Transportation Engineering: Theory,

Practice and Modeling, 2nd Edition

Dusan Teodorovic
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Transportation Engineering
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Transportation Engineering
Theory, Practice, and Modeling
Second Edition

Dušan Teodorovic
Professor, Faculty of Transport and Traffic Engineering, University of Belgrade, Serbia
Professor Emeritus, Charles E. Via Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering,
Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, United States

Milan Janic
Research Professor, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia
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To my wife, children, and grandchildren—Dusˇan Teodorovi
c
To my son and wife (in memoriam)—Milan Jani
c
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Contents
About the authors ............................................................................................................................... xix
Foreword to the first edition............................................................................................................... xxi
Foreword to the second edition........................................................................................................ xxiii
Preface to the first edition ................................................................................................................. xxv
Preface to the second edition .......................................................................................................... xxvii

CHAPTER 1 Introduction ................................................................................................ 1

CHAPTER 2 Transportation Systems ............................................................................ 5
2.1 Background................................................................................................................. 5
2.2 History of Transportation ........................................................................................... 6
2.3 Transportation Sector and Transportation Modes ................................................... 15
2.3.1 Components of Transportation Modes............................................................ 16
2.3.2 Structure of Transportation Modes ................................................................. 17
2.3.3 Technologies of Transport Modes .................................................................. 17
2.3.4 Relationships Between Transport Modes ....................................................... 20
2.4 Characteristics of Transport Modes and Their Systems.......................................... 22
2.4.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................... 22
2.4.2 Urban and Sub/Urban Road and Rail-Based Transit Systems
for Passengers .................................................................................................. 22
2.4.3 Urban and Sub/Urban Transport Systems for Freight Shipments.................. 29
2.4.4 Interurban Road Transport Systems................................................................ 30
2.4.5 Interurban Rail Transport Systems ................................................................. 34
2.4.6 Inland Waterways and Sea Shipping Systems for Cargo Shipments............. 44
2.4.7 Air Transport System ...................................................................................... 51
2.5 Transportation Systems Topics: Planning, Control, Congestion, Safety, and
Environment Protection............................................................................................ 56
2.6 Problems ................................................................................................................... 59
References ................................................................................................................ 59
Websites.................................................................................................................... 62
CHAPTER 3 Traffic and Transportation Analysis Techniques ................................ 63
3.1 Object Motion and Time-Space Diagrams .............................................................. 63
3.2 Transportation Networks Basics .............................................................................. 69
3.3 Optimal Paths in Transportation Networks ............................................................. 72
3.3.1 Finding Shortest Path in a Transportation Network....................................... 72
3.3.2 Dijkstra’s Algorithm........................................................................................ 73
3.3.3 Shortest Paths Between All Pairs of Nodes.................................................... 77

vii
viii Contents

3.4 Mathematical Programming Applications in Traffic and Transportation............... 81

3.4.1 Linear Programming in Traffic and Transportation ....................................... 82
3.4.2 Integer Programming....................................................................................... 88
3.4.3 Dimensionality of the Traffic and Transportation Engineering
Problems .......................................................................................................... 91
3.4.4 Complexity of Algorithms .............................................................................. 92
3.5 Probability Theory and Traffic Phenomena ............................................................ 93
3.5.1 Probability Theory Basics ............................................................................... 94
3.5.2 Random Variables and Probability Distributions ........................................... 96
3.6 Queueing in Transportation Systems ..................................................................... 106
3.6.1 Elements of Queueing Systems..................................................................... 107
3.6.2 D/D/1 Queueing............................................................................................. 109
3.6.3 Little’s Law ................................................................................................... 109
3.6.4 M/M/1 Queueing............................................................................................ 114
3.6.5 M/M/s Queueing ............................................................................................ 115
3.6.6 Queueing Theory and Investments in Transportation Facilities
Expansion ...................................................................................................... 119
3.7 Simulation............................................................................................................... 121
3.7.1 The Monte Carlo Simulation Method........................................................... 121
3.8 MultiAttribute Decision Making Methods............................................................. 124
3.8.1 Attribute Weights .......................................................................................... 125
3.8.2 Minimax Method ........................................................................................... 126
3.8.3 Maximax Method .......................................................................................... 127
3.8.4 Simple Additive Weighting Method............................................................. 127
3.8.5 TOPSIS .......................................................................................................... 128
3.9 Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA)....................................................................... 130
3.9.1 Ratios ............................................................................................................. 130
3.9.2 DEA Basics ................................................................................................... 132
3.10 Computational Intelligence Techniques................................................................. 135
3.10.1 The Concept of Fuzzy Sets ......................................................................... 136
3.10.2 The Fuzzy Sets Basics................................................................................. 138
3.10.3 Basic Elements of Fuzzy Systems .............................................................. 140
3.10.4 Artificial Neural Networks.......................................................................... 149
3.11 Problems ................................................................................................................. 155
References .............................................................................................................. 160

CHAPTER 4 Traffic Flow Theory ............................................................................... 163

4.1 Traffic Flow Phenomenon...................................................................................... 163
4.2 Measurements of the Basic Flow Variables .......................................................... 164
4.3 Vehicle Headways and Flow.................................................................................. 165
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4.4 Poisson Distribution of the Number of Arrivals and the Exponential

Distribution of Headways....................................................................................... 166
4.5 Normal Distribution and Pearson Type III Distribution of Headway................... 168
4.5.1 Speeds ............................................................................................................ 169
4.6 Speed-Density Relationship ................................................................................... 171
4.7 Flow-Density Relationship..................................................................................... 173
4.8 Speed-Flow Relationship ....................................................................................... 175
4.9 Fundamental Diagram of Traffic Flow.................................................................. 182
4.10 Shock Waves .......................................................................................................... 182
4.11 Micro-Simulation Traffic Models .......................................................................... 186
4.12 Car Following Models............................................................................................ 187
4.12.1 The Car-Following Model Based on Fuzzy Inference Rules..................... 188
4.13 Network Flow Diagram.......................................................................................... 189
4.13.1 Link-Based Measurements .......................................................................... 190
4.13.2 Generalized Traffic Flow Variables............................................................ 190
4.13.3 Trajectory-Based Measurements................................................................. 192
4.14 Problems ................................................................................................................. 193
References .............................................................................................................. 195
CHAPTER 5 Capacity and Level of Service ............................................................. 197
5.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................ 197
5.2 Highway Capacity and Level of Service ............................................................... 198
5.2.1 Highway Capacity and Traffic Demand Variations ..................................... 199
5.2.2 Freeways ........................................................................................................ 201
5.2.3 Methodology for the Capacity Analysis, LOS, and the Lane
Requirements ................................................................................................. 205
5.2.4 The Number of Lanes Required to Deliver the Target LOS ....................... 209
5.3 “Ultimate” and “Practical” Capacity of Bus Stations ........................................... 212
5.4 Rail Inter-Urban Transport Systems ...................................................................... 215
5.4.1 General........................................................................................................... 215
5.5 Inland Waterway Freight/Cargo Transportation System....................................... 236
5.5.1 General........................................................................................................... 236
5.5.2 Classification ................................................................................................. 237
5.5.3 Infrastructure Network .................................................................................. 239
5.5.4 Transport Service Network ........................................................................... 250
5.6 Maritime Freight/Cargo Transport System............................................................ 253
5.6.1 General........................................................................................................... 253
5.6.2 Ports ............................................................................................................... 253
5.6.3 Shipping Lines............................................................................................... 263
5.7 Air Transport System ............................................................................................. 269
5.7.1 General........................................................................................................... 269
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5.7.2 Airports .......................................................................................................... 269

