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Modern Fluid Dynamics
Second Edition
Modern Fluid Dynamics
Second Edition

By
Clement Kleinstreuer
MATLAB® and Simulink® are trademarks of the MathWorks, Inc. and are used with ­permission. The MathWorks
does not warrant the accuracy of the text or exercises in this book. This book’s use or discussion of MATLAB®
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 To my family,

Christin, Joshua, Nicole, and Andrew

Contents

Preface............................................................................................................................................ xiii
Author..............................................................................................................................................xv

Part A Fluid Dynamics Fundamentals with Applications

1 Review of Basic Concepts...................................................................................................... 3

1.1 The Continuum Mechanics Hypothesis.....................................................................3
1.2 Definitions, Fluid Properties, and Constitutive Equations...................................... 5
1.2.1 Definitions......................................................................................................... 5
1.2.2 Thermodynamic Properties............................................................................8
1.2.3 Constitutive Equations.....................................................................................8
1.2.4 Stress Tensors and Stress Vectors................................................................. 10
1.2.5 Flux Vectors..................................................................................................... 13
1.3 Derivation and Modeling Approaches..................................................................... 14
1.3.1 Approaches to Problem Solving................................................................... 15
1.3.2 Derivation Techniques .................................................................................. 17
1.3.3 Basic Flow Assumptions and their Mathematical Statements ................ 17
1.3.4 Closed versus Open Systems and Associated Flow Descriptions .......... 18
1.3.5 Material (or Stokes) Derivative...................................................................... 20
1.4 Scale Analysis and Dimensionless Groups..............................................................22
1.4.1 Examples of Scaling........................................................................................22
1.4.1.1 A Note on the Reynolds Number................................................. 23
1.4.2 Non-Dimensionalization of Equations........................................................ 23
1.5 Homework Assignments............................................................................................ 24
1.5.1 Physical Insight .............................................................................................. 24
1.5.2 Engineering Problems.................................................................................... 26

2 Conservation Laws with Illustrative Examples.............................................................. 29

2.1 The Reynolds Transport Theorem............................................................................. 31
2.1.1 Extended Cases............................................................................................... 33
2.1.2 Setting up the Reynolds Transport Theorem.............................................34
2.2 Fluid-Mass Conservation: The Continuity Equation.............................................. 35
2.2.1 Fluid-Mass Conservation in Integral Form................................................. 35
2.2.2 Continuity in Differential Form................................................................... 39
2.2.2.1 Differential Mass Balance.............................................................. 40
2.3 Momentum Conservation Equations: Linear Momentum
Transfer and Vorticity Transport...............................................................................43
2.3.1 The Momentum Equation in Integral Form...............................................43
2.3.2 Momentum Conservation in Differential Form......................................... 45
2.3.2.1 The Equation of Motion.................................................................. 45
2.3.2.2 Force Balance Derivation............................................................... 47

vii
viii Contents

2.3.3 Special Cases of the Equation of Motion..................................................... 48

2.3.3.1 The Navier–Stokes Equation......................................................... 49
2.3.3.2 Prandtl’s Boundary-Layer Equations........................................... 49
2.3.3.3 Stokes Equation............................................................................... 50
2.3.3.4 Euler Equation................................................................................. 50
2.3.3.5 Bernoulli Equation.......................................................................... 51
2.3.4 Basic Examples of Linear Momentum Transfer......................................... 56
2.3.5 Vorticity Dynamics......................................................................................... 61
2.3.5.1 Vorticity Vector and Fluid Circulation......................................... 61
2.3.5.2 Vorticity Transport Equation......................................................... 62
2.3.5.3 Vortex-Line Straining.....................................................................63
2.3.5.4 Vorticity Diffusion..........................................................................64
2.3.5.5 Helicity..............................................................................................65
2.4 Scalar Transport Equations: Energy and Species-Mass Conservation................ 66
2.4.1 Macro-Scale Energy Balance......................................................................... 66
2.4.2 The Convection-Diffusion Equation for Heat Transfer............................. 68
2.4.3 The Species Convection-Diffusion Equation.............................................. 72
2.5 Homework Assignments ........................................................................................... 74
2.5.1 Physical Insight............................................................................................... 74
2.5.2 Engineering Problems.................................................................................... 76

