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Green Energy and Technology

Ali M. Eltamaly
Almoataz Y. Abdelaziz Editors

Modern Maximum Power

Point Tracking Techniques
for Photovoltaic Energy
Systems
Green Energy and Technology
Climate change, environmental impact and the limited natural resources urge
scientific research and novel technical solutions. The monograph series Green
Energy and Technology serves as a publishing platform for scientific and
technological approaches to “green”—i.e. environmentally friendly and sustain-
able—technologies. While a focus lies on energy and power supply, it also covers
“green” solutions in industrial engineering and engineering design. Green Energy
and Technology addresses researchers, advanced students, technical consultants as
well as decision makers in industries and politics. Hence, the level of presentation
spans from instructional to highly technical. **Indexed in Scopus**.

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/8059

Ali M. Eltamaly Almoataz Y. Abdelaziz
•

Editors

Modern Maximum Power

Point Tracking Techniques
for Photovoltaic Energy
Systems

123
Editors
Ali M. Eltamaly Almoataz Y. Abdelaziz
Sustainable Energy Technologies Center Electrical Power and Machines Department
King Saud University Ain Shams University
Riyadh, Saudi Arabia Abbassia, Egypt

ISSN 1865-3529 ISSN 1865-3537 (electronic)

Green Energy and Technology
ISBN 978-3-030-05577-6 ISBN 978-3-030-05578-3 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-05578-3
© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part
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the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
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Preface

Solar photovoltaic energy systems (PVES) have been used to feed loads in remote
areas as well as in central power plants connected to the electric utility. Many
research works have been done to reduce the cost of the generated energy from the
PVES. One of the most important factors of research work is to reduce the cost of
generated energy by increasing the generated energy from the PVES by modifying
its performance operations. This can be achieved by tracking the maximum power
available from the PV systems which can increase the generated energy from PVES
considerably and reduce its cost. The device used to track the maximum power
available from the PVES is called maximum power point tracker (MPPT). MPPT
uses a controlled technique to control the power electronics converters to be sure it
extracts the maximum power available from the PVES. Conventional MPPT
techniques like perturb and observe, hill climbing, incremental conductance, etc.,
have been introduced a long time ago, and they were working for unshaded PVES
very well. But, in case of partial shading conditions, multi-peaks in the P-V curve
of the PV array are generated, and these peaks may trap the conventional techniques
to fall within one of the local peaks. With the advances of artificial intelligence, soft
computing, and metaheuristic techniques, this limitation can be overcome, whereas
metaheuristic techniques can track the global peaks in shaded or unshaded PVES
which became a new trend in the tracking of the maximum power of the PVES.
Many metaheuristic techniques are introduced and discussed in this book like
particle swarm optimization (PSO), gray wolf optimization (GWO), genetic algo-
rithm (GA), ant colony optimization (ACO), whale optimization (WO), simulated
annealing (SA), etc. Also, hybrid techniques between the metaheuristic and con-
ventional techniques or two hybrid metaheuristic techniques are introduced in many
chapters of this book.
This book introduces many chapters to deal with the maximum power tracking
of the PVES using modern MPPT techniques. This book introduces an overview
of the modeling of PVES and its performance characteristics in different operating
conditions. Also, a detailed description of the maximum power point variations in
case of shaded and unshaded conditions is presented. A detailed historical review
of the conventional and modern MPPT technique is also introduced to shed a light

v
vi Preface

on the development in this field. The most advanced techniques used as an MPPT
are introduced and discussed in this book. Many techniques to deal with the effects
of the partial shading on the PVES are also introduced and discussed. Many
practical projects in this field are introduced and discussed in detail. Also, detailed
power electronics circuits used as DC-DC converters have been introduced and
discussed in detail in many chapters of this book.
This book will be very interesting for the readers who are looking for using
PVES to feed loads in isolated areas as well as in the utility scale. It will also help
them to know the PVES characteristics, modeling, operation, challenges, maximum
power tracking, and practical implementation. This book will help the researchers,
designers, and operators, as well as undergraduate/postgraduate students, to be
familiar with the new trends of the field of PVES in general and MPPT in specific.

Mansoura, Egypt Ali M. Eltamaly

Cairo, Egypt Almoataz Y. Abdelaziz
Contents

History of Maximum Power Point Tracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Mazen Abdel-Salam, Mohamed-Tharwat EL-Mohandes
and Mohamed Goda
PV Characteristics, Performance and Modelling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Ali M. Eltamaly and Hassan M. H. Farh
Power Electronics for Practical Implementation of PV MPPT . . . . . . . . 65
Mohamed Abouelela
Maximum Power Extraction from the Photovoltaic System Under
Partial Shading Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Hassan M. H. Farh and Ali M. Eltamaly
Global Maximum Power Point Tracking-Based Computational
Intelligence Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
Doaa Mohamed Atia
On the Improvements of Perturb-and-Observe-Based MPPT
in PV Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
Mazen Abdel-Salam, Mohamed-Tharwat EL-Mohandes
and Mohamed Goda
Performance Analysis of Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT)
for PV Systems Under Real Meteorological Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
K. M. Abo-Al-Ez, S. S. Kaddah, S. Diab and El-H. Abdraboh
ANN and Multiple Linear Regression Based Modelling
for Experimental Investigation of Photovoltaic Module
Maximum Power Production Under Outdoor Condition
of Mountainous Region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
Amit Kumar Yadav and Hasmat Malik

