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Undergraduate Lecture Notes in Physics
Albrecht Lindner
Dieter Strauch
A Complete
Course on
Theoretical
Physics
From Classical Mechanics to Advanced
Quantum Statistics
Series editors
Neil Ashby, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, USA
William Brantley, Department of Physics, Furman University, Greenville, SC, USA
Matthew Deady, Physics Program, Bard College, Annandale-on-Hudson, NY, USA
Michael Fowler, Department of Physics, University of Virginia, Charlottesville,
VA, USA
Morten Hjorth-Jensen, Department of Physics, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
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Albrecht Lindner Dieter Strauch
•
A Complete Course
on Theoretical Physics
From Classical Mechanics to Advanced
Quantum Statistics
123
Albrecht Lindner Dieter Strauch
Pinneberg, Germany Theoretical Physics
University of Regensburg
Regensburg, Germany
ISSN 2192-4791 ISSN 2192-4805 (electronic)

ISBN 978-3-030-04359-9 ISBN 978-3-030-04360-5 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-04360-5
Library of Congress Control Number: 2018961698
The original, German edition was published in 2011 under the title “Grundkurs Theoretische Physik”.
© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2018
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part
of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations,
recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission
or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar
methodology now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from
the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this
book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the
authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or
for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to
jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
In memory of Albrecht Lindner (1935–2005),
scientist, teacher, friend
Preface
This textbook is a translation of the third German edition of Grundkurs

Theoretische Physik (A Basic Course on Theoretical Physics), originally published
by Teubner, Stuttgart, Germany. Actually, this edition is much more than a typical
textbook since it offers a mixture of basic and advanced material of all of the
fundamental disciplines of theoretical physics in one volume, whence it may well
serve also as a reference book. The large number of cross-references will guide the
reader from the basic experimental observations to the construction of a “unified”
theory, and the present compactness should ensure that the reader does not get lost
along the way.
A wide range of problems invite the reader to tackle further applications at
various stages of sophistication, and a list of textbooks offers the way forward to
possible open questions.
The material itself and the way it is presented is due to the late Albrecht Lindner.
My contribution is restricted merely to the translation into the English language; in
fact, my sincerest gratitude goes to Dr. Steven Lyle who corrected the translation in
manly places; whatever remains of insufficient vocabulary or grammar is due to my
limited mastery of the language. The only changes I have made are to adjust to the
publisher’s requirements, made some changes in the numerical tables as to be
expected from May 2019 on, and adapt the list of textbooks to an English-speaking
readership.
I am proud, nevertheless, to present this book to the English-speaking
community.
Regensburg, Germany Dieter Strauch
vii
Preface to the First German Edition
Like the standard course in theoretical physics, the present book introduces the
physics of particles under the heading Classical Mechanics, the physics of fields
under Electromagnetism, quantum physics under Quantum Mechanics I, and sta-
tistical physics under Thermodynamics and Statistics. Besides these branches,
which would form a curriculum for all students of physics, there is a complement
entitled Quantum Mechanics II, for those who wish to obtain a deeper under-
standing of the theory, which discusses scattering problems, quantization of fields,
and Dirac theory (as an example of relativistic quantum mechanics).
The goal here is to stress the interrelations between the individual subjects. In an
introductory chapter, there is a summary of the most important parts mathematical
tools repeatedly needed in the different branches of physics. These constitute the
mathematical foundation for rationalizing our practical experience, since we wish
to describe our observations as precisely as possible.
The selection of material was mainly inspired by our local physics diploma
curriculum. Only in a few places did I go beyond those limits, e.g., in Sect. 4.6
(quantum theory and dissipation), Sect. 5.2 (three-body scattering), and Sect. 5.4
(quasi-particles, quantum optics), since I have the impression that the essentials can
also be worked out rather easily in these areas.
Section 5.5 on the Dirac equation also differs from the standard presentation,
because I prefer the Weyl representation over the standard representation—despite
my intention to avoid any special representation as far as possible. In this respect, I
am grateful to my colleagues Till Anders (Munich), Dietmar Kolb (Kassel), und
Gernot Münster (Münster) for their valuable comments on my drafts.
Thanks go also to numerous students in Hamburg and especially to Dr. Heino
Freese and Dr. Adolf Kitz for many questions and suggestions, and various forms
of support. The general interest in my notes encourages me to present these now to
a larger community.
(Notes on figure production are left out here—D.S.)
Hamburg, Germany Albrecht Lindner

Fall 1993
ix
Preface to the Second German Edition
The text has been improved at many places, in particular in Sects. 3.5 and 5.4, and
all figures have been inserted with pstricks. In addition, three-dimensional objects
now appear in central instead of of parallel perspetive.
Hamburg, Germany Albrecht Lindner

Summer 1996
xi
Preface to the Third German Edition
The Basic Course (Grundkurs) was discovered in a third, extensively revised

edition, after Albrecht Lindner, a passionate teacher, unexpectedly passed away. As
one of those rare textbooks which presents a complete curriculum of theoretical
physics in a single volume—compact and simultaneously profound—it should be
offered to the teacher and student community. In the present third edition the
material has been revised in many places, and the number of figures has been
approximately doubled. Also in this edition is an additional chapter containing
numerous problems.
My contribution here is restricted to adjusting the material to the changed
appearance required by the Teubner publishing company.
Regensburg, Germany Dieter Strauch