3 Incompressible Viscous Fluid Flow Applications.......................................................... 79

3.1 Internal Laminar Flows.............................................................................................. 79
3.1.1 Steady Fully‑Developed Flows.....................................................................80
3.1.2 Near-Parallel Flows........................................................................................ 90
3.1.3 Forced Convection Heat Transfer................................................................. 92
3.1.3.1 Convection Heat Transfer Coefficient.......................................... 93
3.1.3.2 The Nusselt Number....................................................................... 94
3.1.3.3 The Reynolds-Colburn Analogy................................................... 95
3.1.4 Transient One-Dimensional Flows............................................................... 99
3.1.4.1 Stokes’ First Problem: Thin Shear-Layer Development........... 100
3.1.4.2 Transient Pipe Flow...................................................................... 102
3.2 External Laminar Flows............................................................................................ 107
3.2.1 Momentum Boundary-Layer Flow............................................................. 108
3.2.1.1 Solution Methods for Flat-Plate Boundary-Layer Flows......... 108
3.2.2 Thermal Boundary-Layer Flow.................................................................. 113
3.2.2.1 Thick Thermal Boundary Layers................................................ 115
3.2.2.2 Thin Thermal Boundary Layers................................................. 115
3.2.2.3 Nusselt Number Correlations..................................................... 116
3.2.3 Drag and Lift Computations....................................................................... 119
3.2.4 Steady Planar and Round Jets..................................................................... 123
3.2.4.1 Exact Solution................................................................................ 128
3.3 Turbulent Flows.......................................................................................................... 129
3.3.1 External Flows............................................................................................... 132
3.3.1.1 Boundary-Layer Velocity Profiles............................................... 132
3.3.1.2 Summary of Modeling Results................................................... 136
3.3.2 Internal Flows................................................................................................ 137
3.3.2.1 Turbulent Convection Heat Transfer.......................................... 141
Contents ix

3.4 Homework Assignments.......................................................................................... 148

3.4.1 Physical Insight............................................................................................. 149
3.4.2 Engineering Problems.................................................................................. 151

Part B Modern Fluid Dynamics Topics

4 Mixture Flows...................................................................................................................... 157

4.1 Porous Medium Flow................................................................................................ 159
4.1.1 Saturated Porous Medium Flow................................................................. 159
4.1.2 Modeling of Flow through Saturated Porous Media............................... 162
4.2 Pseudo Two-Phase Flows.......................................................................................... 168
4.2.1 Quasi-Homogeneous Mixture Flows......................................................... 168
4.2.2 Non-Newtonian Fluid Flow........................................................................ 175
4.2.2.1 Internal Flow of Power-Law Fluids............................................ 176
4.2.3 Internal Flow of Bingham Plastics............................................................. 180
4.3 Fluid-Particle Dynamics........................................................................................... 183
4.3.1 Micron-Particle Transport and Deposition............................................... 183
4.3.2 Nanoparticle Transport................................................................................ 189
4.4 Homework Assignments.......................................................................................... 192
4.4.1 Physical Insight............................................................................................. 192
4.4.2 Engineering Problems.................................................................................. 193

5 Basic Lubrication Systems................................................................................................. 197

5.1 Lubrication Approximations.................................................................................... 198
5.1.1 Slot-Flow Analysis........................................................................................ 199
5.1.2 Squeeze-Film Lubrication............................................................................ 200
5.1.3 Planar Lubrication........................................................................................ 203
5.2 The Reynolds Lubrication Equation........................................................................ 206
5.3 Lubricants with Nanoparticles................................................................................ 212
5.4 Homework Assignments.......................................................................................... 213
5.4.1 Physical Insight............................................................................................. 214
5.4.2 Engineering Problems.................................................................................. 214

6 Fluid Spreading, Film Drawing, and Surface Coating................................................ 217

6.1 Introduction................................................................................................................ 217
6.2 Fluid-Interface Mechanics........................................................................................ 217
6.3 Drawing and Coating Processes.............................................................................. 224
6.4 Spray-Coating............................................................................................................. 232
6.5 Homework Assignments.......................................................................................... 233
6.5.1 Physical Insight............................................................................................. 233
6.5.2 Engineering Problems..................................................................................234

7 Microscale Fluid Dynamics............................................................................................... 237

7.1 Introduction................................................................................................................ 237
7.2 Microscale Flow Systems.......................................................................................... 239
7.3 Fluid Flow in Microconduits.................................................................................... 241
7.3.1 Scale Analysis................................................................................................ 241
7.3.2 Fluid Properties and Flow Conditions...................................................... 246
x Contents

7.3.3 Wall Slip Velocity and Temperature Jump................................................ 249

7.3.3.1 Velocity-Slip Models..................................................................... 250
7.3.3.2 Temperature-Jump Model............................................................ 251
7.3.4 Electro-Osmotic Flow................................................................................... 253
7.3.4.1 Summary........................................................................................ 261
7.4 Homework Assignments.......................................................................................... 262
7.4.1 Physical Insight............................................................................................. 262
7.4.2 Engineering Problems.................................................................................. 263

8 Fluid–Structure Interaction............................................................................................... 267