vii
viii Contents

Adaptive Fuzzy Logic Controller as MPPT Optimization Technique

Applied to Grid-Connected PV Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
Mohamed M. Refaat, Yousry Atia, M. M. Sayed and Hossam Abdel Fattah
Performance Improvement of Perturb and Observe Maximum Power
Point Tracking Technique for Solar PV Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
Ihechiluru Fortune Anya, Chitta Saha, Hafiz Ahmed, M. N. Huda
and Sujan Rajbhandari
An Efficient MPPT and Reliable Protection Scheme for PV-Integrated
Microgrid Under Partial Shading and Array Faults . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
Murli Manohar, Ebha Koley and Subhojit Ghosh
Artificial Bee Colony-Based GMPPT for Non-homogeneous Operating
Conditions in a Bifacial CPVT System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
Cihan Demircan, Ali Keçebaş and Hilmi Cenk Bayrakçı
MPPT of PV System Under Partial Shading Conditions Based
on Hybrid Whale Optimization-Simulated Annealing Algorithm
(WOSA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
Ahmed A. Zaki Diab
MPPT-Based Particle Swarm and Cuckoo Search Algorithms
for PV Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
Farag K. Abo-Elyousr, Alaaeldin M. Abdelshafy
and Almoataz Y. Abdelaziz
A New Hybrid Moth Flame Optimizer-Perturb and Observe
Method for Maximum Power Point Tracking in Photovoltaic
Energy System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401
Saber Arabi Nowdeh, Mohammad Jafar Hadidian Moghaddam,
Shohreh Nasri, Almoataz Y. Abdelaziz, Mahmood Ghanbari and Iraj Faraji
A New Hybrid Method Based on Gray Wolf Optimizer-Crow Search
Algorithm for Maximum Power Point Tracking of Photovoltaic
Energy System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421
Faraji Davoodkhani, S. Arabi Nowdeh, Almoataz Y. Abdelaziz,
Saeedeh Mansoori, Sh. Nasri and Mohammad Alijani
Dynamic Modeling Analysis of Direct-Coupled Photovoltaic
Power Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439
Ahmed A. S. Mohamed
Status Monitoring and Performance Investigation of a 5.1 kW
Rooftop Grid-Tie Photovoltaic Energy System in Egypt . . . . . . . . . . . . 463
Ahmad H. Besheer, Mohamed A. Eldreny, Hassan Rashad
and Ahmed Bahgat
About the Editors

Dr. Ali M. Eltamaly (S’92–M’96-Ph.D.’2000)

received his B.Sc. and M.Sc. in electrical engineering
from Al-Minia University, Egypt, in 1992 and 1996,
respectively. He received his Ph.D. in electrical engi-
neering from Texas A&M University in 2000. He is
currently a professor at Mansoura University, Egypt,
and King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. His
current research interests include renewable energy,
smart grid, power electronics, motor drives, power
quality, artificial intelligence, evolutionary and heuristic
optimization techniques, and distributed generations.
He published more than 20 books and chapters, and he
has authored or coauthored more than 150 refereed
journal and conference papers. He published a number
of patents in the US patent office. He has supervised a
number of M.S. and Ph.D. theses, and worked on a
number of international technical projects. He got
Professor Award for Scientific Excellence, Egyptian
supreme council of Universities, Egypt, June 2017, and
he has been awarded many prizes in different univer-
sities in Egypt and Saudi Arabia. He is participating as
an editor and associate editor in many international
journals and chaired many international conferences’
sessions.

ix
x About the Editors

Almoataz Y. Abdelaziz (SMIEEE’2015) has received

his B.Sc. and M.Sc. in electrical engineering from Ain
Shams University, Cairo, Egypt, in 1985 and 1990,
respectively, and the Ph.D. in electrical engineering
according to the channel system between Ain Shams
University, Egypt, and Brunel University, UK, in 1996.
He is currently a professor of electrical power
engineering at Ain Shams University. He has authored
or coauthored more than 350 refereed journal and
conference papers and 20 chapters. He has supervised
more than 70 M.Sc. and 15 Ph.D. theses in his research
areas which include the applications of artificial
intelligence, and evolutionary and heuristic optimiza-
tion techniques to power systems, power system
operation, planning, and control.
He is the chairman of IEEE Education Society Chapter
in Egypt, a senior editor of Ain Shams Engineering
Journal, editor of Electric Power Components and
Systems journal, Editorial Board member, editor, asso-
ciate editor, and Editorial Advisory Board member for
many international journals.
He is also a senior member in IEEE, a member in IET
and the Egyptian Sub-Committees of IEC and Cigré. He
has been awarded many prizes for distinct researches and
for international publishing from Ain Shams University,
Egypt.
History of Maximum Power Point
Tracking

Mazen Abdel-Salam, Mohamed-Tharwat EL-Mohandes

and Mohamed Goda

Abstract With time, the conventional fossil fuels for generating electric loads are
depleted, so efforts are made to harness PV solar energy to serve the continuously
increasing electric loads. The energy conversion efficiency of PV modules is very
low, while they are expensive in price. This calls for operating the module at the max-
imum power point at all operating conditions. There exist numerous maximum power
point tracking techniques in today’s market to maintain the operation of PV module
at maximum power such as off-line techniques, on-line or hill-climbing (HC) tech-
niques and artificial intelligence (AI) techniques. Numerous approaches for improv-
ing, adapting, and optimizing these techniques have been published. However, they
differ in many aspects such as tracking speed, tracking accuracy, steady-state effi-
ciency and dynamic efficiency, number of sensors used, complexity, and cost. These
MPPT techniques fail or deviate from tracking the correct maximum power point
(MPP) under sudden or ramp variations of solar irradiation and ambient temperature
as well as under partial shading with oscillations around MPP. From 1954 to 2018, all
the researchers focused on MPPT, which is the main target of this chapter to follow
up the history of development maximum power point tracking in PV systems as well
as exploring the advantages and disadvantages of the many proposed MPPT methods
in the literature. The history includes the off-line and on-line MPPT techniques along
with their improvements as documented in the literature over the period 1954–2018.
This chapter is framed as a review chapter.