5.7.3 Air Traffic Control ........................................................................................ 282
5.8 Problems ................................................................................................................. 287
References .............................................................................................................. 290
Websites.................................................................................................................. 292
CHAPTER 6 Traffic Control ........................................................................................ 293
6.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................ 293
6.2 Traffic Control at Signalized Intersections............................................................ 294
6.2.1 Fixed-Time Control at the Isolated Intersection......................................... 296
6.2.2 Vehicle Delays at Signalized Intersections................................................. 300
6.2.3 The Determination of Timing for Fixed-Time Signals .............................. 307
6.2.4 Signal Phasing Selection ............................................................................. 307
6.2.5 Volume Adjustment (Calculation of Equivalent Straight-Through
Passenger Cars) ........................................................................................... 309
6.2.6 Critical Lane Volumes Selection ................................................................ 310
6.2.7 Change Interval Calculation........................................................................ 311
6.2.8 Cycle Length Calculation............................................................................ 312
6.2.9 Green Time Allocation................................................................................ 314
6.2.10 Pedestrian Crossing Time Check ................................................................ 315
6.2.11 Actuated Signal Control .............................................................................. 316
6.3 Alternative Intersections......................................................................................... 317
6.3.1 Displaced Left-Turn (DLT) Intersections..................................................... 319
6.3.2 Median U-Turn (MUT) Intersection ............................................................. 323
6.3.3 Restricted Crossing U-Turn (RCUT) Intersections ...................................... 324
6.3.4 Quadrant Roadway Intersection .................................................................... 326
6.3.5 Roundabout.................................................................................................... 327
6.3.6 Diverging Diamond Interchange (DDI) ........................................................ 331
6.4 Traffic Control for Arterial Streets ........................................................................ 335
6.4.1 Adaptive Control Strategies .......................................................................... 337
6.5 Area-Wide Traffic Control Systems ...................................................................... 338
6.6 Traffic Control Signal Needs Studies .................................................................... 341
6.6.1 Warrant 1 ....................................................................................................... 342
6.6.2 Warrant 2 ....................................................................................................... 342
6.6.3 Warrant 3 ....................................................................................................... 342
6.6.4 Warrant 4 ....................................................................................................... 342
6.6.5 Warrant 5 ....................................................................................................... 342
6.6.6 Warrant 6 ....................................................................................................... 342
6.6.7 Warrant 7 ....................................................................................................... 342
6.6.8 Warrant 8 ....................................................................................................... 343
6.6.9 Warrant 9 ....................................................................................................... 343
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6.7 Intelligent Transportation Systems ........................................................................ 343

6.7.1 ITS Architecture ............................................................................................ 344
6.7.2 ITS User Services.......................................................................................... 345
6.7.3 Autonomous Vehicles ................................................................................... 347
6.7.4 Autonomous Intersection Management ........................................................ 348
6.8 Freeway Traffic Control......................................................................................... 350
6.8.1 Freeway Traffic Control Measures ............................................................... 350
6.8.2 Ramp Metering.............................................................................................. 351
6.8.3 Driver Information and Guidance Systems .................................................. 354
6.9 Transportation Demand Management.................................................................... 355
6.9.1 Ride-Sharing (Carpooling) ............................................................................ 356
6.9.2 Remote Parking and Park and Ride.............................................................. 357
6.9.3 Improved Walkability.................................................................................... 357
6.9.4 Telework ........................................................................................................ 357
6.9.5 Congestion Pricing ........................................................................................ 357
6.9.6 Congestion Charges....................................................................................... 359
6.10 HOV Facilities........................................................................................................ 362
6.11 Highway Space Inventory Control System............................................................ 363
6.12 Auctions.................................................................................................................. 364
6.13 Rail Traffic Control................................................................................................ 364
6.13.1 Background.................................................................................................. 364
6.13.2 Infrastructure ............................................................................................... 365
6.13.3 Supportive Facilities and Equipment .......................................................... 365
6.13.4 The Workload and Capacity of Train Dispatcher(s) .................................. 377
6.14 Air Traffic Control ................................................................................................. 381
6.14.1 Background.................................................................................................. 381
6.14.2 Infrastructure ............................................................................................... 381
6.14.3 Supportive Facilities and Equipment .......................................................... 387
6.14.4 The ATC Separation Rules and Procedures ............................................... 389
6.14.5 The ATC Staff—Controller and Pilots ....................................................... 390
6.14.6 Automation .................................................................................................. 392
6.14.7 The Workload and Capacity of ATC Controller(s).................................... 395
6.15 Problems ................................................................................................................. 398
References .............................................................................................................. 399
Websites.................................................................................................................. 403
CHAPTER 7 Public Transportation Systems ............................................................ 405
7.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................ 405
7.2 Number of Transported Passengers Versus Number of Served Vehicles............. 406
7.3 Urban Public Transit .............................................................................................. 408
7.3.1 Road-Based Urban Transit Systems ............................................................. 411
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7.3.2 Rail-Based Urban Transit Systems ............................................................... 413