8.1 Introduction................................................................................................................ 267
8.2 Solid Mechanics Review........................................................................................... 268
8.2.1 Stresses in Solid Structures......................................................................... 268
8.2.2 Equilibrium Conditions............................................................................... 272
8.2.3 Stress–Strain Relationships......................................................................... 274
8.2.3.1 Deformation Analysis................................................................... 274
8.2.3.2 Simplifications............................................................................... 277
8.2.3.3 Plane Stress Analysis.................................................................... 278
8.3 Slender-Body Dynamics........................................................................................... 279
8.3.1 Flow-Induced Slender-Body Oscillations.................................................. 280
8.3.2 Flow-Induced Concentrated-Mass Oscillations....................................... 282
8.4 Flow-Induced Vibration............................................................................................284
8.4.1 Harmonic Response to Free Vibration....................................................... 287
8.4.1.1 Undamped Vibration Case.......................................................... 287
8.4.1.2 Damped Vibration Case............................................................... 288
8.4.2 Harmonic Response to Forced Vibration.................................................. 293
8.5 Homework Assignments ......................................................................................... 295

9 Computational Fluid Dynamics Modeling and Simulation...................................... 297

9.1 Introduction................................................................................................................ 297
9.2 Modeling Objectives and Numerical Tools............................................................ 299
9.2.1 Problem Recognition and Modeling Scale................................................ 299
9.2.2 Mathematical Modeling and Data Needs................................................. 301
9.2.3 Computational Fluid Dynamics................................................................. 301
9.2.3.1 Simulation Accuracy..................................................................... 302
9.2.3.2 Equation Discretization................................................................ 303
9.2.3.3 Boundary Conditions...................................................................304
9.2.4 Result Interpretation and Data Management Plan..................................304
9.2.4.1 Data Management Plan................................................................305
9.2.5 Computational Design Aspects..................................................................306
9.2.5.1 Computer Simulations..................................................................306
9.2.5.2 Computer-Aided Design.............................................................. 306
9.3 Computer Simulation Examples..............................................................................308
9.3.1 Computer Model Validations......................................................................308
9.3.2 Sample Case Studies..................................................................................... 311
9.3.2.1 Steady Laminar Newtonian versus Non-Newtonian
Fluid Flows in a Constricted Tube.............................................. 311
9.3.2.2 Transient Laminar Flow Past a Tall Obstacle............................ 319
Contents xi

10 Course Projects..................................................................................................................... 331

10.1 Introduction................................................................................................................ 331
10.2 Guidelines for Project Report Writing.................................................................... 331
10.3 Course Project Suggestions...................................................................................... 332
10.3.1 Tutorial Project with Analytic Solutions...................................................334
10.3.2 Computer Simulation and Design Projects Using Open-Source
Software......................................................................................................... 335
Appendix 1: Comparison of Poiseuille, Annular, and Slit Flow Phenomena.............. 335
A1.1 Introduction................................................................................................................ 335
A1.2 Poiseuille Flow in a Pipe........................................................................................... 336
A1.2.1 Assumptions.................................................................................................. 336
A1.3 Pressure-Driven Flow in a Narrow Slit.................................................................. 338
A1.3.1 Assumptions.................................................................................................. 338
A1.4 Pressure-Driven Flow in an Annulus.....................................................................340
A1.4.1 Assumptions..................................................................................................340
A1.5 Friction Factor.............................................................................................................342
A1.6 Conclusions and Limitations....................................................................................344
Appendix 2: A Circular Cylinder in Laminar Cross Flow..............................................345
A2.1 Introduction................................................................................................................345
A2.2 Mathematical Model..................................................................................................346
A2.2.1 System Sketch................................................................................................346
A2.2.2 Assumptions and Postulates....................................................................... 347
A2.2.3 Boundary Conditions................................................................................... 347
A2.2.4 Describing Equations................................................................................... 347
A2.3 Case Setup: Cylinder in Cross Flow........................................................................348
A2.3.1 Mesh................................................................................................................348
A2.3.2 Mesh-Independence Test............................................................................. 349
A2.3.3 Boundary Conditions................................................................................... 349
A2.3.3 Control Dictionary........................................................................................ 350
A2.3.4 Numerical Schemes...................................................................................... 350
A2.3.5 Solution and Algorithm Control................................................................. 350
A2.4 Post-Processing: Results and Discussion................................................................ 351
A2.4.1 Comparison between Re = 20 and Re = 200................................................ 351
A2.4.2 Velocity Contours.......................................................................................... 351
A2.4.3 Streamlines.................................................................................................... 351
A2.4.4 Plot of Lift and Drag Coefficients............................................................... 351
Appendix 3: Enhancement of microfluidic mixing through optimization of
microchannel geometry and inlet flow conditions............................................... 359
A3.1 Introduction................................................................................................................ 360
A3.2 Mathematical model.................................................................................................. 361
A3.2.1 System sketch................................................................................................ 361
A3.2.2 Assumptions.................................................................................................. 362
A3.2.3 Postulates....................................................................................................... 362
A3.2.4 Governing Equations................................................................................... 362
A3.2.4.1 Continuity Equation..................................................................... 363
A3.2.4.2 Momentum Equation.................................................................... 363
A3.2.4.3 Species-Mass Transfer Equation................................................. 363
xii Contents

