Essentials of Statistics For The Behavioral Sciences 9Th 9Th Edition Frederick J Gravetter Full Chapter

Essentials of Statistics for the
Behavioral Sciences, 9th 9th Edition

Frederick J. Gravetter
Visit to download the full and correct content document:
https://ebookmass.com/product/essentials-of-statistics-for-the-behavioral-sciences-9t
h-9th-edition-frederick-j-gravetter/
Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
ED I T I O N
9 Essentials of Statistics
THE Behavioral Sciences
FOR
FREDERICK J GRAVETTER
The College at Brockport, State University of New York
LARRY B. WALLNAU
LORI-ANN B. FORZANO
Australia ● Brazil ● Mexico ● Singapore ● United Kingdom ● United States
Essentials of Statistics for The Behavioral © 2018, 2014 Cengage Learning
Sciences, Ninth Edition
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. No part of this work covered by the copyright
Frederick J Gravetter, Larry B. Wallnau, herein may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means,
Lori-Ann B. Forzano except as permitted by U.S. copyright law, without the prior written
Product Director: Marta Lee-Perriard permission of the copyright owner.
Product Manager: Carly McJunkin
For product information and technology assistance, contact us at
Content Development Manager: Cengage Learning Customer & Sales Support, 1-800-354-9706
Jasmin Tokatlian For permission to use material from this text or product,
Content Developer: Linda Man submit all requests online at www.cengage.com/permissions
Further permissions questions can be e-mailed to
Product Assistant: Kimiya Hojjat
permissionrequest@cengage.com
Marketing Manager: James Finlay
Content Project Manager: Carol Samet
Library of Congress Control Number: 2016941378
Art Director: Vernon Boes
Student Edition:
Manufacturing Planner: Karen Hunt
ISBN: 978-1-337-09812-0
Production and Composition Service:
MPS Limited Loose-leaf Edition:
ISBN: 978-1-337-27331-2
Text and Cover Designer: Lisa Henry
Cover Image: Deborah Batt
Cengage Learning
20 Channel Center Street
Boston, MA 02210
USA
Cengage Learning is a leading provider of customized learning solutions

with employees residing in nearly 40 diﬀerent countries and sales in more
than 125 countries around the world. Find your local representative at
www.cengage.com
Cengage Learning products are represented in Canada by

Nelson Education, Ltd.
To learn more about Cengage Learning Solutions, visit

www.cengage.com
Purchase any of our products at your local college store or at our
preferred online store www.cengagebrain.com
Printed in Canada
Print Number: 01 Print Year: 2016
B RIEF CO N TEN T S
CHAPTER 1 Introduction to Statistics 1
CHAPTER 2 Frequency Distributions 35
CHAPTER 3 Central Tendency 57
CHAPTER 4 Variability 87
CHAPTER 5 z-Scores: Location of Scores and Standardized Distributions 119
CHAPTER 6 Probability 143
CHAPTER 7 Probability and Samples: The Distribution of Sample Means 169
CHAPTER 8 Introduction to Hypothesis Testing 197
CHAPTER 9 Introduction to the t Statistic 237
CHAPTER 10 The t Test for Two Independent Samples 267
CHAPTER 11 The t Test for Two Related Samples 301
CHAPTER 12 Introduction to Analysis of Variance 329
CHAPTER 13 Repeated-Measures and Two-Factor Analysis of Variance 371
CHAPTER 14 Correlation and Regression 421
CHAPTER 15 The Chi-Square Statistic: Tests for Goodness of Fit and Independence 473
iii
CO N TEN T S
CHAPTER 1 Introduction to Statistics 1

1-1 Statistics, Science, and Observations 2
1-2 Variables and Measurement 10
1-3 Three Data Structures, Research Methods, and Statistics 17
1-4 Statistical Notation 25
Summary 29
Focus on Problem Solving 31
Demonstration 1.1 31
Problems 32
CHAPTER 2 Frequency Distributions 35

2-1 Frequency Distributions and Frequency Distribution Tables 36
2-2 Grouped Frequency Distribution Tables 39
2-3 Frequency Distribution Graphs 43
Summary 50
Problems 53
CHAPTER 3 Central Tendency 57

3-1 Overview 58
3-2 The Mean 59
3-3 The Median 67
3-4 The Mode 71
3-5 Central Tendency and the Shape of the Distribution 74
3-6 Selecting a Measure of Central Tendency 76
Summary 82
Problems 84
v
vi CONTENTS
CHAPTER 4 Variability 87
4-1 Introduction to Variability 88
4-2 Defining Variance and Standard Deviation 91
4-3 Measuring Variance and Standard Deviation for a Population 95
4-4 Measuring Variance and Standard Deviation for a Sample 99
4-5 Sample Variance as an Unbiased Statistic 104
4-6 More about Variance and Standard Deviation 107
Summary 113
Problems 116
z-Scores: Location of Scores

CHAPTER 5 and Standardized Distributions 119
5-1 Introduction 120
5-2 z-Scores and Locations in a Distribution 121
5-3 Other Relationships between z, X, the Mean, and the Standard
Deviation 125
5-4 Using z-Scores to Standardize a Distribution 128
5-5 Other Standardized Distributions Based on z-Scores 133
5-6 Looking Ahead to Inferential Statistics 135
Summary 138
Problems 140
CHAPTER 6 Probability 143

6-1 Introduction to Probability 144
6-2 Probability and the Normal Distribution 149
6-3 Probabilities and Proportions for Scores
from a Normal Distribution 156
CONTENTS vii

Summary 165
Problems 167
Probability and Samples: The Distribution

CHAPTER 7 of Sample Means 169
7-1 Samples, Populations, and the Distribution of Sample Means 170
7-2 Shape, Central Tendency, and Variability for the Distribution
of Sample Means 175
7-3 z-Scores and Probability for Sample Means 181
7-4 More About Standard Error 185
Summary 193
Problems 195
CHAPTER 8 Introduction to Hypothesis Testing 197

8-1 The Logic of Hypothesis Testing 198
8-2 Uncertainty and Errors in Hypothesis Testing 209
8-3 More about Hypothesis Tests 213
8-4 Directional (One-Tailed) Hypothesis Tests 218
8-5 Concerns about Hypothesis Testing: Measuring Effect Size 222
8-6 Statistical Power 226
Summary 231
Problems 234
viii CONTENTS
CHAPTER 9 Introduction to the t Statistic 237

9-1 The t Statistic: An Alternative to z 238
9-2 Hypothesis Tests with the t Statistic 244
9-3 Measuring Effect Size for the t Statistic 248
9-4 Directional Hypotheses and One-Tailed Tests 257
Summary 260
Problems 263
CHAP TER 10 The t Test for Two Independent Samples 267

10-1 Introduction to the Independent-Measures Design 268
10-2 The Hypotheses and the Independent-Measures t Statistic 270
10-3 Hypothesis Tests with the Independent-Measures t Statistic 277
10-4 Effect Size and Confidence Intervals
for the Independent-Measures t 284
10-5 The Role of Sample Variance and Sample Size
in the Independent-Measures t Test 288
Summary 291
Problems 295
CHAPTER 11 The t Test for Two Related Samples 301

11-1 Introduction to Repeated-Measures Designs 302
11-2 The t Statistic for a Repeated-Measures Research Design 303
11-3 Hypothesis Tests for the Repeated-Measures Design 307
11-4 Effect Size, Confidence Intervals, and the Role of Sample Size and
Sample Variance for the Repeated-Measures t 310
11-5 Comparing Repeated- and Independent-Measures Designs 316
Summary 320
CONTENTS ix

Problems 324
CHAPTER 12 Introduction to Analysis of Variance 329

12-1 Introduction (An Overview of Analysis of Variance) 330
12-2 The Logic of Analysis of Variance 334
12-3 ANOVA Notation and Formulas 338
12-4 Examples of Hypothesis Testing and Effect Size with ANOVA 346
12-5 Post Hoc Tests 353
12-6 More about ANOVA 357
Summary 362
Problems 367
Repeated-Measures and Two-Factor Analysis

CHAPTER 13 of Variance 371
13-1 Introduction to the Repeated-Measures ANOVA 372
13-2 Hypothesis Testing and Effect Size with the Repeated-Measures
ANOVA 375
13-3 More about the Repeated-Measures Design 384
13-4 An Overview of the Two-Factor, Independent-Measures ANOVA 388
13-5 An Example of the Two-Factor ANOVA and Effect Size 396
Summary 406
Problems 415
CH A P T ER 14 Correlation and Regression 421

14-1 Introduction 422
14-2 The Pearson Correlation 425
14-3 Using and Interpreting the Pearson Correlation 430
14-4 Hypothesis Tests with the Pearson Correlation 437
x CONTENTS
14-5 Alternatives to the Pearson Correlation 441

14-6 Introduction to Linear Equations and Regression 450
Summary 463
Problems 470
The Chi-Square Statistic: Tests for Goodness