7.3.3 Complementarity of the Systems .................................................................. 416
7.4 Infrastructure of Urban Transit Systems................................................................ 416
7.4.1 Stops/Stations in Urban Transit Systems...................................................... 417
7.4.2 Urban Transit Systems Links and Indicators of Network Size.................... 419
7.5 Public Transportation Availability......................................................................... 423
7.6 Passenger Flows in Public Transportation............................................................. 424
7.7 Passenger Flows Along a Transit Line .................................................................. 426
7.8 Service Frequency and Headways ......................................................................... 428
7.8.1 The Maximum Service Frequency................................................................ 429
7.8.2 Passenger Waiting Time ............................................................................... 430
7.8.3 Headway Determination by “Square Root Formula” ................................... 430
7.8.4 Headway Determination by Maximum Load Method.................................. 433
7.9 Timetable ................................................................................................................ 433
7.10 Transit Line Capacity............................................................................................. 435
7.10.1 Transit Line Capacity Utilization ............................................................... 437
7.11 The Performances of the Urban Transit Network ................................................. 440
7.12 Public Transit Network Types ............................................................................... 446
7.13 The Public Transit Network Design ...................................................................... 449
7.13.1 Simple Greedy Algorithm for Public Transit Network Design ................. 452
7.14 Service Frequencies Determination in Transit Network ....................................... 456
7.15 Vehicle Scheduling in Public Transit .................................................................... 460
7.16 Crew Scheduling in Public Transit ........................................................................ 462
7.17 Disruption Management in Public Transit............................................................. 463
7.18 Public Transit Planning Process............................................................................. 466
7.19 Shared Mobility ...................................................................................................... 466
7.19.1 Demand-Responsive Transportation Systems............................................. 468
7.19.2 Type of Routing and Scheduling in DRT................................................... 468
7.19.3 Dial-a-Ride .................................................................................................. 469
7.19.4 Bicycle Transportation ................................................................................ 473
7.19.5 Transportation Policy That Promotes Bicycle Transportation ................... 473
7.19.6 Infrastructure for Bicycling......................................................................... 475
7.19.7 Bicycle-Sharing Systems............................................................................. 479
7.19.8 Imbalance Between Bike Demand and Bike Supply ................................. 480
7.20 Interurban Road Transport Systems....................................................................... 482
7.20.1 Introduction ................................................................................................. 482
7.20.2 Service Networks in an Interurban Road Transportation........................... 482
7.21 Air Transportation .................................................................................................. 486
7.21.1 Air Transportation Demand ........................................................................ 487
7.21.2 Airline Supply and Airline Capacity .......................................................... 488
7.22 Air Transportation Networks ................................................................................. 493
 Contents xiii

7.23 Flight Frequencies .................................................................................................. 498

7.23.1 Flight Frequency Satisfying Demand ......................................................... 500
7.23.2 Flight Frequency Gaining Market Share .................................................... 500
7.23.3 Flight Frequency Minimizing the Total Route Cost .................................. 502
7.24 Airline Transport Work and Productivity.............................................................. 504
7.25 Fleet Size ................................................................................................................ 507
7.26 Level of Service ..................................................................................................... 508
7.27 Airline Scheduling.................................................................................................. 510
7.28 Airline Schedule Planning Process ........................................................................ 512
7.29 Airline Revenue Management................................................................................ 515
7.30 Problems ................................................................................................................. 517
References .............................................................................................................. 519
CHAPTER 8 Transportation Demand Analysis ......................................................... 523
8.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................ 523
8.2 Transportation Demand and Transportation Supply.............................................. 524
8.3 Transportation Demand Modeling ......................................................................... 525
8.4 Transportation Demand Forecasting Techniques .................................................. 527
8.4.1 Time Series Models....................................................................................... 529
8.4.2 Trend Projection ............................................................................................ 532
8.5 Four-Step Planning Procedure ............................................................................... 537
8.5.1 Trip Generation ............................................................................................. 539
8.5.2 Trip Distribution............................................................................................ 541
8.5.3 Gravity Model ............................................................................................... 542
8.5.4 Modal Split .................................................................................................... 546
8.5.5 Route Choice and Traffic Assignment ......................................................... 549
8.6 User Equilibrium and System Optimum................................................................ 551
8.6.1 Formulation of the User Equilibrium Problem............................................. 555
8.7 Heuristic Algorithms for Finding User-Equilibrium Flow Pattern ....................... 562
8.7.1 Capacity Restraint Algorithm ....................................................................... 562
8.7.2 FHWA Algorithm.......................................................................................... 564
8.7.3 Incremental Assignment Algorithm.............................................................. 565
8.8 System Optimal Route Choice............................................................................... 568
8.9 Price of Anarchy..................................................................................................... 570
8.10 Braess Paradox and Transportation Capacity Expansions .................................... 571
8.11 Dynamic Traffic Assignment ................................................................................. 574
8.12 Transportation Demand Analysis Based on Discrete Choice Models .................. 575
8.13 Logit Model ............................................................................................................ 577
8.13.1 Independence of Irrelevant Alternatives Property...................................... 581
8.13.2 Logit Model Estimation .............................................................................. 582
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8.14 Application of the Computational Intelligence Techniques for the Prediction of

Travel Demand ....................................................................................................... 585
8.15 Activity-Based Travel Demand Models ................................................................ 587
8.15.1 Basic Characteristics of the Activity-Based Travel Models ...................... 588
8.16 Problems ................................................................................................................. 591
References .............................................................................................................. 593
CHAPTER 9 Freight Transportation and Logistics .................................................. 597
9.1 Logistics Systems Basics ....................................................................................... 597
9.1.1 Reverse Logistics .......................................................................................... 600
9.2 Road Freight Transport Infrastructure ................................................................... 601
9.2.1 “Ultimate” and “Practical” Capacity and Service Level of Road
Truck Roads................................................................................................... 602
9.2.2 “Ultimate” and “Practical” Capacity of Road Freight Terminals
and Their Level-of-Service ........................................................................... 603
9.3 Service Networks of the Road Freight Transport Operators................................. 605
9.3.1 Capacities and Service Level of the Road Freight Transport Service
Networks........................................................................................................ 605
9.4 City Logistics ......................................................................................................... 609
9.4.1 Urban Freight Transport Basics .................................................................... 610
9.4.2 Urban Freight Distribution Systems ............................................................. 612
9.5 Basics of Location Theory ..................................................................................... 623
9.5.1 Location Problems Classification ................................................................. 624
9.5.2 Measuring Distances Between Facilities and Demand-Generating
Nodes ............................................................................................................. 625
9.5.3 The Location Set Covering Problem ............................................................ 626
9.5.4 Maximal Covering Location Problem .......................................................... 631
9.5.5 Medians.......................................................................................................... 632
9.5.6 Hub Location ................................................................................................. 638
9.6 Vehicle Routing and Scheduling ........................................................................... 639
9.6.1 VRPs Types ................................................................................................... 640
9.6.2 Vehicle Routing and Scheduling Problems Complexity .............................. 642
9.6.3 Traveling Salesman Problem ........................................................................ 642
9.6.4 Vehicle Routing Problem .............................................................................. 644
9.6.5 Clark-Wright’s “Savings” Algorithm for the VRP....................................... 646
9.6.6 Sweep Algorithm for the VRP...................................................................... 652
9.7 Problems ................................................................................................................. 658
References .............................................................................................................. 660
Website ................................................................................................................... 662
 Contents xv

CHAPTER 10 Transport Economics............................................................................. 663