A3.3 Case-Study Setup....................................................................................................... 363

A3.3.1 Mesh................................................................................................................ 363
A3.3.2 Material Properties.......................................................................................364
A3.3.3 Boundary Conditions................................................................................... 366
A3.3.4 Numerical Schemes...................................................................................... 367
A3.3.5 Solution and Algorithm Control................................................................. 367
A3.3.6 Quasi-Stationary State.................................................................................. 368
A3.4 Results and Discussion............................................................................................. 368
A3.4.1 Comparison between Diffusion and Dispersion..................................... 368
A3.4.2 Modification of Geometry........................................................................... 370
A3.4.3 Modification of Inlet Flow Conditions...................................................... 372
A3.5 Conclusions................................................................................................................. 379
References.................................................................................................................................... 381
Appendix I.................................................................................................................................... 389
Appendix II..................................................................................................................................425
Index.............................................................................................................................................. 437
Preface

The second edition of Modern Fluid Dynamics  (the first edition was published by Springer) has
been thoroughly revised and updated based on multi-year feedback from graduate students
as well as suggestions from colleagues. Specifically, the previous three book parts have been
reduced to a new, two-part, streamlined and reorganized version with a now even stronger
emphasis on the fundamentals, illustrative examples, and computer applications. As it is a
text for first-year graduate students and advanced seniors, the sections on compressible flow
and compartmental modeling have been deleted to provide extra space for more appropri-
ate topics, such as scale analysis, non-Newtonian fluid flow, surface coating, convection heat
transfer, fluid-particle dynamics, microfluidics, and microfluidics, and computational fluid
dynamics applications. Thus, the first part of the new edition, that is, Chapters 1 through 3, is
now easier to read, leading with the sample problem solutions and associated discussions to
an enhanced understanding of the principles of fluid dynamics. With the new knowledge base
gained and skill level acquired from studying Part A in conjunction with Appendix I, modern
fluid dynamics applications are discussed in Chapters 4 through 8 of the new Part B. After
basic introductions to real-world topics, such as mixture flows, lubrication systems, surface
coating, microfluidics, and fluid–structure interactions, representative sample applications are
discussed. Part B concludes with Chapter 9 on mathematical modeling and computer simula-
tion with examples, while Chapter 10 deals with the development and execution of course proj-
ects  . Specifically, guidelines are provided for project report writing, followed by lists of tutorial
and numerical projects, both categories being illustrated with insightful project reports. The
necessary background material in engineering math is reviewed in Appendix I, that is, tensor
analysis, integration/differentiation, special integrals, ordinary differential equations, and all
conservation laws. Appendix I now also contains OpenFOAM commands, some of which have
been used in course-project solutions given in Chapters 9 and 10. Appendix II contains conver-
sion factors and fluid properties as well as the Moody chart and drag coefficients for spheres
and cylinders. While traditionally, fluid mechanics books present the material in progressive
order, that is, employing an inductive  approach from the simple to the more difficult, the pres-
ent text adopts more of a deductive  approach. Indeed, understanding the derivation of the basic
equations and then formulating the system-specific equations with suitable boundary condi-
tions are two key steps for proper problem solutions. Understanding of the fundamentals and
independent application skills are the main learning objectives.  For students to gain confidence and
independence, an instructor may want to be less of a “sage on the stage” and more of a “guide
on the side.” Specifically, engaging students in “white-board performances,” that is, interest-
ing problem solutions, tutorial presentations of specific topics of Part B, and selected journal
articles is highly recommended. Requiring an in-depth course project and its associated report
(see Chapter 10) may be a crowning assignment or may even replace the final exam. The need
for the proposed text evolved primarily out of industrial demands and post-graduate expectations.  
Clearly, industry and government recognized that undergraduate fluid mechanics edu-
cation had to change measurably due to the availability of powerful software that runs
on workstations and because of the shift toward more complicated and interdisciplinary
tasks that tomorrow’ s engineers are facing (see NAS “ The Engineers of 2020” at http://
national-academics.org). Also, an increasing number of engineering firms recruit only MS-
and PhD-holders, wondering whether BS-degree engineers are able to follow technical
directions, let alone build mathematical models and consequently analyze and improve/

