables 10.2 (muscles of the
head), 10.5 (deep thorax muscles), 10.6 (muscles of abdom-
inal wall), and 10.14 (muscles crossing the hip and knee
joints).
Chapter 11 Fundamentals of the Nervous System
and Nervous Tissue
• Added description of neural plasticity.
• Improved teaching effectiveness of discussion of graded
potentials.
• New Homeostatic Imbalance feature about opiate addiction.
• Added mention of the new finding that localized protein
synthesis occurs in the axon.
viii Preface
• Improved teaching effectiveness of Figures 11.1 (nervous
system’s functions), 11.14 (action potential propagation),
and 11.20 (neuronal growth cone).
Chapter 12 The Central Nervous System
• Updated description of the meninges to include the sub-
arachnoid lymphatic-like membrane (SLYM), a recently
described fourth meningeal membrane that divides the sub-
arachnoid space into two compartments.
• Updated cerebellum function to include newly discovered
regulation of food intake.
• Updated discussion of the motor homunculus to reflect new
imaging data that show that the details of neuronal organi-
zation differ from the traditional homunculus.
• Updated description of cerebrospinal fluid to include
removal of waste products during non-REM sleep.
• Updated discussion of sleep stages to follow the most recent
nomenclature recommended by the American Academy of
Sleep Medicine and updated Figure 12.21 to reflect the new
stages.
• Updated information on sleep and Alzheimer’s disease and
on Parkinson’s disease.
• Improved teaching effectiveness of Figure 12.32 (organiza-
tion of spinal cord gray matter).
Chapter 13 The Peripheral Nervous System
• Updated discussion of phantom limb pain.
• New Check Your Understanding question makes connec-
tions between different types of graded potentials.
• Improved teaching effectiveness of Figure 13.13 (dermatomes).
Chapter 14 The Autonomic Nervous System
• New Focus Figure 14.1 sets the stage for student learning
about the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions.
• Improved teaching effectiveness of Figure 14.10 (levels of
ANS control) and Table 14.5 (effects of parasympathetic
and sympathetic divisions).
Chapter 15 The Special Senses
• Updated discussion of lipids as a possible sixth taste modal-
ity to reflect increasing evidence.
• Updated discussion on sour taste transduction.
• Improved teaching effectiveness of Figures 15.13 (focus-
ing for distance and close vision), 15.16 (formation and
breakdown of the visual pigment rhodopsin), 15.20 (olfac-
tory receptors), 15.29 (frequency and amplitude of sound
waves), and 15.31 (basilar membrane function).
Chapter 16 The Endocrine System
• Expanded discussion of the stages of the stress response
(general adaptation syndrome).
• Updated discussion of type 1 diabetes to include association
with rotavirus in genetically susceptible individuals, use
of a recently approved drug to delay onset by slowing the
destruction of beta cells, and improvements in devices that
couple glucose sensors to insulin injections.
• Expanded discussion of natriuretic peptides to include brain
natriuretic peptide (BNP).
• Improved teaching effectiveness of Figures 16.4 (three
types of endocrine gland stimuli) and 16.16 (photomicro-
graph of pancreatic tissue) and Tables 16.3 (pituitary hor-
mones) and 16.6 (selected examples of hormones produced
by other organs).
• Expanded Table 16.1 to include comparison of signal
strength coding in the nervous and endocrine systems.
Chapter 17 Blood
• Updated information about treatment for sickle-cell anemia
includes newly-approved CRISPR-based gene editing.
• Updated discussion on platelet formation to note that more
than half of all platelets in the body may be produced from
megakaryocytes in lung capillaries rather than in bone­
marrow.
• Updated discussion about leukopoiesis to reflect new evi-
dence that suggests that neutrophils and monocytes may
actually arise from precursors of lymphoid cells.
• Improved teaching effectiveness of Figures 17.1 (compo-
nents of whole blood), 17.11 (leukocyte formation), and
17.14 (intrinsic and extrinsic pathways of blood clotting).
Chapter 18 The Cardiovascular System: The Heart
• Improved teaching effectiveness of Figures 18.5c (gross
anatomy of heart), 18.11 (microscopic anatomy of cardiac
muscle), 18.21 (norepinephrine increases heart contractil-
ity via a cyclic AMP second-messenger system), and Focus
Figure 18.2 (cardiac cycle).
Chapter 19 The Cardiovascular System: Blood Vessels
• Updated values for hypertension to reflect 2021 AHA
guidelines.
• Improved teaching effectiveness of Figures 19.2 (general-
ized structure of blood vessels), 19.7 (blood pressure in var-
ious blood vessels of systemic circulation), 19.9 (muscular
pump), 19.18 (blood flow velocity and total cross-sectional
area), 19.23 (schematic flowchart of systemic arteries),
19.28 (schematic flowchart of systemic veins), and Focus
Figure 19.1 (bulk flow across capillary walls).
Chapter 20 The Lymphatic System and Lymphoid Organs and
Tissues
• Added description of the glymphatic system and its
­functions.
• Improved teaching effectiveness of Figures 20.6 (lymph
node) and 20.7 (spleen).
Chapter 21 The Immune System: Innate and Adaptive Body
Defenses
• New Focus Figure 21.1 uses a medieval castle analogy to
provide an overview of the multiple lines of defense in the
body.
• Updated description of the origin of fixed macrophages.
• Added description of netosis (releasing extracellular traps
made of DNA) as a mechanism of defense by neutrophils.

• Added discussion of recent evidence for the association of
multiple sclerosis with the Epstein-Barr virus as a result of
molecular mimicry.
• New Table 21.4 summarizes the key differences between
adaptive and innate defenses.
• Improved teaching effectiveness of Figure 21.17 (central
role of helper T cells).
Chapter 22 The Respiratory System
• Updated prevalence statistics on asthma.
• Updated lung cancer treatments and 5-year survival rates.
• Updated cystic fibrosis treatment.
• Added one-line flowcharts to increase student understand-
ing of how breathing rate and depth affect carbon dioxide
levels and pH.
• New Focus Figure 22.1, Focus on the Mechanics of Breath-
ing at Rest, illustrates the sequence of events during inspira-
tion and expiration.
• Clarified the role of the internal intercostal muscles in inspi-
ration and expiration.
• Improved depictions of the diaphragm.
• New Check Your Understanding question pairs each type of
bronchus with the portion of lung it supplies.
• Improved teaching effectiveness of Figure 22.21 (tissue
changes in emphysema).
Chapter 23: The Digestive System
• Updated discussion of the link between periodontal disease
and chronic systemic diseases.
• Updated the statistics for hepatitis and types of hepatitis.
• Updated the method of administration of fecal transplants.
• New Check Your Understanding question differentiates
between pepsinogen and pepsin.
• Added information about glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1)
to Table 23.1.
• Improved teaching effectiveness of Figures 23.13 (micro-
scopic structure of the esophagus), 23.31 (structural modi-
fications of the small intestine), and 23.39 (emulsification,
digestion, and absorption of fats).
Chapter 24: Nutrition, Metabolism, and Energy Balance
• Updated normal body temperature to reflect recent studies
supporting a lower mean value of 36.7°C.
• Updated A Closer Look feature about obesity.
• Updated discussion on HDL levels as a predictor of heart
disease risk to reflect differences among people of different
racial backgrounds.
• Clarified that at physiological pH “lactic acid” is ”lactate”
and “pyruvic acid” is “pyruvate.” In addition, all citric
acid cycle intermediates are not fully protonated at
physiological pH.
Preface ix
• Improved teaching effectiveness of Figures 24.2 (essential
amino acids), 24.6 (three major phases of glycolysis), and
24.24 (composition and function of lipoproteins).
Chapter 25: The Urinary System
• New Homeostatic Imbalance feature on glomerulonephritis.
• New related clinical terms, nephrotic syndrome and
nephritic syndrome.
• Updated discussion on renal handling of phosphate to
include the effect of PTH.
• New Focus Figure 25.1 provides an overview of the major
renal processes.
• Improved teaching effectiveness of Figure 25.21 (structure
of urinary bladder and urethra).
Chapter 26: Fluid, Electrolyte, and Acid-Base Balance
• New in-line figure illustrates regulation of K + balance.
• Improved teaching effectiveness of Figures 26.1 (major
fluid compartments), 26.6 (mechanisms and consequences
of ADH release), and 26.14 (new HCO 3 − generation via
buffering).
Chapter 27: The Reproductive System
• Updated description of cremaster muscle anatomy to
include smooth and skeletal muscle.
• Updated anatomy of clitoris and vestibular bulbs.
• Updated discussion of the genes associated with breast
­cancer.
• Updated statistics on testicular cancer.
• Updated cervical cancer statistics, screening, and HPV
­vaccine.
• New Focus Figure 27.1 on meiosis.
• Improved teaching effectiveness of Figures 27.8 (male
perineum), 27.18 (external genitalia of female), 27.23 (regu-
lation of the ovarian cycle), and 27.24 (correlation of ante-
rior pituitary and ovarian hormones with structural changes
of ovary and uterus).
Chapter 28: Pregnancy and Human Development
• Updated information about contraception.
• Improved teaching effectiveness of Figures 28.1 (size of
conceptus up to the early fetal stage), 28.12 (neurulation
and early mesodermal differentiation), and Focus Figure
28.1 (sperm penetration and blocks to polyspermy).
• New Check Your Understanding question about fetal
­circulation.
Chapter 29: Heredity
• Major reorganization of sections describing gene expression
and its control. This includes an enhanced discussion of
epigenetics.
• Improved teaching effectiveness of Figure 29.6 (sex-linked
inheritance).
Acknowledgments
A
ccording to the proverb, it takes a village to raise a
child. It takes the same sort of teamwork on the part of
our “writing village” to bring this book to your hands.
Our “village” has been fortunate to include all the professors
and students who use this book and provide us with valuable
feedback. You make this project worthwhile. Every new edi-
tion starts with a revision plan—our ideas about how we want
to make the book better. There are several groups of people
in our village that help us nurture these ideas so that they can
mature and “leave home” for the wide world beyond. We are so
grateful to all of them!
The first group, with whom we worked most closely, is
the editorial group. Leading this group is Serina Beauparlant
(Director, Product Management for Applied Science). Serina
has been the force behind this book since the 6th edition.
Her passion has helped make this book what it is today. She
provides feedback, ideas, and the resources needed to realize
our mutual goal of making this book the best that it can be.
As always, we are grateful for all you do, Serina! Thanks also
to Ayushi Khandelwal (Editorial Assistant) for ably assisting
Serina. After years away, honing her skills on other projects,
Mary Ann Murray has returned to our team as our Text and Art
Developmental Editor. We thank Mary Ann for her fresh eyes
on this project, which have allowed her to question and help
us clarify many things in this book. Thank you also to Hilair
Chism, for bringing her artistic eye to the new Focus Figures—
they have greatly benefited from her polishing. Matt Walker,
our Manager of Content Development, sat in on many Monday
morning team meetings and jumped in with valuable support
and assistance when needed. The last member of this group is
Shercian Kinosian (Content Producer), the bridge between the
editorial team and the production team. She wears many hats,
while adeptly facilitating the production of the book, the ebook,
and the ancillary materials. She has the joy of working with
authors, developmental editors, product managers, designers,
and resource permissions teams, as well as providing items for
Marketing, Media, and Mastering. Thank you, Shercian!
This brings us to the production group. A crucial aspect of
any revision is the art. We are very grateful for the fine work
of Jan Troutt and Troutt Visual Services on this edition. We’d
also like to express our gratitude to Mary Tindle (Production
Project Manager) at Straive, who coordinated the components
of production. She prepped the final manuscript, and man-
aged the photo permissions and photo research people, as well
as the copyeditor, proofreader, indexer, and compositor. We
x
don’t work directly with most of these individuals but would
like to specifically thank a few. Chenley Calites-Bulagao and
Matt Perry determined which photos in the previous edition we
were allowed to continue using. They also found beautiful new
photos for us. We are delighted to again be able to work with
Anita Hueftle, our longtime (since the 4th edition!) copyeditor.
Her long tenure provides a continuity of style and expression
across the many editions of this book. She always astonishes us
with her ability to find our inadvertent errors, thereby saving us
from embarrassment. (Any remaining errors are our responsi-
bility alone.) Thank you so much, Anita! A book wouldn’t be a
book if we didn’t have designers to conceptualize the beautiful
cover and come up with interior layout and color scheme of
the new edition. Thank you, Jerilyn DiCarlo and Carrie Keller!
And finally, a shout-out to Courtney Davis and her team in
Marketing who helped make sure that this book made it into
your hands.
The next group in our village are the people who help
us with the vast richness of the electronic media, both in the
eTextbook and on the Mastering website. Clickable in the
eTextbook are new animations, which, along with existing
­animations, make figures come alive and guide students through
difficult ­concepts. We enjoyed working again with the skilled
animators, Martin Hale and Chris Hale, at ABP. Kudos also to
the artists, Jan Troutt and her team at Troutt Visual Services and
Morgan Ewald and her team at Lachina Creative, Inc., for the
lovely art that they supplied for these animations. We appreci-
ate Mathew Koul (Associate Content Producer) and Lauren Hill
(Senior Supervising Content Producer) for making the produc-
tion of animations run so smoothly. There is a larger media pro-
duction team that handles the many aspects of the eTextbook and
Mastering. We extend a big thank-you to Sarah Young-Dualan,
Lauren Hill, Lauren Chen, Sarah Shefveland, Keri Rand, and
Kristen Antal. We are also indebted to the following instruc-
tors who authored the all-important supplements and d­ igital
tools to accompany the 12th edition: Caitlin Burns, County
College of Morris and Suzy Keller, Indian Hills Community
College (Dynamic Study Modules), Jennifer Hatchel, Col-
lege of Coastal Georgia (Test Bank), Laura Steele, Ivy Tech
Community College–Fort Wayne (Instructor Guide), and
Justin Moore, American River College and Ashley Spring,
Eastern Florida State (PowerPoint Lecture Presentation).
Every village has a group of elders who provide advice.
Our “elders” are the Editorial Board for the 12th edition, whose
advice and guidance on the media and assignable eTextbook