10.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................ 663
10.2 Definition of the Main Terms ................................................................................ 665
10.2.1 Transport Sector/Industry............................................................................ 665
10.2.2 Fixed and Variable Costs ............................................................................ 665
10.2.3 Economies of Scale and Economies of Scope ........................................... 666
10.2.4 The Cost Function and Revenues ............................................................... 667
10.2.5 Relationship Between Demand and Supply ............................................... 670
10.3 Transportation Projects Evaluation ........................................................................ 671
10.4 Cost-Benefit Analysis............................................................................................. 672
10.5 Infrastructure Cost .................................................................................................. 675
10.5.1 Urban Mass Transit Systems....................................................................... 675
10.5.2 Road............................................................................................................. 681
10.5.3 Rail............................................................................................................... 682
10.5.4 Inland Waterways........................................................................................ 683
10.5.5 Ports ............................................................................................................. 685
10.5.6 Airports ........................................................................................................ 687
10.6 Operating Costs and Revenues .............................................................................. 688
10.6.1 Individual Cars ............................................................................................ 688
10.6.2 Urban Mass Transit Systems....................................................................... 691
10.6.3 Interurban Mass Transit Systems................................................................ 699
10.6.4 Inland Waterways Cargo Transport ............................................................ 709
10.6.5 Maritime Cargo Transport........................................................................... 712
10.6.6 Air ................................................................................................................ 723
10.6.7 Intermodal—Rail/Road Freight Transport.................................................. 734
References .............................................................................................................. 742
Websites.................................................................................................................. 745
CHAPTER 11 Transportation, Environment, and Society ......................................... 747
11.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................ 747
11.2 Categorization and Modeling Impacts ................................................................... 748
11.2.1 Congestion ................................................................................................... 748
11.2.2 Noise ............................................................................................................ 749
11.2.3 Traffic Incidents/Accidents (Safety) ........................................................... 751
11.2.4 Energy/Fuel Consumption and Emissions of GHG.................................... 752
11.2.5 Land Use...................................................................................................... 760
11.2.6 Waste ........................................................................................................... 761
11.3 Road-Based Systems .............................................................................................. 761
11.3.1 Congestion ................................................................................................... 761
11.3.2 Noise ............................................................................................................ 765
11.3.3 Traffic Accidents/Incidents (Safety) ........................................................... 772
xvi Contents

11.3.4 Energy/Fuel Consumption and Emissions of GHG.................................... 776

11.3.5 Land Use...................................................................................................... 788
11.4 Rail-Based Systems ................................................................................................ 790
11.4.1 Congestion ................................................................................................... 790
11.4.2 Noise ............................................................................................................ 791
11.4.3 Traffic Accidents/Incidents (Safety) ........................................................... 798
11.4.4 Energy/Fuel Consumption and Emissions of GHG.................................... 808
11.4.5 Land Use...................................................................................................... 817
11.5 Water-Based Systems............................................................................................. 819
11.5.1 Congestion ................................................................................................... 819
11.5.2 Noise ............................................................................................................ 820
11.5.3 Traffic Accidents/Incidents (Safety) ........................................................... 821
11.5.4 Energy/Fuel Consumption and Emissions of GHG.................................... 825
11.5.5 Land Use...................................................................................................... 840
11.5.6 Waste ........................................................................................................... 842
11.6 Air-Based Systems ................................................................................................. 844
11.6.1 Congestion ................................................................................................... 844
11.6.2 Noise ............................................................................................................ 848
11.6.3 Traffic Accidents and Incidents (Safety).................................................... 854
11.6.4 Energy/Fuel Consumption and Emissions of GHG.................................... 857
11.6.5 Land Use...................................................................................................... 865
11.7 Costs of Impacts—Externalities............................................................................. 868
11.7.1 Definition..................................................................................................... 868
11.7.2 Some Modeling ........................................................................................... 870
11.7.3 Some Estimation/Quantification ................................................................. 876
References .............................................................................................................. 879
Website ................................................................................................................... 885
CHAPTER 12 Resilience of Transport Systems ......................................................... 887
12.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................ 887
12.2 Reliability, Resilience, Robustness, and Vulnerability of Engineering
Systems ................................................................................................................... 888
12.2.1 Concept and Definition ............................................................................... 888
12.2.2 Uncertainty .................................................................................................. 891
12.3 Reliability, Resilience, Robustness, and Vulnerability of Transport Systems...... 891
12.3.1 Concept and Definition ............................................................................... 891
12.3.2 Disruptive Events ........................................................................................ 896
12.4 Indicators of Performances for Estimating Reliability, Resilience,
Robustness, and Vulnerability ............................................................................... 904
12.4.1 Scope............................................................................................................ 904
12.4.2 Models of Indicators.................................................................................... 905
 Contents xvii

12.5 Examples of Estimating Reliability, Resilience, Robustness,

and Vulnerability.................................................................................................... 916
12.5.1 Road Transport Mode.................................................................................. 916
12.5.2 Rail Transport Mode ................................................................................... 923
12.5.3 Air Transport Mode..................................................................................... 931
12.6 Contingency Measures and Disruption Management............................................ 939
12.6.1 Public Transport .......................................................................................... 939
12.6.2 Evacuation Problems................................................................................... 940
12.6.3 Evacuation Process...................................................................................... 941
12.6.4 k-Shortest Paths Concept in Evacuation ..................................................... 941
12.6.5 Evacuees’ Departure Rate and Departure Times........................................ 943
12.6.6 Evacuation Strategies .................................................................................. 944
12.6.7 The Performance Metrics ............................................................................ 944
12.7 Comparing Reliability, Resilience, Robustness, Vulnerability,
and Sustainability of Transport Systems ............................................................... 945
12.7.1 Similarity and Differences .......................................................................... 945
12.7.2 Possibility for Common Approach ............................................................. 948
12.7.3 Examples of Common Approach................................................................ 951
12.8 Problems ................................................................................................................. 959
References .............................................................................................................. 959
Websites.................................................................................................................. 963
Index .................................................................................................................................................. 965
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About the authors
Dr. Dušan Teodorovic is a professor at the Faculty of Transport and Traffic Engineering, University of
Belgrade, Serbia. He has been an elected member of the Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts and the
European Academy of Sciences and Arts. Dr. Teodorovic has been the Honorable Senator of the
University of Ljubljana, Slovenia, since 2011. He was the vice rector of the University of Belgrade.
He has worldwide academic experience with formal appointments at Virginia Tech, United States.
Professor Teodorovic was a visiting professor and visiting scholar at many universities in Europe,
the United States, and Asia. Since 2006, he has been professor emeritus at Virginia Tech, United States.
Dr. Teodorovic has authored or coauthored numerous research publications in peer-reviewed interna-
tional journals, book chapters, and conference proceedings. He has published the following books:
Airline Operations Research, Traffic Control and Transportation Planning: A Fuzzy Sets and Neural
Networks Approach, Transport Systems: Modelling, Planning and Evaluation, and Transportation
Engineering: Theory, Practice and Modelling (first edition, coauthorship). Professor Teodorovic is
the editor of the Routledge Handbook of Transportation. His primary research interests are in
operations research and computational intelligence applications in transportation engineering.