CHAPTER 15 of Fit and Independence 473
15-1 Introduction to Chi-Square: The Test for Goodness of Fit 474
15-2 An Example of the Chi-Square Test for Goodness of Fit 479
15-3 The Chi-Square Test for Independence 485
15-4 Effect Size and Assumptions for the Chi-Square Tests 493
15-5 The Relationship between Chi-Square and Other
Statistical Procedures 498
Summary 500
Problems 506
A PPE N D IX E S
A Basic Mathematics Review 511
A-1 Symbols and Notation 513
A-2 Proportions: Fractions, Decimals, and Percentages 515
A-3 Negative Numbers 521
A-4 Basic Algebra: Solving Equations 523
A-5 Exponents and Square Roots 526
B Statistical Tables 533
C Solution for Odd-Numbered Problems in the Text 545
D General Instructions for Using SPSS 559
Statistics Organizer: Finding the Right Statistics for Your Data 563
References 575
Name Index 579
Subject Index 581
PREFACE
M any students in the behavioral sciences view the required statistics course as an
intimidating obstacle that has been placed in the middle of an otherwise interest-
ing curriculum. They want to learn about human behavior—not about math and science.
As a result, the statistics course is seen as irrelevant to their education and career goals.
However, as long as the behavioral sciences are founded in science, knowledge of statistics
will be necessary. Statistical procedures provide researchers with objective and systematic
methods for describing and interpreting their research results. Scientific research is the
system that we use to gather information, and statistics are the tools that we use to distill
the information into sensible and justified conclusions. The goal of this book is not only
to teach the methods of statistics, but also to convey the basic principles of objectivity and
logic that are essential for science and valuable for decision making in everyday life.
Essentials of Statistics for the Behavioral Sciences, ninth edition, is intended for an
undergraduate statistics course in psychology or any of the behavioral sciences. The overall
learning objectives of this book include the following, which correspond to some of the
learning goals identified by the American Psychological Association (Noland and the Soci-
ety for the Teaching of Psychology Statistical Literacy Taskforce, 2012):
1. Calculate and interpret the meaning of basic measures of central tendency and
variability.
2. Distinguish between causal and correlational relationships.
3. Interpret data displayed as statistics, graphs, and tables.
4. Select and implement an appropriate statistical analysis for a given research design,
problem, or hypothesis.
5. Identify the correct strategy for data analysis and interpretation when testing
hypotheses.
6. Select, apply, and interpret appropriate descriptive and inferential statistics.
7. Produce and interpret reports of statistical analyses using APA style.
8. Distinguish between statistically significant and chance findings in data.
9. Calculate and interpret the meaning of basic tests of statistical significance.
10. Calculate and interpret the meaning of confidence intervals.
11. Calculate and interpret the meaning of basic measures of effect size statistics.
12. Recognize when a statistically significant result may also have practical
significance.
The book chapters are organized in the sequence that we use for our own statistics
courses. We begin with descriptive statistics (Chapters 1–4), next lay the foundation for
inferential statistics (Chapters 5–8), and then examine a variety of statistical procedures
focused on sample means and variance (Chapters 9–13), before moving on to correlational
methods and nonparametric statistics (Chapters 14 and 15). Information about modifying
this sequence is presented in the “To the Instructor” section for individuals who prefer a
different organization. Each chapter contains numerous examples (many based on actual
xi
xii PREFACE
research studies), learning objectives and learning checks for each section, a summary and
list of key terms, instructions for using SPSS, detailed problem-solving tips and demonstra-
tions, and a set of end-of-chapter problems.
Those of you who are familiar with previous editions of Essentials of Statistics for the
Behavioral Sciences will notice that some changes have been made. These changes are
summarized in the “To the Instructor” section. Students who are using this edition should
read the section of the preface entitled “To the Student.” In revising this text, our students
have been foremost in our minds. Over the years, they have provided honest and useful
feedback, and their hard work and perseverance has made our writing and teaching most
rewarding. We sincerely thank them.
To the Instructor
Those of you familiar with the previous edition of Essentials of Statistics for the Behav-
ioral Sciences will notice a number of changes in the ninth edition. Throughout the book,
research examples have been updated, real-world examples of particular interest to stu-
dents have been added, and the end-of-chapter problems have been extensively revised.
Major revisions for this edition include:
1. Each section of every chapter begins with a list of Learning Objectives for that
specific section.
2. Each section ends with a Learning Check consisting of multiple-choice questions
and answers, with at least one question for each Learning Objective.
3. Do-it-yourself examples have been added to each chapter. These present numerical
examples and ask student to perform specific statistical calculations to test their
understanding of topics presented in the chapter.
Other examples of specific and noteworthy revisions include:
Chapter 1 The section on data structures and research methods has been edited to par-
allel the Statistics Organizer: Finding the Right Statistics for Your Data in the appendix.
The chapter has been reorganized to simplify the sequence of topics.
Chapter 2 The chapter has undergone relatively minor editing to clarify and simplify.
Chapter 3 The sequence of topics within the chapter has been reorganized to facilitate
the flow of concepts. The median discussion has been refined and clarified and includes
both samples and populations.
Chapter 4 The opening paragraphs have been edited to relate the concept of variability to
the more familiar concepts of diversity and consistency. The sections on standard deviation
and variance have been edited to increase emphasis on concepts rather than calculations.
Chapter 5 The section discussing z-scores for samples has been incorporated into the
other sections of the chapter so that populations and samples are consistently discussed
together.
Chapter 6 The section “Looking Ahead to Inferential Statistics” has been shortened
and simplified.
PREFACE xiii
Chapter 7 The box feature explaining the difference between standard deviation and
standard error has been deleted, with the content being incorporated into Section 7.4.
Furthermore, the content was edited to emphasize that the standard error is the primary
new element introduced in the chapter. The final section, “Looking Ahead to Inferential
Statistics,” was simplified and shortened to be consistent with the changes in Chapter 6.
Chapter 8 A redundant example was deleted, which shortened and streamlined the
remaining material so that most of the chapter is focused on the same research example.
Chapter 9 The section introducing confidence intervals was edited to clarify the origin
of the confidence interval equation and to emphasize that the interval is constructed at the
sample mean.
Chapter 10 The section presenting the estimated standard error of (M1 2 M2) has been
simplified and shortened.
Chapter 11 The discussion of matched-subjects designs has been moved to the end of the
chapter as part of the strengths and weaknesses of independent- versus repeated-measures
designs. The section discussing hypothesis testing has been separated from the section on
effect size and confidence intervals to be consistent with the other two chapters on t tests.
The section comparing independent- and repeated-measures designs has been expanded.
Chapter 12 One redundant example of an ANOVA has been eliminated to simplify

and shorten the chapter. Sections of the chapter have been reorganized to allow the discus-
sion to flow directly from hypothesis tests and effect size to post tests.
Chapter 13 The section discussing factors that influence the outcome of a repeated-
measures hypothesis test and associated measures of effect size has been substantially ex-
panded. The same research example is used to introduce and to demonstrate the two-factor
ANOVA, which simplifies that portion of the chapter.
Chapter 14 The section on partial correlations was deemed not essential to the topic
of correlation and has been eliminated, which substantially simplifies and shortens the
chapter.
Chapter 15 A new section introduces Cohen’s w as a measure of effect size for both
chi-square tests.
■ Matching the Text to Your Syllabus

The book chapters are organized in the sequence that we use for our own statistics courses.
However, different instructors may prefer different organizations and probably will choose
to omit or deemphasize specific topics. We have tried to make separate chapters, and even
sections of chapters, completely self-contained, so that they can be deleted or reorganized
to fit the syllabus for nearly any instructor. Some common examples are as follows:
■ It is common for instructors to choose between emphasizing analysis of variance
(Chapters 12 and 13) or emphasizing correlation/regression (Chapter 14). It is rare for
a one-semester course to complete coverage of both topics.
■ Although we choose to complete all the hypothesis tests for means and mean differ-
ences before introducing correlation (Chapter 14), many instructors prefer to place
correlation much earlier in the sequence of course topics. To accommodate this,
xiv PREFACE
sections 14.1, 14.2, and 14.3 present the calculation and interpretation of the Pearson
correlation and can be introduced immediately following Chapter 4 (variability).
Other sections of Chapter 14 refer to hypothesis testing and should be delayed until
the process of hypothesis testing (Chapter 8) has been introduced.
■ It is also possible for instructors to present the chi-square tests (Chapter 15) much
earlier in the sequence of course topics. Chapter 15, which presents hypothesis tests
for proportions, can be presented immediately after Chapter 8, which introduces the
process of hypothesis testing. If this is done, we also recommend that the Pearson
correlation (Sections 14.1, 14.2, and 14.3) be presented early to provide a foundation
for the chi-square test for independence.
To the Student
A primary goal of this book is to make the task of learning statistics as easy and painless
as possible. Among other things, you will notice that the book provides you with a number
of opportunities to practice the techniques you will be learning in the form of Learning
Checks, Examples, Demonstrations, and end-of-chapter problems. We encourage you to
take advantage of these opportunities. Read the text rather than just memorizing the for-
mulas. We have taken care to present each statistical procedure in a conceptual context that
explains why the procedure was developed and when it should be used. If you read this
material and gain an understanding of the basic concepts underlying a statistical formula,
you will find that learning the formula and how to use it will be much easier. In the “Study
Hints” that follow, we provide advice that we give our own students. Ask your instructor
for advice as well; we are sure that other instructors will have ideas of their own.
■ Study Hints
You may find some of these tips helpful, as our own students have reported.
■ The key to success in a statistics course is to keep up with the material. Each new
topic builds on previous topics. If you have learned the previous material, then the
new topic is just one small step forward. Without the proper background, however,
the new topic can be a complete mystery. If you find that you are falling behind, get
help immediately.
■ You will learn (and remember) much more if you study for short periods several
times per week rather than try to condense all of your studying into one long session.
Distributed practice is best for learning. For example, it is far more effective to study
and do problems for half an hour every night than to have a single three-and-a-half-
hour study session once a week. We cannot even work on writing this book without
frequent rest breaks.
■ Do some work before class. Stay a little bit ahead of the instructor by reading the
appropriate sections before they are presented in class. Although you may not fully
understand what you read, you will have a general idea of the topic, which will make
the lecture easier to follow. Also, you can identify material that is particularly confus-
ing and then be sure the topic is clarified in class.
■ Pay attention and think during class. Although this advice seems obvious, often it is
not practiced. Many students spend so much time trying to write down every example
presented or every word spoken by the instructor that they do not actually understand
and process what is being said. Check with your instructor—there may not be a need
to copy every example presented in class, especially if there are many examples like
PREFACE xv
it in the text. Sometimes, we tell our students to put their pens and pencils down for a
moment and just listen.
■ Test yourself regularly. Do not wait until the end of the chapter or the end of
the week to check your knowledge. As you are reading the textbook, stop and
do the examples. Also, stop and do the Learning Checks at the end of each sec-
tion. After each lecture, work some of the end-of- chapter problems. Review the
Demonstration problems, and be sure you can define the Key Terms. If you are
having trouble, get your questions answered immediately—reread the section, go
to your instructor, or ask questions in class. By doing so, you will be able to move
ahead to new material.
■ Do not kid yourself! Avoid denial. Many students observe their instructor solving
problems in class and think to themselves, “This looks easy, I understand it.” Do you
really understand it? Can you really do the problem on your own without having to
leaf through the pages of a chapter? Although there is nothing wrong with using ex-
amples in the text as models for solving problems, you should try working a problem
with your book closed to test your level of mastery.
■ We realize that many students are embarrassed to ask for help. It is our biggest chal-
lenge as instructors. You must find a way to overcome this aversion. Perhaps contact-
ing the instructor directly would be a good starting point, if asking questions in class
is too anxiety-provoking. You could be pleasantly surprised to find that your instruc-
tor does not yell, scold, or bite! Also, your instructor might know of another student
who can offer assistance. Peer tutoring can be very helpful.
■ Contact Us
Over the years, the students in our classes and other students using our book have given us
valuable feedback. If you have any suggestions or comments about this book, you can write
to either Professor Emeritus Frederick Gravetter, Professor Emeritus Larry Wallnau, or
Professor Lori-Ann Forzano at the Department of Psychology, The College at Brockport,
SUNY, 350 New Campus Drive, Brockport, New York 14420. You can also contact Profes-
sor Emeritus Gravetter directly at fgravett@brockport.edu.
Ancillaries
Ancillaries for this edition include the following.
■ MindTap® Psychology MindTap® Psychology for Gravetter/Wallnau/Forzano’s
Essentials of Statistics for the Behavioral Sciences, Ninth Edition is the digital learn-
ing solution that helps instructors engage and transform today’s students into criti-
cal thinkers. Through paths of dynamic assignments and applications that you can
personalize, real-time course analytics, and an accessible reader, MindTap helps you
turn cookie cutter into cutting edge, apathy into engagement, and memorizers into
higher-level thinkers. As an instructor using MindTap you have at your fingertips
the right content and unique set of tools curated specifically for your course, such as
video tutorials that walk students through various concepts and interactive problem
tutorials that provide students opportunities to practice what they have learned, all
in an interface designed to improve workflow and save time when planning lessons
and course structure. The control to build and personalize your course is all yours,
focusing on the most relevant material while also lowering costs for your students.
Stay connected and informed in your course through real time student tracking that
xvi PREFACE
provides the opportunity to adjust the course as needed based on analytics of interac-
tivity in the course.
■ Aplia An online interactive learning solution that ensures students stay involved
with their coursework and master the basic tools and concepts of statistical analysis.
Created by a research psychologist to help students excel, Aplia’s content engages
students with questions based on real-world scenarios that help students understand
how statistics applies to everyday life. At the same time, all chapter assignments are
automatically graded and provide students with detailed explanations, making sure
they learn from and improve with every question.
■ Online Instructor’s Manual The manual includes learning objectives, key terms, a
detailed chapter outline, a chapter summary, lesson plans, discussion topics, student
activities, “What If” scenarios, media tools, a sample syllabus, and an expanded test
bank. The learning objectives are correlated with the discussion topics, student activi-
ties, and media tools.
■ Online PowerPoints Helping you make your lectures more engaging while effec-
tively reaching your visually oriented students, these handy Microsoft PowerPoint®
slides outline the chapters of the main text in a classroom-ready presentation. The
PowerPoint® slides are updated to reflect the content and organization of the new
edition of the text.
■ Cengage Learning Testing, powered by Cognero® Cengage Learning Testing,
powered by Cognero®, is a flexible online system that allows you to author, edit, and
manage test bank content. You can create multiple test versions in an instant and
deliver tests from your LMS in your classroom.
Acknowledgments
It takes a lot of good, hard-working people to produce a book. Our friends at Cengage
have made enormous contributions to this textbook. We thank: Marta Lee-Perriard, Prod-
uct Director; Carly McJunkin, Product Manager; Kimiya Hojjat, Product Assistant; Carol
Samet, Senior Content Project Manager; and Vernon Boes, Art Director. Special thanks go
to Linda Man, our Content Developer, and to Lynn Lustberg who led us through produc-
tion at MPS.
Reviewers play an important role in the development of a manuscript. Accordingly, we
offer our appreciation to the following colleagues for their assistance: Patricia Tomich,
Kent State University; Robert E. Wickham, University of Houston; Jessica Urschel, West-
ern Michigan University; Wilson Chu, California State University, Long Beach; Melissa
Platt, University of Oregon; Brian Detweiler-Bedell, Lewis and Clark College.
Finally, our heartfelt thanks to our spouses and children: Debbie Gravetter; Charlie,
Ryan, and Alex Forzano; and Naomi and Nico Wallnau. This book could not have been
written without their patience and support.
Frederick J Gravetter
Larry B. Wallnau
Lori-Ann B. Forzano
A B O U T T H E AU T H O R S
FREDERICK J GRAVETTER is Professor Emeritus of Psychology at The