were invaluable. Special thanks to Sasha Lashgari, Collin
College, Justin Moore and Lori Smith, American River College,
Melinda Miller, Pearl River Community College, Anita Naravane,
St. Petersburg College, Sarah Pugh, Shelton State Community
College, Sharon Schapel, Mott Community College, and Larry
Young, Florida Southern College. We very much appreciated
the thoughtful DEI reviews from Shelly Urban-Paradies, SUNY
Orange, and Larry Young, Florida Southern College. We would
also like to acknowledge the following group who reviewed
the new Focus Figures: Mary Bonine, College of Lake County,
Andrew Duta, Eastern Florida State, Shobnom Ferdous,
Auburn University, Christopher Gardner, United States Coast
Guard Academy, Erin Morrey, Georgia State–Perimeter Col-
lege, Ashley Spring, Eastern Florida State, and Kim Van Vliet,
St. Johns River State. We are also grateful to Sarah Ives, whose
artistic eye helped us polish the appearance of Focus Figure
14.1. Additionally, we’d like to thank Katja’s colleague, Dr.
Lydia Chiasson, for her valuable review of the entire text, and
for providing many suggestions for improvements.
In addition, we appreciate the eagle-eye accuracy check-
ing of the textbook and/or Mastering item library from Janet
Brodsky, Ivy Tech Community College, Joshua D’Alessandro,
Odessa College, Dr. Dzuy Nguyen, Navarro College, Mark
Hollier, Georgia State–Perimeter College, Lisa Smith, Hills-
borough Community College, Ashley Spring, Eastern Florida
State, Terry Ravine, University of South Alabama, Connie
Scanga, University of Pennsylvania, and James Yount, Eastern
Florida State.
Finally, we would like to thank the authors of Interactive
Physiology 2.0: Nora Hebert, Red Rocks Community College,
Brian Feige and Sharon Schapel, Mott Community College and
Christie Campbell, Ozarks Technical Community College and
the IP2 reviewers: Betsy Brantley, Valencia College, Karen
Groh, Cincinnati State, Shannon McNew, Southeast Missouri
State, Rachel Meyer, Metro Community College, Jennifer
Parrott, Northeast Lakeview College, Saeed Rahmanian, Roane
State Community College, Terrence Ravine, University of South
Alabama, James Royston, Pearl River Community College,
Lisa Smith, Hillsborough Community College, Mary Beth Sto-
poulos, Black Hawk College, Albert Urazaev, Ivy Tech, Kira
Wennstrom, Shoreline Community College.
Kudos to our entire team. We feel we have once again pre-
pared a superb textbook. We hope you agree.
Twelfth Edition Reviewers
Yvonne Baptiste-Szymanski, Niagara County Community
College
Jon Benson, Community College of Rhode Island
Mary Bonine, College of Lake County
Peggy Campo, Riverside Community College
Chandler Chance, Meridian Community College
Karen Cipolla, Arizona State University
Scott Davis, Kentucky Community & Technical College
System–Bluegrass
Acknowledgments xi
Andrew Duta Eastern Florida State
Chelsea Edwards, Rowan Cabarrus Community College
Shobnom Ferdous, Auburn University
Chelsie Flores, Tyler Junior College
Christopher Gardner, United States Coast Guard Academy
Melissa Jackson, Lone Star College–Montgomery
Traci McGee, Kennesaw State University
Erin Morrey, Georgia State–Perimeter College
Soma Mukhopadhyay, Augusta University
Necia Nicholas, Pensacola State
Hugo Pedrozo, Texas State University–San Marcos
Nicholas Pollock, University of Texas–Arlington
Sarah Pugh, Shelton State Community College
Sharon Schapel, Mott Community College
Ashley Spring, Eastern Florida State College
Avni Thaci, Governors State University–Malcolm X
Kristin Thomas, Hillsborough Community College
Kim Van Vliet, St. Johns River State
Reviewers of the Previous Editions
Emily Allen, Rowan College at Gloucester County
David C. Ansardi, Calhoun Community College
Martin W. Asobayire, Essex Community College
David Babb, West Hills College Lemoore
Claudia Barreto, University of New Mexico–Valencia
Jerry Barton, Tarrant County College
Shawn Bearden, Idaho State University
Charles Benton, Madison Area Technical College
J. Gordon Betts, Tyler Junior College
Diana Bourke, Community College of Allegheny County
Sherry Bowen, Indian River State College
Michael Brady, Columbia Basin College
Betsy Brantley, Valencia College
Beth Braun, Truman College
Carol A. Britson, University of Mississippi
C. Steven Cahill, West Kentucky Community and Technical
College
Christie Campbell, Ozarks Technical Community College
Maria C. Carles, Northern Essex Community College
Tamyra Carmona, Cosumnes River College
Marien Cendon, Miami Dade College
Brendon Chastain, West Kentucky Community Technical College
Sam Chen, Moraine Valley Community College
Alexander G. Cheroske, Mesa Community College–Red
Mountain
Brandi Childress, Georgia State–Perimeter College
William M. Clark, Lone Star College–Kingwood
Joseph Comber, Villanova University
Teresa Cowan, Baker College–Auburn Hills
xii Acknowledgments
Donna Crapanzano, Stony Brook University
Maurice M. Culver, Florida State College at Jacksonville
Jason Dechant, University of Pittsburgh
Smruti A. Desai, Lone Star College–CyFair
Sondra Dubowsky, McLennan Community College
Karen Dunbar Kareiva, Ivy Tech Community College
Kathryn Durham, Lorain County Community College
Karen Eastman, Chattanooga State Community College
Sharon S. Ellerton, Queensborough Community College–CUNY
Paul Emerick, Monroe Community College
Elyce Ervin, University of Toledo
Martha Eshleman, University of Arkansas–Pulaski Technical
Colin Everhart, St. Petersburg Community College
Brian D. Feige, Mott Community College
Michele Finn, Monroe Community College
John E. Fishback, Ozarks Technical Community College
Maria Florez, Lone Star College–CyFair
Reza Forough, Bellevue College
Juanita A. Forrester, Chattahoochee Technical College
Aaron Fried, Mohawk Valley Community College
Marie Gabbard, College of Western Idaho
Sophia Garcia, Tarrant County College
Jane E. Gavin, University of South Dakota
Peter Germroth, Hillsborough Community College
Emily K. Getty, Ivy Tech Community College
Amy Giesecke, Chattahoochee Technical College
Anna Gilletly, Central New Mexico Community College
Gary Glaser, Genesee Community College
Richard Gonzalez-Diaz, Seminole State College of Florida
Abigail Goosie, Walters State Community College
Pattie S. Green, Tacoma Community College
George G. Hanak, Pasco-Hernando State College
Mary Beth Hanlin, Des Moines Area Community College–Boone
Heidi Hawkins, College of Southern Idaho
Martie Heath-Sinclair, Hawkeye Community College
Nora Hebert, Red Rocks Community College
Nadia Hedhli, Hudson County Community College
D. J. Hennager, Kirkwood Community College
Jennifer Hill, Montgomery College–Takoma Park-Silver
Spring
Shannon K. Hill, Temple College
Mark Hollier, Georgia State–Perimeter College
Mark J. Hubley, Prince George’s Community College
Carolyn Huffman, Wichita Area Technical College
Julie Huggins, Arkansas State University
Jason Hunt, Brigham Young University–Idaho
Alexander Ibe, Weatherford College
Alexander Imholtz, Prince George’s Community College
Virginia Irintcheva, Truckee Meadows Community College
Brian E. Jordan, C.S. Mott Community College
Thomas Jordan, Pima Community College
Christopher Jung, University of Alaska Anchorage
William M. Karkow, University of Dubuque
Suzanne Keller, Indian Hills Community College
Michael Kielb, Eastern Michigan University
Marta Klesath, North Carolina State University
Nelson H. Kraus, University of Indianapolis
Paul M. Lea IV, Northern Virginia Community College
Steven Lewis, Metropolitan Community College–Penn Valley
Juanita Limas, Kirkwood Community College
Chelsea Loafman, Central Texas College
Paul Luyster, Tarrant County College
Ken Malachowsky, Florence-Darlington Technical College
Theresa Martin, College of San Mateo
Nicole Mashburn, Calhoun Community College
Abdallah M. Matari, Hudson County Community College
Bhavya Mathur, Chattahoochee Technical College
Tiffany Beth McFalls-Smith, Elizabethtown Community and
Technical College
Jennifer Menon, Johnson County Community College
Jaime Mergliano, Brightpoint Community College
Sharon Miles, Itawamba Community College
Todd Miller, Hunter College of CUNY
Louise Millis, North Hennepin Community College
Justin Moore, American River College
Christine Morin, Prince George’s Community College
Qian F. Moss, Des Moines Area Community College
Regina Munro, Chandler-Gilbert Community College
Maria Oehler, Florida State College–Jacksonville
Ellen Ott-Reeves, Blinn College–Bryan
Stephen Page, Community College of Baltimore County &
Townson University
Vikash Patel, Nevada State College
Dennis Pearson, Morton College
Diane Pelletier, Green River Community College
Jessica Petersen, Pensacola State College
Jason Pienaar, University of Alabama
Becky Pierce, Delta College
Gilbert Pitts, Austin Peay State University
Renee Prenitzer, Greenville Technical College
Fernando Prince, Laredo Community College
Rolando J. Ramirez, The University of Akron
Wendy Rappazzo, Harford Community College
Terrence J. Ravine, University of South Alabama
Christine S. Rigsby, Middle Georgia State University
Laura H. Ritt, Burlington County College
Cynthia Robison, Wallace Community College
Susan Rohde, Triton College

Brian Sailer, Central New Mexico Community College
Sharon Schapel, Mott Community College
Mark Schmidt, Clark State Community College
Michael W. Sipala, Bristol Community College
Amy Skibiel, Auburn University
Lori Smith, American River College–Los Rios
Kerry Smith, Oakland Community College–Auburn Hills
Tom Sobat, Ivy Tech Community College
Kay Sourbeer, Tidewater Community College
Ashley Spring, Eastern Florida State College
Justin R. St. Juliana, Ivy Tech Community College
Cindy Stanfield, University of South Alabama
Laura Steele, Ivy Tech Community College–Northeast
George A. Steer, Jefferson College of Health Sciences
Michelle Stettner, Meridian Community College
Susan E. Tappen, Central New Mexico Community College
Dean Thornton, South Georgia State College
Rita A. Thrasher, Pensacola State College
Brenda Tondi, George Mason University
Sheela Vemu, Waubonsee Community College
Khursheed Wankadiya, Central Piedmont Community College
Chad Wayne, University of Houston
Kira L. Wennstrom, Shoreline Community College
John Whitlock, Hillsborough Community College
Patricia Wilhelm, Johnson and Wales University
Luann Wilkinson, Marion Technical College
Selwyn A. Williams, Miami Dade College
Darrellyn Williams, University of Arkansas–Pulaski Technical
Peggie Williamson, Central Texas College
Heather Wilson-Ashworth, Utah Valley University
MaryJo A. Witz, Monroe Community College
Jackie Wright, South Plains College
James Robert Yount, Eastern Florida State College
A&P Advisory Board
We would also like to thank the following instructors who served
on Pearson’s A&P Advisory Board and provided thoughtful
feedback on Pearson’s current and future digital products:
Allison Beck, Black Hawk College
Simone Brito, Fresno City College
Maria Carles, Northern Essex Community College
Robert Carter, Volunteer State Community College
Donna Cempa-Danziger, Nassau Community College
Maria Cendon, Miami Dade College
Mary Dolnack, Seminole State College
Acknowledgments xiii
Heather Dy, Long Beach City College
Tracy Ediger, Georgia State
Peter Germroth, Hillsborough Community College
James Gleaton, Tarrant County College
Lauren Gollahon, Texas Tech
Shari Litch Gray, Regis College
Nathanael Heyman, California Baptist University
Austin Hicks, University of Alabama
Corey Johnson, University of North Carolina–Chapel Hill
Gregory Klein, Cincinnati State
Athena Lemus-Wilson, Austin Community College
Shawn Macauley, Muskegon Community College
Traci McGee, Kennesaw State
Chasity O’Malley, Wright State University
Nicole Perry, Oakton Community College
Mir Saleem, Nova Southeastern
Ashley Spring, Eastern Florida State
Dusty Stutts, Roane State Community College
Ruth Torres, Ivy Tech Community College–Terre Haute
Suleyman Tufa, South Texas College
Donna Uguccioni, Cape Fear Community College
Roland Vieira, Green River College
Valerie Wheat, Jefferson Community & Technical College
Geraldine Wright, Tidewater Community College
We would also like to acknowledge the support of Katja’s
colleagues at Mount Royal University, past and present (Lydia
Chiasson, Trevor Day, Janice Meeking, Izak Paul, Michael
Pollock, Karen Sheedy, and Kartika Tjandra), and Matthew’s
colleagues at Des Moines Area Community College (especially
the crew at Matthew’s “home campus” in Newton, Iowa). We
would like to thank Katja and Larry’s sons, Eric and Stefan
Haynes, for putting up with their parents through many revi-
sions of this book and for continuing to be an inspiration and
a joy. Likewise, Matthew would like to thank his wife, DeDe,
and their children, Alex and Roman, for their love and support.
Finally, we would like to thank all of the students, past, present,
and future, who make us better teachers and keep our passion
buckets for A&P full!
We really would appreciate hearing from you concerning
your opinion—suggestions and constructive criticisms—of this
text. It is this type of feedback that will help us in the next revi-
sion and underlies the continued improvement of this text.
Katja Hoehn
Lawrence Haynes
Matthew Abbott
Contents

2.8 Carbohydrates provide an easily used energy source for

UNIT 1 Organization of the Body the body 43
2.9 Lipids insulate body organs, build cell membranes, and
1 The Human Body: An Orientation 1 provide stored energy 45
2.10 Proteins are the body’s basic structural material and have
1.1 Form (anatomy) determines function (physiology) 2 many vital functions 48
1.2 The body’s organization ranges from atoms to the entire 2.11 DNA and RNA store, transmit, and help express genetic
organism 4 information 53
1.3 What are the requirements for life? 5 2.12 ATP transfers energy to other compounds 55
1.4 Homeostasis is maintained by negative feedback 9
1.5 Anatomical terms describe body directions, regions, and
planes 12
3 Cells: The Living Units 60
A CLOSER LOOK Medical Imaging: Illuminating the Body 16 3.1 Cells are the smallest unit of life 61
1.6 Many internal organs lie in membrane-lined body PART 1 PLASMA MEMBRANE 63
cavities 17
3.2 The plasma membrane is a double layer of phospholipids
with embedded proteins 63
FOCUS FIGURE 3.1 The Plasma Membrane 64
2 Chemistry Comes Alive 23
3.3 Intercellular junctions allow adjacent cells to
adhere or communicate 67
PART 1 BASIC CHEMISTRY 24
3.4 Passive membrane transport includes diffusion and
2.1 Matter is the stuff of the universe and energy moves
osmosis 68
matter 24
3.5 Active membrane transport directly or indirectly uses
2.2 The properties of an element depend on the structure of
ATP 73
its atoms 25
FOCUS FIGURE 3.2 Primary Active Transport: The Na + -K +
2.3 Atoms bound together form molecules; different
Pump 74
molecules can make mixtures 28
3.6 Selective diffusion creates a negative voltage
2.4 Three types of chemical bonds are ionic, covalent, and
inside the cell 79
hydrogen 31
3.7 Cell adhesion molecules and membrane receptors allow
2.5 Chemical reactions occur when electrons are shared,
the cell to interact with its environment 81
gained, or lost 35
FOCUS FIGURE 3.3 G Proteins 82
PART 2 BIOCHEMISTRY 38
PART 2 THE CYTOPLASM 83
2.6 Inorganic compounds include water, salts, and many acids
and bases 38 3.8 Cytoplasmic organelles each perform a specialized task 83
2.7 Organic compounds are made by dehydration synthesis 3.9 Cilia and microvilli are two main types of cellular
and broken down by hydrolysis 41 extensions 90

xiv
 Contents xv
PART 3 NUCLEUS 91 5.6 Nails are scale-like modifications of the epidermis 160
3.10 The nucleus includes the nuclear envelope, nucleoli, and 5.7 Sweat glands help control body temperature, and
chromatin 91 sebaceous glands secrete sebum 161
3.11 The cell cycle consists of interphase and a mitotic 5.8 First and foremost, the skin is a barrier 163
phase 96
5.9 Skin cancer and burns are major challenges to the
FOCUS FIGURE 3.4 Mitosis 100 body 165
3.12 Messenger RNA carries instructions from DNA for DEVELOPMENTAL ASPECTS of the Integumentary System 167
building proteins 98
SYSTEM CONNECTIONS 168
FOCUS FIGURE 3.5 Translation 106
3.13 Autophagy and proteasomes dispose of unneeded
organelles and proteins; apoptosis disposes of unneeded
6 Bones and Skeletal Tissues 173
cells 109
6.1 Hyaline, elastic, and fibrocartilage help form the skeleton 174
DEVELOPMENTAL ASPECTS of Cells 109
6.2 Bones perform several important functions 175
6.3 Bones are classified by their location and shape 176
4 Tissue: The Living Fabric 115 6.4 All bones consist of outer compact bone and inner
spongy bone 176
4.1 Tissue samples are fixed, sliced, and stained for
microscopy 117 6.5 Bones develop either by intramembranous or
endochondral ossification 184
4.2 Epithelial tissue covers body surfaces, lines cavities, and
forms glands 117 6.6 Bone remodeling involves bone deposition and
removal 188
4.3 Connective tissue is the most abundant and widely
distributed tissue in the body 126 6.7 Bone repair involves hematoma and callus formation, and
remodeling 190
4.4 Muscle tissue is responsible for body movement 138
6.8 Bone disorders result from abnormal bone deposition and
4.5 Nervous tissue is a specialized tissue of the nervous
resorption 193
system 140
DEVELOPMENTAL ASPECTS of Bones 194
4.6 The cutaneous membrane is dry; mucous and serous
membranes are wet 141 SYSTEM CONNECTIONS 196
4.7 Tissue repair involves inflammation, organization, and
regeneration 142
7 The Skeleton 199
A CLOSER LOOK Cancer—The Intimate Enemy 144
DEVELOPMENTAL ASPECTS of Tissues 146 PART 1 THE AXIAL SKELETON 200
7.1 The skull consists of 8 cranial bones and 14 facial bones 201

UNIT 2 Covering, Support, and Movement of the Body 7.2 The vertebral column is a flexible, curved support
structure 218
7.3 The thoracic cage is the bony structure of the chest 224
5 The Integumentary System 150
PART 2 THE APPENDICULAR SKELETON 227
5.1 The skin consists of two layers: the epidermis and
7.4 Each pectoral girdle consists of a clavicle and a
dermis 151
scapula 227
5.2 The epidermis is a keratinized stratified squamous
7.5 The upper limb consists of the arm, forearm, and
epithelium 152
hand 230
5.3 The dermis consists of papillary dermis and reticular
7.6 The hip bones attach to the sacrum, forming the pelvic
dermis 154
girdle 236
5.4 Melanin, carotene, and hemoglobin determine skin
7.7 The lower limb consists of the thigh, leg, and foot 240
color 156
DEVELOPMENTAL ASPECTS of the Skeleton 246
5.5 Hair consists of dead, keratinized cells 157
xvi Contents