xiii
xiv Preface

design devices related to fluid dynamics. In the academic environment, a fine knowledge
base and solid skill levels in modern fluid dynamics are important for success in more
advanced thermal sciences courses, in emerging departmental programs, and for new the-
sis/dissertation requirements responding to future educational needs. Building on intro-
ductory courses in thermodynamics, fluid mechanics, heat transfer, and solid mechanics
as prerequisites as well as on a junior-level math background, a differential approach is
most insightful to teach the fundamentals in fluid mechanics and convection heat trans-
fer. Pedagogical elements include a 50:50 physics-mathematics approach when introducing
new material, illustrating concepts, showing flow visualizations, and solving problems.
The problem solution format strictly follows the sequence System Sketch, Assumptions,
and Method — before   starting the solution phase, which consists of symbolic math model
development (see Appendix I), numerical solution, graphs, and comments on “ physical
insight.” After some illustrative examples, most solved text examples have the same level
of difficulty as suggested assignments and/or exam problems. The ultimate goals are that
the more serious student will be able to solve basic fluid dynamics problems independently  ,
provide physical insight  , and suggest, via a course project, system design improvements  . All
figures appearing in this book will be hosted on the CRC Press website: www.crcpress.
com/9781138198104. In addition, an updated and expanded solutions manual, previously
authored by post-doc Dr. Jie Li and now redeveloped by Curtis Promislow and Sriram
Chari, will be available later on for instructors adopting the textbook.
The new edition could not have been completed without the superb assistance provided
by Curtis Promislow in terms of text and equation typing, finalizing figures and tables,
and manuscript formatting. Also, the fine project contributions from Dr. Zelin (Luke) Xu
and Sriram Chari, as well as the professional help from editor Jonathan Plant and his team,
are gratefully acknowledged.
For technical correspondence, please contact the author via e-mail (ck@ncsu.edu).
Clement Kleinstreuer
North Carolina State University
Raleigh, NC

MATLAB® is a registered trademark of The MathWorks, Inc. For product information,

please contact:

The MathWorks, Inc.

3 Apple Hill Drive
Natick, MA 01760-2098 USA
Tel: 508 647 7000
Fax: 508-647-7001
E-mail: info@mathworks.com
Web: www.mathworks.com
Author

Clement Kleinstreuer is a professor in the mechanical and aerospace engineering and

biomedical engineering departments at North Carolina State University in Raleigh, NC.
He received his Dipl. Ing degree at the Technical University, Munich; his MS at Stanford
University; and his PhD at Vanderbilt University. He also serves as an adjunct professor
in the Department of Surgery at the University of North Carolina School of Medicine in
Chapel Hill, NC. He has also served as an assistant professor at Rensselaer Polytechnic
Institute (Troy, NY) and as an adjunct professor at the University of Canterbury in
Christchurch, New Zealand.

xv
12 Modern Fluid Dynamics, Second Edition

∂vi ∂v j 1
• The shear-rate tensor γ ij = + and hence the 1/2 in ε ij = γ ij is mathemati-
∂x j ∂x i 2
cally necessary to match Equation 1.21.
 
As mentioned, Stokes suggested that τ is a linear function of ε , which is not the case
for non-Newtonian fluids, rarefied gases, and some fluid flows in microscale devices, for
example, bioMEMS. Specifically, for Newtonian fluids, that is, air, water, and most oils,

  

τ = λ(∇ ⋅ v)I + 2µε (1.22)

where the viscosity coefficients λ and µ depend only on the thermodynamic state of the

fluid. For incompressible flow, ∇ ⋅ v = 0 (see Section 2.2.2), and the total stress tensor
reduces to

Tij = − pδ ij + 2µε ij (1.23)

where

 ∂v ∂v j 
2µε ij ≡ τ ij = µ  i +  := µγ ij (1.24)
 ∂x j ∂x i 

Here, γ ij ≡ 2ε ij is called the shear-rate tensor (see Appendix AI.5.5 for all stress and shear-
rate components in rectangular, cylindrical, and spherical  coordinates).
Of great importance are the wall shear stress vector (τ wall ≡ WSS) as a result of frictional
(or viscous) effects and the no-slip condition for macro-scale systems, that is, at any solid
surface:
 
v fluid = v wall (1.25)


Typically, v wall = 0; that is, the wall is stationary and impermeable. The experimentally
verified no-slip condition for macro-flow generates velocity gradients normal to the wall
at all axial flow speeds. As illustrated in Figure 1.2, the WSS-elements are:

 ∂u / ∂n (due to the no-slip condition)


τ wall ≡ WSS ~  µ (due to viscous fluid effects)
F / A (tangential force per unit surface area)
 tan g

Very high or low WSS values have been related to device malfunctions and arterial dis-
eases (Kleinstreuer, 2006). Integration of τ wall over the entire surface of a submerged body
or inside a conduit yields the frictional drag:

Fviscous =
∫τ
A
wall dA (1.26)
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spring is at hand. The great shiny hoods look more like snails than
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 PUSSY WILLOWS

S OON after the skunk cabbage has sent up its purple hoods
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a long month.
So when you find the willow branches set thick with silken pussies,
you know that a happy time has begun, at least for you country
children.
And even the city children learn to love these soft pussies when
they are placed in tall vases on the teacher’s desk.
If you look carefully at the different branches, you see that they
bear different kinds of pussies; and your teacher will tell you, or
perhaps you will discover yourselves, that these different branches
were broken from different trees.
 Fig. 197

Do you know what each “pussy,” or tassel, is made up of?