College at Brockport, State University of New York. While teaching at
Brockport, Dr. Gravetter specialized in statistics, experimental design, and
cognitive psychology. He received his bachelor’s degree in mathematics
from M.I.T. and his Ph.D. in psychology from Duke University. In addi-
tion to publishing this textbook and several research articles, Dr. Gravetter
coauthored Research Methods for the Behavioral Sciences and Statistics for
the Behavioral Sciences.
LARRY B. WALLNAU is Professor Emeritus of Psychology at The College

at Brockport, State University of New York. While teaching at Brockport,
he published numerous research articles in biopsychology and has provided
editorial consultation for journals. With Dr. Gravetter, he coauthored Statis-
tics for the Behavioral Sciences. Dr. Wallnau received his bachelor’s degree
from the University of New Haven and his Ph.D. in psychology from the
State University of New York at Albany. He has taken up running and has
competed in races in New York and New England. He takes great pleasure in
adopting neglected and rescued dogs.
LORI-ANN B. FORZANO is Professor of Psychology at The College at

Brockport, State University of New York, where she regularly teaches under-
graduate and graduate courses in research methods, learning, the psychology
of eating, and statistics. She earned a Ph.D. in experimental psychology from
the State University of New York at Stony Brook, where she also received her
B.S. in psychology. Dr. Forzano’s research examines impulsivity and self-
control in adults and children. Her research has been published in the Journal
of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, Learning and Motivation, and The
Psychological Record. Dr. Forzano has also coauthored Research Methods for
the Behavioral Sciences.
xvii
CH A P T ER
Introduction to Statistics
1
1-1 Statistics, Science, and Observations

1-2 Variables and Measurement
1-3 Three Data Structures, Research Methods, and Statistics
1-4 Statistical Notation
Summary
Focus on Problem Solving
Demonstration 1.1
Problems
2 CHAPTER 1 | Introduction to Statistics
1-1 Statistics, Science, and Observations

LE ARN IN G O BJ EC TIVE S
1. Define the terms population, sample, parameter, and statistic; describe the relation-
ships between them; and identify examples of each.
2. Define the two general categories of statistics, descriptive and inferential, and
describe how they are used in a typical research study.
3. Describe the concept of sampling error and explain how sampling error creates the
fundamental problem that inferential statistics must address.
■ Introduction
Before we begin our discussion of statistics, we ask you to read the following paragraph
taken from the philosophy of Wrong Shui (Candappa, 2000).
The Journey to Enlightenment
In Wrong Shui, life is seen as a cosmic journey, a struggle to overcome unseen and
unexpected obstacles at the end of which the traveler will find illumination and
enlightenment. Replicate this quest in your home by moving light switches away
from doors and over to the far side of each room.*
Why did we begin a statistics book with a bit of twisted philosophy? In part, we simply
wanted to lighten the mood with a bit of humor—starting a statistics course is typically not
viewed as one of life’s joyous moments. In addition, the paragraph is an excellent counter-
example for the purpose of this book. Specifically, our goal is to do everything possible to
prevent you from stumbling around in the dark by providing lots of help and illumination
as you journey through the world of statistics. To accomplish this, we begin each section
of the book with clearly stated learning objectives and end each section with a brief quiz
to test your mastery of the new material. We also introduce each new statistical procedure
by explaining the purpose it is intended to serve. If you understand why a new procedure is
needed, you will find it much easier to learn.
The objectives for this first chapter are to provide an introduction to the topic of statis-
tics and to give you some background for the rest of the book. We discuss the role of statis-
tics within the general field of scientific inquiry, and we introduce some of the vocabulary
and notation that are necessary for the statistical methods that follow.
As you read through the following chapters, keep in mind that the general topic of
statistics follows a well-organized, logically developed progression that leads from basic
concepts and definitions to increasingly sophisticated techniques. Thus, each new topic
serves as a foundation for the material that follows. The content of the first nine chapters,
for example, provides an essential background and context for the statistical methods pre-
sented in Chapter 10. If you turn directly to Chapter 10 without reading the first nine chap-
ters, you will find the material confusing and incomprehensible. However, if you learn and
use the background material, you will have a good frame of reference for understanding
and incorporating new concepts as they are presented.
■ Definitions of Statistics
By one definition, statistics consist of facts and figures such as the average annual snowfall
in Denver or Derek Jeter’s lifetime batting average. These statistics are usually informative
*Candappa, R. (2000). The Little Book of Wrong Shui. Kansas City, MO: Andrews McMeel Publishing.
Reprinted by permission.
SECTION 1-1 | Statistics, Science, and Observations 3
and time-saving because they condense large quantities of information into a few simple fig-
ures. Later in this chapter we return to the notion of calculating statistics (facts and figures),
but for now we concentrate on a much broader definition of statistics. Specifically, we use the
term statistics to refer to a general field of mathematics. In this case, we are using the term
statistics as a shortened version of statistical procedures. For example, you are probably
using this book for a statistics course in which you will learn about the statistical techniques
that are used to summarize and evaluate research results in the behavioral sciences.
Research in the behavioral sciences (and other fields) involves gathering information.
To determine, for example, whether college students learn better by reading material on
printed pages or on a computer screen, you would need to gather information about stu-
dents’ study habits and their academic performance. When researchers finish the task of
gathering information, they typically find themselves with pages and pages of measure-
ments such as test scores, personality scores, and opinions. In this book, we present the
statistics that researchers use to analyze and interpret the information that they gather.
Specifically, statistics serve two general purposes:
1. Statistics are used to organize and summarize the information so that the researcher
can see what happened in the research study and can communicate the results to
others.
2. Statistics help the researcher to answer the questions that initiated the research by
determining exactly what general conclusions are justified based on the specific
results that were obtained.
The term statistics refers to a set of mathematical procedures for organizing,

summarizing, and interpreting information.
Statistical procedures help ensure that the information or observations are presented
and interpreted in an accurate and informative way. In somewhat grandiose terms, statistics
help researchers bring order out of chaos. In addition, statistics provide researchers with a
set of standardized techniques that are recognized and understood throughout the scientific
community. Thus, the statistical methods used by one researcher will be familiar to other
researchers, who can accurately interpret the statistical analyses with a full understanding
of how the statistics were done and what the results signify.
■ Populations and Samples

Research in the behavioral sciences typically begins with a general question about a specific
group (or groups) of individuals. For example, a researcher may want to know what factors
are associated with academic dishonesty among college students. Or a researcher may want
to examine the amount of time spent in the bathroom for men compared to women. In the
first example, the researcher is interested in the group of college students. In the second
example, the researcher wants to compare the group of men with the group of women. In sta-
tistical terminology, the entire group that a researcher wishes to study is called a population.
A population is the set of all the individuals of interest in a particular study.
As you can well imagine, a population can be quite large—for example, the entire set
of women on the planet Earth. A researcher might be more specific, limiting the population
for study to women who are registered voters in the United States. Perhaps the investigator
would like to study the population consisting of women who are U.S. senators. Popula-
tions can obviously vary in size from extremely large to very small, depending on how the
investigator defines the population. The population being studied should always be identi-
fied by the researcher. In addition, the population need not consist of people—it could be a
population of rats, corporations, parts produced in a factory, or anything else an investiga-
tor wants to study. In practice, populations are typically very large, such as the population
of college sophomores in the United States or the population of small businesses.
Because populations tend to be very large, it usually is impossible for a researcher to
examine every individual in the population of interest. Therefore, researchers typically select
a smaller, more manageable group from the population and limit their studies to the individ-
uals in the selected group. In statistical terms, a set of individuals selected from a population
is called a sample. A sample is intended to be representative of its population, and a sample
should always be identified in terms of the population from which it was selected.
A sample is a set of individuals selected from a population, usually intended to

represent the population in a research study.
Just as we saw with populations, samples can vary in size. For example, one study might
examine a sample of only 10 students in a graduate program and another study might use a
sample of more than 10,000 people who take a specific cholesterol medication.
So far we have talked about a sample being selected from a population. However, this is
actually only half of the full relationship between a sample and its population. Specifically,
when a researcher finishes examining the sample, the goal is to generalize the results back
to the entire population. Remember that the research started with a general question about
the population. To answer the question, a researcher studies a sample and then generalizes
the results from the sample to the population. The full relationship between a sample and a
population is shown in Figure 1.1.
■ Variables and Data

Typically, researchers are interested in specific characteristics of the individuals in the pop-
ulation (or in the sample), or they are interested in the factors that may influence individuals
THE POPULATION
All of the individuals of interest
The results
The sample
from the sample
is selected from
are generalized
the population
to the population
F I G U R E 1.1 THE SAMPLE