8 Joints 251 10 The Muscular System 323

8.1 Joints are classified into three structural and three 10.1 For any movement, muscles can act in one of three
functional categories 251 ways 324
8.2 In fibrous joints, the bones are connected by fibrous 10.2 How are skeletal muscles named? 324
tissue 252
FOCUS FIGURE 10.1 Muscle Action 325
8.3 In cartilaginous joints, the bones are connected by
10.3 Fascicle arrangements help determine muscle shape and
cartilage 253
force 326
8.4 Synovial joints have a fluid-filled joint cavity 254
10.4 Muscles acting with bones form lever systems 327
FOCUS FIGURE 8.1 Synovial Joints 260
10.5 A muscle’s attachments determine its action 332
A CLOSER LOOKJoints: From Knights in Shining Armor to
Table 10.1 Muscles of the Head, Part I: Facial Expression 333
Bionic Humans 264
Table 10.2 Muscles of the Head, Part II: Mastication and
8.5 Five examples illustrate the diversity of synovial
Tongue Movement 336
joints 264
Table 10.3 Muscles of the Anterior Neck and Throat:
8.6 Joints are easily damaged by injury, inflammation, and
Swallowing 338
degeneration 272
Table 10.4 Muscles of the Neck and Vertebral Column: Head
DEVELOPMENTAL ASPECTS of Joints 275
Movements and Trunk Extension 340
Table 10.5 Deep Muscles of the Thorax: Breathing 344
9 Muscles and Muscle Tissue 279 Table 10.6 Muscles of the Abdominal Wall: Trunk Movements
and Compression of Abdominal Viscera 346
9.1 There are three types of muscle tissue 280
Table 10.7 Muscles of the Pelvic Floor and Perineum: Support
9.2 A skeletal muscle is made up of muscle fibers, nerves,
of Abdominopelvic Organs 348
blood vessels, and connective tissues 281
Table 10.8 Superficial Muscles of the Anterior and Posterior
9.3 Skeletal muscle fibers contain calcium-regulated molecular
Thorax: Movements of the Scapula and Arm 350
motors 284
Table 10.9 Muscles Crossing the Shoulder Joint: Movements of
9.4 Motor neurons stimulate skeletal muscle fibers to
the Arm (Humerus) 354
contract 290
Table 10.10 Muscles Crossing the Elbow Joint: Flexion and
FOCUS FIGURE 9.1 Events at the Neuromuscular
Extension of the Forearm 357
Junction 292
Table 10.11 Muscles of the Forearm: Movements of the Wrist,
FOCUS FIGURE 9.2 Excitation-Contraction Coupling 294
Hand, and Fingers 358
FOCUS FIGURE 9.3 Cross Bridge Cycle 297
Table 10.12 Summary: Actions of Muscles Acting on the Arm,
9.5 Temporal summation and motor unit recruitment allow Forearm, and Hand 362
smooth, graded skeletal muscle contractions 298
Table 10.13 Intrinsic Muscles of the Hand: Fine Movements of
9.6 ATP for muscle contraction is produced aerobically or the Fingers 364
anaerobically 303
Table 10.14 Muscles Crossing the Hip and Knee Joints:
9.7 The force, velocity, and duration of skeletal muscle Movements of the Thigh and Leg 367
contractions are determined by a variety of factors 306
Table 10.15 Muscles of the Leg: Movements of the Ankle and
9.8 How does skeletal muscle respond to exercise? 309 Toes 374
9.9 Smooth muscle is nonstriated involuntary muscle 310 Table 10.16 Intrinsic Muscles of the Foot: Toe Movement and
Arch Support 380
DEVELOPMENTAL ASPECTS of Muscles 316
Table 10.17 Summary: Actions of Muscles Acting on the Thigh,
SYSTEM CONNECTIONS 318
Leg, and Foot 384
 Contents xvii
12.7 The interconnected structures of the brain allow higher
UNIT 3 Regulation and Integration of the Body mental functions 456
12.8 The brain is protected by bone, meninges, cerebrospinal
11 F undamentals of the Nervous fluid, and the blood brain barrier 462

System and Nervous Tissue 390 12.9 Brain injuries and disorders have devastating
consequences 466
11.1 The nervous system receives, integrates, and responds to 12.10 The spinal cord is a reflex center and conduction
information 391 pathway 468
11.2 Neuroglia support and maintain neurons 392 12.11 Neuronal pathways carry sensory and motor information
11.3 Neurons are the structural units of the nervous to and from the brain 474
system 394 DEVELOPMENTAL ASPECTS of the Central Nervous System 480
11.4 The resting membrane potential depends on differences
in ion concentration and permeability 400 13 T he Peripheral Nervous System and
FOCUS FIGURE 11.1 Resting Membrane Potential 402 Reflex Activity 487
11.5 Graded potentials are brief, short-distance signals within
a neuron 404 PART 1 SENSORY RECEPTORS AND SENSATION 488
11.6 Action potentials are brief, long-distance signals within a 13.1 Sensory receptors are activated by changes in the internal
neuron 405 or external environment 488
FOCUS FIGURE 11.2 Action Potential 406 13.2 Receptors, ascending pathways, and cerebral cortex
11.7 Synapses transmit signals between neurons 412 process sensory information 491

FOCUS FIGURE 11.3 Chemical Synapse 415 PART 2 TRANSMISSION LINES: NERVES AND
THEIR STRUCTURE AND REPAIR 494
11.8 Postsynaptic potentials excite or inhibit the receiving
neuron 416 13.3 Nerves are cordlike bundles of axons that conduct
sensory and motor impulses 494
FOCUS FIGURE 11.4 Postsynaptic Potentials and Their
Summation 418 13.4 There are 12 pairs of cranial nerves 496
11.9 The effect of a neurotransmitter depends on its 13.5 31 pairs of spinal nerves innervate the body 505
receptor 420
PART 3 MOTOR ENDINGS AND MOTOR ACTIVITY 515
11.10 Neurons act together, making complex behaviors
possible 425 13.6 Peripheral motor endings connect nerves to their
effectors 515
DEVELOPMENTAL ASPECTS of Neurons 427
13.7 There are three levels of motor control 515

PART 4 REFLEX ACTIVITY 517

12 The Central Nervous System 432
13.8 The reflex arc enables rapid and predictable responses 517
12.1 Folding during development determines the complex 13.9 Somatic spinal reflexes are clinically important 518
structure of the adult brain 433
FOCUS FIGURE 13.1 Stretch Reflex 520
12.2 The cerebral hemispheres consist of cortex, white matter,
and the basal nuclei 437 DEVELOPMENTAL ASPECTS of the Peripheral Nervous
System 524
12.3 The diencephalon includes the thalamus, hypothalamus,
and epithalamus 445
14 T he Autonomic Nervous
12.4 The brain stem consists of the midbrain, pons, and
medulla oblongata 448
System 529
12.5 The cerebellum adjusts motor output, ensuring 14.1 The ANS differs from the somatic nervous system in that
coordination and balance 452 it can excite or inhibit its effectors 530
12.6 Functional brain systems span multiple brain FOCUS FIGURE 14.1 Sympathetic and Parasympathetic
structures 454 Divisions 532
xviii Contents

14.2 The ANS consists of the parasympathetic and

sympathetic divisions 534
16 The Endocrine System 601
14.3 Long preganglionic parasympathetic fibers originate in 16.1 The endocrine system is one of the body’s two major
the craniosacral CNS 536 control systems 602
14.4 Short preganglionic sympathetic fibers originate in the 16.2 The chemical structure of a hormone determines how it
thoracolumbar CNS 538 acts 603
14.5 Visceral reflex arcs have the same five components as 16.3 Hormones act through second messengers or by
somatic reflex arcs 542 activating specific genes 603
14.6 Acetylcholine and norepinephrine are the major ANS 16.4 Three types of stimuli cause hormone release 607
neurotransmitters 543
16.5 Cells respond to a hormone if they have a receptor for
14.7 The parasympathetic and sympathetic divisions usually that hormone 608
produce opposite effects 544
16.6 The hypothalamus controls release of hormones from the
14.8 The hypothalamus oversees ANS activity 547 pituitary gland in two different ways 609
14.9 Most ANS disorders involve abnormalities in smooth FOCUS FIGURE 16.1 Hypothalamus and Pituitary Interactions 610
muscle control 547
16.7 The thyroid gland controls metabolism 617
DEVELOPMENTAL ASPECTS of the ANS 548
16.8 The parathyroid glands are primary regulators of blood
SYSTEM CONNECTIONS 549 calcium levels 621
16.9 The adrenal glands produce hormones involved in

15 The Special Senses 553 electrolyte balance and the stress response 622
FOCUS FIGURE 16.2 Stress and the Adrenal Gland 628
PART 1 THE EYE AND VISION 554 16.10 The pineal gland secretes melatonin 627
15.1 The eye has three layers, a lens, and humors, and is 16.11 The pancreas, gonads, and most other organs secrete
surrounded by accessory structures 554 hormones 630
15.2 The cornea and lens focus light on the retina 563 A CLOSER LOOK Sweet Revenge: Taming the Diabetes
15.3 Phototransduction begins when light activates visual Monster? 633
pigments in retinal photoreceptors 567 DEVELOPMENTAL ASPECTS of the Endocrine System 636
15.4 Visual information from the retina passes through relay SYSTEM CONNECTIONS 637
nuclei to the visual cortex 573

PART 2 THE CHEMICAL SENSES: SMELL AND TASTE 575

UNIT 4 Maintenance of the Body
15.5 Airborne chemicals are detected by olfactory receptors in
the nose 575
15.6 Dissolved chemicals are detected by receptor cells in taste
17 Blood 642
buds 578
17.1 The functions of blood are transport, regulation, and
PART 3 THE EAR: HEARING AND BALANCE 580 protection 643

15.7 The ear has three major areas 580 17.2 Blood consists of plasma and formed elements 643

15.8 Sound is a pressure wave that stimulates 17.3 Erythrocytes play a crucial role in oxygen and carbon
mechanosensitive cochlear hair cells 585 dioxide transport 645

15.9 Sound information is processed and relayed through brain 17.4 Leukocytes defend the body 651
stem and thalamic nuclei to the auditory cortex 589 17.5 Platelets are cell fragments that help stop bleeding 657
15.10 Hair cells in the maculae and cristae ampullares monitor 17.6 Hemostasis prevents blood loss 657
head position and movement 590
17.7 Transfusion can replace lost blood 663
15.11 Ear abnormalities can affect hearing, equilibrium, or
both 594 17.8 Blood tests give insights into a patient’s health 666

DEVELOPMENTAL ASPECTS of the Special Senses 595 DEVELOPMENTAL ASPECTS of Blood 666
 Contents xix

19.9 Intrinsic and extrinsic controls determine blood flow

18 T he Cardiovascular System: through tissues 726
The Heart 670 19.10 Slow blood flow through capillaries promotes diffusion
of nutrients and gases, and bulk flow of fluids 731
18.1 The heart has four chambers and pumps blood through
the pulmonary and systemic circuits 671 FOCUS FIGURE 19.1 Bulk Flow across Capillary Walls 734
18.2 Heart valves make blood flow in one direction 679 PART 3 CIRCULATORY PATHWAYS: BLOOD VESSELS OF THE
18.3 Blood flows from atrium to ventricle, and then to either BODY 737
the lungs or the rest of the body 680 19.11 The vessels of the systemic circulation transport blood to
FOCUS FIGURE 18.1 Blood Flow through the Heart 681 all body tissues 737

18.4 Intercalated discs connect cardiac muscle cells into a Table 19.3 Pulmonary and Systemic Circulations 738
functional syncytium 683 Table 19.4 The Aorta and Major Arteries of the Systemic
18.5 Pacemaker cells trigger action potentials throughout the Circulation 740
heart 686 Table 19.5 Arteries of the Head and Neck 742
18.6 The cardiac cycle describes the mechanical events Table 19.6 Arteries of the Upper Limbs and Thorax 744
associated with blood flow through the heart 692
Table 19.7 Arteries of the Abdomen 746
FOCUS FIGURE 18.2 The Cardiac Cycle 694
Table 19.8 Arteries of the Pelvis and Lower Limbs 750
18.7 Stroke volume and heart rate are regulated to alter
cardiac output 696 Table 19.9 The Venae Cavae and the Major Veins of the
Systemic Circulation 752
DEVELOPMENTAL ASPECTS of the Heart 700
Table 19.10 Veins of the Head and Neck 754
Table 19.11 Veins of the Upper Limbs and Thorax 756
Table 19.12 Veins of the Abdomen 758
19 T he Cardiovascular System:
Table 19.13 Veins of the Pelvis and Lower Limbs 760
Blood Vessels 706
DEVELOPMENTAL ASPECTS of Blood Vessels 761
PART 1 BLOOD VESSEL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION 707 SYSTEM CONNECTIONS 762
19.1 Most blood vessel walls have three layers 709
19.2 Arteries are pressure reservoirs, distributing vessels, or 20 T he Lymphatic System and Lymphoid
resistance vessels 710
Organs and Tissues 767
19.3 Capillaries are exchange vessels 710
A CLOSER LOOK Atherosclerosis? Get Out the 20.1 The lymphatic system includes lymphatic vessels, lymph,
Cardiovascular Drāno® 711 and lymph nodes 768

19.4 Veins are blood reservoirs that return blood toward the 20.2 Lymphoid cells and tissues are found in lymphoid organs
heart 714 and in connective tissue of other organs 771

19.5 Anastomoses are special interconnections between blood 20.3 Lymph nodes cleanse lymph and house lymphocytes 773
vessels 715 20.4 The spleen removes bloodborne pathogens and aged red
blood cells 774
PART 2 PHYSIOLOGY OF CIRCULATION 715
20.5 MALT guards the body’s entryways against
19.6 Blood flows from high to low pressure against
pathogens 776
resistance 715
20.6 T lymphocytes mature in the thymus 776
19.7 Blood pressure decreases as blood flows from arteries
through capillaries and into veins 717 DEVELOPMENTAL ASPECTS of the Lymphatic System and
Lymphoid Organs and Tissues 778
19.8 Blood pressure is regulated by short- and long-term
controls 719 SYSTEM CONNECTIONS 779
xx Contents

22.7 Oxygen is transported by hemoglobin, and carbon

21 T he Immune System: Innate and dioxide is transported in three different ways 852
Adaptive Body Defenses 783 FOCUS FIGURE 22.2 The Oxygen-Hemoglobin Dissociation
Curve 854
PART 1 INNATE DEFENSES 784
22.8 Respiratory centers in the brain stem control breathing
FOCUS FIGURE 21.1 An Overview of the Immune System 785 with input from chemoreceptors and higher brain
21.1 Surface barriers act as the first line of defense to keep centers 859
invaders out of the body 784 22.9 Exercise and high altitude bring about respiratory
21.2 Innate internal defenses are cells and chemicals that act adjustments 863
as the second line of defense 786 22.10 Respiratory diseases are major causes of disability and
death 864
PART 2 ADAPTIVE DEFENSES 793
DEVELOPMENTAL ASPECTS of the Respiratory System 866
21.3 Antigens are substances that trigger the body’s adaptive
defenses 794 SYSTEM CONNECTIONS 868
21.4 B and T lymphocytes and antigen-presenting cells are
cells of the adaptive immune response 795
23 The Digestive System 874
21.5 In humoral immunity, antibodies are produced that
target extracellular antigens 799 PART 1 OVERVIEW OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM 875
21.6 Cellular immunity consists of T lymphocytes that direct 23.1 What major processes occur during digestive system
adaptive immunity or attack cellular targets 805 activity? 876
FOCUS FIGURE 21.2 An Example of a Primary Immune 23.2 The GI tract has four layers and is usually surrounded by
Response 812 peritoneum 877
21.7 Insufficient or overactive immune responses create 23.3 The GI tract has its own nervous system called the enteric
problems 815 nervous system 880
DEVELOPMENTAL ASPECTS of the Immune System 818
PART 2 FUNCTIONAL ANATOMY OF THE DIGESTIVE
SYSTEM 881
23.4 Ingestion occurs only at the mouth 882
22 The Respiratory System 822
23.5 The pharynx and esophagus move food from the mouth
to the stomach 887
PART 1 FUNCTIONAL ANATOMY 824
23.6 The stomach temporarily stores food and begins protein
22.1 The upper respiratory system warms, humidifies, and
digestion 890
filters air 824
23.7 The liver secretes bile; the pancreas secretes digestive
22.2 The lower respiratory system consists of conducting and
enzymes 899
respiratory zone structures 828
23.8 The small intestine is the major site for digestion and
22.3 Each multilobed lung is surrounded by its own
absorption 906
pleurae 837
23.9 The large intestine absorbs water and eliminates
PART 2 RESPIRATORY PHYSIOLOGY 838 feces 912
22.4 Volume changes cause pressure changes, which cause air
PART 3 PHYSIOLOGY OF DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION 918
to move 838
23.10 Digestion hydrolyzes food into nutrients that are
FOCUS FIGURE 22.1 The Mechanics of Breathing at Rest 842
absorbed across the gut epithelium 918
22.5 Measuring pulmonary volumes, capacities, and flow rates
23.11 How is each type of nutrient processed? 918
helps us assess ventilation 845
DEVELOPMENTAL ASPECTS of the Digestive System 924
22.6 Gases exchange by diffusion between the blood, lungs,
and tissues 847 SYSTEM CONNECTIONS 926
 Contents xxi