Each tassel is made up of many tiny flowers.
But willow flowers are built on quite a different plan from cherry
flowers. If you pick apart one of these tassels, and examine a single
blossom, you will find it hard to believe that it is a flower at all.
On one branch the tassels are all golden yellow. The flowers that
make up these yellow tassels have neither flower leaves nor pistils.
Each blossom has two stamens which are fastened to a little fringed
leaf, and nothing more. Such a flower, much magnified, is given in
the picture (Fig. 197). The golden color comes from the yellow pollen
which has been shaken from the dust boxes.
The other branch is covered with silvery green tassels. Each
flower in these tassels is made up of a single pistil, which is also
fastened to a little fringed leaf (Fig. 198).
 Fig. 198

So you see the building plan used by one kind of pussy-willow

flowers is nothing but two stamens; while the plan used by the other
kind is still simpler, it is nothing but one pistil.
The golden dust is carried by the bees from the willows which bear
dust boxes to those other willows whose flowers have only
seedboxes.
When they have given to the bees their pollen, the yellow tassels
fade away; but the silvery green tassels, on account of their
seedboxes, grow large and ripe, turning into the fruit shown in Fig.
62, p. 61; and this fruit is one of the kind which scatters its seeds
abroad by fastening them to silky sails.
 ALDERS AND BIRCHES

T HERE is another shrub or low tree growing along the brook’s

edge which flowers almost as early as the willows.
This is the alder.
Perhaps you noticed last fall that these alders were hung with a
quantity of little green tassels. These tassels did not fall off with the
leaves in November. Through the long winter they clung to the shrub.
Sometimes they wore little coats of ice which made them look like
the glass ornaments on a Christmas tree.
When the warm weather came, they put off their ice coats, and
grew larger and longer, and at last let out a quantity of stamens.

Fig. 199

But on the same alder tree that bears these tassels with flowers
made up of stamens or dust boxes (Fig. 199, a), you find also the
tassels flowers made up of pistils (Fig. 199, b).
If you make a search, you will find the little upright clusters
composed of these flowers with pistils.
Late in the year, when these clusters have turned into fruit, they
look like this picture (Fig. 200).
 Fig. 200

The pretty birches are cousins to the alders, and keep house in
much the same way, bearing the tassels with stamens (Fig. 201, a)
and the little clusters made up of flowers with pistils (Fig. 201, b) on
the same tree.

Fig. 201

The tassels on some of the birches are very beautiful. When full
grown, they are golden yellow, and so long and soft and graceful that
one feels like stroking them and playing with them as he would with
a kitten.
I hope every country child who reads this book and does not
already know the willows, the alders, and the birches, will make their
acquaintance this spring, and will examine their two kinds of flowers.
And I hope that branches from the different trees will be brought into
the city schoolroom, so that all can see these flowers, which are
among the very earliest of the year.
 THE GREAT TREES

M OST people seem surprised to learn that all kinds of trees have
flowers. In March and April they go to the woods in search of
the trailing arbutus, the violet, the anemone; and when they have
picked a quantity of these, they come home and say, “These are the
only flowers we saw to-day.”
But if they had looked overhead, up into the trees, they would
have seen many more; for each tree has its own flower, and most of
the trees blossom very early in the year, before they put out their
leaves. There is a good reason for this, which I will tell you by and
by.

Fig. 202

One of the early trees to flower is the swamp maple. In March or

April its bright red blossoms tinge the wet woods with warm color.
Sometimes the snow lies thick on the ground at this season, and the
little red flower clusters fall, and look wonderfully pretty against the
smooth white sheet which is drawn beneath the trees.
At the same season, in our city parks and streets, sharp eyes will
discover the yellowish blossoms of the silver maple. Both of these
trees flower before they leaf.
The building plan used by maple flowers is rather confusing. In
one flower you will find both calyx and corolla, but not in another.
One blossom will have both stamens and pistils, another will have no
pistils.

Fig. 203

Fig. 202 shows you a blossom from the sugar maple. It has
stamens, but no pistils. Next you see what was once a flower
containing both stamens and pistils (Fig. 203). The withered stamens
can still be seen; and the pistil is turning into the well-known maple
key.