The relationship between The individuals selected to
a population and a sample. participate in the research study
or their behaviors. For example, a researcher may be interested in the influence of televi-
sion commercials on people’s fast-food preferences. As new commercials appear on TV,
do people’s food choices also change? Something that can change or have different values
is called a variable.
A variable is a characteristic or condition that changes or has different values for

different individuals.
Once again, variables can be characteristics that differ from one individual to anoth-
er, such as weight, gender, personality, or fast-food preferences. Also, variables can be
environmental conditions that change such as temperature, time of day, or television
commercials.
To demonstrate changes in variables, it is necessary to make measurements of the vari-
ables being examined. The measurement obtained for each individual is called a datum,
or more commonly, a score or raw score. The complete set of scores is called the data set
or simply the data.
Data (plural) are measurements or observations. A data set is a collection of

measurements or observations. A datum (singular) is a single measurement or
observation and is commonly called a score or raw score.
Before we move on, we should make one more point about samples, populations, and
data. Earlier, we defined populations and samples in terms of individuals. For example,
we discussed a population of college students and a sample of cholesterol patients. Be
forewarned, however, that we will also refer to populations or samples of scores. Because
research typically involves measuring each individual to obtain a score, every sample (or
population) of individuals produces a corresponding sample (or population) of scores.
■ Parameters and Statistics

When describing data it is necessary to specify whether the data come from a population
or a sample. A characteristic that describes a population—for example, the average score
for the population—is called a parameter. A characteristic that describes a sample is called
a statistic. Thus, the average score for a sample is an example of a statistic. Typically, the
research process begins with a question about a population parameter. However, the actual
data come from a sample and are used to compute sample statistics.
A parameter is a value—usually a numerical value—that describes a population.

A parameter is usually derived from measurements of the individuals in the
population.
A statistic is a value—usually a numerical value—that describes a sample. A
statistic is usually derived from measurements of the individuals in the sample.
Every population parameter has a corresponding sample statistic, and most research
studies involve using statistics from samples as the basis for answering questions about
population parameters (Figure 1.1). As a result, much of this book is concerned with the
relationship between sample statistics and the corresponding population parameters. In
Chapter 7, for example, we examine the relationship between the mean obtained for a
sample and the mean for the population from which the sample was obtained.
■ Descriptive and Inferential Statistical Methods

Although researchers have developed a variety of different statistical procedures to orga-
nize and interpret data, these different procedures can be classified into two general
categories. The first category, descriptive statistics, consists of statistical procedures that
are used to simplify and summarize data.
Descriptive statistics are statistical procedures used to summarize, organize, and

simplify data.
Descriptive statistics are techniques that take raw scores and organize or summarize
them in a form that is more manageable. Often the scores are organized in a table or a graph
so that it is possible to see the entire set of scores. Another common technique is to sum-
marize a set of scores by computing an average. Note that even if the data set has hundreds
of scores, the average provides a single descriptive value for the entire set.
The second general category of statistical techniques is called inferential statistics.
Inferential statistics are methods that use sample data to make general statements about a
population.
Inferential statistics consist of techniques that allow us to study samples and then
make generalizations about the populations from which they were selected.
Because populations are typically very large, it usually is not possible to measure
everyone in the population. Therefore, a sample is selected to represent the population.
By analyzing the results from the sample, we hope to make general statements about the
population. Typically, researchers use sample statistics as the basis for drawing conclusions
about population parameters. One problem with using samples, however, is that a sample
provides only limited information about the population. Although samples are generally
representative of their populations, a sample is not expected to give a perfectly accurate
picture of the whole population. Thus, there usually is some discrepancy between a sample
statistic and the corresponding population parameter. This discrepancy is called sampling
error, and it creates the fundamental problem that inferential statistics must address.
Sampling error is the naturally occurring discrepancy, or error, that exists

between a sample statistic and the corresponding population parameter.
The concept of sampling error is illustrated in Figure 1.2. The figure shows a population
of 1,000 college students and two samples, each with five students who were selected from
the population. Notice that each sample contains different individuals who have different
characteristics. Because the characteristics of each sample depend on the specific people in
the sample, statistics will vary from one sample to another. For example, the five students
in sample 1 have an average age of 19.8 years and the students in sample 2 have an average
age of 20.4 years.
It is also very unlikely that the statistics obtained for a sample will be identical to the
parameters for the entire population. In Figure 1.2, for example, neither sample has sta-
tistics that are exactly the same as the population parameters. You should also realize that
Figure 1.2 shows only two of the hundreds of possible samples. Each sample would con-
tain different individuals and would produce different statistics. This is the basic concept
of sampling error: sample statistics vary from one sample to another and typically are
different from the corresponding population parameters.
FIGURE 1.2
A demonstration of sampling error. Two
samples are selected from the same population.
Notice that the sample statistics are different Population
of 1000 college students
from one sample to another, and all of the
sample statistics are different from the Population
opulation Parameters
corresponding population parameters. The Average Age 5 21.3 years
natural differences that exist, by chance, Average IQ 5 112.5
between a sample statistic and a population 65% Female, 35% Male
parameter are called sampling error.
Sample #1 Sample #2
Eric Tom
Jessica Kristen
Laura Sara
Karen Andrew
Brian John
Sample St
Statistics Sample St
Statistics
Average Age 5 19.8 Average Age 5 20.4
Average IQ 5 104.6 Average IQ 5 114.2
60% Female, 40% Male 40% Female, 60% Male
One common example of sampling error is the error associated with a sample pro-
portion. For example, in newspaper articles reporting results from political polls, you
frequently find statements such as this:
Candidate Brown leads the poll with 51% of the vote. Candidate Jones has 42% approval,
and the remaining 7% are undecided. This poll was taken from a sample of registered vot-
ers and has a margin of error of plus-or-minus 4 percentage points.
The “margin of error” is the sampling error. In this case, the percentages that are
reported were obtained from a sample and are being generalized to the whole population.
As always, you do not expect the statistics from a sample to be perfect. There always
will be some “margin of error” when sample statistics are used to represent population
parameters.
■ Statistics in the Context of Research

The following example shows the general stages of a research study and demonstrates
how descriptive statistics and inferential statistics are used to organize and interpret the
data. At the end of the example, note how sampling error can affect the interpretation of
experimental results, and consider why inferential statistical methods are needed to deal
with this problem.
EXAMPLE 1.1 Figure 1.3 shows an overview of a general research situation and demonstrates the roles
that descriptive and inferential statistics play. The purpose of the research study is to
address a question that we posed earlier: Do college students learn better by study-
ing text on printed pages or on a computer screen? Two samples are selected from
the population of college students. The students in sample A are given printed pages
of text to study for 30 minutes and the students in sample B study the same text on a
computer screen. Next, all of the students are given a multiple-choice test to evaluate
their knowledge of the material. At this point, the researcher has two sets of data: the
scores for sample A and the scores for sample B (see the figure). Now is the time to
begin using statistics.
Step 1
Experiment: Population of
Compare two College
studying methods Students
Data
Test scores for the Sample A Sample B
students in each Read from printed Read from computer
sample pages screen
25 26 28 20 22 27
27 21 27 23 17 23
30 28 24 25 28 21
19 23 26 22 19 22
29 26 22 18 24 19
Step 2
Descriptive statistics: 20 25 30 20 25 30
Organize and simplify
Average Average
Score = 26 Score = 22
Step 3 The sample data show w a 4-point dif

difference
Inferential statistics: between the two methods of studying. However,
Interpret results there are two ways to interpret the results.
1. Ther
There e actually is no dif
diffe
ference between
the two studying methods, and the sample
dif rence is due to chance (sampling error).
diffe
2. Ther
There really is a dif
difference between
the two methods, and the sample data
accurately reflect
ect this dif
difference.
FIGURE 1.3 The goal of inferential statistics is to help researchers
The role of statistics in research. decide between the two interpretations.
First, descriptive statistics are used to simplify the pages of data. For example, the
researcher could draw a graph showing the scores for each sample or compute the aver-
age score for each sample. Note that descriptive methods provide a simplified, organized
description of the scores. In this example, the students who studied printed pages had
an average score of 26 on the test, and the students who studied text on the computer
averaged 22.
Once the researcher has described the results, the next step is to interpret the outcome.
This is the role of inferential statistics. In this example, the researcher has found a difference
of 4 points between the two samples (sample A averaged 26 and sample B averaged 22).
The problem for inferential statistics is to differentiate between the following two
interpretations:
1. There is no real difference between the printed page and a computer screen, and
the 4-point difference between the samples is just an example of sampling error
(like the samples in Figure 1.2).
2. There really is a difference between the printed page and a computer screen, and
the 4-point difference between the samples was caused by the different methods
of studying.
In simple English, does the 4-point difference between samples provide convincing
evidence of a difference between the two studying methods, or is the 4-point difference just
chance? The purpose of inferential statistics is to answer this question. ■
LE ARN IN G CH ECK LO1 1. A researcher is interested in the fast-food eating habits of American college
students. A group of 50 students is interviewed and the researcher finds
that these students eat an average of 2.3 commercially prepared meals
per week. For this study, the average of 2.3 meals is an example
of a .
a. parameter
b. statistic
c. population
d. sample
LO1 2. A researcher is curious about the average distance traveled by Canada geese
during peak fall migration in the state of New York. The entire group of
Canada geese in the state is an example of a .
a. sample
b. statistic
c. population
d. parameter
LO2 3. What term is used for the statistical techniques that use sample data
to draw conclusions about the population from which the sample was
obtained?
a. population statistics
b. sample statistics
c. descriptive statistics
d. inferential statistics
LO3 4. The SAT is standardized so that the average score on the verbal test is 500 each
year. If you select a group of 100 graduating seniors who have taken the verbal
SAT, what value would be obtained for their average score?
a. 500
b. greater than 500
c. less than 500
d. around 500 but probably not equal to 500
AN S WE R S 1. b 2. c 3. d 4. d
1-2 Variables and Measurement

LE ARN IN G O BJ EC TIVE S
4. Explain why operational definitions are developed for constructs and identify the
two components of an operational definition.
5. Describe discrete and continuous variables and identify examples of each.
6. Define real limits and explain why they are needed to measure continuous
variables.
7. Compare and contrast the four scales of measurement (nominal, ordinal, interval,
and ratio) and identify examples of each.
The scores that make up the data from a research study are the result of observing and
measuring variables. For example, a researcher may finish a study with a set of IQ scores,
personality scores, or reaction-time scores. In this section, we take a closer look at the vari-
ables that are being measured and the process of measurement.
■ Constructs and Operational Definitions