25.7 The kidneys create and use an osmotic gradient to

24 N
 utrition, Metabolism, and Energy regulate urine concentration and volume 1003
Balance 932 FOCUS FIGURE 25.2 Medullary Osmotic Gradient 1004

PART 1 NUTRIENTS 933 25.8 Renal function is evaluated by analyzing blood and
urine 1008
24.1 Carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins supply energy and are
used as building blocks 933 25.9 The ureters, urinary bladder, and urethra transport, store,
and eliminate urine 1010
24.2 Most vitamins act as coenzymes; minerals have many
roles in the body 937 DEVELOPMENTAL ASPECTS of the Urinary System 1014

PART 2 METABOLISM 939

24.3 Metabolism is the sum of all biochemical reactions in the
26 F luid, Electrolyte, and Acid-Base
body 940 Balance 1020
24.4 Carbohydrate metabolism is the central player in ATP
26.1 Body fluids consist of water and solutes in three main
production 942
compartments 1021
FOCUS FIGURE 24.1 Oxidative Phosphorylation 947
26.2 Both intake and output of water are regulated 1024
24.5 Lipid metabolism is key for long-term energy
26.3 Sodium, potassium, calcium, and phosphate levels are
storage and release 952
tightly regulated 1027
24.6 Amino acids are used to build proteins or for
26.4 Chemical buffers and respiratory regulation rapidly
energy 954
minimize pH changes 1034
24.7 Energy is stored in the fed state and released in the
26.5 Renal regulation is a long-term mechanism for controlling
fasting state 955
acid-base balance 1037
24.8 The liver metabolizes, stores, and detoxifies 961
26.6 Abnormalities of acid-base balance are classified as
PART 3 ENERGY BALANCE 964 metabolic or respiratory 1041
24.9 Neural and hormonal factors regulate food intake 964 A CLOSER LOOK Sleuthing: Using Blood Values to Determine
the Cause of Acidosis or Alkalosis 1042
A CLOSER LOOK Obesity: “Why is it so hard?” 966
DEVELOPMENTAL ASPECTS of Fluid, Electrolyte, and Acid-Base
24.10 Thyroxine is the major hormone that controls basal
Balance 1043
metabolic rate 968
SYSTEM CONNECTIONS 1044
24.11 The hypothalamus acts as the body’s thermostat 969
DEVELOPMENTAL ASPECTS of Nutrition and Metabolism 973
UNIT 5 Continuity

25 The Urinary System 979

27 The Reproductive System 1049
25.1 The kidneys have three distinct regions and a rich blood
supply 980 27.1 The male and female reproductive systems share
common features 1050
25.2 Nephrons are the functional units of the kidney 983
FOCUS FIGURE 27.1 Meiosis 1054
25.3 Overview: Filtration, reabsorption, and secretion are the
key processes of urine formation 989 PART 1 ANATOMY OF THE MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM 1052
FOCUS FIGURE 25.1 Three Major Renal Processes 990 27.2 The testes are enclosed and protected by the
scrotum 1056
25.4 Urine formation, step 1: The glomeruli make
filtrate 993 27.3 Sperm travel from the testes to the body exterior through
a system of ducts 1058
25.5 Urine formation, step 2: Most of the filtrate is reabsorbed
into the blood 997 27.4 The penis is a copulatory organ 1060
25.6 Urine formation, step 3: Certain substances are secreted 27.5 The male accessory glands produce the bulk of
into the filtrate 1002 semen 1060
xxii Contents

PART 2 PHYSIOLOGY OF THE MALE REPRODUCTIVE
SYSTEM 1062
27.6 The male sexual response includes erection and
ejaculation 1062
27.7 Spermatogenesis is the sequence of events that leads to
formation of sperm 1063
27.8 Male reproductive function is regulated by hypothalamic,
anterior pituitary, and testicular hormones 1068
28.3 Implantation occurs when the embryo burrows into the
uterine wall, triggering placenta formation 1108
28.4 Embryonic events include gastrula formation and tissue
differentiation, which are followed by rapid growth of
the fetus 1112
FOCUS FIGURE 28.2 Fetal and Newborn Circulation 1118
28.5 During pregnancy, the body undergoes anatomical,
physiological, and metabolic changes 1122

PART 3ANATOMY OF THE FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE 28.6 The three stages of labor are the dilation, expulsion, and
SYSTEM 1069 placental stages 1124

27.9 Immature eggs develop in follicles in the ovaries 1071 28.7 An infant’s extrauterine adjustments include taking the
first breath and closure of vascular shunts 1126
27.10 The female duct system includes the uterine tubes,
uterus, and vagina 1072 28.8 Lactation is milk secretion by the mammary glands in
response to prolactin 1126
27.11 The external genitalia of the female include those
structures that lie external to the vagina 1076 A CLOSER LOOK Contraception: To Be or Not To Be 1128

27.12 The mammary glands produce milk 1077 28.9 Assisted reproductive technology may help an infertile
couple have offspring 1129
PART 4PHYSIOLOGY OF THE FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE
SYSTEM 1078
27.13 Oogenesis is the sequence of events that leads to the
29 Heredity 1134
formation of ova 1078
29.1 Genes are the vocabulary of genetics 1135
27.14 The ovarian cycle consists of the follicular phase and the
29.2 Genetic variation results from independent assortment,
luteal phase 1082
crossing over, and random fertilization 1136
27.15 Female reproductive function is regulated by
29.3 There are several patterns of inheritance 1138
hypothalamic, anterior pituitary, and ovarian
hormones 1083 29.4 Gene expression is affected by many factors 1141
27.16 The female sexual response is more diverse and complex 29.5 Genetic screening is used to detect genetic
than that of males 1089 disorders 1143

PART 5 SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED INFECTIONS 1090

27.17 Sexually transmitted infections cause reproductive and Appendices
other disorders 1090 Answers Appendix A-1
DEVELOPMENTAL ASPECTS of the Reproductive System 1091 A The Metric System A-18
B Functional Groups in Organic Molecules A-20
SYSTEM CONNECTIONS 1095
C The Amino Acids A-21
D Two Important Metabolic Pathways A-22
28 P
 regnancy and Human E Periodic Table of the Elements A-25
Development 1101 F Reference Values for Selected Blood and Urine
Studies A-26
28.1 Fertilization combines the sperm and egg chromosomes,
forming a zygote 1102 Glossary G-1

FOCUS FIGURE 28.1 Sperm Penetration and the Blocks to Photo and Illustration Credits C-1
Polyspermy 1104
Index I-1
28.2 Embryonic development begins as the zygote undergoes
cleavage and forms a blastocyst en route to the
uterus 1107
1 The Human Body:
An Orientation

In this chapter, you will learn that

Anatomy and physiology provide a framework that helps us understand the human body

by asking

1.1 What are anatomy 1.4 How does the body 1.5 What terms do we need
and physiology, and keep its internal to describe anatomy?
how are they related? environment in balance?
and exploring

1.2 How is the body

1.6 Body cavities and
organized structurally?
membranes

1.3 What are the

requirements for life?

Welcome to the study of one of the most fascinating

CAREER CONNECTION
Play a video to learn how the
chapter content is used in
a real healthcare setting
@ Mastering A&P > Study Area.
subjects possible—your own body. Such a study is not only
highly personal, but timely as well. We get news of some medi-
cal advance almost daily. To appreciate emerging discoveries in
molecular genetics, to understand new techniques for detecting
and treating disease, and to make use of published facts on how
to stay healthy, you’ll find it helps to learn about the workings
of your body. If you are preparing for a career in the health sci-
ences, the study of anatomy and physiology has added rewards
because it provides the essential foundation for your clinical
experiences.
In this chapter, we define and contrast anatomy and physiol-
ogy, and discuss how the human body is organized. Then we
review the needs and processes common to all living organ-
isms. Three essential concepts—the complementarity of struc-
ture and function, the hierarchy of structural organization, and
homeostasis—will unify and form the bedrock for your study
of the human body. And finally, you’ll learn the language of
anatomy—terminology that anatomists use to describe the body
and its parts.

1
 2 UNIT 1 Organization of the Body
1.1Form (anatomy) determines
function (physiology)
Learning Outcomes
N Define anatomy and physiology and describe their
subdivisions.
N Explain the principle of complementarity.
Two complementary branches of science—anatomy and
11
1 ­physiology—provide the concepts that help us to understand
the human body. Anatomy studies the structure of body parts
and their relationships to one another. Anatomy has a certain
appeal because it is concrete. Body structures can be seen, felt,
and examined closely. You don’t need to imagine what they
look like.
Physiology concerns the function of the body; in other words,
how the body parts work and carry out their life-sustaining activi-
ties. When all is said and done, physiology is explainable only in
terms of the underlying anatomy.
For simplicity, when we refer to body structures and phys-
iological values (body temperature, heart rate, and the like),
we will assume that we are talking about a healthy young
reference male weighing about 155 lb [ 70 kilograms ( kg ) ]
or a healthy young reference female weighing about
125 lb ( 57 kg ).
Although we use the reference values and common direc-
tional and regional terms to refer to all human bodies, you
know from observing the faces and body shapes of people
around you that we humans differ in our external anatomy.
The same kind of variability holds for internal organs as well.
In one person, for example, a nerve or blood vessel may be
somewhat out of place, or a small muscle may be missing.
Nonetheless, well over 90% of all structures present in any
human body match the textbook descriptions. We seldom see
extreme anatomical variations because they are incompatible
with life.
In this book, an individual’s sex refers to a set of biological
attributes. These are ultimately based on chromosomes, gene
expression, and the actions of hormones, and are reflected in
an individual’s reproductive anatomy and physiology. Gen-
erally, sex falls into two categories, male and female, but
there are variations that fall between these two. We describe
how these differences in sexual development come about in
Chapter 27. Gender, a psychosocial construct consisting of
behaviors, expressions, and identities, is beyond the scope of
this book. (Gender includes categories described as “man,”
“woman,” “transgender,” “nonbinary,” and others.)
Topics of Anatomy
Anatomy is a broad field with many subdivisions, each provid-
ing enough information to be a course in itself. Gross anatomy
is macroscopic anatomy: the study of large body structures vis-
ible to the naked eye, such as the heart, lungs, and kidneys.
Indeed, the term anatomy (from Greek, meaning “to cut apart”)
relates most closely to gross anatomy because in such studies,
preserved animals or their organs are dissected (cut up) to be
examined.
Gross anatomy can be approached in different ways:
In regional anatomy, all the structures (muscles, bones,
●
blood vessels, nerves, etc.) in a particular region of the
body, such as the abdomen or leg, are examined at the same
time.
● In systemic anatomy (sis-tem9ik),* body structure is studied
system by system. For example, when studying the cardio-
vascular system, you would examine the heart and the blood
vessels of the entire body.
● Another subdivision of gross anatomy is surface anatomy,
the study of internal structures as they relate to the overlying
skin surface. You use surface anatomy when identifying the
bulging muscles beneath a bodybuilder’s skin, and clinicians
use it to locate appropriate blood vessels in which to feel
pulses and draw blood.
Microscopic anatomy deals with structures too small to be
seen with the naked eye. For most such studies, exceedingly
thin slices of body tissues are stained and mounted on glass
slides to be examined under the microscope. Subdivisions of
microscopic anatomy include cytology (si-tol9o-je), which
considers the cells of the body, and histology (his-tol9o-je), the
study of tissues.
Developmental anatomy traces structural changes that
occur throughout the life span. Embryology (em0bre-ol9o-je), a
subdivision of developmental anatomy, concerns developmental
changes that occur before birth.
Some highly specialized branches of anatomy are used
primarily for medical diagnosis and scientific research. For
example, pathological anatomy studies structural changes
caused by disease. Radiographic anatomy studies internal
structures as visualized by X-ray images or specialized scan-
ning procedures.
Studying Anatomy
One essential tool for studying anatomy is a mastery of ana-
tomical terminology. Other tools are observation, manipula-
tion, and, in a living person, palpation (feeling organs with
your hands) and auscultation (listening to organ sounds with a
stethoscope). A simple example illustrates how some of these
tools work together in an anatomical study.
Let’s assume that your topic is freely movable joints of the
body. In the laboratory, you will be able to observe an animal
joint, noting how its parts fit together. You can work the joint
(manipulate it) to determine its range of motion. Using ana-
tomical terminology, you can name its parts and describe how
they are related so that other students (and your instructor) will
have no trouble understanding you. The list of word roots (at
the back of the book) and the glossary will help you with this
special vocabulary.
*For the pronunciation guide rules, see the first page of the glossary in the back
of the book.

The sharp edges of incisors
(structure) make them ideal for
cutting like scissors (function).
Figure 1.1 Complementarity of structure and function.
Although you will make most of your observations with
the naked eye or with the help of a microscope, medical tech-
nology has developed a number of sophisticated tools that
can peer into the body without disrupting it. See A Closer
Look on pp. 16–17.
Topics of Physiology
Like anatomy, physiology has many subdivisions. Most of them
consider the operation of specific organ systems. For example,
renal physiology concerns kidney function and urine produc-
tion. Neurophysiology explains the workings of the nervous
system. Cardiovascular physiology examines the operation of
the heart and blood vessels. While anatomy provides us with a
static image of the body’s architecture, physiology reveals the
body’s dynamic and animated workings.
Physiology often focuses on events at the cellular or
molecular level. This is because the body’s abilities depend
on those of its individual cells, and a cell’s abilities ulti-
mately depend on the chemical reactions that go on within it.
Physiology also rests on principles of physics, which help to
explain electrical currents, blood pressure, and the way mus-
cles use bones to cause body movements, among other things.
We present basic chemical and physical principles in Chapter 2
and throughout the book as needed to explain physiological
topics.
Chapter 1 The Human Body: An Orientation 3
11
1
The flat surfaces of molars (structure)
make them ideal for grinding, like a
mortar and pestle (function).
Complementarity of Structure
and Function
Although it is possible to study anatomy and physiology indi-
vidually, these topics are actually inseparable, because func-
tion always reflects structure. That is, what a structure can do
depends on its specific form. This key concept is called the
principle of complementarity of structure and function.
For example, bones can support and protect body organs
because they contain hard mineral deposits. Blood flows in one
direction through the heart because the heart has valves that pre-
vent backflow. Another example is how the various shapes of
our teeth reflect their different actions, as shown in Figure 1.1.
Throughout this book, we accompany a description of a structure’s
anatomy with an explanation of its function, and we emphasize
structural characteristics contributing to that function.
Check Your Understanding
1. In what way does physiology depend on anatomy?
2. Would you be studying anatomy or physiology if you
investigated how muscles shorten? If you explored the
location of the lungs in the body?
3. APPLY Use the word root definitions located at the back of
this book to define each of the following terms: gastritis,
leukocyte, nephropathy.
For answers, see Answers Appendix.
 4 UNIT 1 Organization of the Body

the chemical level, which we study in Chapter 2. At this level,

The body’s organization ranges
1.2 atoms, tiny building blocks of matter, combine to form mol-
from atoms to the entire organism ecules, such as water and proteins. Molecules, in turn, associate
in specific ways to form organelles, which are the basic compo-
Learning Outcomes nents of cells. Cells are the smallest units of living things. We
N Name the different levels of structural organization that examine the cellular level in Chapter 3. All cells share some
make up the human body and explain their relationships. common functions, but individual cells vary widely in size and
N List the 11 organ systems of the body, identify their shape, reflecting their unique functions in the body.
components, and briefly explain the major function(s) of The simplest living creatures are single cells, but in complex
each system. organisms such as human beings, the hierarchy continues on
11
1
The human body has many levels of structural organization to the tissue level. Tissues are groups of similar cells that have
(Figure 1.2). The simplest level of the structural hierarchy is a common function. The four basic tissue types in the human

Organelle
Atoms Molecules
Smooth muscle cell

Chemical level Cellular level

Atoms combine to form molecules. Cells are made up of molecules.

Smooth muscle tissue

Cardiovascular
Tissue level
system
Tissues consist of similar types of cells.

Heart

Blood
vessels Blood vessel (organ)

Smooth muscle tissue

Connective tissue

Epithelial
tissue

Organ level
Organs are made up of different types of tissues.

Organismal level Organ system level

The human organism is made up of many Organ systems consist of different
organ systems. organs that work together closely.