M. Abdel-Salam · M.-T. EL-Mohandes

Electrical Engineering Department, Assiut University, Assiut, Egypt
M. Goda (B)
Electrical Engineering Department, Ahram Canadian University, Giza, Egypt
e-mail: goda.masr@hotmail.com

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 1

A. M. Eltamaly and A. Y. Abdelaziz (eds.), Modern Maximum Power Point
Tracking Techniques for Photovoltaic Energy Systems, Green Energy
and Technology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-05578-3_1
2 M. Abdel-Salam et al.

1 Introduction

In 1954, Fuller et al. had received a patent-pending prize in physics for their first
practical photovoltaic cell.
When the PV module is directly coupled to a resistive load, “e.g., DC lamp”
as shown in Fig. 1, or to a dynamic load, “e.g., DC motor” as shown in Fig. 2,
the module output current (I) and voltage (V ) depend on the module’s operating
point. The module’s operating point is located at the intersection of module and load
I–V curves as shown in Fig. 3. Unfortunately, the module I–V curve is non-linear
with only one maximum power point (MPP) at which the intersection rarely occurs.
Also, the module I–V and P–V curves change under varying irradiation and ambient
temperature conditions making the new location of the MPP as shown in Fig. 4.
When the module/array is partially shaded, the P–V curve has multi-peaks as shown
in Fig. 5.
Starting in “1954,” the maximum power point tracking (MPPT) is the aim of
researchers to enhance efficiency and improve the performance of the PV systems.
MPP trackers are divided into two types: mechanical single- and dual-axis trackers
and electrical trackers. The mechanical tracker “sun tracker” is a way to direct the PV
module to follow the sun. However, this type is complex and costly in implementation
and has low efficiency. Therefore, all attempts by scientists have been directed toward
electrical tracking.
Electrical MPPT techniques are classified into three families: (i) off-line tech-
niques such as fractional open-circuit voltage (FOCV) and fractional short-circuit

Fig. 1 PV panel connected

to a resistive load (R)

Fig. 2 PV panel connected

to a dynamic load
History of Maximum Power Point Tracking 3

Fig. 3 Location of operating point as influenced by load resistance (R)

Fig. 4 Location of MPP as influenced by irradiation level

current (FSCC) techniques; (ii) on-line or hill-climbing (HC) techniques such as

perturb-and-observe (P&O) and incremental conductance (InCond) techniques; (iii)
artificial intelligence (AI) techniques including fuzzy logic control (FLC) technique,
artificial neural network (ANN) technique, particle swarm optimization (PSO) tech-
nique, and genetic algorithm (GA), Fig. 6.
These MPPT techniques fail or deviate from tracking the correct maximum power
point (MPP) under sudden or ramp variations of solar irradiation and ambient tem-
perature as well as under partial shading with oscillations around MPP as shown in
Fig. 7. This chapter is aimed at reporting on the history of the off- and on-line MPPT
4 M. Abdel-Salam et al.

Fig. 5 Multi-MPP under partial shading conditions

Fig. 6 MPPT techniques

techniques along with their improvements as documented in the literature over the
period 1954–2018.
From 1954 to 1988, all the researchers focused on MPPT by selecting the module
and/or load to ensure that the intersection point of the module and load current–volt-
age characteristic curves lies near to the MPP. Because this matching is not always
satisfied under varying irradiation level and ambient temperature, some researchers
over this period tried to find proper parameters of a battery to be connected to the PV
system in order to improve the matching between module and load characteristics.
In 1961, Hooke et al. made a design study on a resistive load to ensure that
the intersection point of the I–V curves of the module and a resistive load is the
MPP. In 1976, Biran et al. made a design study on a dynamic load to ensure that
the intersection point of the I–V curves of the module and a dynamic load is the
MPP. In 1977, Braunstein made a design study on a battery load to ensure that the
intersection point of the I–V curves of the module and a battery load is the MPP.
In 1977, Appelbaum focused in his design study on both resistive load and storage
History of Maximum Power Point Tracking 5

Fig. 7 Challenges facing MPPT techniques

battery fed from a PV system. In 1985, Anis et al. focused in their design study on a
volumetric pump driven by a PV system. In 1988, Saied et al. focused in their design
study on DC motor supplied by a PV system. In 1989, Khouzam et al. focused in
their design study on centrifugal pumps driven by a PV system.

2 On-line Techniques

The name of “on-line” refers to operation of the MPP tracker with no need to switch
the PV system off. The on-line or hill-climbing (HC) techniques were introduced
before the off-line techniques. The on-line techniques include perturb-and-observe
(P&O) and incremental conductance (InCond) techniques. The classical P&O tech-
nique had preceded the classical InCond technique in PV applications.

2.1 Classical Perturb-and-Observe (P&O) Technique

In this technique, the tracker of the classical P&O technique is based on perturbing
the module operating voltage in any direction whatever increase or decrease of its
value and observing the polarity of output power which detects the direction of the
coming perturbation. The steady-state efficiency of the classical P&O technique is
equal to 96.98%, and its dynamic efficiency is equal to 91.9% [1].
6 M. Abdel-Salam et al.