Some variables, such as height, weight, and eye color are well-defined, concrete entities
that can be observed and measured directly. On the other hand, many variables studied
by behavioral scientists are internal characteristics that people use to help describe and
explain behavior. For example, we say that a student does well in school because he or
she is intelligent. Or we say that someone is anxious in social situations, or that someone
seems to be hungry. Variables like intelligence, anxiety, and hunger are called constructs,
and because they are intangible and cannot be directly observed, they are often called
hypothetical constructs.
Although constructs such as intelligence are internal characteristics that cannot be
directly observed, it is possible to observe and measure behaviors that are representative
of the construct. For example, we cannot “see” intelligence but we can see examples of
intelligent behavior. The external behaviors can then be used to create an operational defi-
nition for the construct. An operational definition defines a construct in terms of external
behaviors that can be observed and measured. For example, your intelligence is measured
and defined by your performance on an IQ test, or hunger can be measured and defined by
the number of hours since last eating.
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
[785] ‘Subieron allá dos vigas rollizas para desde alli echarlas sobre las casas
reales y hundirlas.’ Sahagun, Hist. Conq., 30. Peter Martyr supposes the temple to
have been long held by the enemy, but this is contrary to what Cortés and
Sahagun say.
[786] Three hundred, says Gomara.
[787] For a full description of this pyramid see Native Races, ii. 579 et seq. Some
horses had been taken to clear the approaches, but they slipped on the smooth
pavement, and were sent back as unserviceable. Bernal Diaz, Hist. Verdad., 105.
[788] ‘Acometiola tres o quatro vezes, y otros tantos dias,’ is Gomara’s

interpretation, in order to fill up the time assumed by him. Hist. Mex., 156.
[789] Ojeda appears to be the sole authority upon which Herrera relies for these
two struggles. dec. ii. lib. x. cap. ix. Clavigero doubts them; yet there is nothing
unlikely in either attempt.
[790] It was related afterward that when the natives first sought to remove the
virgin image their hands clove powerlessly to it for some time, and left their marks
upon it. Oviedo, iii. 510. Montezuma, being told of this miracle, ordered the image
to be left in its place. Afterward, ‘pareciò, segun supimos, que el gran Monteçuma
tenia ó deuocion en ella, ó miedo, y la mandó guardar.’ Bernal Diaz, Hist. Verdad.,
104, 102. Others, as will be shown, suppose it to have been saved by its owner,
Villafuerte, perhaps when Cortés withdrew the troops from the temple, or to have
fled by its own miraculous power to the shrine at Remedios.
[791] ‘Comierõ de los caualleros Mexicanos muertos.’ Herrera, dec. ii. lib. x. cap.
ix.
[792] Cortés, Cartas, 130-1. According to Bernal Diaz the sally with the engines
was directed against the temple, which he appears to place at some distance. It
was held by 3000 or 4000 Indians, ‘all chiefs,’ and cost the Spaniards 46 lives,
every man being beside wounded. They returned hard pressed by the enemy. ‘Se
mostrò Cortes mui varõ, como siẽpre.’ Hist. Verdad., 103-4. ‘Murieron todos
quinientos Indios, como valientes.’ Gomara, Hist. Mex., 157. ‘En trecientos
caualleros que alli estauan no quedaron seys viuos.’ Herrera, loc. cit. This author
describes on a later occasion the capture of a tower attached to Montezuma’s own
palace, from which missiles fell with telling effect. Cortés goes with 200 men to
reduce it, and is hotly received; yet the Indians, relying upon the execution to be
made by some loose beams which are to be rolled down upon the assailants at a
favorable moment, allow the Spaniards to rush forward and gain the tower, putting
almost every occupant to the sword. This story is probably a version of the temple
fight.
CHAPTER XXV.
DEATH OF MONTEZUMA.
June, 1520.
A Living Death—The Old Imperial Party and the New Power—Aztec