Figure 1.2 Levels of structural organization. Components of the cardiovascular system are
used to illustrate the levels of structural organization in a human being.
 Chapter 1 The Human Body: An Orientation 5
body are epithelial tissue, muscle tissue, connective tissue, and Like all complex animals, humans maintain their bound-
nervous tissue. aries, move, respond to environmental changes, take in and
Each tissue type has a characteristic role in the body, which digest nutrients, carry out metabolism, dispose of wastes,
we explore in Chapter 4. Briefly, epithelial tissue covers the reproduce themselves, and grow. We will introduce these nec-
body surface and lines its cavities. Muscle tissue provides essary life functions here and discuss them in more detail in
movement. Connective tissue supports and protects body later chapters.
organs. Nervous tissue provides a means of rapid internal com- We cannot emphasize strongly enough that all body cells
munication by transmitting electrical impulses. are interdependent. This interdependence is due to the fact
An organ is a discrete structure composed of at least two tis- that humans are multicellular organisms and our vital body
sue types (four is more common) that performs a specific func- functions are parceled out among different organ systems. 11
1
tion for the body. The liver, the brain, and a blood vessel are very Organ systems, in turn, work cooperatively to promote the
different from the stomach, but each is an organ. You can think of well-being of the entire body. Figure 1.3 identifies some
each organ of the body as a specialized functional center respon- of the organ systems that make major contributions to nec-
sible for a necessary activity that no other organ can perform. essary life functions. Also, as you read this section, check
At the organ level, extremely complex functions become pos- Figure 1.4 on pp. 6–7 for more detailed descriptions of the
sible. Let’s take the stomach as an example. Its lining is an epithe- body’s organ systems.
lium that produces digestive juices. The bulk of its wall is muscle,
which churns and mixes stomach contents (food). Its connective
tissue reinforces the soft muscular walls. Its nerve fibers increase (Text continues on p. 8.)
digestive activity by stimulating the muscle to contract more vig-
orously and the glands to secrete more digestive juices.
The next level of organization is the organ system level.
Digestive system Respiratory system
Organs that work together to accomplish a common purpose Takes in nutrients, breaks them Takes in oxygen and
make up an organ system. For example, the heart and blood down, and eliminates unabsorbed eliminates carbon dioxide
vessels of the cardiovascular system circulate blood continu- matter (feces)
ously to carry oxygen and nutrients to all body cells. Besides Food O2 CO2
the cardiovascular system, the other organ systems of the body
are the integumentary, skeletal, muscular, nervous, endocrine, Cardiovascular system
lymphatic, respiratory, digestive, urinary, and reproductive sys- Via the blood, distributes oxygen
tems. (Note that the immune system is closely associated with and nutrients to all body cells and
delivers wastes and carbon
the lymphatic system.) Look ahead to Figure 1.4 on pp. 6–7 for dioxide to disposal organs
an overview of the 11 organ systems.
The highest level of organization is the organism, the living
Blood
human being. The organismal level represents the sum total of CO2
all structural levels working together to keep us alive. O2

Check Your Understanding

4. What level of structural organization is typical of a cytologist’s Heart
field of study? Urinary system
Nutrients Eliminates
5. What is the correct structural order (simplest to most complex) nitrogenous
for the following terms: tissue, organism, organ, cell? wastes and
Interstitial fluid excess ions
For answers, see Answers Appendix.

1.3 What are the requirements

for life?
Learning Outcomes Nutrients and wastes pass
N List the functional characteristics necessary to maintain between blood plasma and
cells via the interstitial fluid
life in humans.
N List the survival needs of the body.
Integumentary system
Necessary Life Functions Feces Protects the body as a whole Urine
from the external environment
Now that you know the structural levels of the human body, the
question that naturally follows is: What does this highly organ- Figure 1.3 Examples of interrelationships among body
ized human body do? organ systems.
 6 UNIT 1 Organization of the Body

Hair Skeletal
muscles

Skin Nails

Bones
11
1

Joint

(a) Integumentary System (b) Skeletal System (c) Muscular System

Forms the external body covering, and
protects deeper tissues from injury.
Synthesizes vitamin D, and houses
cutaneous (pain, pressure, etc.) receptors,
and sweat and oil glands.
Protects and supports body organs, and Allows manipulation of the environment,
provides a framework the muscles use locomotion, and facial expression.
to cause movement. Blood cells are Maintains posture, and produces heat.
formed within bones. Bones store minerals.

Pineal gland
Brain
Pituitary
Thyroid gland
gland Heart
Thymus

Adrenal
gland
Pancreas

Testis

Nerves Ovary Blood

Spinal vessels
cord

(d) Nervous System (e) Endocrine System (f) Cardiovascular System

As the fast-acting control system of the Glands secrete hormones that regulate Blood vessels transport blood, which
body, it responds to internal and external processes such as growth, reproduction, carries oxygen, carbon dioxide,
changes by activating appropriate and nutrient use (metabolism) by body nutrients, wastes, etc. The heart pumps
muscles and glands. cells. blood.

Figure 1.4 The body’s organ systems and their major functions.
 Chapter 1 The Human Body: An Orientation 7

Nasal Oral cavity

Red bone cavity
marrow
Thymus Pharynx Esophagus

Larynx Bronchus
Lymphatic
vessels Trachea
Thoracic
duct Lung Liver
Stomach
Small 11
1
Spleen intestine

Large
intestine
Lymph nodes Rectum
Anus

(g) Lymphatic System/Immunity (h) Respiratory System (i) Digestive System

Picks up fluid leaked from blood vessels Keeps blood constantly supplied with Breaks down food into absorbable units
and returns it to blood. Disposes oxygen and removes carbon dioxide. that enter the blood for distribution to
of debris in the lymphatic stream. These exchanges occur through body cells. Indigestible foodstuffs are
Houses white blood cells (lymphocytes) the walls of the air sacs of the lungs. eliminated as feces.
involved in immunity. The immune
response mounts the attack against
foreign substances within the body.

Mammary
glands (in
breasts)
Kidney

Ureter Prostate

Ovary
Penis
Urinary
bladder Testis Ductus
deferens Uterine
Urethra Scrotum Uterus
tube
Vagina

(j) Urinary System
Eliminates nitrogenous wastes from the
body. Regulates water, electrolyte, and
acid-base balance of the blood.
(k) Male Reproductive System (l) Female Reproductive System
Overall function is production of offspring. Testes produce sperm and male sex hormone,
and male ducts and glands aid in delivery of sperm to the female reproductive tract. Ovaries
produce eggs and female sex hormones. The remaining female structures serve as sites for
fertilization and development of the fetus. Mammary glands of female breasts produce
milk to nourish the newborn.

Figure 1.4 (continued)

 8 UNIT 1 Organization of the Body
Maintaining Boundaries
Every living organism must maintain its boundaries so that
its internal environment (its inside) remains distinct from the
external environment (its outside). In single-celled organisms,
the external boundary is a membrane that encloses the cell’s
contents and lets in needed substances while restricting entry of
potentially damaging or unnecessary substances. Similarly, all
body cells are surrounded by a selectively permeable plasma
membrane.
11
1 The plasma membrane separates the intracellular fluid
inside cells from the extracellular fluid outside. Part of the
extracellular fluid (blood plasma) is enclosed in blood vessels.
The remainder, the interstitial fluid, surrounds and bathes all of
our cells (see Figure 1.3 on p. 5).
Another important boundary, the integumentary system, or
skin, encloses the body as a whole (Figure 1.4a). This system
protects our internal organs from drying out (a fatal change),
infection, and the damaging effects of heat, sunlight, and an
unbelievable number of chemicals in the external environment.
Movement
Movement includes the activities promoted by the muscular
system, such as propelling ourselves from one place to another
by running or swimming, and manipulating the external envi-
ronment with our nimble fingers (Figure 1.4c). The skeletal
system provides the bony framework that the muscles pull
on as they work (Figure 1.4b). Movement also occurs when
substances such as blood, foodstuffs, and urine are propelled
through internal organs of the cardiovascular, digestive, and
urinary systems, respectively. On the cellular level, the muscle
cell’s ability to move by shortening is more precisely called
contractility.
Responsiveness
Responsiveness, or excitability, is the ability to sense changes
(stimuli) in the environment and then respond to them. For
example, if you cut your hand on broken glass, a withdrawal
reflex occurs—you involuntarily pull your hand away from the
painful stimulus (the broken glass). You don’t have to think
about it—it just happens! Likewise, when carbon dioxide in
your blood rises to dangerously high levels, chemical sensors
respond by sending messages to brain centers controlling respi-
ration, and you breathe more rapidly.
Because nerve cells are highly excitable and communicate
rapidly with each other via electrical impulses, the nervous sys-
tem is most involved with responsiveness (Figure 1.4d). How-
ever, all body cells are excitable to some extent.
Digestion
Digestion is the breaking down of ingested foodstuffs to simple
molecules that can be absorbed into the blood. The nutrient-rich
blood is then distributed to all body cells by the cardiovascular
system. In a simple, one-celled organism such as an amoeba,
the cell itself is the “digestion factory,” but in the multicellular
human body, the digestive system performs this function for the
entire body (Figure 1.4i).
Metabolism
Metabolism (mĕ-tab9o-lizm; “a state of change”) is a broad
term that includes all chemical reactions that occur within body
cells. It includes breaking down substances into simpler build-
ing blocks (the process of catabolism), synthesizing more com-
plex substances from simpler building blocks (anabolism), and
using nutrients and oxygen to produce (via cellular respiration)
ATP, the energy-rich molecules that power cellular activities.
Metabolism depends on the digestive and respiratory systems
to make nutrients and oxygen available to the blood, and on the
cardiovascular system to distribute them throughout the body
(Figure 1.4i, h, and f, respectively). Metabolism is regulated
largely by hormones secreted by endocrine system glands
(Figure 1.4e).
Excretion
Excretion is the process of removing wastes, or excreta
(ek-skre9tah), from the body. If the body is to operate as we
expect it to, it must get rid of unuseful substances produced
during digestion and metabolism.
Several organ systems participate in excretion. For example,
the digestive system rids the body of indigestible food residues
in feces, and the urinary system disposes of nitrogen-containing
metabolic wastes, such as urea, in urine (Figure 1.4i and j).
Carbon dioxide, a by-product of cellular respiration, is carried
in the blood to the lungs, where it leaves the body in exhaled
air (Figure 1.4h).
Reproduction
Reproduction occurs at the cellular and the organismal level.
In cellular reproduction, the original cell divides, producing two
identical daughter cells that may then be used for body growth
or repair. Reproduction of the human organism, or making a
whole new person, is the major task of the reproductive system.
When a sperm from a male unites with an egg in a female,
a fertilized egg forms and develops into a baby within the
female’s body. The reproductive system is directly responsible
for producing offspring, but its function is exquisitely regulated
by hormones of the endocrine system (Figure 1.4e).
Because males produce sperm and females produce eggs
(ova), there is a division of labor in reproduction, and the repro-
ductive organs of males and females are different (Figure 1.4k, l).
Additionally, the female’s reproductive structures provide the
site for fertilization of eggs by sperm, and then protect and nur-
ture the developing fetus until birth.
Growth
Growth is an increase in size of a body part or the organism as
a whole. It is usually accomplished by increasing the number of
cells. However, individual cells also increase in size when not
dividing. For true growth to occur, constructive activities must
occur at a faster rate than destructive ones.
Survival Needs
The ultimate goal of all body systems is to maintain life.
However, life is extraordinarily fragile and requires several

factors. These survival needs include nutrients (food), oxy-
gen, water, and appropriate temperature and atmospheric
pressure.
● Nutrients. Taken in via the diet, nutrients contain the
chemical substances used for energy and cell building. Most
plant-derived foods are rich in carbohydrates, vitamins, and
minerals, whereas most animal foods are richer in proteins
and fats.
Carbohydrates are the major energy fuel for body cells.
Proteins, and to a lesser extent fats, are essential for build-
ing cell structures. Fats also provide a reserve of energy-rich
fuel. Selected minerals and vitamins are required for the
chemical reactions that go on in cells and for oxygen trans-
port in the blood. The mineral calcium helps to make bones
hard and is required for blood clotting.
● Oxygen. All the nutrients in the world are useless unless
oxygen is also available. Because the chemical reactions
that release energy from foods are oxidative reactions that
require oxygen, human cells can survive for only a few
minutes without oxygen. Approximately 20% of the air we
breathe is oxygen. The cooperative efforts of the respiratory
and cardiovascular systems make oxygen available to the
blood and body cells.
● Water. Water accounts for 50–60% of our body weight and
is the single most abundant chemical substance in the body.
It provides the watery environment necessary for chemical
reactions and the fluid base for body secretions and excre-
tions. We obtain water from ingested foods and liquids. We
lose it from the body by evaporation from the lungs and skin
and in body excretions.
● Normal body temperature. If chemical reactions are to
continue at life-sustaining rates, normal body tempera-
ture must be maintained. As body temperature drops
­below 37 °C ( 98.6 °F ), chemical reactions become slower
and slower, and finally stop. When body temperature is too
high, chemical reactions occur at a frantic pace and body
systems stop functioning. At either extreme, death occurs.
The activity of the muscular system generates most body
heat.
● Appropriate atmospheric pressure. Atmospheric pressure
is the force that air exerts on the surface of the body. Breath-
ing and gas exchange in the lungs depend on appropriate
atmospheric pressure. At high altitudes, where atmospheric
pressure is lower and the air is thin, gas exchange may be
inadequate to support cellular metabolism.
The mere presence of these survival factors is not sufficient
to sustain life. They must be present in the proper amounts. Too
much and too little may be equally harmful. For example, oxy-
gen is essential, but excessive amounts are toxic to body cells.
Similarly, the food we eat must be of high quality and in proper
amounts. Otherwise, nutritional disease, obesity, or starvation
is likely. Also, while the needs listed here are the most crucial,
they do not even begin to encompass all of the body’s needs.
For example, we can live without gravity if we must, but the
quality of life suffers.
Chapter 1 The Human Body: An Orientation 9
Check Your Understanding
6. What separates living beings from nonliving objects?
7. What name is given to all chemical reactions that occur within
body cells?
8. The image below shows tissue cells and part of a blood vessel.
The cells’ nutrients and wastes are exchanged across an
important boundary between two fluid compartments. Name
the boundary (a) and the fluid in the compartments (b and c).
Be specific.
a 11
1
Tissue cells
b
c
Blood vessel
For answers, see Answers Appendix.
1.4 Homeostasis is maintained
by negative feedback
Learning Outcomes
N Define homeostasis and explain its significance.
N Describe how negative and positive feedback maintain
body homeostasis.
N Describe the relationship between homeostatic imbalance
and disease.
When you think about the fact that your body contains trillions of
cells in nearly constant activity, and that remarkably little usually
goes wrong with it, you begin to appreciate what a marvelous
machine your body is. Walter Cannon, an American physiolo-
gist of the early twentieth century, spoke of the “wisdom of the
body,” and he coined the word homeostasis (ho0me-o-sta9sis) to
describe its ability to maintain relatively stable internal condi-
tions even though the outside world changes continuously.
Although the literal translation of homeostasis is “unchang-
ing,” the term does not really mean a static, or unchanging, state.
Rather, it indicates a dynamic state of equilibrium—a balance, or
steady state, in which internal conditions vary, but always within
relatively narrow limits. In general, the body is in homeostasis
when its needs are adequately met and it is functioning smoothly.
According to the law of mass balance, the amount of a substance
(water, for example) that the body takes in must be the same as
the amount of that substance the body loses. This ensures that
the total amount of that substance in the body remains constant.
Maintaining homeostasis is more complicated than it appears
at first glance. Virtually every organ system plays a role in
maintaining the constancy of the internal environment. Ade-
quate blood levels of vital nutrients must be continuously pre-
sent, and heart activity and blood pressure must be constantly
monitored and adjusted so that the blood is propelled to all
body tissues. Also, wastes must not be allowed to accumulate,
and body temperature must be precisely controlled. A wide
variety of chemical, thermal, and neural factors act and interact
in complex ways—sometimes helping and sometimes hindering
the body as it works to maintain its “steady rudder.”
 10 UNIT 1 Organization of the Body

Homeostatic Control Negative Feedback Mechanisms

Communication within the body is essential for homeostasis. Most homeostatic control mechanisms are negative feedback
Communication is accomplished chiefly by the nervous and mechanisms. In these systems, the output shuts off the origi-
endocrine systems, which use neural electrical signals or blood- nal effect of the stimulus or reduces its intensity. These mecha-
borne hormones, respectively, as information carriers. In later nisms cause the variable to change in a direction opposite to
chapters, we cover the details of how these two great regulating that of the initial change, returning it to its “ideal” value (the
systems operate, but here we explain the basic characteristics of set point).
control systems that promote homeostasis. Let’s start with an example of a nonbiological negative feed-
All homeostatic control mechanisms are processes involv- back system: a home heating system connected to a tempera-
11
1 ing at least three components that work together to regulate ture-sensing thermostat. The thermostat houses both the receptor
a variable, the factor that is being regulated in the system (thermometer) and the control center. If the thermostat is set at
(Figure 1.5). 20 °C ( 68 °F ), the heating system (effector) is triggered ON when
the house temperature drops below that setting. As the furnace
1. The receptor is the first component. It is a sensor that moni-
produces heat and warms the air (the response), the temperature
tors the environment and responds to stimuli, or changes in
rises, and when it reaches 20 °C or slightly higher, the thermostat
the variable that evoke a response. This information (input)
triggers the furnace OFF. This process results in a cycling of the
is then sent along the afferent pathway, traveling toward the
furnace between “ON” and “OFF” so that the temperature in the
second component, the control center.
house stays very near the desired temperature. Your body “ther-
2. The control center determines the set point, which is the
mostat,” located in a part of your brain called the hypothalamus,
level (or range of levels) at which a variable is to be main-
operates in a similar fashion (Figure 1.6).
tained. It analyzes the input it receives by comparing it
Regulation of body temperature is only one of the many
to the set point and determines the appropriate response.
ways the nervous system maintains the constancy of the
­Information (output) then flows along the efferent pathway,
internal environment. Another type of neural control mecha-
away from the control center and toward the third compo-
nism is seen in the withdrawal reflex mentioned earlier, in
nent, the effector. (To help you remember the difference
which the hand is jerked away from a painful stimulus such
between “afferent” and “efferent,” note that information
as broken glass.
traveling along the afferent pathway approaches the con-
The endocrine system is equally important in maintaining
trol center and efferent information exits from the control
homeostasis. A good example of a hormonal negative feedback
center.)
mechanism is the control of blood sugar (glucose) by insulin.
3. The effector carries out the control center’s response to
As blood sugar rises, receptors in the body sense this change,
the stimulus. The results of the response then feed back
and the pancreas (the control center) secretes insulin into the
to influence the effect of the stimulus, either by reducing
blood. This change in turn prompts body cells to absorb more
it so that the whole control process is shut off, or by en-
glucose, removing it from the bloodstream. As blood sugar
hancing it so that the whole process continues at an even
falls, the stimulus for insulin release ends.
faster rate.