2.1.1 History of the Classical Perturb-and-Observe (P&O) Technique

In 1979, Fox et al. had the primacy in underlining the principle of P&O by using
the fundamentals of hill-climbing technique which is a mathematical optimization
technique that belongs to the family of local search. Schoeman et al. [2] presented the
final version of the computational flowchart of the classical P&O technique. Since
then, the researchers have been pursuing the development of this classical P&O
technique based on the following directions:
Hint: All the modified P&O techniques proposed by Refs. [1, 3–18] are explained
in detail in Chapter I through step-by-step flowcharts with particular emphasis on
their advantages and drawbacks.
(i) Using variable step size to improve performance [7, 10, 16–27], Fig. 8.

Fig. 8 History of P&O technique as regards fixed step size, combination, observation (I, V,
P), three-point comparison, and variable step size
18 M. Abdel-Salam et al.

Fig. 13 History of FOCV technique

of the proposed technique is equal to 97%, and its dynamic efficiency is equal to
95%.
In 2008, Yuvarajan et al. proposed a modified P&O technique depending on
fractional open-circuit voltage (FOCV) technique. The dynamic efficiency of the
proposed technique is equal to 98.5%. The proposed technique is more accurate
when compared with the classical P&O.
In 2016, Shebani et al. proposed a bisection numerical technique (BNA) based
on FOCV technique. The BNA technique showed more accuracy when compared
with FOCV technique under different irradiation levels. The proposed method has
Another random document with
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commission, appointed in 1893, had already examined with great
thoroughness and no definite result, was referred in 1896 to a
committee of financial experts, with Lord Rothschild at their
head. This committee reported that it could recommend no
scheme as satisfactory, though it put forward that of Sir
Spencer Walpole as open to less objection than others. The
scheme in question was as follows:

"1. Any person at 65 having an assured income of not less than

2s. 6d. and not more than 5s. may apply for a pension.

2. If the pensioning authority is satisfied as to the income a

pension may be granted.

3. The applicant must not be physically or mentally infirm.

4. To an income of 2s. 6d. 2s. 6d. is to be added.

To an income of 3s. 0d. 2s. 0d. is to be added.
To an income of 4s. 0d. 1s. 0d. is to be added.

5. 'Assured income' includes real estate, leasehold property,

securities, or annuities (Government, friendly society, or
insurance office), but not out-relief.

6. The guardians are to be the pensioning authority.

7. Not more than half of the pension is to be paid out of

Imperial taxation, the remainder out of local rates.

8. The pension is not to involve disenfranchisement."

The committee, however, pointed out some very strong

objections to this scheme, which they roughly estimated as
likely to apply to 443,333 persons, and to cost £2,300,000 a
year. On the whole, while they regarded the Walpole scheme as
the best suggested, the Rothschild committee held that, like
the rest, its inherent disadvantages outweighed its merits. In
 effect, they pronounced the establishment of old-age pensions
to be impracticable.

{205}

ENGLAND: A. D. 1896.
Report of Royal Commission on the financial relations
between Great Britain and Ireland.

See (in this volume)

IRELAND: A. D. 1896-1897.

ENGLAND: A. D. 1896 (January).

Agreement with France concerning Siam.

See (in this volume)

SIAM: A. D. 1896-1899.

ENGLAND: A. D. 1896 (January).

Excitement over the German Emperor's message to President
Kruger on the Jameson Raid.

See (in this volume)

SOUTH AFRICA (THE TRANSVAAL): A. D. 1896 (JANUARY).

ENGLAND: A. D. 1896 (January-February).

Appointment of United States Commission to investigate
the Venezuela boundary.
Reopening of discussion with the government of the United
States on the arbitration of the dispute.

See (in this volume)

VENEZUELA: A. D. 1896-1899.

ENGLAND: A. D. 1896 (February).

New treaty with the United States for arbitration of
Bering Sea claims.
 See (in this volume)
BERING SEA QUESTIONS.

ENGLAND: A. D. 1896 (March-September).

Expedition to Dongola.
Beginning of an Anglo-Egyptian movement for the
recovery of the Sudan.

See (in this volume)

EGYPT: A. D. 1885-1896.

ENGLAND: A. D. 1896 (May).

The New Radical party.

A New Radical party, under the leadership of Sir Charles Dilke

and Mr. Labouchere, issued a statement of its policy (May 19),
setting forth as its chief aim "the democritisation and
devolution of Parliament."

ENGLAND: A. D. 1896 (June).

The Agricultural Land Bill.

Among the measures brought forward in Parliament this year and

carried by the Conservative government was one which aroused
bitter feeling and was sharply denounced, as being legislation
in the interest of the landholding class, at the expense of
the community at large. A ground of justice for it was found
by its supporters, however, in the extreme agricultural
depression of the time. This Agricultural Land Bill, as it was
styled, provided that, in the case of every rate to which it
applied, agricultural land should be assessed in future on
half its ratable value, while houses and buildings would still
be assessed on the whole of their ratable value. The bill
passed the Commons near the end of June, and went speedily
through the House of Lords.
ENGLAND: A. D. 1896 (July).
Parliamentary movement to investigate the
British South Africa Company.

See (in this volume)

SOUTH AFRICA (BRITISH SOUTH AFRICA COMPANY);
A. D. 1896 (JULY).

ENGLAND: A. D. 1896 (August).

Suppression of an usurper in Zanzibar.

See (in this volume)

AFRICA: A. D. 1896 (ZANZIBAR).

ENGLAND: A. D. 1896 (September).

Papal Bull declaring Anglican orders invalid.

See (in this volume)

PAPACY: A. D. 1896 (SEPTEMBER).

ENGLAND: A. D. 1896 (November).

Agreement with the United States for the settlement of the
Venezuela dispute.

See (in this volume)

VENEZUELA: A. D. 1896-1899.

ENGLAND: A. D. 1896-1897.
"The Voluntary Schools Act" and
"The Elementary Education Act."