Dr. Milan Janic is a research professor at the University of Belgrade, Serbia. Previously, he was senior
researcher at the Faculty of Civil Engineering and Geosciences (Department of Transport and Plan-
ning) of the Delft University of Technology, the Netherlands. He was also a leader of the Research
Program and senior researcher at Manchester Metropolitan University, Loughborough University,
and the Institute of Transport of the Slovenian Railways. Dr. Janic has been involved in many research
and planning projects at both national and international levels for almost 30 years. He has also pub-
lished numerous papers in peer-reviewed journals. In addition to contributing to many edited books,
he has published the following books: System Analysis and Modelling in Air Transport: Demand, Ca-
pacity, Quality of Services, Economics, and Sustainability; Landside Accessibility of Airports; Anal-
ysis, Modelling, Planning, and Design; Transport Systems: Modelling, Planning and Evaluation;
Transportation Engineering: Theory, Practice and Modelling (first edition, coauthorship); Advanced
Transport Systems: Analysis, Modelling, and Evaluation of Performances; Greening Airports: Ad-
vanced Technology and Operations; Airport Analysis, Planning and Design: Demand, Capacity
and Congestion; The Sustainability of Air Transportation: A Quantitative Analysis and Assessment;
and Air Transport System Analysis and Modelling: Capacity, Quality of Services and Economics.

xix
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 14‒16. The great disaster which befell Amaziah at the hands of
Joash king of Israel and which is about to be narrated in verses 17‒
24 seemed to require some heinous transgression for its cause. This
the Chronicler supplies in the assertion that, after the defeat of
Edom, Amaziah actually brought back Edomite images and set them
up in Jerusalem for worship (verses 14‒16): a truly horrible result of
a victory which had resulted from obedience to Jehovah’s word by
His prophet!

¹⁴Now it came to pass, after that Amaziah

was come from the slaughter of the Edomites,
that he brought the gods of the children of
Seir, and set them up to be his gods, and
bowed down himself before them, and burned
incense unto them.
14. bowed down ... and burned incense] The tenses in the
Hebrew are imperfects and imply that this became Amaziah’s
practice. The act was according to a policy frequently pursued in
ancient times. Solomon affords an instance of it (1 Kings xi. 7).

¹⁵Wherefore the anger of the Lord was

kindled against Amaziah, and he sent unto
him a prophet, which said unto him, Why hast
thou sought after the gods of the people,
which have not delivered their own people out
of thine hand?
15. which have not delivered] Such deliverance being in popular
thought the proof of a deity’s power; compare Isaiah xxxvi. 18 ff.,
xxxvii. 18 ff.
 ¹⁶And it came to pass, as he talked with him,
that the king said unto him, Have we made
thee of the king’s counsel? forbear; why
shouldest thou be smitten? Then the prophet
forbare, and said, I know that God hath
determined to destroy thee, because thou hast
done this, and hast not hearkened unto my
counsel.
16. of the king’s counsel] Literally, “counsellor to the king.”

hath determined] Literally, “hath counselled” (with a play on the

king’s word).

17‒24 (= 2 Kings xiv. 8‒14).

Amaziah Conquered by Joash.

The overwhelming defeat of Amaziah by Joash of Israel,

involving the destruction of part of the defences of Jerusalem and
the plundering of the Temple, must have been an affair of the highest
importance in Judean history. The relative weakness of Judah
compared with Israel is still less apparent in Chronicles than in
Kings. For a discussion of the evidence see Cook in Encyclopedia
Britannica, s.v. Jews, p. 379.

¹⁷Then Amaziah king of Judah took advice,

and sent to Joash, the son of Jehoahaz the
son of Jehu, king of Israel, saying, Come, let
us look one another in the face.
17. took advice] Took counsel, presumably (according to the
Chronicler’s narrative) with a view to demanding satisfaction from
Joash for the ravages of the Israelite mercenaries (verse 13). The
sequel suggests that Joash refused to give satisfaction.
 let us look one another in the face] The proposal may be either to
fight or (better) to discuss Amaziah’s claims, the two kings meeting
as equals. The latter is probably the right alternative, for the answer
of Joash draws a scoffing parallel between Amaziah’s proposition
and a thorn’s proposal of alliance with a cedar. Had Amaziah’s words
been a challenge to fight, Joash’s answer might rather have taken
the form of the parable in Judges ix. 15, “The thorn said, Fire shall
come out of the thorn and devour the cedars of Lebanon,” etc.

¹⁸And Joash king of Israel sent to Amaziah,

king of Judah, saying, The thistle ¹ that was in
Lebanon sent to the cedar that was in
Lebanon, saying, Give thy daughter to my son
to wife: and there passed by a wild beast that
was in Lebanon, and trode down the thistle.
¹ Or, thorn.

18. the thistle] margin, thorn; compare Proverbs xxvi. 9 (same

Hebrew word).

¹⁹Thou sayest, Lo, thou hast smitten Edom;

and thine heart lifteth thee up to boast: abide
now at home; why shouldest thou meddle to
thy hurt ¹, that thou shouldest fall, even thou,
and Judah with thee?
¹ Or, provoke calamity.

19. Thou sayest] i.e. to thyself.

meddle to thy hurt] margin, provoke calamity, i.e. by making

claims which he could not enforce.
 ²⁰But Amaziah would not hear; for it was of
God, that he might deliver them into the hand
of their enemies, because they had sought
after the gods of Edom.
20. for it was of God] Not in Kings. This turn is characteristic of
the Chronicler; compare x. 15, xxii. 7.

²¹So Joash king of Israel went up; and he and

Amaziah king of Judah looked one another in
the face at Beth-shemesh, which belongeth to
Judah.
21. he and Amaziah ... looked one another in the face] The
historian by a kind of irony takes up Amaziah’s phrase (verse 17)
and gives it a fresh application. Compare the double application (by
a similar irony) of the phrase, “lift up the head” in Genesis xl. 13, 19.

at Beth-shemesh] Compare 1 Chronicles vi. 59 [44, Hebrew]

(note).

²²And Judah was put to the worse before

Israel; and they fled every man to his tent.
22. to his tent] Compare vii. 10 (note).

²³And Joash king of Israel took Amaziah king

of Judah, the son of Joash the son of
Jehoahaz, at Beth-shemesh, and brought him
to Jerusalem, and brake down the wall of
Jerusalem from the gate of Ephraim unto the
corner gate ¹, four hundred cubits.
 ¹ So in 2 Kings xiv. 13. The text has, the gate that looketh.

23. the son of Jehoahaz] i.e. the son of Ahaziah, Jehoahaz and
Ahaziah being varying forms of the same name; compare xxi. 17
(note).

brake down the wall] Rather, made a breach (or breaches) in

the wall. The same verb is used in Nehemiah i. 3 (“broken down”)
and Nehemiah iv. 7 (“the breaches”).

the gate of Ephraim] Its precise position is not known, but it was
no doubt in the north or north-west wall of the city, on the road to
Ephraim. Compare Nehemiah viii. 16.

the corner gate] Hebrew text doubtful, but LXX. ἕως πύλης γωνίας.
Compare xxvi. 9; Jeremiah xxxi. 38; Zechariah xiv. 10. Most probably
this gate also was near the north-west angle of the walls, but nothing
certain is known of its position.

four hundred cubits] About 600 feet according to the ancient

cubit, and 700 according to the later standard; compare iii. 3 (note).