Defiance—Perilous Position or the Spaniards—Disappointment to
Cortés—Another Sally—The Dying Monarch—He has no Desire to Live
—His Rejection of a New Faith—He will None of the Heaven of the
Spaniards—Commends his Children to Cortés—The Character of
Montezuma and of his Reign.
Long before this the Spaniards had learned that the power which
had arisen in Montezuma’s stead was of a different quality from that
lately wielded by the poor caged monarch, whose proud spirit they
had so blighted and brought low. No Quetzalcoatl or other
personage, fair or dark, heaven-descended or of import infernal,
might now interpose to prevent the killing and cooking of the
strangers. Cortés had thought that the late spoliation of idols would
fill the people with awe toward beings so superior to their gods. But
when he threatened that if they did not lay down their arms not a
man of them should remain alive, nor one stone be left on another
throughout all their city, they laughed at him, the priests abetting.
“How speak you so foolishly,” they said, “mortal as we now know you
to be, when for every Spanish life we are prepared to sacrifice, if
need be, twenty-five thousand of our own lives?” They had cut off
retreat at the causeways, so that the lake alone was open to exit,
and here they were prepared with fleets of canoes filled with resolute
men. Even should the Spaniards hold out against assault, hunger
and thirst must overcome them in the end. “The truth of this was too
evident,” observes Cortés, “for hunger alone would have soon killed
us.”
The imperial party, which had sunk to insignificance since the
elevation of Cuitlahuatzin to the leadership, and was now sustained
only by a few relatives of Montezuma, had no longer a voice in the
direction of affairs. Their efforts to make terms with the Spaniards
might have gained public approval, but the ambition of Cuitlahuatzin
stood in the way of any compromise. To release the strangers would
be to restore Montezuma, and he preferred to occupy the throne
himself. He was also covetous of military fame; and knowing the
desperate condition of the besieged, he hoped by their reduction to
add to his record of glorious achievements.[793]
The soldiers felt the peril of their position more than the general.
They had been cheered for a moment by victory, only to find how
barren it was; only to realize that many such triumphs would prove
their ruin. In order to counteract this growing despondency, Cortés
resolved on a night sally with half his force. The Indians being
unprepared for this, the party advanced with comparative impunity,
destroyed several barricades, and fired a large number of houses
along the Tlacopan road, where the roof assault had been so severe.
The warriors having finally gathered in sufficient force to render
retreat advisable, the Spaniards destroyed a number of buildings in
the vicinity of their quarters before entering, and thus secured
additional immunity.[794]
The present purpose of the Spaniards was to open an exit from
the city. At a council, called to consider the situation, it was admitted
that delay would only reduce their strength without corresponding
gain, and with the prospect of closing more effectually the gate
against them.[795] It was a great disappointment to Cortés thus to
abandon his hard-earned advantage. There were those who would
exult over his misfortunes, and never could he hope to win favor
from the king except by some brilliant success. But this he would yet
achieve, God willing, or perish in the attempt.
The engines were strengthened, and every preparation was
made to meet the rapidly accumulating difficulties. At dawn a large
force set out in the direction of the Tlacopan causeway to secure its
approaches.[796] The advance was made in the order of the day
previous, with guns and pioneers, and with cavalry in front and rear.
The late destruction of houses proved of no considerable advantage,
but the cannon being brought to play on the barricades, an opening
was soon made. The engines, with their fortified sides and covers,
proved more efficient than formerly in checking assaults from the
roofs. The soldiers accordingly advanced with firmer resolution, and
although the showers from the house-tops were still troublesome,
and resistance on the streets was as fierce as ever, yet one after
another the first four canals were captured. The nearest houses
were razed, and with the débris roadways were thrown across the
channels.
These operations were carried on in the face of a bitter
onslaught, and occupied the entire day. Evening being at hand the
crossings were left in charge of a strong guard, composed of the
freshest men, while the rest returned to the fort.
Montezuma the while lay a-dying, prostrate a-dying, not as
Vespasian would have an emperor die—standing; but with manhood,
and the aspirations of man, ay, even the regrets and remorse
incident to foiled endeavor, all crushed he was killed when the insults
of his people fell upon him; he scarcely heeded their darts and
stones.
It is not necessary always that breath shall cease before one can
be dead. From Ianthe’s spirit fell the shackles of sense, the body
being left with its animal life, but soulless. And though corporal life
was yet present in Montezuma, the soul was already free: the
accursed aliens had done their worst. When the might of sacred
sovereignty was extinguished, the remains were less than man,
though they walked, and talked, and wept.
Compared with his present condition, how dignified and happy
death would have been by the hands of his brother priests, before
the gods, in the eyes of the nation, on the sacred sacrificial stone!
Or, like that among the Massagetæ, told of by Herodotus, who
sacrificed and ate their old people, holding natural death a
misfortune—even this or any other stepping down and out would
have been preferable to thus dying like a silly hare in a trap!
He refused food and any attention to the wounds, which were far
from fatal. He tore off the bandages, threw from him all medicines,
and bared his body to disease, even as his soul had been long since
bared, and stretched out his hand to hasten the cold stony grasp of
death. What a farce was life, and honor, and majesty, all to end in
poverty and disgrace! Feeling the all-changing moment at hand, he
summoned Cortés; for despite his long maltreatment he entertained
a kind of affection for the monster, who might even yet prove to be
the demi-god of some far away incomprehensible world. Moreover,
the Spaniard’s intellect and arm were the stronger; he was his son-
in-law and probable successor; therefore, though his jailer, he would
speak with him. And when he came Montezuma said: “The end for
me approaches, Malinche; it is even here. You cannot harm me
further, nor help me if you would. I have given you all; you have
taken all—my liberty, my kingdom, my life, and that which is more to
me than kingdom, liberty, or life, the affection of my people, the love
of my counsellors and friends; and respect—respect of self, and that
sacred respect which, living or dead, is mine by inheritance, and by
virtue of my office. But I would not upbraid you; I pray only that my
ruin will benefit you; I beg of you care for my children, and I conjure
you to avenge me on my rebel subjects and their leaders.”[797]
Moved by the touching appeal, Cortés promised all that was
asked of him, while remonstrating with the monarch for rejecting food
and medicine. Montezuma then, in like manner, exhorted his nobles
who were prisoners with him, and was touched by their sorrow for
the sad state of the empire, and their manifestation of affection for
himself. Father Olmedo, who had never relaxed his efforts for the
captive’s conversion, now pressed to his aid the general. But in vain.
All else these beings maledict had taken from him; they should not
now rob him of his religion. His faith was as dear to him, as true, as
pure, as efficacious, as was theirs to them. Away with another’s
gods! Let each live and die by his own. He was high-priest, too, and
for him to prove recreant to the national faith would overshadow all
his former crimes combined. “What is this they would have of me?”
he groaned within himself. Then turning suddenly to Olmedo, he
asked, “Do Spaniards go to this heaven of yours?” “Assuredly,” was
the reply; “it was made for them, and is held by Christians, against all
others, as the reward of their pure belief and gentle deeds.” “It is
enough; I will none of it,” said Montezuma, who from that moment
would not listen to a word of Christian exhortation.[798] It was early in
the morning of the 30th of June,[799] three days after the trying
scene in the presence of his people, that the monarch breathed his
last. And even the Spaniards forgot for a moment their diabolisms,
and allowed their minds to dwell on the virtues of this magnificent
heathen, this mighty sovereign, their sweet-tempered prisoner, and
kind and generous host.[800]
Of a truth, despite his pusillanimity with regard to the Spaniards,
which was indeed little else than pardonable superstition, this man
was in many respects not unworthy the title of Great so freely
bestowed upon him. Montezuma was but forty-one[801] at the time of
his death, and had wielded the sceptre for nearly eighteen years with
wonderful success. Under him the Aztec empire acquired its widest
extent and greatest glory. While his armies by well directed
operations spread the terror of his name to distant provinces and
increased the national domain by fresh conquests, his subtle
intrigues secured advantages at home, and established the
supremacy of Mexico in the tripartite alliance. With a high regard for
the dignity of his throne, he caused the sovereign to be worshipped
almost like a god, and sustained the grandeur of his surroundings
with lavish expenditure. This severe and ostentatious pride kept him
above the reach of his people, and failing to understand their wants
or to sympathize with their condition, he ruled not by love, but by
fear. Thus it is that we find the native records dwell upon his fitful
cold-blooded cruelty and superstition, not as a tyrant, however, but
as an administrator of their own cruel yet revered rites. He was
reputed just, but this quality was to be found rather in the intention
than in the act. With all his pride he appears to have been most
affable and kind to those with whom he came in contact. The
Spaniards certainly found him so. In their later intercourse other
considerations may have ruled him, however, and with the cunning
and secrecy of his race he may have submitted to the inevitable
demands of circumstances.[802]
Surrounded by fawning ministers, whose existence depended on
his favor, he was encouraged in the extravagant habits of a
magnificent court, which promoted their schemes at the expense of a
tax-ridden people. The ambition to extend his fame and power
required the maintenance of immense armies, of numerous
garrisons, and of costly campaigns, which proved another drain on
the people. This was augmented in subjected provinces by the
extortions of imperial officers, who found means to prevent the cry of
the oppressed from reaching the throne. Perhaps the most terrible
infliction was the levy on the youth of both sexes for slaves, and for
sacrificial victims to appease the bloody appetite of Aztec gods—an
appetite which had increased in horror with the abject superstition of
this otherwise enlightened monarch. Enlightened he undoubtedly
was, for as high-priest he had become versed in the higher learning
of the priesthood. The study of mythology came naturally to him,
while astronomy and natural history were favorite subjects with the
lords of the lake peoples, the former connected with myths and
divinations, the latter illustrated by specimens from different regions,
and collected in the botanic and zoologic gardens of Mexico and
other cities. The studies of his youth had gained for him a well
merited respect from his priestly confrères, and the prudence and
sagacity which controlled the well stored mind commanded attention
in the council.[803] While yet a young man there seemed to develop
qualities which fitted him for the position of high-priest, also as
counsellor, to which his princely rank paved an easy way. Besides
this he had shown himself possessed of great courage, and had
established his fame as a general by many victories.
It was with this reputation, as zealous and learned priest,
prudent statesman, and brave soldier, that he ascended the throne in
1503, while only twenty-three years of age. It is in such terms that
his colleague Nezahualpilli in his coronation address refers to the
hopes entertained of the youthful ruler.[804] Though ever a devout
servant of the gods, the effeminate pleasures of the court weakened
the nerves and energy of the soldier, till his warlike ardor survived
only in a taste for military reviews and for the chase. The caution of
the general remained, but timidity saves few leaders from disaster.
Vanity and designing ministers overruled too often the dictates of
wisdom in the administration of affairs.[805] His path had been
prepared by able predecessors, and answered well for the policy of
aggrandizement which became the leading feature of his reign. In
this his natural liberality and talent for intrigue, fostered by priestly
training, served him well and procured blindly devoted instruments
for his plans. Thus, by fair means and foul, the empire was raised to
the pinnacle of its glory, but not being of a natural or healthy growth it
proved unstable, and crumbling under the strong commotion created
by the approach of Castilians, it revived only for a moment in the
present uprising like the mental illumination preceding death.
Montezuma could not have failed to recognize the insecurity of the
bonds which held it, and influenced by the predictions of its downfall
he readily fell beneath the spell of the superior intellects which were
to assume control. It was his misfortune to have lost the sanguine
energy of his youth, which might have enabled him to rise above the
weaknesses of himself and his age. Duty and honor were overcome
by superstition and absorbing love of power, of life, and he reaped
the natural fruit of puerile and misdirected efforts by losing both.
Resistance might not long have delayed the inevitable, but it would
at least have procured for him an end worthy of his grandeur.
Of his many wives may be named the princesses Teitlalco,
Acatlan, and Miahuaxochitl, of whom the first named appears to
have been the only legitimate consort.[806] By her he left a son,
Asupacaci, who fell during the noche triste, and a daughter,
Tecuichpo, baptized as Isabel, married consecutively to
Quauhtemotzin, the last Mexican sovereign, to visitador general
Alonso Grado, to Pedro Andrade Gallego, and to Juan Cano de
Saavedra. She had children by the latter two, from whom descend
the illustrious families of Andrade-Montezuma and Cano-
Montezuma.
By the Princess Acatlan were left two daughters, baptized as
María and Mariana. The latter alone left offspring, from whom
descends the Sotelo-Montezuma family. By the third wife came to
the emperor the son Tlacahuepantzin, known after baptism as Pedro
Yohualicahuacatzin Montezuma, whose descendants, the condes de
Montezuma y de Tula, intermarried with the noblest families of
Spain, and connected the name with the highest offices of state, and
with the title of grandee.[807]
FOOTNOTES
[793] In Manuscrit de 1528, Aubin Col., Cihuacohuatl and Tzihuacpopocatzin,
brothers of Montezuma, are named as the leaders of the opposition party,
connected also with the followers of Quetzalcoatl, who abhorred the cruel rites of
the Aztecs. They succeeded, it is said, in introducing provisions for the besieged.
Brasseur de Bourbourg, Hist. Nat. Civ., iv. 317-18. But this is doubtful.
[794] This is probably the sally which Herrera intrusts to Salcedo. dec. ii. lib. x.
cap. viii.
[795] ‘Por importunidad de muchos ... acordó de salir della.’ Carta del Ejército, in
Icazbalceta, Col. Doc., i. 429. ‘El ... capitan dilataba de cada dia la dicha salida,’
but the officers insisted that he should leave. Segunda Probanza de Lejalde, in Id.,
423.
[796] Clavigero directs the operation against the Iztapalapan road, which would
have been a useless manœuvre. Cortés is explicit enough on the point.
[797] In a privilegio in favor of the daughter Isabel, Cortés refers to this interview,
saying that three daughters were intrusted to him. No allusion is made to any son.
The affectionate terms in which he herein speaks of Montezuma must be due to
political reasons, and perhaps to a regard for the princesses. Panes, Vireyes, in
Monumentos Domin. Esp., MS., 67-8. Ramirez ridicules the idea of an appeal by
the emperor to Cortés, who was on unfriendly terms with him. Soc. Mex. Geog.,
Boletin, x. 359 et seq. But the effort of Montezuma to save the Spaniards shows
that intercourse had been reëstablished; and was not Cortés, as the husband of
one or more of his daughters, the proper person to protect their sisters?
[798] The question of his conversion has been much discussed. ‘No le pudo atraer
a que se bolviesse Cristiano,’ says Bernal Diaz, Hist. Verdad., 105; and Herrera is
even more explicit. dec. ii. lib. x. cap. x. Cortés and his followers, Martyr and
Oviedo, give no indications to the contrary. Ixtlilxochitl states, however, that he had
learned several prayers, and even begged for baptism, but that the rite was
deferred ‘por la pascua siguiente, que era de la resurreccion, y fue tan
desdichado, que nunca alcanzó tanto bien.’ Hist. Chich., 299. Yet he adds that it
has been said ‘que se bautizó y se llamó Don Juan.’ Relaciones, 457. According
to Gomara he asked for baptism in the beginning of lent, but it was determined to
postpone the rite till pentecost, for greater effect, and as more appropriate for so
high a personage. Owing to the troubles arising out of Narvaez’ arrival nothing
was done then, ‘y despues de herido oluidose con la prissa del pelear!’ Hist. Mex.,
154. Cortés had persuaded him, says Vetancurt, during the early days of his
imprisonment, to accept baptism, and he was taken to the temple for the purpose,
but at the last moment he excused himself on the ground that the Indians would
elect another lord and attack them all if he abandoned the faith. Teatro Mex., iii.
132-3. Father Duran, on the contrary, ever zealous for the natives, and particularly
for his hero, Montezuma, asserts that trustworthy men had vouched for his
baptism. Padre Olmedo had also expressed belief therein, although he had not
been present when it was administered. Hist. Ind., MS., ii. 445. The father’s
memory must have failed him with respect to Olmedo. Camargo has also been
assured of his baptism, with Cortés and Alvarado for sponsors. Hist. Tlax., 166.
Tezozomoc, who claims to have investigated the point, declares explicitly that the
rite was administered on his death-bed, when he received the name of Cárlos, and
that Cortés, Olid, and Alvarado were the sponsors. Recopilacion de verídicas
tradiciones, probando que el emperador Moteuhsoma recibió el santo sacramento
del bautismo. This author wrote at the close of the sixteenth century, and follows
traditions only. Bustamante, in modern times, has also reviewed the question, and
follows Tezozomoc implicitly. In support thereof he quotes a poem, by Captain
Angel Betancourt, wherein he refers to Montezuma as the ‘indio bautizado,’
introduces the vague utterance of Ixtlilxochitl, and even attempts to misconstrue a
certain expression of Cortés. Montezuma tells the latter to baptize his daughters,
and this Bustamante regards as proof that he himself desired the rite. He does not
suppose that the religion of the vicious Spaniards could have had great attractions
for him, but when about to die he accepted it, ‘as the drowning man does the
saving plank.’ Article in Chimalpain, Hist. Conq., i. 287-95. Still fuller is the review
of Ramirez, who follows Torquemada in pointing out the fact that neither Cortés
nor Alvarado ever referred to their supposed sponsorship, as they certainly would
have done in connection with so distinguished a personage had they felt
empowered. Soc. Mex. Geog., Boletin.
[799] Cortés’ chronology, as indicated in the Cartas, shows clearly that he left
Mexico during the night of June 30th, as will be demonstrated. He also implies
what Bernal Diaz and Herrera distinctly assert, that considerable fighting took
place on the Tlacopan road between the time the corpse was surrendered to the
Aztecs and the Spaniards returned to their quarters preparatory to evacuation.
Hence the death must have occurred early on that day. Herrera confirms Cortés’
testimony that he could not have died before the 30th, by saying, ‘en quatro dias
se murio.’ dec. ii. lib. x. cap. x. It is also generally admitted that he was not
wounded before the third day of the siege.
[800] ‘Cortes lloró por èl, y todos nuestros Capitanes, y soldados: è hombres huvo
entre nosotros ... que tan llorado fue, como si fuera nuestro padre.’ Bernal Diaz,
Hist. Verdad., 104. Cortés speaks highly of him, ‘y siempre tuvo mui buena
voluntad á los Españoles,’ but this is in the deed presented to his daughter. See
Privilegio, Monumentos Domin. Esp., MS., 66. In the Cartas he is referred to
merely as a captive who dies. After saying that he never consented to the death of
a Spaniard nor to injury against Cortés, Gomara adds: ‘Tambien ay quien lo
cõtrario diga.’ Hist. Mex., 154-5.
[801] Clavigero says 54, but Bernal Diaz, who was so much in his company, could
hardly have been mistaken, and the comparative youth of his children also
indicates that 41 is more correct.
[802] ‘Antes ni despues huvo en este mundo quien le igualase en magestad y