The Conservative Ministry of Lord Salisbury came to power, in

England, in 1895, under pledges to the Church that it would
revise the educational system in the interest of the
"Voluntary Schools" (mostly Church schools), as against the
secular or non-sectarian "Board Schools" which were steadily
gaining ground from the former, and proving superior
efficiency.

See, in volume 1,
EDUCATION, MODERN: ENGLAND: A. D. 1699-1870.

A bill to that end, for England and Wales, was introduced at

the end of March, 1896. In support of the bill it was stated
that, in the previous year, the voluntary schools educated
2,445,812 children, as against 1,879,218 educated in the board
schools, though the voluntary schools were, as a rule,
"understaffed," had less qualified teachers, and labored
generally under financial difficulties; but that a large
proportion of the members of the Church of England, as well as
Roman Catholics, made it a point of conscience that their
children should be educated by teachers of their own
denomination, and could not be forced to send them to board
schools without a gross exercise of religious intolerance;
that, finally, it would cost £25,345,635 to replace the
voluntary schools, and £2,250,000 yearly to maintain board
schools in their place, if they were not kept up. Therefore,
it was contended that they should receive a more liberal
allowance of state aid by parliamentary grant, to keep them
alive and improve their efficiency. Connected with provisions
to that effect were others which would completely reorganize
the system of school administration and control. They proposed
to take the administration to a great extent from the
Committee of Council on Education, where it had been
centralized, and to place it in the County Councils, to be
exercised by statutory educational committees appointed by
each Council. By what was called a "conscience clause," the
bill required separate religious instruction to be given to
children in schools (board or voluntary) wherever a
"reasonable number of parents" required it. The measure was
strenuously opposed on the ground that its aim was the
extinction of the board schools; that it would give them only
£17,000 out of £500,000, and give it, said Lord Rosebery,
"without any vestige of control, so that in 8,000 places where
 only Church of England schools existed the Nonconformists
would have only the vague protection of the conscience
clause." So much debate was provoked by the bill, and so much
time was being consumed by it, that the Government was forced
to drop the measure in June, in order to save the other
business of the session from being spoiled,—promising,
however, to bring it forward again the next January. The
promise was redeemed, on the convening of Parliament in
January, 1897, in so far that a new Education Bill was brought
forward by the government; but the measure was very different
from that of the previous session. It was addressed solely to
the end of strengthening the voluntary or Church schools
against the board schools, firstly by increasing the aid to
them from public funds, and secondly by uniting them in
organized associations, under stronger governing bodies. The
main provisions of the bill were as follows:

"(1.) For aiding voluntary schools there shall be annually

paid out of moneys provided by Parliament an aid grant, not
exceeding in the aggregate five shillings per scholar for the
whole number of scholars in those schools.

{206}

"(2.) The aid grant shall be distributed by the Education

Department to such voluntary schools and in such manner and
amounts, as the Department think best for the purpose of
helping necessitous schools and increasing their efficiency,
due regard being had to the maintenance of voluntary
subscriptions.

"(3.) If associations of schools are constituted in such

manner in such areas and with such governing bodies
representative of the managers as are approved by the
Education Department, there shall be allotted to each
association while so approved, (a) a share of the aid
grant to be computed according to the number of scholars in
the schools of the association at the rate of five shillings
per scholar, or, if the Department fix different rates for
town and country schools respectively (which they are hereby
empowered to do) then at those rates; and (b) a
corresponding share of any sum which may be available out of
the aid grant after distribution has been made to unassociated
schools.

"(4.) The share so allotted to each such association shall be

distributed as aforesaid by the Education Department after
consulting the governing body of the association, and in
accordance with any scheme prepared by that body which the
Department for the time being approve.

"(5.) The Education Department may exclude a school from any

share of the aid grant which it might otherwise receive, if,
in the opinion of the Department, it unreasonably refuses or
fails to join such an association, but the refusal or failure
shall not be deemed unreasonable if the majority of the
schools in the association belong to a religious denomination
to which the school in question does not itself belong.

"(6.) The Education Department may require, as a condition of

a school receiving a share of the aid grant, that the accounts
of the receipts and expenditure of the school shall be
annually audited in accordance with the regulations of the
Department.

"(7.) The decision of the Education Department upon any

question relating to the distribution or allotment of the aid
grant, including the question whether an association is or is
not in conformity with this Act, and whether a school is a
town or a country school, shall be final."

The passage of the bill was resisted strenuously by the

Liberals in the House of Commons. "Whether they regarded the
bill from an educational, a constitutional, a parliamentary,
 or a social aspect," said Mr. John Morley, in his concluding
speech in the debate, "he and his friends regarded it as a
mischievous and reactionary measure." But the opposition was
of no avail. The bill passed its third reading in the House of
Commons, on the 25th of March, with a majority of 200 in its
favor, the Irish Nationalists giving it their support. In the
House of Lords it was ruled to be a money bill, which their
lordships could not amend, and they passed it with little
debate. In April, the government brought forward a second
school bill, which increased the parliamentary grant to Board
schools by £110,000. The sum was so trivial that it excited
the scorn of the friends of the Board schools, and did nothing
towards conciliating them. It became a law on the 3d of June.

ENGLAND: A. D. 1896-1897 (May-April).

Continued controversies with the South African Republic.

See (in this volume)

SOUTH AFRICA (THE TRANSVAAL): A. D. 1896-1897 (MAY-
APRIL).

ENGLAND: A. D. 1897 (January-May).

Arbitration Treaty with the United States defeated in
the United States Senate.

See (in this volume)

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1897 (JANUARY-MAY).