3 Input: Information 4 Output: Information

sent along afferent Control sent along efferent
pathway to control Center pathway to effector.
center.
Afferent Efferent
pathway pathway
Receptor Effector
2 Receptor
detects change. 5 Response
of effector feeds
IMB back to reduce
AL the effect of
1 Stimulus AN
CE stimulus and
produces
returns variable
change in
BALANCE to homeostatic
variable.
level.

IMB
AL
AN
CE

Figure 1.5 Interactions among the elements of a homeostatic control system

maintain stable internal conditions.
 Chapter 1 The Human Body: An Orientation 11

Control Center
(thermoregulatory
center in brain)

Afferent Efferent
pathway pathway

Receptors
Temperature-sensitive Effectors
cells in skin and brain Sweat glands
11
1
Sweat glands activated

IMB Response
AL Evaporation of sweat causes
Body temperature AN
CE body temperature to fall;
rises. stimulus ends.
Stimulus: Heat BALANCE

Stimulus: Cold
Response
Shivering causes body IMB Body temperature
AL falls.
temperature to rise; AN
CE
stimulus ends.

Effectors Receptors
Skeletal muscles Temperature-sensitive
cells in skin and brain

Efferent Afferent
Shivering begins pathway pathway

Control Center
(thermoregulatory
center in brain) Play Figure Animation:
Homeostasis and Negative
Figure 1.6 Body temperature is regulated by a negative feedback mechanism. Feedback Mechanisms
@ Mastering A&P > Study Area

The body’s ability to regulate its internal environment is
fundamental. All negative feedback mechanisms have the same
goal: preventing severe changes within the body. Body temper-
ature and blood sugar are only two of the variables that need to
be regulated. There are many! Other negative feedback mecha-
nisms regulate heart rate, blood pressure, and blood levels of
oxygen, carbon dioxide, and minerals, to name a few.
Positive Feedback Mechanisms
In positive feedback mechanisms, the initial response
enhances the original stimulus so that further responses are
even greater. This feedback mechanism is “positive” because
the change that results proceeds in the same direction as the
initial change, causing the variable to deviate further and further
from its original value or range.
In contrast to negative feedback controls, which maintain
some physiological function or keep blood chemicals within
narrow ranges, positive feedback mechanisms usually control
infrequent events that do not require continuous adjustments.
Typically, they set off a linked sequence of events. Once initi-
ated, the results of each reaction feed into the next like a series
of waterfalls on a river. Because of these characteristics, posi-
tive feedback mechanisms are often referred to as cascades
(from the Italian word meaning “to fall”) that amplify the origi-
nal stimulus. Two familiar examples are the enhancement of
labor contractions during birth and blood clotting.
Chapter 28 describes the positive feedback mechanism in
which oxytocin, a hypothalamic hormone, intensifies labor con-
tractions during the birth of a baby (see Figure 28.16, p. 1124).
Oxytocin causes the contractions to become both more frequent
and more powerful. The increased contractions cause more oxy-
tocin to be released, which causes more contractions, and so on
until the baby is born. The birth ends the stimulus for oxytocin
release and shuts off the positive feedback mechanism.
 12 UNIT 1 Organization of the Body

1 Break or tear Homeostatic Imbalance

occurs in blood Homeostasis is so important that most disease can be regarded
vessel wall.
as a result of its disturbance, a condition called homeostatic
imbalance. As we age, our body’s control systems become less
efficient, and our internal environment becomes less and less
stable. These events increase our risk for illness and produce
Positive feedback
cycle is initiated. the changes we associate with aging.
Another important source of homeostatic imbalance occurs
when the usual negative feedback mechanisms are over-
11
1 whelmed and destructive positive feedback mechanisms take
3 Released 2 Platelets over. Some instances of heart failure reflect this phenomenon.
chemicals
Positive
adhere to site Examples of homeostatic imbalance appear throughout this
attract more and release
platelets. feedback chemicals.
book to enhance your understanding of normal physiological
loop mechanisms. This symbol introduces the homeo-
static imbalance sections and alerts you to the fact that we are
describing an abnormal condition.

Check Your Understanding

Feedback cycle ends
when plug is formed.
4 Platelet plug is
fully formed.
Figure 1.7 A positive feedback mechanism regulates
formation of a platelet plug.
Blood clotting is a normal response to a break in the wall
of a blood vessel and is an excellent example of an important
body function controlled by positive feedback. Once a vessel
has been damaged, blood elements called platelets immediately
begin to cling to the injured site and release chemicals that
attract more platelets. This rapidly growing pileup of platelets
temporarily “plugs” the tear and initiates the sequence of events
that finally forms a clot (Figure 1.7).
Positive feedback mechanisms are likely to race out of con-
trol, so they are rarely used to promote the moment-to-moment
well-being of the body. Some positive feedback mechanisms,
including this one, may have only local effects. For example,
blood clotting is accelerated in injured vessels, but does not
normally spread to the entire circulation.
Feedforward (Anticipatory) Responses
While a negative feedback mechanism returns a variable to a
set point, a feedforward (anticipatory) response maintains
homeostasis by taking action in anticipation of a change to
the internal environment. For instance, the tantalizing aroma
of your favorite meal triggers the release of saliva into your
mouth and digestive juices into your stomach. Activation of
these digestive system organs occurs before the food is actu-
ally ingested.
9. What process allows us to adjust to either extreme heat or
extreme cold?
10. Why is the control system shown in Figure 1.7 called a positive
feedback mechanism? What event ends it?
11. APPLY When we begin to get dehydrated, we usually get
thirsty, which causes us to drink fluids. Is thirst part of a
negative or a positive feedback control system? Explain your
choice.
For answers, see Answers Appendix.
1.5 Anatomical terms describe body
directions, regions, and planes
Learning Outcomes
N Describe the anatomical position.
N Use correct anatomical terms to describe body directions,
regions, and body planes or sections.
Most of us are naturally curious about our bodies, but our inter-
est sometimes dwindles when we are confronted with the ter-
minology of anatomy and physiology. Let’s face it—you can’t
just pick up an anatomy and physiology book and read it as
though it were a novel. Unfortunately, confusion is likely with-
out precise, specialized terminology. To prevent misunderstand-
ing, anatomists use universally accepted terms to identify body
structures precisely and with a minimum of words. We present
and explain the language of anatomy next.
Anatomical Position and Directional Terms
To describe body parts and position accurately, we need an
initial reference point, and we must indicate direction. The
anatomical reference point is a standard body position called
the anatomical position. In the anatomical position, the
body is erect with feet slightly apart. This position is easy
to remember because it resembles “standing at attention,”
except that the palms face forward and the thumbs point
away from the body. You can see the anatomical position in
Figure 1.8a.
 Chapter 1 The Human Body: An Orientation 13
Cephalic Cephalic
Frontal Otic
Orbital Occipital (back
Nasal of head)
Buccal (cheek) Upper limb
Oral Acromial Cervical
Mental (chin) Brachial (arm)
Cervical Antecubital
Thoracic Olecranal Back Back (dorsal)
Sternal Thorax Antebrachial (dorsum) Scapular
Axillary (forearm) 11
1
Mammary Carpal (wrist)
Vertebral
Abdominal Abdomen
Umbilical Lumbar
Manus (hand)
Pelvic Metacarpal Sacral
Inguinal Palmar
(groin) Pollex Gluteal
Digital
Perineal (between
Lower limb anus and external
Coxal (hip) genitalia)
Pubic (genital) Femoral (thigh)
Patellar
Popliteal
Crural (leg)
Sural (calf)
Fibular or peroneal

Pedal (foot)
Tarsal (ankle)
Calcaneal
Metatarsal
Digital
Plantar
Hallux

(a) Anterior/Ventral (b) Posterior/Dorsal

Figure 1.8 Regional terms used to designate specific body areas. Common terms
are shown in parentheses. (a) Anatomical position. (b) The heels are raised to show the
plantar surface of the foot.

It is essential to understand the anatomical position because everyday conversation, but remember as you study them that
most of the directional terms used in this book refer to the body their anatomical meanings are very precise.
as if it were in this position, regardless of its actual position.
Another point to remember is that the terms “right” and “left” Regional Terms
refer to those sides of the person or the cadaver being viewed—
The two fundamental divisions of our body are its axial and
not those of the observer.
appendicular (ap0en-dik9u-lar) parts. The axial part, which
Directional terms allow us to explain where one body struc-
makes up the main axis of our body, includes the head, neck,
ture is in relation to another. For example, we could describe
and trunk. The appendicular part consists of the appendages,
the relationship between the ears and the nose by stating, “The
or limbs, which are attached to the body’s axis. Regional terms
ears are located on each side of the head to the right and left of
used to designate specific areas within these major body divi-
the nose.” Using anatomical terminology, this becomes “The
sions are indicated in Figure 1.8.
ears are lateral to the nose.” Using anatomical terms saves
words and is less ambiguous.
Commonly used orientation and directional terms are Body Planes and Sections
defined and illustrated in Table 1.1 on p. 14. Notice that most For anatomical studies, the body is often cut, or sectioned,
of the directional terms in the table are grouped into pairs along a flat surface called a plane. The most frequently used
with opposite meanings. Many of these terms are also used in body planes are sagittal, frontal, and transverse planes, which
 14 UNIT 1 Organization of the Body

Table 1.1 Orientation and Directional Terms

TERM DEFINITION EXAMPLE
Superior (cranial) Toward the head end or upper The head is superior to the
part of a structure or the body; abdomen.
above

11
1
Inferior (caudal) Away from the head end or The navel is inferior to the chin.
toward the lower part of a
structure or the body; below

Anterior (ventral)* Toward or at the front of the The breastbone is anterior to

body; in front of the spine.

Posterior (dorsal)* Toward or at the back of the The heart is posterior to the
body; behind breastbone.

Medial Toward or at the midline of the The heart is medial to the arm.
body; on the inner side of

Lateral Away from the midline of the The arms are lateral to the
body; on the outer side of chest.

Intermediate Between a more medial and a The collarbone is intermediate

more lateral structure between the breastbone and
shoulder.

Proximal Closer to the origin of the body The elbow is proximal to the
part or the point of attachment wrist.
of a limb to the body trunk

Distal Farther from the origin of The knee is distal to the thigh.
a body part or the point of
attachment of a limb to the
body trunk

Superficial (external) Toward or at the body surface The skin is superficial to the
skeletal muscles.

Deep (internal) Away from the body surface; The lungs are deep to the skin.
more internal

*The terms ventral and anterior are synonymous in humans, but this is not the case in four-legged animals. Anterior refers to the leading portion of the
body (abdominal surface in humans, head in a cat), but ventral specifically refers to the “belly” of a vertebrate animal, so it is the inferior surface of four-
legged animals. Likewise, although the dorsal and posterior surfaces are the same in humans, the term dorsal specifically refers to an animal’s back
(as in the dorsal fin of a shark). Thus, the dorsal surface of four-legged animals is their superior surface.
 Chapter 1 The Human Body: An Orientation 15
The median (midsagittal) The frontal (coronal) plane The transverse plane
plane divides the body divides the body into divides the body into
into right and left parts. anterior and posterior parts. superior and inferior parts.

11
1

(a) (b) (c)

Vertebral Right Left

column lung Heart lung Liver Aorta Pancreas Spleen

Rectum Intestines Liver Stomach Spleen Subcutaneous Spinal

fat layer cord

Figure 1.9 Planes of the body with corresponding magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans.

lie at right angles to one another (Figure 1.9). A section is
named for the plane along which it is cut. Thus, a cut along a
sagittal plane produces a sagittal section.
● A sagittal plane (saj9ĭ-tal; “arrow”) is a vertical plane that
divides the body into right and left parts. A sagittal plane that
lies exactly in the midline is the median plane, or midsagit-
tal plane (Figure 1.9a). All other sagittal planes, offset from
the midline, are parasagittal planes ( para = near ).
● Frontal planes, like sagittal planes, lie vertically. Frontal
planes, however, divide the body into anterior and posterior
parts (Figure 1.9b). A frontal plane is also called a coronal
plane (kŏ-ro9nal; “crown”).
● A transverse, or horizontal, plane runs horizontally from
right to left, dividing the body into superior and inferior parts
(Figure 1.9c). Of course, many different transverse planes
exist, at every possible level from head to foot. A transverse
section is also called a cross section.
● Oblique sections are cuts made diagonally between the
horizontal and the vertical planes. Because oblique sections
are often confusing and difficult to interpret, they are seldom
used.
Figure 1.9 includes examples of magnetic resonance
imaging (MRI) scans that correspond to the three sections
shown in the figure. Clinically, the ability to interpret sec-
tions made through the body, especially transverse sections,
is important. Additionally, certain medical imaging devices
(A Closer Look, pp. 16–17) produce sectional images rather
than three-dimensional images.
It takes practice to determine an object’s overall shape from
sectioned material. Sectioning the body or an organ along
A CLOSER LOOK

Medical Imaging: Illuminating the Body

Narrowing of artery

Artery supplying heart

X rays of a hand and foot A DSA image of the arteries that supply the heart.

X-Ray Imaging Digital Subtraction Angiography

● Uses X rays (very short-wavelength electromagnetic waves).
● Dense structures (e.g., bones) appear as light areas.
● Hollow air-containing organs (e.g., lungs) and fat appear as dark
areas.
● Used for: Detecting broken bones; finding breast tumors
(mammography); measuring density of bones to screen for
osteoporosis (porous bones).
● Not used for: Most soft tissue problems except when used with
a contrast medium such as barium.
● Cons: Radiation exposure; images are two-dimensional.
● Angiography is visualizing blood vessels ( angi = vessel) by
X ray or CT scan.
● Requires injection of an X-ray-absorbing contrast agent.
● Digitally subtracting images from before and after injection of
the contrast agent yields very clear images of blood vessels.
● Used for: Detecting blood vessel abnormalities such as
blockages in the arteries that supply the heart.
● Cons: Time-consuming and expensive. Adverse reactions to the
contrast medium can occur.

Right Left
Secondary
tumor
(bone)

Small
Liver intestine Primary
tumor
(prostate)

Kidney CT PET Combined

PET scans are used to monitor the spread of cancers. In this case, a
Muscle CT scan (left) and PET scan (center) are combined to create the final
Vertebra
image (right).