profanidad ... fue muy justiciero ... de condicion muy severo, aunque cuerdo y
gracioso.’ Ixtlilxochitl, Hist. Chich., 301. ‘Dizen los Indios que fue el mejor de su
linaje, y el mayor rey de Mexico.’ Gomara, Hist. Mex., 155. ‘Fu circospetto,
magnifico, liberale ... sua giustizia degenerava in crudeltà.’ Clavigero, Storia
Mess., iii. 132; Herrera, dec. ii. lib. x. cap. x.; Torquemada, i. 499-500.
[803] ‘Fue muy sabio, pues passaua por las cosas assi, o muy necio q̄ no las
sentia.’ Gomara, Hist. Mex., 155. ‘El hombre mas sábio de su siglo,’ is
Bustamante’s interpretation. He also discovers that Montezuma objected to
sacrifices! Chimalpain, Hist. Conq., 292-3.
[804] See Native Races, ii. 149-50.
[805] ‘Pareva aver cangiato di sesso, siccome dicevano i suoi sudditi.’ Clavigero,
Storia Mess., iii. 132.
[806] So Cano, the son-in-law, declares, Oviedo, iii. 549, and so Cortés intimates
in the privilegio to Isabel, whom he calls ‘su legitima heredera,’ especially
commended to him.
[807] Of the rest of the imperial wives and concubines nothing positive is known,
save that a number of them and their daughters were liberally bestowed, as a
mark of imperial favor, on prominent personages, including Spaniards. After the
conquest they sank into obscurity, although some of them still managed to
maintain a certain consideration among the natives, despite their poverty. Bernal
Diaz claims that he received one of the concubines; upon Olid was bestowed a
daughter, and upon Cortés two, it is said, one baptized as Ana, the other as Inés.
Two witnesses declare that Isabel also ‘cinco meses questava casada con ...
Gallego e que pario una fija y que hera del ... Cortés.’ Cortés, Residencia, ii. 242,
244; i. 63, 99, 221, 263. The three daughters confided to Cortés on their father’s
death-bed were not in the Spanish quarters at the time, at least not all of them, but
were found after the conquest and baptized. The eldest and legitimate, the
attractive Tecuichpo, was then the wife of the last and captive sovereign,
Quauhtemotzin, her cousin, who had married her chiefly with a view to strengthen
his hold on the throne, for she was too young for the married state. She was
baptized as Isabel, and her Indian husband having been executed, Cortés, on his
return from Honduras, gave her in marriage to the hidalgo Alonso Grado, of
Alcántara, who had succeeded Ávila as contador, and now held the position of
visitador general of New Spain. In consideration partly of Grado’s services and
partly of Isabel’s rank, the captain-general bestowed as dower, in the emperor’s
name, the town of Tacuba (Tlacopan), with the villages and farms subject to it,
together with the title of señora thereof. The deed, which recounts the services of
her father and the intrusting of his daughters to Cortés, is signed by him as
captain-general and governor of New Spain, and dated June 27, 1523. It is given,
among other books, in Monumentos Domin. Esp., MS., 65-8. Grado dying soon
after, without issue, she married Pedro Andrade Gallego, by whom she had one
son, Juan Andrade, the founder of the Andrade-Montezuma family. This branch
inherited the Villa Alta villages, in Oajaca, and other estates, which in 1745 were
bought up by the crown for a pension of 3000 pesos, continued by the Mexican
government in irregular payments. A member of this branch was the bishop of
Chiapas a few years later. Certificacion de las Mercedes, MS., 14-18. M. Fossey
describes a visit, in 1849, to the poverty-stricken yet proud descendants. Mexique,
497-500. The omission of Gallego’s middle name has led the critical Alaman,
among others, to assume that this family descends from Isabel’s fifth marriage
with Juan Andrade. Prescott’s Mex. (Mex. 1844), ii. 31. Nor is Prescott free from
error in connection with Montezuma’s descendants. The Andrade branch became
allied to the Condes de Miravalle, and a daughter of this house was the wife of
General Barragan, who became presidente interino of the republic, thus raising a
descendant of Montezuma once again to the supreme place in the country. The
Princess Isabel was married a fourth time, to Juan Cano de Saavedra, by whom
she had five children, the inheritors of the Tacuba estates, also exchanged for a
pension which was continued by the republic. Of the Princess Acatlan’s two
daughters, María and Mariana, the former left no issue. Mariana married the
conquistador Juan de Paz, bringing a dower of three towns, and after his death
she took for husband the conqueror Cristóbal de Valderrama. By him she had a
daughter, Leonor, who, marrying Diego Arias Sotelo, gave origin to the Sotelo-
Montezuma family. Fonseca, Hist. Hacienda, i. 464. This work, with its collection of
official papers and extracts, gives a mass of information about the imperial
descendants and estates. Prescott confounds the mother and daughter. Mex., ii.
351-2. Viceroy Mendoza, in a despatch to the emperor of December 10, 1537,
refers to the death, three weeks before, of Valderrama, and speaks of children by
the former husband, which are not admitted in Fonseca. Pacheco and Cárdenas,
Col. Doc., ii. 208. Cortés refers to three sons of Montezuma: the heir, who fell on
the causeway during the noche triste, and two surviving boys, ‘one said to be
insane, the other paralyzed.’ On leaving Mexico he took with him one son and two
daughters, his concubines probably, all of whom perished. Cartas, 135, 153.
Sahagun names two sons, who perished on that occasion. Hist. Conq. (ed. 1840),
122, 126. Ixtlilxochitl gives them different names. Hist. Chich., 302. Cano gives the
name Asupacaci to the heir, or only legitimate son, the brother of his wife Isabel,
and states that he was killed by Quauhtemotzin, who feared him as the only rival
to the throne. Oviedo, iii. 549. Brasseur de Bourbourg follows him, but prefers the
name of Cipocatzin for the young prince, while Axayoca is also applied. Cortés’
version is more likely to be correct, however. One of the surviving sons, ‘Signor di
Tenajoccan,’ Clavigero, Storia Mess., iii. 133, was baptized with the intervention of
his sponsor, Rodrigo de Paz, and died three years after the conquest, ‘y se enterrò
en la Capilla de San Joseph.’ Vetancvrt, Teatro Mex., pt. iii. 144. This author
assumes that the youth fled with the Spaniards from the capital and hid at
Tepotzotlan. The other prince, son of Miahuaxochitl, daughter of the lord of Tula,
and niece of Montezuma—baptized as María, says Vetancurt—received the name
of Don Pedro. He accompanied Cortés to Spain in 1528, it appears, at the age of
eighteen, and made repeated appeals to the emperor for a maintenance in
accordance with his rank. At first some trifling favors were granted, and he,
together with a cousin, was educated by the Franciscans in Madrid. Puga,
Cedulario, 85. President Fuenleal, of the audiencia, and other prominent persons
having added their recommendation, regular pensions and encomiendas were
bestowed, including the town of Tula, the seat of his maternal grandparents, upon
which was based the second title of Condes de Montezuma y de Tula, conferred
on his grandson. The line expired on the male side with the great great-grandson
of the emperor, whose daughter married Sarmiento de Valladares, duke of Atlixco,
and viceroy of New Spain, thus raising the name again to the highest position in
the country. Prescott, following Humboldt, Essai Pol., i. 191, 203, calls Valladares,
by mistake, a descendant of Montezuma. The cousin of the vice-queen married
Silva, the first marquis of Tenebron, whose descendants inherited the title and
estates from the other branch, and became grandees in 1765. Their pension
amounted at this time to 40,000 pesos, says Berni, Titulos de Castilla, which
represented in part the encomiendas withdrawn by the government. The republic
recognized this portion, as it had the pensions to the other branches. Shortly after
the independence of Mexico the holder of the title, Alonso Marcilla de Teruel
Montezuma, came over with the intention of asserting his claim to the throne of his
forefathers, but the prudent possessors of the power thought it best not to admit
him, and he passed on to New Orleans, there to put an end to his life some years
later. Prescott understands that the septuagenarian had been disappointed in love.
Mex., ii. 352. Several members of the Spanish nobility have intermarried with this
line, among them a branch of the Guzman family, whence the claim made for the
consort of Napoleon III. of having Montezuma’s blood in her veins. Gondra gives a
portrait of a member married into the Mendoza family. Prescott’s Mex. (ed. Mex.
1845), 219. One of the line, Padre Louis de Montezuma, wrote the Historia del
Emperador, which has been consulted by Alaman, Disert., i. app. ii. 158. Clavigero
gives a genealogic table in Storia Mess., iii. 235, and Carbajal, while plagiarizing
the statements and blunders of others, adds a few of his own. Hist. Mex., ii. 378-
88. In Fonseca, Hist. Hacienda, i. 455 et seq., are to be found several valuable
extracts concerning titles and estates; also in Reales Cédulas, MS., i. pt. i. 5, ii. 4
etc.; Certificacion de las Mercedes, MS.; Mex. Mem. Hacienda, 1848, 35-6;
Fuenleal, Carta, in Pacheco and Cárdenas, Col. Doc., xiii. 222. The family name
has been spelled in different ways, also by its possessors, as Motezuma,
Muteczuma, Moctezuma, Mocthecuzoma, Motecuhzuma, Moteuhzuma; but
Montezuma is the most common form.
The Historia de las Indias de Nueva-España y Islas de Tierra Firme, by Father
Diego Duran, is claimed by its author, in the introductory to chapter lxxiv., to be
devoted essentially to the life and rule of this monarch, ‘cuya vida é história yo
escribo.’ The preparation of the work was more directly prompted by a
compassion for the maltreated natives, whose champion he constituted himself, in
common with so many of the friars. This spirit led him naturally to color the
occurrences of the conquest; and a non-critical acceptance of whimsical legends
and statements in favor of his protégés tends further to reduce the value of the
work. His deep interest in the aborigines and their history may be explained by the
fact that he was born at Tezcuco, of a native mother. Franco wrongly calls him
Pedro, and Clavigero, Fernando. He professed as a Dominican at Mexico, in
1556, with missionary aspirations, no doubt, but a delicate constitution and
constant suffering confined him rather to the monastery, and directed his efforts to
researches and writing. Castellanos, Defensa, 28, attributes several works to him,
and Eguiara, Bib. Mex., 324, the compilation of the Dominican history of Dávila
Padilla, though not the style and form. Dávila also, ‘scrisse la Storia antica de’
Messicani, servendosi de’ materiali raccolti già da Ferdinando Duran Domenicano
da Tezcuco; ma questa opera non si trova.’ Clavigero, Storia Mess., i. 13. But this
may be a mistake. A similar rewriting would have greatly improved the Historia de
las Indias, which is exceedingly unpolished and slovenly, full of repetitions and bad
spelling, and showing great poverty of expression. On the other hand, it is relieved
by an admirable portrayal of character and knowledge of human nature, and by a
minute study of the effect of conversion on the natives. The work consists of three
tratados, the first in 78 chapters, giving the history of Mexico from its origin to the
conquest, terminating with the expedition to Honduras. This was completed in
1581, while the other two were finished two years before. The second tratado, in
23 chapters, treats of Mexican divinities and rites, and the third, in two, or more
properly nineteen, chapters, of calendar and festivals. Padre Duran died in 1588,
leaving the manuscripts to Juan Tovar, Dávila Padilla, Hist. Fvnd. Mex., 653, who
gave them to Acosta, then occupied in preparing his Natura Novi Orbis, and other
works. The contribution came most opportunely, and was used chiefly for his
account of Mexico, as he frankly admits, though giving the credit to Tovar, who
may have claimed the authorship. On the strength of this statement Clavigero,
with others, confirms the claim to the ‘nobilissimo Gesuita Messicano.’
Torquemada, i. 170-1, ii. 120, himself not spotless, takes advantage of the
confession to rail at Acosta for borrowed plumage, mutilated at that. The
manuscripts, now in the Biblioteca Nacional de Madrid, are written in double
columns and illustrated with numerous plates. Pinelo, Epitome, ii. 711, refers to
them as in two parts. A few copies have been taken, mine forming three volumes.
A set obtained by José Fernando Ramirez, one of Maximilian’s ministers, was
prepared by him for publication, but, owing to the death of the imperial patron, only
the first 68 chapters were issued at Mexico, 1867, in one volume, with notes and
considerable changes of the style. This mutilation, as some term it, may have
been a reason for the seizure of the whole edition, together with the separate
plates, by the republican government. Only a few copies escaped this fate, one of
which I succeeded in obtaining. Although independent issue was long withheld
from Duran, he has at least enjoyed the honor of being associated with one
possessed of far greater fame than he himself could ever hope to achieve.
The motives which impelled Joseph de Acosta to write on America were quite
pretentious. Among the many Spanish books on the New World, he says: ‘I have
not seene any other author which treates of the causes and reasons of these
novelties and wonders of nature, or that hath made any search thereof. Neither
have I read any booke which maketh mention of the histories of the antient
Indians, and naturall inhabitants.’ With a view to repair these omissions he issued
De Natvra Novi Orbis libri dvo, et de Promvlgatione Evangelii, apvd Barbaros, sive
de Procvranda Indorvm Salvte Libri sex. Salmanticœ, 1589. The first part, De
Natura, is a philosophic dissertation on physical features, on the probable
knowledge among the ancients of a western hemisphere, and on the origin of the
Indians. The second part, in six books, bearing a separate imprint under 1588,
though published only in connection with the previous two books, treats entirely of
the method and progress of Indian conversion. The Natura was translated into
Spanish, and incorporated, with some amendments, in the Historia Natvral y moral
de las Indias, Sevilla, 1590, dedicated to Infanta Isabel, which treats also of Indian
history and customs, and refers briefly to the conquest. The work achieved great
success, and was reproduced in numerous editions, in nearly every language,
though often without Acosta’s name, and in distorted form, as in De Bry and some
German versions. This may not be considered bad treatment by those who charge
Acosta with plagiarism, although he frankly admits following a number of authors,
among them ‘es vno Polo Ondegardo, a quien communmente sigo en las cosas
de el Piru: y en las materias de Mexico Ioan de Touar prebendado que fue de la
Iglesia de Mexico, y agora es religioso de nuestra Compañia de Iesvs. El qual por
orden del Virrey hizo dõ Martin Enriquez diligẽte, y copiosa aueriguaciõ de las
historias antiguas.’ See p. 396. There is no doubt that the interest and value of the
work are owing chiefly to the circumstance that the original authorities have
remained sealed, until lately at least; for, despite its pretentious aim, the pages are
marred by frequent indications of the then prevalent superstition and credulity. The
Procvrando Indorvm Salvte is more in consonance with the character of the Jesuit
missionary and scholastic.
Born at Medina del Campo about 1539, he had in his fourteenth year joined
the Society, to which four brothers already belonged. After studying and teaching
theology at Ocana, he proceeded in 1571 to Peru, where he became the second
provincial of his order. Returning to Spain seventeen years later—‘post annos in
Peruano regno exactos quindeciem, in Mexicano & Insularibus duos,’ says the
dedication of 1588 to Philip II., in De Natvra of 1589—he gained the favor of the
king, occupied the offices of visitador and superior, and died as rector at
Salamanca, February 15, 1600. Several other works, in print and manuscript,
chiefly theologic, are attributed to him—see Camus, 104-13—among them De la
criança de Cyro, dedicated to Filipe III. in 1592, which was also a borrowed text,
from Xenophon, and remained a manuscript in the Royal Library.
CHAPTER XXVI.
LA NOCHE TRISTE.
June 30, 1520.
The Captive-King Drama Carried too Far—Better had the Spaniards Taken
Montezuma’s Advice, and have Departed while Opportunity Offered—
Diplomatic Value of a Dead Body—Necessity for an Immediate
Evacuation of the City—Departure from the Fort—Midnight Silence—
The City Roused by a Woman’s Cry—The Fugitives Fiercely Attacked on
All Sides—More Horrors.
And now what must have been the feelings of the invaders, who,
like the ancient mariner, had killed the bird that made the breeze
blow! For assuredly they were responsible for the emperor’s death.
Indeed, the direct charge of murder against Cortés has not been
wanting, even among Spanish chroniclers; but this was owing greatly
to the effort of the general to extricate the army from its desperate
situation while the enemy was supposed to be distracted by grief and
engaged in solemn obsequies. We may be sure, however, that the
Spaniards did not kill Montezuma; that they did not even desire his
death; but regarded it at this juncture as the greatest misfortune
which could happen to them.[808] For in the vast evolvings of their
fast, unfathomable destiny, they were now all like sea-gulls poised in
mid-air while following a swiftly flying ship.
It is interesting to note the manœuvring on both sides over the
dead monarch, who having ministered so faithfully to his enemies
while living, must needs continue in the service after death. The
hostile chiefs were called and informed of the sad consequences of
their outrage on the emperor. The body would be sent to them, so
that they might accord it the last honors. The leaders replied curtly
that they had now a new chief, and cared no longer for Montezuma,
dead or alive. The corpse was nevertheless carefully arrayed in
fitting robes and given in charge of two prisoners, a priest and a
chief,[809] with instructions to carry it to the Mexican camp, and
explain the circumstances of the death and the grief of the
Spaniards. On appearing outside the fort a leader motioned them
back, and would probably have used force but for the priestly
character of the bearers, behind whom the gate had been closed. A
few moments later they disappeared from view. The disrespect
shown the living was not spared the dead. As the corpse was borne
through the streets jeers and insults fell from lips which formerly
kissed the ground on which the monarch had stood. Many declared
that a coward like Montezuma, who had brought so many
misfortunes on the country, was not worthy of even ordinary burial.
[810]The imperial party managed, however, to secure the body, and,
assisted by those to whom the royal blood and high priestly
character of the deceased outweighed other feelings, an honorable
though quiet cremation was accorded in the Celpalco, where
Sahagun intimates that the ashes remained.[811]
Shortly after the body had left the Spanish quarters Cortés sent
a fresh message to the Mexicans, believing that by this time the
presence of the august dead might have had its effect on them. He
pointed out the respect due to the remains of a sovereign, and
proposed a cessation of hostilities with that view, and till they had
elected a successor, one more worthy than the present leader, who
had driven them to rebel.[812] The chiefs replied that the Spaniards
need trouble themselves about nothing but their own safety. They
might come forth, they added tauntingly, to arrange a truce with their