ENGLAND: A. D. 1897 (February).

Indemnity for Jameson Raid claimed
by the South African Republic.

See (in this volume)

SOUTH AFRICA (THE TRANSVAAL):
A. D. 1897 (FEBRUARY).

ENGLAND: A. D. 1897 (February).

 Loan for national defense.
Purchase of 60 square miles on Salisbury Plain.

A bill which authorized a loan of £5,458,000 for purposes of

national defense was passed rapidly through both Houses of
Parliament in February. It included an item of £450,000 for
the purchase of 40,000 acres (60 square miles) on Salisbury
Plain, for military manœuvres.

ENGLAND: A. D. 1897 (February).

Punitive expedition against Benin.

See (in this volume)

NIGERIA: A. D. 1897.

ENGLAND: A. D. 1897 (February-July).

Parliamentary investigation of the Jameson Raid.

See (in this volume)

SOUTH AFRICA (THE TRANSVAAL): A. D. 1897 (FEBRUARY-
JULY).

ENGLAND: A. D. 1897 (April).

Increase of armament in South Africa.
The Government accused of a war policy.

See (in this volume)

SOUTH AFRICA (THE TRANSVAAL): A. D. 1897 (APRIL).

ENGLAND: A. D. 1897 (May).

Treaty with Menelek of Abyssinia.

See (in this volume)

ABYSSINIA: A. D. 1897.

ENGLAND: A. D. 1897 (May-June).

New cessions and concessions from China.
 See (in this volume)
CHINA: A. D. 1897 (MAY-JUNE).

ENGLAND: A. D. 1897 (May-July).

The Workmen's Compensation Act.

A subject which had grown urgent, in England, for

parliamentary attention, was that of a better provision in law
for securing proper compensation to workmen for accidental
injuries suffered in the course of their employment. The
measure was not one that a Conservative government would be
likely, under ordinary circumstances, to take up; since the
class of large employers of labor, from which opposition to it
came, were mostly in the Conservative ranks. But the Liberal
Unionists, now in parliamentary coalition with the
Conservatives, were called upon to favor such a piece of
legislation by their creed, and rumor said that they bargained
for it with their political partners, in exchange for the
support they gave unwillingly to the Voluntary Schools Bill.
At all events, a bill which was first called the Employers'
Liability Bill, but finally named the Workmen's Compensation
Bill, was brought in to the House of Commons, by the
government, in May, and was carried, after much debate,
through both Houses in July. The essential provisions of the
Act as passed are the following:

"I.
(1.) If in any employment to which this Act applies personal
injury by accident arising out of and in the course of the
employment is caused to a workman, his employer shall, subject
as herein-after mentioned, be liable to pay compensation in
accordance with the First Schedule to this Act.

{207}

(2.) Provided that:

 (a.) The employer shall not be liable under this Act in
respect of any injury which does not disable the workman
for a period of at least two weeks from earning full wages
at the work at which he was employed;

(b.) When the injury was caused by the personal negligence

or wilful act of the employer, or of some person for whose
act or default the employer is responsible, nothing in this
Act shall affect any civil liability of the employer, but in
that case the workman may, at his option, either claim
compensation under this Act, or take the same proceedings as
were open to him before the commencement of this Act; but
the employer shall not be liable to pay compensation for
injury to a workman by accident arising out of and in the
course of the employment both independently of and also
under this Act, and shall not be liable to any proceedings
independently of this Act, except in case of such personal
negligence or wilful act as aforesaid;

(c.) If it is proved that the injury to a workman is

attributable to the serious and wilful misconduct of that
workman, any compensation claimed in respect of that injury
shall be disallowed.

(3.) If any question arises in any proceedings under this Act

as to the liability to pay compensation under this Act
(including any question as to whether the employment is one to
which this Act applies), or as to the amount or duration of
compensation under this Act, the question, if not settled by
agreement, shall, subject to the provisions of the First
Schedule to this Act, be settled by arbitration, in accordance
with the Second Schedule to this Act. …

"2.
(1.)
Proceedings for the recovery under this Act of compensation
for an injury shall not be maintainable unless notice of the
accident has been given as soon as practicable after the
happening thereof and before the workman has voluntarily left
the employment in which he was injured, and unless the claim
for compensation with respect to such accident has been made
within six months from the occurrence of the accident causing
the injury, or, in case of death, within six months from the
time of death. …

"3.
(1.)
If the Registrar of Friendly Societies, after taking steps to
ascertain the views of the employer and workmen, certifies
that any scheme of compensation, benefit, or insurance for the
workmen of an employer in any employment, whether or not such
scheme includes other employers and their workmen, is on the
whole not less favourable to the general body of workmen and
their dependants than the provisions of this Act, the employer
may, until the certificate is revoked, contract with any of
those workmen that the provisions of the scheme shall be
substituted for the provisions of this Act, and thereupon the
employer shall be liable only in accordance with the scheme,
but, save as aforesaid, this Act shall apply notwithstanding
any contract to the contrary made after the commencement of
this Act. …

"7.
(1.)
This Act shall apply only to employment by the undertakers as
herein-after defined, on or in or about a railway, factory,
mine, quarry, or engineering work, and to employment by the
undertakers as herein-after defined on, in or about any
building which exceeds thirty feet in height, and is either
being constructed or repaired by means of a scaffolding, or
being demolished, or on which machinery driven by steam,
water, or other mechanical power, is being used for the
purpose of the construction, repair, or demolition thereof.
(2.)
In this Act— … 'Undertakers' in the case of a railway means
the railway company; in the case of a factory, quarry, or
laundry means the occupier thereof within the meaning of the
Factory and Workshop Acts, 1878 to 1895; in the case of a mine
means the owner thereof within the meaning of the Coal Mines
Regulation Act, 1887, or the Metalliferous Mines Regulation
Act, 1872, as the case may be, and in the case of an
engineering work means the person undertaking the
construction, alteration, or repair; and in the case of a
building means the persons undertaking the construction,
repair, or demolition. … 'Workman' includes every person who
is engaged in an employment to which this Act applies, whether
by way of manual labour or otherwise, and whether his
agreement is one of service or apprenticeship or otherwise,
and is expressed or implied, is oral or in writing."