²⁴And he took all the gold and silver, and all

the vessels that were found in the house of
God with Obed-edom, and the treasures of the
king’s house, the hostages also, and returned
to Samaria.
24. And he took] The verb is missing in Chronicles, and is
supplied from Kings.

with Obed-edom] i.e. with the family of Obed-edom which (1

Chronicles xxvi. 4‒8, 15) served as doorkeepers in the House of
God. The words are an addition of the Chronicler.
 25‒28 (= 2 Kings xiv. 17‒20).
The End of Amaziah.

²⁵And Amaziah the son of Joash king of

Judah lived after the death of Joash son of
Jehoahaz king of Israel fifteen years. ²⁶Now
the rest of the acts of Amaziah, first and last,
behold, are they not written in the book of the
kings of Judah and Israel? ²⁷Now from the
time that Amaziah did turn away from
following the Lord they made a conspiracy
against him in Jerusalem; and he fled to
Lachish: but they sent after him to Lachish,
and slew him there.
27. from the time] The Chronicler characteristically connects the
conspiracy with Amaziah’s apostasy; in Kings the only fact of the
conspiracy is stated.

a conspiracy] Athaliah, Joash, Amaziah each fell one after the

other before a conspiracy. Jehoiada’s example had far-reaching
results.

to Lachish] Perhaps he was trying to reach Egypt.

²⁸And they brought him upon horses, and

buried him with his fathers in the city of
Judah ¹.
¹ In 2 Kings xiv. 20, the city of David.
 28. upon horses] Render, upon the horses; i.e. upon the horses
of some of his pursuers.

the city of Judah] Read, with the margin, the Versions and 2
Kings, the city of David.

Chapter XXVI.
1‒4 (= 2 Kings xiv. 21, 22, xv. 2, 3).
Uzziah’s Reign.

¹And all the people of Judah took Uzziah ¹,

who was sixteen years old, and made him
king in the room of his father Amaziah.
¹ In 2 Kings xiv. 21, Azariah.

1. all the people of Judah] Popular choice does not seem to have
determined the succession to the throne, except when the reigning
king had perished by a violent or untimely death, compare xxii. 1.

Uzziah] Called “Azariah” in 1 Chronicles iii. 12 and in 2 Kings

(eight times), but “Uzziah” in 2 Kings xv. 13, 32, 34; Isaiah i. 1, vi. 1;
Hosea i. 1; Amos i. 1; Zechariah xiv. 5. The two forms of the name
when written in Hebrew consonants closely resemble each other;
moreover the meanings of the two are similar, “Jah is my strength”
and “Jah hath given help.” Perhaps the king bore both names;
compare “Abram” and “Abraham”—“Eliakim” and “Jehoiakim” (xxxvi.
4).

²He built Eloth, and restored it to Judah, after

that the king slept with his fathers.
 2. Eloth] So spelt in viii. 17 (= 1 Kings ix. 26), but “Elath” in
Deuteronomy ii. 8; 2 Kings xiv. 22. In 2 Kings xvi. 6 the two forms are
found side by side in one verse.

after that the king, etc.] The meaning seems to be it was after
king Amaziah slept with his fathers that Uzziah his son restored
Elath to Judah; and it is a natural inference that Uzziah was ruling in
Jerusalem for some while before the death of Amaziah at Lachish
left him sole and undisputed king. A considerable time may have
elapsed between Amaziah’s flight and his capture as related in xxv.
27. Yet this is not very likely, and from the position of the present
verse in Kings it would seem as though the statement in its original
context should be interpreted thus: “he, Amaziah, built Eloth,” etc.;
and the king referred to in the clause “after that the king slept with
his fathers” is probably Jeroboam king of Israel (so Barnes on 2
Kings xiv. 22).

³Sixteen years old was Uzziah when he began

to reign; and he reigned fifty and two years in
Jerusalem: and his mother’s name was
Jechiliah of Jerusalem.
3. Jechiliah] so the Kethīb; the Ḳerī Jecoliah agrees with the
parallel passage of Kings.

⁴And he did that which was right in the eyes of

the Lord, according to all that his father
Amaziah had done.
4. his father Amaziah] This verse suits its original context in
Kings, for Kings records nothing against Amaziah; it is out of place in
Chronicles, for according to xxv. 14 Amaziah was an idolater.

5‒10 (not in Kings).

The Prosperity of Uzziah.
 5‒10. It is probable that the Chronicler had old and genuine
tradition to rely on for the account which he here gives of Uzziah’s
prosperity—his wars against neighbouring tribes (verses 6‒8), and
his building activity (verses 8‒10). Doubtless in the earlier years of
Uzziah’s reign Judah was still suffering from the effects of the defeat
inflicted by Joash of Israel. But the general accuracy of the picture of
the reign is assured by such facts as (1) the stout resistance offered
by Jerusalem to the Assyrians in Hezekiah’s time as contrasted with
its capture by the Israelites in Amaziah’s reign (xxv. 23); (2) the
frequency of metaphors from building implements and materials in
the pages of the prophets of this period (e.g. Amos vii. 7 ff.); (3) the
commercial activity and luxury of Jerusalem in the reign of Uzziah’s
successor Ahaz—witness the writings of Isaiah, passim.

⁵And he set himself to seek God in the days of

Zechariah, who had understanding ¹ in the
vision ² of God: and as long as he sought the
Lord, God made him to prosper.
¹ Or, gave instruction.

² Hebrew the seeing. Many ancient authorities have, the fear.

5. Zechariah] Nothing is known (apart from this passage) of this

Zechariah.

who had understanding] margin, “who gave instruction Hebrew

mēbhīn, a word applied to a leader of song (1 Chronicles xv. 22,
“skilful”; 1 Chronicles xxv. 7, “cunning”; 1 Chronicles xxv. verse 8,
“teacher”).

in the vision of God] Read, in the fear of God (so LXX., Targum
Peshitṭa), making a slight correction of the Hebrew text.
 ⁶And he went forth and warred against the
Philistines, and brake down the wall of Gath,
and the wall of Jabneh, and the wall of
Ashdod; and he built cities in the country of
Ashdod, and among the Philistines.
6. the Philistines] Compare xvii. 11, xxi. 16, xxviii. 18; 2 Kings
xviii. 8; 1 Maccabees v. 66‒68, xiv. 34.

brake down the wall] See note on xxv. 23.

Jabneh] Mentioned only here in the Old Testament, but probably

to be identified with “Jabneel” (Joshua xv. 11). At a later date it was
called “Jamnia” (2 Maccabees xii. 8), and, after the fall of Jerusalem
in 70 a.d., it became for a while the chief centre of Jewish intellectual
and religious activities. Its ruins are to be seen about 10 miles south
of Jaffa (Joppa) on the coast. The modern Yebna is a few miles
inland. Bädeker, Palestine⁵, p. 122.