CT scan of the abdomen. By convention, cross sections such as this are

shown as if the patient were lying on their back and viewed from the Positron Emission Tomography (PET) Scans
feet toward the head. ● Uses gamma rays that are emitted by radioactively tagged tracer
molecules that are injected into the body.
The radioactive tracer molecule used depends on the reason for
Computed Tomography (CT) Scans
●

doing the scan. Radioactive glucose is used to locate cells with

● Computerized reconstruction of a series of X-ray images.
● Provide detailed cross-sectional pictures of scanned body
regions.
● Used for: Images of bone, soft tissues, and blood vessels.
● Less useful for: Nervous tissue and joint structure (e.g., knee
and shoulder).
● Cons: More radiation exposure than X rays—may be a concern
if used repeatedly.
the highest metabolic activity, such as cancer cells. Florbetapir
is used to visualize beta-amyloid plaques in the brain that are
associated with Alzheimer’s disease.
● Used for: Detecting the spread of cancer or monitoring the
response to cancer treatment. Sometimes used to help diagnose
Alzheimer’s disease, and as a research tool to explore brain
function.
● Cons: Radiation exposure; relatively poor image resolution.

16

Brain
Spinal cord
Tongue
Vertebra
MRI showing a midsagittal section of the head.
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
● Uses powerful magnets and radio waves to image the location
of hydrogen atoms in the body (most of which are in water).
● Distinguishes body tissues based on water content. Structures
with low water content such as bones are not readily visible.
● Produces high-contrast images of soft tissues, particularly those
that are obscured by bone in CT scans.
● Functional MRI (fMRI) tracks blood flow into various parts of the
brain.
● Used for: Imaging of brain, spinal cord, and nerves to detect
abnormalities such as tumors; assessing joint, ligament,
cartilage, and other soft tissues; fMRI allows visualization of the
activity in specific brain regions.
● Not used for: Bones.
● Cons: More expensive and much slower than CT scans. Cannot
be used in patients with most types of metal implants.
different planes often results in very different views. For exam-
ple, a transverse section of the body trunk at the level of the kid-
neys would show kidney structure in cross section very nicely.
A frontal section of the body trunk would show a different view
of kidney anatomy, and a midsagittal section would miss the
kidneys completely. With experience, you will gradually learn
to relate two-dimensional sections to three-dimensional shapes.
Check Your Understanding
12. What is the anatomical position? Why is it important that you
learn this position?
13. The axillary and acromial regions are both in the
general area of the shoulder. Where specifically is
each located?
14. What type of cut would separate the brain into
anterior and posterior parts?
15. DRAW Draw the outline that you would get if you
made midsagittal, coronal, and transverse sections
of the banana at the right.
For answers, see Answers Appendix.
CLINICAL
Head Body
Ultrasound image of a fetus in the uterus.
Ultrasound Imaging
● Uses high-frequency sound waves that reflect (echo) off of the
body’s tissues.
● Does not use X rays, so thought to be safe for imaging a
developing fetus.
● Can monitor movement in real time (such as heart valve motion
and blood flow through vessels and the heart).
● Inexpensive and easy to use.
● Used for: Monitoring a fetus during pregnancy; diagnosing
abdominal or pelvic disorders such as gallbladder disease; can
detect atherosclerosis (thickening and hardening of the arterial
walls) and heart valve disorders.
● Not used for: Air-filled structures (such as the lungs) and
structures surrounded by bone (such as the brain and spinal
cord).
● Cons: Images tend to be lower resolution (blurry), although their
sharpness is being improved.
Many internal organs lie in
1.6
membrane-lined body cavities
Learning Outcomes
N Locate and name the major body cavities and their
subdivisions and associated membranes, and list the
major organs contained within them.
N Name the four quadrants or nine regions of the
abdominopelvic cavity and list the organs they
contain.
Anatomy and physiology textbooks typically describe two sets
of internal body cavities called the dorsal and ventral body cavi-
ties. These cavities are closed to the outside and provide differ-
ent degrees of protection to the organs within them. Because
these two cavities differ in their mode of embryonic develop-
ment and their lining membranes, the dorsal body cavity is not
recognized as such in many anatomical references. However,
the idea of two sets of internal body cavities is a useful learning
concept and we use it here.
17
 18 UNIT 1 Organization of the Body

Dorsal Body Cavity The thoracic cavity is separated from the more inferior
abdominopelvic cavity (ab-dom9ĭ-no-pel9vic) by the dia-
The dorsal body cavity, which protects the fragile nerv-
phragm, a dome-shaped muscle important in breathing. The
ous system organs, has two subdivisions (Figure 1.10, gold
abdominopelvic cavity, as its name suggests, has two parts.
areas). The cranial cavity, in the skull, encases the brain. The
However, these regions are not physically separated by a mus-
vertebral, or spinal, cavity, which runs within the bony ver-
cular or membrane wall. Its superior portion, the abdominal
tebral column, encloses the delicate spinal cord. The spinal
cavity, contains the stomach, intestines, spleen, liver, and other
cord is essentially a continuation of the brain, and the cranial
organs. The inferior part, the pelvic cavity, lies in the bony pel-
and spinal cavities are continuous with one another. Both the
vis and contains the urinary bladder, some reproductive organs,
brain and the spinal cord are covered by membranes called
11
1 and the rectum. The abdominal and pelvic cavities are not
meninges.
aligned with each other. Instead, the bowl-shaped pelvis tips
away from the perpendicular as shown in Figure 1.10a.
Ventral Body Cavity
The more anterior and larger of the closed body cavities is H OMEOSTATIC
the ventral body cavity (Figure 1.10, deep-red areas). Like CLINICAL
IMBALANCE 1.1
the dorsal cavity, it has two major subdivisions, the thoracic
Each body cavity is uniquely suited to house its contents.
cavity and the abdominopelvic cavity. The ventral body cav-
Problems arise when a structure strays into a neighboring
ity houses internal organs collectively called the viscera
cavity. A hiatal hernia occurs when part of the stomach slides
(vis9er-ah; viscus = an organ in a body cavity), or visceral
through the diaphragm into the thoracic cavity, allowing
organs.
stomach acid to cause heartburn (which is actually irritation
The superior subdivision, the thoracic cavity (tho-ras9ik),
of the esophagus, not the heart). Severe cases may require
is surrounded by the ribs and muscles of the chest. The tho-
surgical repair.
racic cavity is further subdivided into lateral pleural cavities
(ploo9ral), each enveloping a lung, and the medial mediastinum
(me0de-ah-sti9num), which surrounds the remaining tho- Membranes in the Ventral Body Cavity
racic organs (including parts of the esophagus and trachea). The walls of the ventral body cavity and the outer surfaces of
The mediastinum also contains the pericardial cavity the organs it contains are covered by a thin, double-layered
(per0ĭ-kar9de-al), which encloses the heart. membrane, the serosa (se-ro9sah), or serous membrane.

Cranial
Cranial cavity cavity
(contains brain)

Vertebral
cavity

Superior
Dorsal body mediastinum
Thoracic
cavity cavity Pleural
(contains cavity
heart and
lungs) Pericardial
cavity within
the mediastinum
Vertebral cavity
(contains spinal Diaphragm Ventral body
cord) cavity
(thoracic and
Abdominal cavity abdominopelvic
(contains digestive Abdomino- cavities)
viscera) pelvic
cavity

Pelvic cavity
(contains urinary
bladder, reproductive
organs, and rectum)

(a) Lateral view (b) Anterior view

Figure 1.10 Dorsal and ventral body cavities and their subdivisions.
 Chapter 1 The Human Body: An Orientation 19
Outer balloon wall which covers the heart. Likewise, the parietal pleurae
(comparable to parietal serosa) (ploo9re) line the walls of the thoracic cavity, and the visceral
pleurae cover the lungs. The parietal peritoneum (per0ĭ-to-
Air (comparable to serous cavity)
ne9um) is associated with the walls of the abdominopelvic
Inner balloon wall cavity, while the visceral peritoneum covers most of the
(comparable to visceral serosa) organs within that cavity. (The pleural and peritoneal serosae
are illustrated in Figure 4.14c on p. 142.)
(a) A fist thrust into a flaccid balloon demonstrates
the relationship between the parietal and visceral
serous membrane layers.
H OMEOSTATIC
CLINICAL 11
1
IMBALANCE 1.2
Heart When serous membranes are inflamed, their normally smooth
surfaces become roughened. This roughness causes the mem-
branes to stick together and drag across one another. Excru-
ciating pain results, as anyone who has experienced pleurisy
Parietal
(inflammation of the pleurae) or peritonitis (inflammation of
pericardium the peritoneums) knows.

Pericardial
space with Abdominopelvic Regions and Quadrants
serous fluid
Because the abdominopelvic cavity is large and contains sev-
Visceral
eral organs, it helps to divide it into smaller areas for study.
pericardium Medical personnel usually use a simple scheme to locate the
abdominopelvic cavity organs (Figure 1.12). In this scheme,
a transverse and a median plane pass through the umbilicus
(navel) at right angles. The four resulting quadrants are named
according to their positions from the subject’s point of view:
(b) The serosae associated with the heart. the right upper quadrant (RUQ), left upper quadrant
(LUQ), right lower quadrant (RLQ), and left lower quad-
Figure 1.11 Serous membrane relationships. rant (LLQ).
Another division method, used primarily by anatomists,
uses two transverse and two parasagittal planes. These planes,
The part of the membrane lining the cavity walls is called
the parietal serosa (pah-ri9ĕ-tal; parie = wall ). It folds in
on itself to form the visceral serosa, covering the organs in
the cavity.
You can visualize the relationship between the serosal lay-
ers by pushing your fist into a limp balloon (Figure 1.11a).
The part of the balloon that clings to your fist can be compared
to the visceral serosa clinging to an organ’s external surface.
The outer wall of the balloon represents the parietal serosa that
lines the walls of the cavity. (However, unlike the balloon, the
parietal serosa is never exposed but is always fused to the cavity
wall.) In the body, the serous membranes are separated not by
air but by a thin layer of lubricating fluid, called serous fluid, Right upper Left upper
which is secreted by both membranes into the slitlike serous quadrant quadrant
cavity. Although very thin, this cavity sometimes swells with (RUQ) (LUQ)
fluid in response to injury.
The slippery serous fluid allows the organs to slide without
friction across the cavity walls and one another as they carry Right lower Left lower
out their routine functions. This freedom of movement is espe- quadrant quadrant
(RLQ) (LLQ)
cially important for mobile organs such as the pumping heart
and the churning stomach.
The serous membranes are named for the specific cavity
and organs with which they are associated. For example, as Figure 1.12 The four abdominopelvic quadrants. In this
shown in Figure 1.11b, the parietal pericardium lines the scheme, the abdominopelvic cavity is divided into four quadrants by
pericardial cavity and folds back as the visceral pericardium, two planes.
 20 UNIT 1 Organization of the Body

● The right and left lateral (lumbar) regions lie lateral to the
umbilical region (lumbus = loin).
● The right and left hypochondriac regions lie lateral to the
epigastric region and deep to the ribs (chondro = cartilage).

H OMEOSTATIC
CLINICAL
IMBALANCE 1.3
Right Left
11
1 hypochondriac Epigastric hypochondriac You may have seen news stories about “wrong site surgery”
region and wondered how such serious mistakes can happen. Critical
region region
errors, including amputation, may result from confusion about
Right lateral Left lateral right versus left or poor understanding of terminology. As you
(lumbar) Umbilical (lumbar)
region master the terminology of anatomy, you are helping to elimi-
region region
nate these blunders.
Right inguinal Pubic Left inguinal
(iliac) region (hypogastric) (iliac) region
region

(a) Nine regions delineated by four planes

Other Body Cavities
In addition to the large closed body cavities, there are several
smaller body cavities. Most of these are in the head and most
open to the body exterior. Figure 1.8 provides the terms that
will help you locate all but the last two cavities mentioned
here.
● Oral and digestive cavities. The oral cavity, commonly called
the mouth, contains the teeth and tongue. This cavity is part of
and continuous with the cavity of the digestive organs, which
opens to the body exterior at the anus.
Liver Diaphragm ● Nasal cavity. Located within and posterior to the nose, the
Spleen nasal cavity is part of the respiratory system passageways.
Gallbladder Stomach ● Orbital cavities. The orbital cavities (orbits) in the skull
house the eyes and present them in an anterior position.
Ascending colon Transverse colon
of large intestine of large intestine ● Middle ear cavities. The middle ear cavities in the skull
Small intestine Descending colon lie just medial to the eardrums. These cavities contain tiny
of large intestine bones that transmit sound vibrations to the hearing receptors
Cecum Initial part of in the inner ears.
sigmoid colon
Appendix ● Synovial cavities. Synovial (sĭ-no9ve-al) cavities are
Urinary bladder joint cavities. They are enclosed within fibrous capsules
that surround freely movable joints of the body (such as
(b) Anterior view of the nine regions showing the superficial organs the elbow and knee joints). Like the serous membranes,
Figure 1.13 The nine abdominopelvic regions. membranes lining synovial cavities secrete a lubricating
fluid that reduces friction as the bones move across one
another.
positioned like a tic-tac-toe grid on the abdomen, divide the
cavity into nine regions (Figure 1.13): Check Your Understanding
● The umbilical region is the centermost region deep to and 16. Of the uterus, small intestine, spinal cord, and heart, which
surrounding the umbilicus. is/are in the dorsal body cavity?
● The epigastric region is located superior to the umbilical 17. APPLY When you rub your cold hands together, the friction
region (epi = upon, above; gastri = belly ). between them results in heat that warms your hands. Why
doesn’t warming friction result during movements of the
● The pubic (hypogastric) region is located inferior to the heart, lungs, and digestive organs?
umbilical region (hypo = below ). 18. PREDICT Joe went to the emergency room where he
● The right and left inguinal, or iliac, regions (ing9gwĭ-nal) are complained of severe pains in the lower right quadrant of
located lateral to the hypogastric region (iliac = superior part his abdomen. What might be his problem?
of the hip bone). For answers, see Answers Appendix.

C H A P T E R S U M M A RY
1.1 Form (anatomy) determines function
(physiology) (pp. 2–3)
1. Anatomy is the study of body structures and their relationships.
Physiology is the science of how body parts function.
Topics of Anatomy (p. 2)
2. Major subdivisions of anatomy include gross anatomy,
microscopic anatomy, and developmental anatomy.
Studying Anatomy (pp. 2–3)
3. Anatomical terminology is essential for studying anatomy.
Topics of Physiology (p. 3)
4. Typically, physiology concerns the functioning of specific
organs or organ systems. Examples include cardiovascular
physiology, renal physiology, and muscle physiology.
5. Physiology is explained by chemical and physical principles.
Complementarity of Structure and Function (p. 3)
6. Anatomy and physiology are inseparable: What a body can do
depends on the unique architecture of its parts. This principle is
called the complementarity of structure and function.
The body’s organization ranges from atoms to the
1.2
entire organism (pp. 4–5)
1. The levels of structural organization of the body, from simplest
to most complex, are: chemical, cellular, tissue, organ, organ
system, and organismal.
2. The 11 organ systems of the body are the integumentary,
skeletal, muscular, nervous, endocrine, cardiovascular,
lymphatic, respiratory, digestive, urinary, and reproductive
systems. The immune system is a functional system closely
associated with the lymphatic system. (For functions of these
systems see pp. 6–7.)
1.3 What are the requirements for life? (pp. 5–9)
1. All living organisms carry out certain vital functional activities
necessary for life, including maintenance of boundaries,
movement, responsiveness, digestion, metabolism, excretion,
reproduction, and growth.
2. Survival needs include nutrients, water, oxygen, and
appropriate temperature and atmospheric pressure.
Homeostasis is maintained by negative
1.4
feedback (pp. 9–12)
1. Homeostasis is a dynamic equilibrium of the internal
environment. All body systems contribute to homeostasis,
but the nervous and endocrine systems are most important.
Homeostasis is necessary for health.
Homeostatic Control (pp. 10–12)
2. Control mechanisms of the body contain at least three elements
that work together: receptor(s), control center, and effector(s).
Chapter 1 The Human Body: An Orientation 21
3. Negative feedback mechanisms reduce the effect of the original
stimulus, and are essential for maintaining homeostasis.
Body temperature, heart rate, blood pressure, breathing rate
and depth, and blood levels of glucose and certain ions are
regulated by negative feedback mechanisms.
4. Positive feedback mechanisms intensify the initial stimulus,
leading to an enhancement of the response. They rarely
11
1
contribute to homeostasis, but blood clotting and labor
contractions are regulated by such mechanisms.
5. A feedforward (anticipatory) response occurs in anticipation of
a change to the internal environment.
Homeostatic Imbalance (p. 12)
6. With age, the efficiency of negative feedback mechanisms
declines. These changes underlie certain disease conditions.
1.5 Anatomical terms describe body directions, regions,
and planes (pp. 12–17)
Anatomical Position and Directional Terms (pp. 12–13)
1. In the anatomical position, the body is erect, facing forward,
feet slightly apart, arms at sides with palms forward.
2. Directional terms allow body parts to be located precisely.
Terms that describe body directions and orientation include:
superior/inferior; anterior/posterior; ventral/dorsal; medial/
lateral; intermediate; proximal/distal; and superficial/deep.
Regional Terms (p. 13)
3. Regional terms are used to designate specific areas of the body
(see Figure 1.8).
Body Planes and Sections (pp. 13–17)
4. The body or its organs may be cut along planes to produce
different types of sections. Frequently used planes are sagittal,
frontal, and transverse.
1.6 Many internal organs lie in membrane-lined
body cavities (pp. 17–20)
1. The body contains two major closed cavities. The dorsal cavity,
subdivided into the cranial and spinal cavities, contains the
brain and spinal cord. The ventral cavity is subdivided into
the thoracic cavity, which houses the heart and lungs, and the
abdominopelvic cavity, which contains the liver, digestive
organs, and reproductive structures.
2. The walls of the ventral cavity and the surfaces of the organs
it contains are covered with thin membranes, the parietal and
visceral serosae, respectively. The serosae produce a thin fluid
that decreases friction during organ functioning.
3. The abdominopelvic cavity may be divided by four planes into
nine abdominopelvic regions (epigastric, umbilical, pubic,
right and left inguinal, right and left lateral, and right and left
hypochondriac), or by two planes into four quadrants. (For
boundaries and organs contained, see Figures 1.12 and 1.13.)
4. There are several smaller body cavities. Most of these are in the
head and open to the exterior.
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Title: Kansallisia lauluja

Author: Lauri Soini

Release date: September 7, 2023 [eBook #71582]

Language: Finnish

Original publication: Porvoo: Werner Söderström, 1900

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KANSALLISIA LAULUJA ***
KANSALLISIA LAULUJA

Kirj.