The "First Schedule" referred to in the first section of the

Act prescribes rules for determining compensation, those
principally important being as follows; "The amount of
compensation under this Act shall be—(a) where death results
from the injury—(i) if the workman leaves any dependants
wholly dependent upon his earnings at the time of his death, a
sum equal to his earnings in the employment of the same
employer during the three years next preceding the injury, or
the sum of one hundred and fifty pounds, whichever of those
sums is the larger, but not exceeding in any case three
hundred pounds, provided that the amount of any weekly
payments made under this Act shall be deducted from such sum,
and if the period of the workman's employment by the said
employer has been less than the said three years, then the
amount of his earnings during the said three years shall be
deemed to be 156 times his average weekly earnings during the
period of his actual employment under the said employer;

(ii)
 if the workman does not leave any such dependants, but leaves
any dependants in part dependent upon his earnings at the time
of his death, such sum, not exceeding in any case the amount
payable under the foregoing provisions, as may be agreed upon,
or, in default of agreement, may be determined, on arbitration
under this Act, to be reasonable and proportionate to the
injury to the said dependants; and

(iii)
if he leaves no dependants, the reasonable expenses of his
medical attendance and burial, not exceeding ten pounds; (b)
where total or partial incapacity for work results from the
injury, a weekly payment during the incapacity after the
second week not exceeding fifty per cent. of his average
weekly earnings during the previous twelve months, if he has
been so long employed, but if not, then for any less period
during which he has been in the employment of the same
employer, such weekly payment not to exceed one pound."

60 & 61 Victoria, chapter 37.

ENGLAND: A. D. 1897 (May-October).

Reassertion of suzerainty over the South African Republic.
Refusal of arbitration.

See (in this volume)

SOUTH AFRICA (THE TRANSVAAL):
A. D. 1897 (MAY-OCTOBER); and 1898-1899.

{208}

ENGLAND: A. D. 1897 (June).

The "Diamond Jubilee" of Queen Victoria.

The sixtieth anniversary of the coronation of Queen Victoria

was celebrated in London on the 20th of June, by religious
services of great solemnity and impressiveness, and, two days
 later, by pageants of extraordinary pomp and magnificence, in
which representatives of every people who acknowledge the
queen's supremacy bore a part. Numerous functions and
ceremonies followed, to many of which the aged sovereign was
able to lend her presence. At the end of all, on the 15th of
July, she addressed the following letter to the millions of
her subjects throughout the world: "I have frequently
expressed my personal feelings to my people, and though on
this memorable occasion there have been many official
expressions of my deep sense of the unbounded loyalty evinced
I cannot rest satisfied without personally giving utterance to
these sentiments. It is difficult for me on this occasion to
say how truly touched and grateful I am for the spontaneous
and universal outburst of loyal attachment and real affection
which I have experienced on the completion of the sixtieth
year of my reign. During my progress through London on the
22nd of June this great enthusiasm was shown in the most
striking manner, and can never be effaced from my heart. It is
indeed deeply gratifying, after so many years of labour and
anxiety for the good of my beloved country, to find that my
exertions have been appreciated throughout my vast empire. In
weal and woe I have ever had the true sympathy of all my
people, which has been warmly reciprocated by myself. It has
given me unbounded pleasure to see so many of my subjects from
all parts of the world assembled here, and to find them
joining in the acclamations of loyal devotion to myself, and I
would wish to thank them all from the depth of my grateful
heart. I shall ever pray God to bless them and to enable me
still to discharge my duties for their welfare as long as life
lasts.
VICTORIA, R. I."

ENGLAND: A. D. 1897 (June-July).

Conference of colonial premiers with the Secretary of
State for the Colonies.
Discussion of important questions.
Denunciation of commercial treaties with Germany and Belgium.
"On Thursday, the 24th of June, the Prime Ministers of Canada,
New South Wales, Victoria, New Zealand, Queensland, Cape
Colony, South Australia, Newfoundland, Tasmania, Western
Australia, and Natal, assembled at the Colonial Office,
Downing Street, for the discussion of certain Imperial
questions with the Secretary of State for the Colonies. It was
decided that the proceedings should be informal and that the
general results only should be published. With the view of
giving a definite direction to the discussion, the Secretary
of State, in opening the proceedings, set forth the subjects
which he considered might usefully be discussed, so as to
secure an interchange of views upon them, and where they were
ripe for a statement of opinion, a definite resolution in
regard to them. [He did so in a speech of some length, after
which the several questions brought forward in his remarks
were discussed in succession at a series of meetings in the
Colonial Office.] The commercial relations of the United
Kingdom and the self-governing Colonies were first considered,
and the following resolutions were unanimously adopted:

1. That the Premiers of the self-governing Colonies

unanimously and earnestly recommend the denunciation, at the
earliest convenient time, of any treaties which now hamper the
commercial relations between Great Britain and her Colonies.