Essentials of Statistics For The Behavioral Sciences 9Th 9Th Edition Frederick J Gravetter Full Chapter

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Essentials of Statistics For The Behavioral Sciences 9Th 9Th Edition Frederick J Gravetter Full Chapter

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Essentials of Statistics for the

Behavioral Sciences, 9th 9th Edition

Australia ● Brazil ● Mexico ● Singapore ● United Kingdom ● United States

Cengage Learning is a leading provider of customized learning solutions

Cengage Learning products are represented in Canada by

To learn more about Cengage Learning Solutions, visit

CHAPTER 1 Introduction to Statistics 1

CHAPTER 2 Frequency Distributions 35

CHAPTER 3 Central Tendency 57

CHAPTER 5 z-Scores: Location of Scores and Standardized Distributions 119

CHAPTER 6 Probability 143

CHAPTER 7 Probability and Samples: The Distribution of Sample Means 169

CHAPTER 8 Introduction to Hypothesis Testing 197

CHAPTER 9 Introduction to the t Statistic 237

CHAPTER 10 The t Test for Two Independent Samples 267

CHAPTER 11 The t Test for Two Related Samples 301

CHAPTER 12 Introduction to Analysis of Variance 329

CHAPTER 13 Repeated-Measures and Two-Factor Analysis of Variance 371

CHAPTER 14 Correlation and Regression 421

CHAPTER 1 Introduction to Statistics 1

CHAPTER 2 Frequency Distributions 35

CHAPTER 3 Central Tendency 57

z-Scores: Location of Scores

CHAPTER 6 Probability 143

6-4 Looking Ahead to Inferential Statistics 163

Probability and Samples: The Distribution

CHAPTER 8 Introduction to Hypothesis Testing 197

CHAPTER 9 Introduction to the t Statistic 237

CHAP TER 10 The t Test for Two Independent Samples 267

CHAPTER 11 The t Test for Two Related Samples 301

Demonstration 11.2 324

CHAPTER 12 Introduction to Analysis of Variance 329

Repeated-Measures and Two-Factor Analysis

CH A P T ER 14 Correlation and Regression 421

14-5 Alternatives to the Pearson Correlation 441

The Chi-Square Statistic: Tests for Goodness

Other examples of specific and noteworthy revisions include:

Chapter 12 One redundant example of an ANOVA has been eliminated to simplify

■ Matching the Text to Your Syllabus

FREDERICK J GRAVETTER is Professor Emeritus of Psychology at The

LARRY B. WALLNAU is Professor Emeritus of Psychology at The College

LORI-ANN B. FORZANO is Professor of Psychology at The College at

1-1 Statistics, Science, and Observations

1-1 Statistics, Science, and Observations

The term statistics refers to a set of mathematical procedures for organizing,

■ Populations and Samples

A population is the set of all the individuals of interest in a particular study.

A sample is a set of individuals selected from a population, usually intended to

■ Variables and Data

F I G U R E 1.1 THE SAMPLE

A variable is a characteristic or condition that changes or has different values for

Data (plural) are measurements or observations. A data set is a collection of

■ Parameters and Statistics

A parameter is a value—usually a numerical value—that describes a population.

■ Descriptive and Inferential Statistical Methods

Descriptive statistics are statistical procedures used to summarize, organize, and

Sampling error is the naturally occurring discrepancy, or error, that exists

■ Statistics in the Context of Research

Step 3 The sample data show w a 4-point dif

1-2 Variables and Measurement

■ Constructs and Operational Definitions

[786] Three hundred, says Gomara.

[788] ‘Acometiola tres o quatro vezes, y otros tantos dias,’ is Gomara’s