Lauri Soini

Porvoossa, Werner Söderström, 1900.

SISÄLLYS.

Suomen laulu.
Suomen kielellä.
Suomen lippu.
Suomettaren laulu.
Elä sure, Suomeni!
Karjala apua huutaa!
Siirtolaisille.
Suomen pojat.
Tuuloselle.
Iloisin mielin.
Rauhan sankari.
Kumpumäen vanhukset.
Herra sensori.
Ihanteen etsijä.
Torpan poika.
Pohjolan neidet lännessä.
Kotkankallio.
Keväinen kotiutuminen.
Iltakello.
Ilta.
Neitosen sulhaset.
Neitokolmikko.
Neitonen, tietäjä kuitenkin.
Annikki.
Kumma tyttö.
Koulu jo alkaa!
Valkamalle.
Elämä ja ihanteet.
Täyteläs rinta.
Nuoret, nuoret.
Konsahan!
Keväiset yöt.
Tuoksuva tuomen oksa.
Kultani kartano.
Pihlajan juurella.
Hänen luonansa.
Kuusi on tumma ja koivu on seljäs.
Lemmenpaula.
Ei toki semmoista tehdä saa!
Tule kultani keinuhun!
Sydämillä leikkimistä.
Minä ja hän.
Juhannus ja joulu.
Taivaan pilvet.
Sinä olet päivyt.
Sinä olet päivä ja minä olen kuu.
Ruusun kukka ja vaahteran oksa.
Kukkaset ja kukkasvarkaat.
Jänis ja — kultani.
Niin täytyy.
Kullan haudalla.
Surujeni lampi.
Suuren surun keskelläkin.
Luottava vuottaja.
Minä olen sellainen.
Raitis Rautiainen.
Päiväläisen mietteitä.
Kulkijapoika.
Hulivilipoika.
Vaikeassa asemassa.
Mitäpä noista —!
Kuohuvan kosken kunnaalla.
Lintu lenti oksalle huojuvalle.
Laulaja- ja tanssijatyttö.
Pikkunen tyttö.
Kultaansa ihaileva.
Järvellä.
Meripojan morsian.
Kullastansa jäänyt.
Salainen lempi.
Illalla ja aamulla.
Lempi.
Suomen laulu.

Solahda, Suomen laulu, sointuvasti, helähdä helkkyvästi

kaikumaan, soi meille suruissakin toivoisasti, soi vastuksissa
voima versomaan!

Hajota meistä hennot huolten hunnut,

terästä tarmokkuutta jänteriin,
luo tunteihimme vakuutuksen tunnut
ja vahvistusta töihin ponteviin!

Kuin tammen juuret maamme tanterille

syvennä sydämiimme oikeus —
kuin päivän säihkyt lammen lainehille
sytytä rintoihimme rakkaus!

Julista ilo kansan valtikaksi,

herätä meihin henki veljeyden,
se kansassamme nosta johtajaksi
jokaisen aatosten ja toimien!

Soi, Suomen laulu, nuorten kantelilla

tuhansin uhkuäänin helkkyen,
soi kaikkialla maamme kunnahilla
ihana enne aamun henkisen!

Solahda, Suomen laulu, sointuvasti, helähdä helkkyvästi

kaikumaan, soi meille suruissakin toivoisasti, soi vastuksissa
voima versomaan!

Talvella 1899.
Suomen kielellä.

Suomen kielellä Suomen lapsi "äiti" ensin sanoo, Suomen

kielellä äidiltänsä tarpeitansa anoo.

Suomen kielellä Suomen lapsi

alkaa aakkosista,
täyttää henkensä suomalaisen
tiedon aartehista.

Suomen kielellä toisillemme

tunteet tulkitsemme,
vanhat muistot ja matkan määrät,
uskot, aattehemme.

Suomen kielellä suomalainen

lakejansa laatii,
Suomen kielelle oikeutensa
vierahilta vaatii.

Suomen kielellä muilta mailta

aatevirrat tuomme,
Suomen kielellä hengen helmet
maailmalle luomme.

Suomen kieli on piennuutemme, suuruutemme kehto,

Suomen kieli on suomalaisen hengen elinehto.

1899.

Suomen lippu.
 Liehu, liehu korkealla lippu sinivalkonen! Laula, kansa, lipun
alla laulu toivon, vapauden!

Liehu taivon siinnokkuutta

vetten vöistä heijastain,
pohjan hangen puhtoisuutta
henkehemme heijastain!

Hengen voimin toimikamme eestä maamme vapauden!

Liehu, lippu, toivojamme liehu ylle ilmojen!

1896—99.

Suomettaren laulu.

Soitin kerran kanteletta taaton tanhuilla, jossa leikki

siskosarja kukkakunnahilla.

Riemukasta, onnekasta
oli meillä silloin,
Väinämöisen laulujansa
laulaessa illoin.

Tuli vieras kaukomailta

kotikullan ryösti,
veikot siskot säälimättä
sorron alle syösti.

Täällä nyt mä kaihomielin

pellavasta kitken,
pellavasta kitkiessä
vaivojani itken.

Kuivu, kuivu kyyneleeni, kuivu silmäkulta, kyllä vielä

valkeneepi murheyöni multa!

1896—1899.

Elä sure, Suomeni!

Elä sure, Suomeni, mitä olet ollut, se ei ole matkasi määrä.

Siinä ei suvi ole missä on pälvi — semmoinen usko on väärä.

Elä sure, Suomeni, mitä olet ollut,

sitä elä jarruksi laita.
Menneestä hetkelle pystytä pohja,
tulevalle viljele maita.

Raivaos salosi sä päivyen paistaa,

päivä sun hankesi hiutaa,
kumpusi kaunosin kukkasin kietoo,
viihtäen lastesi liutaa.

Vanhojen varjossa kasvavat lapset,

nuoret ne toimissa varttuu.
Koko kansa kilvalla työssä kun häärää,
laajoiksi viljeemme karttuu.

Suomeni, muheaksi peltosi kynnä,

kylväös siemen parhain,
niin sinun viljasi kaunona kasvaa,
kuuluna maailman tarhain.

Vieras jos viljasi tahtoisi viedä,

valppaana vahdi ja estä,
vaan jos se vie, niin kylväissä uutta
jäykkänä, jäyhänä kestä.

Suomeni, kansani, et voi kuolla, jos sinä tahdot elää, jos

sinun henkesi hervahtamatta elämän sointuja helää.

1899.

Karjala apua huuiaa!

Suomeni kallis, kaunoinen, kansa suurien toivetten,

kukkiva, kasvava kansa! Käännä kasvosi Karjalaan, kuule,
vartiopaikallaan Karjala apua huutaa!

Suomeni, sorjana kumpuna

nouset suon sinä helmasta,
Karjala luoksesi nosta!
Peltosi laajeten paltoaa,
hengenlaihosi aaltoaa —
Karjalan kannel sammuu!

Suomeni riennä joutuisaan

Karjalan heimoa auttamaan,
veljesi luoksesi nosta!
Hengen salamat sinnekin
lyökööt valkeutta rintoihin
velttona nukkuvan heimon!

Karjala, suoja Suomemme, nouse jo yhteistaistolle, valolla

voittosi voita! Päivän kaarena nouse sä, valkase pilven
lievettä, Suomen suojana seiso!

Jalovaaralla 1897.

Siirtolaisille.

Hellanlettu, kun kallis nahka on noilla muutamilla! Eivät he

usko säilyvänsä maansa tanterilla.

Menkää, menkäätte herrantertut,

säilyttäkää päänne!
Pois kun puikkivi aikanansa,
oi, se on viisas käänne!

Saammeko kunnian kutsua teitä

viisahimmiksi maamme,
vai ehkä sankariseppeleillä
somistella saamme?

Suokaa joskus muistelu meille tomppelijoukollekin, että me

elämme Suomellemme, sille kuolemmekin.

1899.
Suomen pojat.

Suomen poikia keisari aikoo viedä Venäjälle. Siellä ne

joutuisi suomalaiset oudolle elämälle.

Suomen pojat jos Venäjälle

vietäisi virmakan soittoon,
itkien nousisi Suomen immet
pilvisen päivän koittoon.

Suomen pojat jos Venäjällä

venäjänlimppua söisi,
eivät ne silloin Suomen pellot
hempeinä heilimöisi.

Suomen pojat jos Venäjällä

sortuisi suureen vaivaan,
Suomesta armas keisari saisi
tyhjän maan ja taivaan.

Elkää itkekö Suomen immet tokkopa surkua liekään,

tokkohan keisari Suomen poikia Venäjälle viekään.

1899.

Tuuloselle.

Aaltojen kehdot keinuavat, vihreät lehdot liplattavat, tuuli

kun kiitää ympäri maan, lännestä liitää Kalevalaan.
 Tuulonen lännen, lennellä saat sinne ja tänne Kalevan
maat. Kaikota häivän hiuteet pois, ettei ne päivän peittona ois!

Lentävä tuuli, suutele sä lempein huulin itkevätä! Rannoilta

Suomen pois sumu vie, valkase huomen, selvitä tie!

1899.

Iloisin mielin.

Murheet me heitämme heikommille, ilo toki tulkoon myötä!

Iloisin mielin me soutelemme, vaikk' on se vahvaa työtä.

Kaakkoistuulessa aallot lyövät

pienen purtemme laitaa,
vaan kun me vahvasti soutelemme,
minkä ne meille taitaa.

Iloisin mielin me soutelemme, vaikkakin myrsky kantaa,

purtemme keinuu myrskyn halki kohden toivon rantaa.

1899.

Rauhansankari.

I.

Hän raikkaan kainona ilmestyi kuin soinnahdus

paimensäkeen. Oli temmattu armaasta laaksostaan ja tuotuna
sotaväkeen.

Hän seisoi sarjassa sankarien

kuin korvessa koivas sorja.
Hänen mielensä pulppusi nuoruuttaan
kuin lähde ja sen puro norja.

Hän sai heti huomion päällystön,

ivan piikit ja iskut ja ilkat.
Sotaveikkojen sai hän vehkeilyt,
tulotemput ja lyönnit ja pilkat.

Kun niin häntä ilkkuen pilkattiin,

hän tyynenä kaiken kesti,
vaan joskus vienolla hymyllään
rajut leikit hän hälvensi, esti.

Vaan muita kun syyttä sorrettiin,

hän katsoi lyötyä silmiin,
ja silloin kainossa katseessaan
tuli kärsivä lempeys ilmiin.

Hän tyynenä täytteli tehtäviään

ja päästyä toimistansa
ei tyttöjä, viiniä etsinyt hän,
vaan aatteli aatteitansa.

Useasti hän illoin yksikseen

ulos rannalle lahden astui.
Useasti kun katseli hän yli veen,
suli silmä ja kyynelin kastui.
 Kotilaaksoonsa liiti hän aatoksin
luo tuttujen, rakkaimpainsa,
koko kansankin armaan synnyinmaan
näki ummuissa unelmainsa.

Näki vielä hän umpujen aukenevan,

näki kärsivän kansansa kerran
ajan uuden auvossa astelevan
valon välkyssä taivaan Herran.

Hänen henkensä täyttäisi ihmisten

elonvoimaa uhkuvat rinnat,
ja voima hengen ja veljeyden
lois heikoille suojeluslinnat.

Ois aika se onnen ja oikeuden.

Työn onni se onnena oisi.
Kukin työssä kuntonsa näyttäisi
ja toistenkin toimia soisi.

Ja aika se aamuna koittava on

väkivallan ja sorron yöstä.
Oi, toittavat ruusut on vapauden
rakkauden ja rauhan työstä!

II.

Vaan viestejä outoja ilmestyi, koko kansan kautta ne liiti:

sotajoukkoja suuria vieraan maan kotikumpuja kohden kiiti.

Hän rannalla istui uinaillen,

unelmiinsa hän viestin kuuli.
Kuin nuoli se rintaan iskeytyi,
sydän synkkeni, vaaleni huuli.

Isänmaako on uhkaama sortajien,

isänmaako ja kansa sen kallis?
Sen joukkion polkea rakkaimpiaan
ikipäivinä hän ei sallis!

Hän niinkuin leimaus ukkosen

sitä vastaan lennättäisi!
Hän ennen sen löisi ja murskaisi
kuin tänne se ennättäisi! —

Vaan muistaen aatteensa armaimmat

syvemmälle hän sullousi pintaa.
Kuin kylmällä kouralla koskettain
nyt vihiäsi lämmintä rintaa.

— He eivätkö ihmisveljiä myös

ole juuresta suuremmasta?
Ja ihmistä puhdas ihmisyys
ei kielläkö surmaamasta?

Vaan kallista kansaamme surmaamaan

nuo ihmiset kulkevat tuolla.
Nyt pakko on surmata surmaajat
tai surmaajan nuolesta kuolla.

Siis rikkoa täytyvi ihmisyys,

ei välttää voi eikä estää.
Paremp' onkohan rikkoja olla nyt
vai rikkomus toisen kestää?
 Hän ristiin riipovin aatoksin
sitä selvitti tuskissansa.
Välin otsansa syvästi synkistyi,
välin vaaleni vuorostansa.

Vaan vihdoin puhtaana selvisi se kuin päivä mi usvista

herää. — Paremp' ihmisen ihmisnä kuolla on kuin
ihmissyöjänä elää.

III.

Rajaseudulla palteet pilvytten loi synkkiä varjoja vesiin.

Rajaseudulla sankarit vartosivat mikä turmio tulleekin esiin.

Isänmaatansa sinne suojaamaan

oli kulkenut uljas kansa,
ja se välkytti kirkkaita kalpojaan
vihamiehiä vuottaissansa.

Ja torvet ja rummut ne raikuivat

ja kummut ne kaikui vastaan,
sotajoukot kun saapuivat mahtavat
ja kuuluisat kuljennastaan.

Kodin vapaus — vallan tavoitus

veti joukkoja vastatuksin.
Tuliluikut tykkien, kanuunain
ne ammotti suutasuksin.

Vaan aivan alkaissa ammunnan

mies nuorekas joukosta nousi,
ja kun vallille asteli yksin hän,
hänen tukkansa tuulessa sousi.

Kuin kuusi min latvasta usvaa pois

on pyyhkinyt aamun loiste,
niin seisoi harjalla vallin hän,
sinisilmissä päivän toiste.

Ylös nosti hän päivässä päilyvän pään,

jota viillytti vilpas tuuli.
Sotajoukko se ylhäältä soinnahtavan
hymynhenkevän kuiskeen kuuli.

Isänmaatani armasta vastaan te

vihan kaunaa tahdotte kantaa.
Minä lempeni, työni ja henkenikin
isänmaalleni tahdon antaa.

Sen rannalla seison ja ruumiini

yli kulkien saatte sen voittaa.
Minut ampua saatte jos tahdotte,
teit' en tahdo vahingoittaa. —

Pian alkoi paukkua kanuunat.

Sota rauhansankarin kaatoi.
Ja joukkoa maansa puoltajain
vihamiehet mahtavat raatoi.

Heinäkuulla 1899.

Kumpumäen vanhukset.