Ashdod] compare 1 Samuel v. 1 ff.; Isaiah xx. 1; Zephaniah ii. 4;

Nehemiah iv. 7, xxiii. 23; Acts viii, 40 (Ἄζωτος). Ashdod (modern
Esdūd) was situated between Gaza and Joppa, some three miles
from the sea.

in the country of Ashdod] (literally “in Ashdod”). Perhaps the

name has been repeated through an early scribal error and we
should read simply “and built cities among the Philistines.”

⁷And God helped him against the Philistines,

and against the Arabians that dwelt in Gur-
baal, and the Meunim.
7. against the Philistines, and against the Arabians] “Conditions
in the comparatively small and half-desert land of Judah depended
essentially on its relations with the Edomite and Arabian tribes on the
south-east and with the Philistines on the west”: note how this comes
out in the traditions of the period as narrated in Chronicles
Jehoshaphat dominated both Philistines and Arabians (Edomites)
(xvii. 11); but Libnah (near Lachish) and Edom revolted successfully
against his son Jehoram (xxi. 10). After the reigns of Ahaziah and
Joash, Amaziah found himself able to assail Edom and gained a
great victory (xxv. 11, 12). Later in his reign Amaziah suffered a
crushing defeat at the hands of Joash of Israel, and it is reasonable
to suppose that Edom would seize the opportunity to reassert its
independence, though Chronicles is silent on the point. It is therefore
in harmony with the sequence of events as narrated by the
Chronicler, when in the present verse (compare verse 2) we are told
that Amaziah’s successor, Uzziah, reestablished the Judean power
over Edom, and that later, against Ahaz, Edom and the Philistine
cities gained the upper hand (xxviii. 17, 18).

Gur-baal] An unidentified place; a “Gur” is mentioned in 2 Kings

ix. 27. A slight correction of the Hebrew would give “in Gerar
(compare Genesis xx. 1) and against the Meunim.”

Meunim] compare xx. 1 (note).

⁸And the Ammonites gave gifts to Uzziah: and

his name spread abroad even to the entering
in of Egypt; for he waxed exceeding strong.
8. gave gifts] i.e. tribute. Compare 1 Chronicles xviii. 2 (note).

⁹Moreover Uzziah built towers in Jerusalem at

the corner gate, and at the valley gate, and at
the turning of the wall, and fortified them.
9. towers in Jerusalem, etc.] The Chronicler is evidently fond of
recording such traditions; compare xxxii. 30, xxxiii. 14; and the
Introduction § 7, p. xlviii.
 the corner gate] At the north-west corner of the walls. Compare
xxv. 23 (note).

the valley gate] Nehemiah ii. 13, iii. 13. Probably near the south-
west corner of the walls.

the turning of the wall] Mentioned Nehemiah iii. 19, 24. See G. A.
Smith, Jerusalem, II. 120.

¹⁰And he built towers in the wilderness, and

hewed out many cisterns, for he had much
cattle; in the lowland also, and in the plain ¹:
and he had husbandmen and vinedressers in
the mountains and in the fruitful fields ²; for he
loved husbandry.
¹ Or, table land. ² Or, Carmel See 1 Samuel xxv. 2.

10. the wilderness] i.e. the southern pasture land of Judah.

Compare Psalms lxv. 12. Fortified towers have always proved
effective for controlling the Bedouin and keeping the desert roads
open.

in the lowland also, and in the plain] For the “lowland” (Hebrew
Shephēlah) see i. 15 (note). The “plain” (margin table land; Hebrew
Mishōr) is the name of the high pasture lands east of Jordan;
apparently the part occupied by the Ammonites whom Uzziah had
subdued is meant here. (For a different view see Smith, Jerusalem,
II. 119, note.)

11‒15 (no parallel in Kings).

Uzziah’s Army.

¹¹Moreover Uzziah had an army of fighting

men, that went out to war by bands, according
 to the number of their reckoning made by Jeiel
the scribe and Maaseiah the officer, under the
hand of Hananiah, one of the king’s captains.
¹²The whole number of the heads of fathers’
houses, even the mighty men of valour, was
two thousand and six hundred. ¹³And under
their hand was a trained army ¹, three hundred
thousand and seven thousand and five
hundred, that made war with mighty power, to
help the king against the enemy.
¹ Or, the power of an army.

13. three hundred thousand and seven thousand and five

hundred] Compare xxv. 5 (Amaziah’s army), and the notes on xiv. 8
and xvii. 14 (the forces of Asa and of Jehoshaphat).

¹⁴And Uzziah prepared for them, even for all

the host, shields, and spears, and helmets,
and coats of mail, and bows, and stones for
slinging.
14. stones for slinging] Such stones needed to be carefully
chosen, for they had to be smooth and of a suitable size, compare 1
Samuel xvii. 40. Bows and slings appear to have been favourite
weapons in Benjamin, compare 1 Chronicles xii. 2; Judges xx. 16.

¹⁵And he made in Jerusalem engines,

invented by cunning men, to be on the towers
and upon the battlements ¹, to shoot arrows
and great stones withal. And his name spread
 far abroad; for he was marvellously helped, till
he was strong.
¹ Or, corner towers.

15. engines] Doubtless contrivances similar to the Roman

catapulta and balista. It is questionable whether such engines of war
were really in use as early as the time of Uzziah, at least among the
Israelites (see Smith, Jerusalem, ii. 121, 122; and the Encyclopedia
Biblia s.v. siege, especially col. 4510). The next reference to similar
instruments of war is in 1 Maccabees vi. 51, 52.

helped] compare verse 7.

16‒20 (not in Kings).

Uzziah’s Presumption.

16‒20. Uzziah died from leprosy, as is related in verses 21‒23 (=

2 Kings xv. 5‒7). That terrible disease was always regarded as a
manifestation of Divine anger against the sufferer (compare
Numbers xii. 9 ff.; 2 Kings v. 27), but no special cause is assigned in
Kings why the disaster befell Uzziah. In the present verses an
adequate reason is brought forward—Uzziah, blinded by the pride of
his success, infringed the privileges of the priesthood and was guilty
of sacrilege. The motive for some such tale is so strong and the
actual sin alleged so akin to the Chronicler’s prejudices that it may
well be that the tale originated with him or his immediate circle. Yet it
is possible that there may be behind the present form of the tale a
valid tradition of a dispute at this period between the hierarchy and
the authority of the king.

¹⁶But when he was strong, his heart was lifted

up so that he did corruptly ¹, and he trespassed
against the Lord his God; for he went into the
 temple of the Lord to burn incense upon the
altar of incense.
¹ Or, to his destruction.