Fig. 204

Fig. 205
 The great elms also put out their flowers before their leaves. Here
you see a flower cluster from the white elm (Fig. 204). Fig. 205
shows you one of these little flowers enlarged; and in Fig. 206 you
have the blossom cut open so as to display its pistil, which grows
into the winged fruit you saw on p. 62.

Fig. 206

In some of our city streets grows the poplar. Its flowers are
crowded into long green tassels. Many of these fall to the pavement
below, and lie there, looking like great caterpillars. These tassels are
those which bear the flowers with stamens. Now, if we were in the
woods, we should be pretty sure to find near by another poplar
whose tassels do not fall so quickly. This is because these are made
up of flowers with pistils. They cling to the tree not only till they have
been powdered with pollen from the neighboring poplar, but till their
tiny seeds have had time to ripen and are ready to start out on their
life journey.
 THE UNSEEN VISITOR

I PROMISED to tell you why so many of the trees flower before they
leaf.
Many of these tree blossoms are neither bright enough to attract
the attention of the bees and butterflies, nor so fragrant as to tempt
the passing insects to visit them; for when the flower handkerchiefs
are not large and bright enough to signal the bees, the blossom often
gives notice of its presence by a strong perfume. How, then, is the
pollen from one flower to reach the pistil of another? And especially
how can this be arranged when the flowers with pollen may live quite
a way off—on another tree, in fact—from the flowers with pistils?
“Perhaps the birds carry it,” suggests some child.
But if these little flowers are not beautiful enough, or sweet-
smelling enough, to please the bees and butterflies, it is hardly
probable that the birds will pay them any attention.
So let us go out into the woods with our eyes and our ears wide
open, and see if we can discover some flower visitor that does not
ask for fine clothes and sweet smells.
Through the bushes comes the lisp of the song sparrow. From
overhead falls the note of the bluebird. The bees are buzzing about
the golden willow tassels. On the top of an old tree trunk a butterfly is
drowsing in the sun’s rays. But already we know that neither bird, nor
bee, nor butterfly will go out of its way to help our pale, scentless
little tree blossoms.
A squirrel darts from under cover, and runs along the stone wall.
Among the dead leaves at our feet a little striped snake lies in a
sluggish coil. But squirrel and snake would be alike useless as flower
visitors.
We are almost tempted to give up trying to guess the answer to
the riddle. Somewhat discouraged, we stop to rest on an old log
overgrown with delicate mosses.
A soft, sighing sound creeps through the pines at the foot of
yonder hill. Over the little hollow sweeps a gust of wind. A faint
cloud, as of dust, fills the air. One of the children begins to sneeze.
Where can the dust come from? The roads are still deep with mud.
And, besides, ordinary dust does not make us sneeze as though it
were pepper.
Ah, my friend, you are getting warm, very warm indeed; for this
dust is no dried earth from the highroad. No, it is made up instead of
golden grains from the dust boxes that are swaying in the wind on
yonder trees. And as the trees just now are bare of leaves, the
journey of the pollen through the air is an easy matter. It is carried
along by the wind, settling here, there, and everywhere, sometimes
in our throats and noses in such a fashion as to make us sneeze, but
also on the tops of many little pistils whose seeds cannot ripen
without its gift of new life.
And so, although we have not seen the visitor who befriends these
little flowers that are neither beautiful nor fragrant, we have heard his
voice as it came whispering through the pines; and we know that this
whisper is the gentle voice of the wind.
Now you understand that it is well for those trees whose flowers
depend upon the wind for their pollen, to blossom before their leaves
are out, and thus likely to interfere with the pollen in reaching its
destination.
 PLANT PACKAGES

Fig. 207

O N your walks through the woods these spring days I want you to
notice the neat and beautiful way in which plants do their
packing; for the woods now are full of plant packages,—little bundles
of leaves and flowers, done up with the greatest care.
Some of these have just appeared above the ground. Others have
burst from the branches of the trees and shrubs.
Of course, a plant does not like to send its young, delicate leaves
and flowers into the cold world without wrapping them up, any more
than your mother would like to send your baby brother out for the
first time without a great deal of just such bundling-up.
 Fig.
208

Fig.
209

And so well wrapped are many of these plant babies, that it is not
an easy matter to guess just what they are, what kinds of leaves and
flowers will appear when the wrappings have been thrown aside.
 Fig. 211