2. That in the hope of improving the trade relations between

the mother country and the Colonies, the Premiers present
undertake to confer with their colleagues with the view to
seeing whether such a result can be properly secured by a
preference given by the Colonies to the products of the United
Kingdom. Her Majesty's Government have already [July 31, 1897]
given effect to the first of these resolutions by formally
notifying to the Governments concerned their wish to terminate
the commercial treaties with Germany and Belgium, which alone
of the existing commercial treaties of the United Kingdom are
a bar to the establishment of preferential tariff relations
between the mother country and the Colonies. From and after
the 30th July 1898, therefore, there will be nothing in any of
Her Majesty's treaty obligations to preclude any action which any
of the Colonies may see fit to take in pursuance of the second
resolution. It is, however, right to point out that if any
Colony were to go farther and to grant preferential terms to
any Foreign Country, the provisions of the most favoured
nation clauses in many treaties between Her Majesty and other
powers, in which the Colonies are included, would necessitate
the concession of similar terms to those countries.

"On the question of the political relations between the mother

country and the self-governing Colonies, the resolutions
adopted were as follows:

1. The Prime Ministers here assembled are of opinion that the

present political relations between the United Kingdom and the
self-governing Colonies are generally satisfactory under the
existing condition of things. Mr. Seddon and Sir E. N. C.
Braddon dissented.

2. They are also of opinion that it is desirable, whenever and

wherever practicable, to group together under a federal union
those colonies which are geographically united. Carried
unanimously.

3. Meanwhile, the Premiers are of opinion that it would be

desirable to hold periodical conferences of representatives of
the Colonies and Great Britain for the discussion of matters
of common interest. Carried unanimously. Mr. Seddon and Sir E.
N. C. Braddon dissented from the first resolution because they
were of opinion that the time had already come when an effort
should be made to render more formal the political ties
between the United Kingdom and the Colonies. The majority of
the Premiers were not yet prepared to adopt this position, but
there was a strong feeling amongst some of them that with the
rapid growth of population in the Colonies, the present
 relations could not continue indefinitely, and that some means
would have to be devised for giving the Colonies a voice in
the control and direction of those questions of Imperial
interest in which they are concerned equally with the mother
country. It was recognised at the same time that such a share
in the direction of Imperial policy would involve a
proportionate contribution in aid of Imperial expenditure, for
which at present, at any rate, the Colonies generally are not
prepared.

"On the question of Imperial defence, the various points

raised in the speech of the Secretary of State were fully
discussed;" but on this, and on some questions of minor
importance, no conclusions were definitely formulated.

Great Britain, Parliamentary Publications

(Papers by Command, C.-8596, 1897).

{209}

The following reference to the "denunciation" of the treaties

appeared in the "London Statist" of August 7, 1897: "Last week
the British Government gave notice to Germany and Belgium of
its intention to terminate the commercial treaties with those
countries at the end of July next year, at the same time
expressing its willingness to conclude fresh treaties. This
important step is a fitting sequel to the jubilee festivities.
It is a graceful recognition of the great loyalty displayed by
our colonies toward the mother country and prepares the way to
that closer union which this paper has strongly advocated. In
twelve months' time, therefore, we shall be free from our
embarrassing engagements not to permit our colonies to place
higher or other import duties on the produce of Germany and
Belgium than upon the produce of the United Kingdom. Our
colonies will thus have complete freedom to place what duties
they choose on any produce they care to purchase from the
United Kingdom or from any other country, and if they so
 desire they may place discriminating duties on their own
exports. The action taken indicates no change in the policy of
this country, and foreign nations need have no fear that
British markets will be closed to their produce. It is quite
possible that at some future time, when the colonies have much
further developed their resources and the struggle for
existence becomes still keener, we may be disposed to give a
greater preference to colonial than to foreign produce, but
that period has not yet come. Of course, the time may be
greatly hastened by the attitude of foreign countries. The
unfriendliness of Germany last year caused a wave of feeling
in this country in favor of a duty upon German goods, and the
Canadian offer of preferential duties to the mother country
has created a responsive desire to assist Canadian trade.
Should our other colonies follow the lead of Canada, which,
from Mr. Chamberlain's statement, appears most likely, a
strong movement might arise for giving them preferential
treatment, especially if, at the same time, Germany, Belgium,
or anyone else were disposed to raise their duties on British
goods."

ENGLAND: A. D. 1897 (July-October).

Discussion with American envoys of a bi-metallic agreement.

See (in this volume)

MONETARY QUESTIONS: A. D. 1897 (APRIL-OCTOBER).

ENGLAND: A. D. 1897 (August).

Report on condition and prospects of West India colonies,
and Parliamentary action.

See (in this volume)

WEST INDIES, THE BRITISH: A. D. 1897.

ENGLAND: A. D. 1897-1898.
Campaigns on the Nile.
Anglo-Egyptian conquest of the Sudan.
 See (in this volume)
EGYPT: A. D. 1897-1898.

ENGLAND: A. D. 1897-1898.
Insurrections and mutiny in Uganda.

See (in this volume)

UGANDA: A. D. 1897-1898.

ENGLAND: A. D. 1897-1898 (June-April).

Wars on the Afghan frontier of India.

See (in this volume)

INDIA: A. D. 1897-1898.

ENGLAND: A. D. 1897-1898 (July-January).

The great strike and lock-out in the engineering trades.

See (in this volume)

INDUSTRIAL DISTURBANCES:
A. D. 1897 (GREAT BRITAIN).

ENGLAND: A. D. 1898.
Alleged treaty with Portugal.

See (in this volume)

PORTUGAL: A. D. 1898.

ENGLAND: A. D. 1898.
Results of British occupation of Egypt.

See (in this volume)

EGYPT: A. D. 1898.

ENGLAND: A. D. 1898 (February).

British troops fighting in eight regions of the world.