16. did corruptly] Compare xxvii. 2.

he trespassed] compare xii. 2; Joshua vii. 1, xxii. 16. The Hebrew

word implies presumptuous dealing with holy things.

the altar of incense] Compare Exodus xxx. 1‒10. Not only the
altar, but the incense itself was “most holy”; Exodus xxx. verses 34‒
38.

¹⁷And Azariah the priest went in after him, and

with him fourscore priests of the Lord, that
were valiant men:
17. Azariah the priest] i.e. the high-priest (verse 20). He cannot
be identified with any priest in the list given 1 Chronicles vi. 4‒15 (v.
30‒41, Hebrew).

¹⁸and they withstood Uzziah the king, and said

unto him, It pertaineth not unto thee, Uzziah,
to burn incense unto the Lord, but to the
priests the sons of Aaron, that are
consecrated to burn incense: go out of the
sanctuary; for thou hast trespassed; neither
shall it be for thine honour from the Lord God.
¹⁹Then Uzziah was wroth; and he had a
censer in his hand to burn incense; and while
he was wroth with the priests, the leprosy
 brake forth ¹ in his forehead before the priests
in the house of the Lord, beside the altar of
incense.
¹ Hebrew rose (as the sun).

18. the priests the sons of Aaron] Compare xiii. 10, 11 and
Numbers xvi. 40.

neither shall it be for thine honour] A euphemism covering a

threat of danger and disgrace.

²⁰And Azariah the chief priest, and all the

priests, looked upon him, and, behold, he was
leprous in his forehead, and they thrust him
out quickly from thence; yea, himself hasted
also to go out, because the Lord had smitten
him.
20. the Lord had smitten him] So 2 Kings xv. 5.

21‒23 (= 2 Kings xv. 5‒7).

The End of Uzziah.

²¹And Uzziah the king was a leper unto the

day of his death, and dwelt in a several
house ¹, being a leper; for he was cut off from
the house of the Lord: and Jotham his son
was over the king’s house, judging the people
of the land.
 ¹ Or, lazar house.

21. a several house] i.e. separate, special; compare Numbers

xxviii. 13; Matthew xxv. 15. The same Hebrew word is used in
Psalms lxxxviii. 5, “free (Revised Version ‘cast off’) among the dead.”

cut off] The same Hebrew word is translated in the same way in
Isaiah liii. 8.

²²Now the rest of the acts of Uzziah, first and

last, did Isaiah the prophet, the son of Amoz,
write.
22. did Isaiah ... write] This statement is not in Kings. Uzziah is
mentioned in Isaiah vi. 1, and this fact may be all that lies behind the
present statement. It is utterly improbable that the reference is to
some writing of Isaiah which has not been preserved. Possibly some
section of the midrashic Book of the Kings of Judah and Israel is
meant, presuming that such a work was known to the Chronicler
actually or by tradition (see Introduction § 5, pp. xxxii, xxxvi).

²³So Uzziah slept with his fathers; and they

buried him with his fathers in the field of burial
which belonged to the kings; for they said, He
is a leper: and Jotham his son reigned in his
stead.
23. the field of burial] i.e. not actually in the tombs of the kings,
lest they should be defiled, but in ground adjoining the royal tombs.
Kings has simply “in the city of David.” Compare xxi. 20, xxiv. 25,
xxviii. 27.
 Chapter XXVII.
1‒6 (compare 2 Kings xv. 32‒35).
Jotham Succeeds.

¹Jotham was twenty and five years old

when he began to reign; and he reigned
sixteen years in Jerusalem: and his mother’s
name was Jerushah the daughter of Zadok.
1. he reigned sixteen years] The years during which he acted as
regent in place of his father (see above xxvi. 21) are included in the
sixteen. Jotham’s independent reign was probably very brief.

²And he did that which was right in the eyes of

the Lord, according to all that his father
Uzziah had done: howbeit he entered not into
the temple of the Lord. And the people did
yet corruptly.
2. according to all that ... howbeit he entered not into the temple
of the Lord] i.e. he imitated Uzziah in all his virtues, but not in his sin
against the ritual of the Temple (xxvi. 16 ff.). The clause howbeit,
etc., is not in Kings, since Kings makes no reference to Uzziah’s
transgression.

did yet corruptly] In Kings, “Howbeit the high places were not
taken away; the people still sacrificed and burned incense in the high
places.”
 ³He built the upper gate of the house of the
Lord, and on the wall of Ophel he built much.
3. the upper gate] Compare the note on xxiii. 20.

and on the wall of Ophel he built much] The statement is made

only in Chronicles Like similar notices of building activity, etc.—a
subject of great interest to the Chronicler—it may possibly have
some basis in fact; compare xxvi. 9 f., xxxii. 30, xxxiii. 14.

Ophel] compare xxxiii. 14; Nehemiah iii. 26, 27. It was a southern
spur of the Temple Hill. Bädeker, Palestine⁵, p. 31; and Smith,
Jerusalem, i. 152 ff.

⁴Moreover he built cities in the hill country of

Judah, and in the forests he built castles and
towers.
4. castles] compare xvii. 12 (note).

⁵He fought also with the king of the children of

Ammon, and prevailed against them. And the
children of Ammon gave him the same year
an hundred talents of silver, and ten thousand
measures ¹ of wheat, and ten thousand of
barley. So much did the children of Ammon
render unto him, in the second year also, and
in the third.
¹ Hebrew cors.

5. the children of Ammon] Compare xx. 1 ff., xxvi. 8.

 an hundred talents of silver] Compare 2 Kings xxiii. 33.

measures] Hebrew kōrīm. A kōr (= a ḥōmer, Ezekiel xlv. 14,

Revised Version) was a dry measure holding about 11 bushels.

⁶So Jotham became mighty, because he

ordered his ways before the Lord his God.
6. became mighty] The same Hebrew word as in i. 1 (see note).

7‒9 (= 2 Kings xv. 36‒38).

The Summary of Jotham’s Reign.

⁷Now the rest of the acts of Jotham, and all his

wars, and his ways, behold, they are written in
the book of the kings of Israel and Judah. ⁸He
was five and twenty years old when he began
to reign, and reigned sixteen years in
Jerusalem. ⁹And Jotham slept with his fathers,
and they buried him in the city of David: and
Ahaz his son reigned in his stead.
7. all his wars] Only a war with Ammon is mentioned above, but
according to 2 Kings xv. 37 the Syro-Ephraimite war also began in
Jotham’s reign. The notices in Kings and Chronicles may be
regarded as supplementary. Ammon was a natural ally of the
Syrians, and perhaps the wording of verse 5 (end) hints that after the
third year Ammon was able to refuse to pay tribute. The information
of Chronicles is therefore plausible; but it is curious that Chronicles
preserves the one incident and Kings the other. The point is highly
significant. Not only does it illustrate very forcibly the comparative
independence of the Chronicler’s narrative, which is so marked a
feature in these later reigns; but also it adds to the evidence in
favour of the view that the Chronicler had traditions before him other