Fig. 210

Sometimes the package looks like the sharp-pointed object in the

picture at the head of this chapter (Fig. 207). Soon the leaves push
their way out of their papery envelope, and before long our friend
Jack-in-the-pulpit himself appears.
Sometimes it is such a woolly roll as you see in the next picture
(Fig. 208). This roll soon uncurls into a pretty fern (Fig. 209).
The beech tree folds its leaves like fans (Fig. 210). The preceding
picture (Fig. 211) shows you how carefully and cleverly the
hobblebush packs its young leaves.
During their babyhood many leaves wear a hairy coat as a
protection from both cold and heat; but when their green skin
becomes thicker, they throw this off.
Most of these plant packages are very interesting and beautiful,
and well worth your attention. I wish that during these weeks of early
spring the country schools would hold exhibitions of these babes in
the woods, asking each child to bring what he considers a good
specimen of a plant package.
 UNDERGROUND STOREHOUSES

L ONG ago we learned that certain plants stow away the food
which they are not fitted to use at the time in those thick
underground stems which most people call roots.
This food they hold over till the next year.
It is often a surprise, these spring days, to see how suddenly a
little plant will burst into blossom. One does not understand how it
has had time to get up such a display. Had it been obliged to depend
for food upon new supplies taken in by its roots and leaves, the
flower would have put off its first appearance for many a day.
So when a plant surprises you with any such sudden and early
blossoms, you can be pretty sure that its food supply has been on
hand all winter.
Both in the garden and in the woods you can see for yourselves
that this is so. In the garden perhaps the earliest flower to appear is
the lovely little snowdrop. The snowdrop’s food is stored away in the
“bulb,” as we call its thick, underground stem, which lies buried in the
earth.
The other early garden flowers, such as the hyacinth, crocus,
daffodil, and tulip, are able to burst into beautiful blossoms only
because of the care and labor with which they laid by underground
provisions last year.
And in the woods at this season you find the yellow adder’s
tongue, spring beauty, anemone, wake-robin, Jack-in-the-pulpit, wild
ginger, and Solomon’s seal. Each of these plants has stores of food
hidden in its underground stem. This may take the shape of a bulb,
or a tuber, or a rootstock; but in any case it shows you at once that it
is a little storehouse of food.
A collection of the different kinds of underground stems which
serve as storehouses for the early-flowering plants would be quite as
interesting to work over as a collection of plant packages.
 DIFFERENT BUILDING PLANS

T HIS morning let us take a stroll in the woods with the idea of
noticing the different building plans used by the early flowers.
First we will go to the spot where we know the trailing arbutus is
still in blossom. Pick a spray, and tell me the plan of its flower.
“There is a small green cup, or calyx, cut into five little points,” you
say; “and there is a corolla made up of five flower leaves.”
But stop here one moment. Is this corolla really made up of five
separate flower leaves? Are not the flower leaves joined in a tube
below? If this be so, you must say that this corolla is five-lobed, or
five-pointed, not that it has five flower leaves.
“And there are ten pins with dust boxes, or stamens.”
Yes, that is quite right.
“And there is one of those pins with a seedbox below, one pistil,
that is, but the top of this pistil is divided into five parts.”
Well, then, the building plan of the trailing arbutus runs as follows:
—
1. Calyx.
2. Corolla.
3. Stamens.
4. Pistil.
So far, it seems the same plan as that used by the cherry tree, yet
in certain ways this plan really differs from that of the cherry
blossom. The calyx of the cherry is not cut into separate leaves, as is
that of the arbutus; and its corolla leaves are quite separate, while
those of the arbutus are joined in a tube.
 Fig. 212

The cherry blossom has more stamens than the arbutus. Each
flower has but one pistil. But the pistil of the arbutus, unlike that of
the cherry, is five-lobed.
So, although the general plan used by these two flowers is the
same, it differs in important details.
Above you see the flower of the marsh marigold (Fig. 212). Its
building plan is as follows:—
1. Flower leaves.
2. Stamens.
3. Pistils.
This, you remember, is something like the building plan of the
easter lily. The lily has a circle of flower leaves in place of calyx and
corolla. So has the marsh marigold. But the lily has six flower leaves,
one more than the marsh marigold, and only six stamens, while the
marsh marigold has so many stamens that it would tire one to count
them.
And the lily has but one pistil (this is tall and slender), while the
marsh marigold has many short, thick ones, which you do not see in
the picture.
So these two flowers use the same building plan in a general way
only. They are quite unlike in important details.
 Fig. 213

The pretty little liverwort and the delicate anemone use the same
building plan as the marsh marigold. This is not strange, as all three
flowers belong to the same family.
The yellow adder’s tongue is another lily. It is built on the usual lily
plan:—
1. Six flower leaves.
2. Six stamens.
3. One pistil.
The wild ginger (Fig. 213) uses the lily plan, inasmuch as it has no
separate calyx and corolla; but otherwise it is quite different. It has
no separate flower leaves, but one three-pointed flower cup. It has
stamens, and one pistil which branches at its tip.
The next picture (Fig. 214) shows you the seedbox, cut open, of
the wild ginger.

Fig. 214