Spring 2011
xiii
Contents
1 Basics of Experience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 Vector Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.1 Space and Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.2 Vector Algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1.3 Trajectories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.1.4 Vector Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.1.5 Gradient (Slope Density) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.1.6 Divergence (Source Density) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.1.7 Curl (Vortex Density) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.1.8 Rewriting Products. Laplace Operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.1.9 Integral Theorems for Vector Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.1.10 Delta Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.1.11 Fourier Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
1.1.12 Calculation of a Vector Field from Its Sources
and Curls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
1.1.13 Vector Fields at Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
1.2 Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
1.2.1 Orthogonal Transformations and Euler Angles . . . . . . . . . 28
1.2.2 General Coordinates and Their Base Vectors . . . . . . . . . . 31
1.2.3 Coordinate Transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
1.2.4 The Concept of a Tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
1.2.5 Gradient, Divergence, and Rotation in General
Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
1.2.6 Tensor Extension, Christoffel Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
1.2.7 Reformulation of Partial Differential Quotients . . . . . . . . . 43
1.3 Measurements and Errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
1.3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
1.3.2 Mean Value and Average Error . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
1.3.3 Error Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
xv
xvi Contents
1.3.4 Error Propagation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... . . . . 49

1.3.5 Finite Measurement Series and Their Average Error . . . . . 50
1.3.6 Error Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... . . . . 50
1.3.7 Method of Least Squares . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... . . . . 51
List of Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... . . . . 53
Suggestions for Further Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... . . . . 54
2 Classical Mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
2.1 Basic Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
2.1.1 Force and Counter-Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
2.1.2 Work and Potential Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
2.1.3 Constraints: Forces of Constraint, Virtual
Displacements, and Principle of Virtual Work . . . . . .... 58
2.1.4 General Coordinates and Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 59
2.1.5 Lagrangian Multipliers and Lagrange Equations
of the First Kind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
2.1.6 The Kepler Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
2.1.7 Summary: Basic Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
2.2 Newtonian Mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
2.2.1 Force-Free Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
2.2.2 Center-of-Mass Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
2.2.3 Collision Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
2.2.4 Newton’s Second Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
2.2.5 Conserved Quantities and Time Averages . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
2.2.6 Planetary Motion as a Two-Body Problem,
and Gravitational Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
2.2.7 Gravitational Acceleration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
2.2.8 Free-Fall, Thrust, and Atmospheric Drag . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
2.2.9 Rigid Bodies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
2.2.10 Moment of Inertia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
2.2.11 Principal Axis Transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
2.2.12 Accelerated Reference Frames and Fictitious Forces . . . . . 90
2.2.13 Summary of Newtonian Mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
2.3 Lagrangian Mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
2.3.1 D’Alembert’s Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
2.3.2 Constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
2.3.3 Lagrange Equations of the Second Kind . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
2.3.4 Velocity-Dependent Forces and Friction . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
2.3.5 Conserved Quantities. Canonical and Mechanical
Momentum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 99
Contents xvii
2.3.6 Physical Pendulum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101

2.3.7 Damped Oscillation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
2.3.8 Forced Oscillation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
2.3.9 Coupled Oscillations and Normal Coordinates . . . . . . . . . 112
2.3.10 Time-Dependent Oscillator. Parametric Resonance . . . . . . 116
2.3.11 Summary: Lagrangian Mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
2.4 Hamiltonian Mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
2.4.1 Hamilton Function and Hamiltonian Equations . . . . . . . . 121
2.4.2 Poisson Brackets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
2.4.3 Canonical Transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
2.4.4 Infinitesimal Canonical Transformations. Liouville
Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
2.4.5 Generating Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
2.4.6 Transformations to Moving Reference Frames.
Perturbation Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
2.4.7 Hamilton–Jacobi Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
2.4.8 Integral Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
2.4.9 Motion in a Central Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
2.4.10 Heavy Symmetrical Top and Spherical Pendulum . . . . . . 144
2.4.11 Canonical Transformation of Time-Dependent
Oscillators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
2.4.12 Summary: Hamiltonian Mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
List of Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
Suggestions for Textbooks and Further Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
3 Electromagnetism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
3.1 Electrostatics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
3.1.1 Overview of Electromagnetism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
3.1.2 Coulomb’s Law—Far or Near Action? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
3.1.3 Electrostatic Potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
3.1.4 Dipoles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
3.1.5 Polarization and Displacement Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
3.1.6 Field Equations in Electrostatics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
3.1.7 Problems in Electrostatics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
3.1.8 Energy of the Electrostatic Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
3.1.9 Maxwell Stress Tensor in Electrostatics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
3.1.10 Summary: Electrostatics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
3.2 Stationary Currents and Magnetostatics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
3.2.1 Electric Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
3.2.2 Ohm’s Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
3.2.3 Lorentz Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
xviii Contents
3.2.4Magnetic Moments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190

3.2.5Magnetization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
3.2.6Magnetic Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
3.2.7Basic Equations of Macroscopic Magnetostatics
with Stationary Currents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
3.2.8 Vector Potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
3.2.9 Magnetic Interaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
3.2.10 Inductance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
3.2.11 Summary: Stationary Currents and Magnetostatics . . . . . . 203
3.3 Electromagnetic Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
3.3.1 Charge Conservation and Maxwell’s Displacement
Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
3.3.2 Faraday Induction Law and Lenz’s Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
3.3.3 Maxwell’s Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
3.3.4 Time-Dependent Potentials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
3.3.5 Poynting’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
3.3.6 Oscillating Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
3.3.7 Momentum of the Radiation Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
3.3.8 Propagation of Waves in Insulators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
3.3.9 Reflection and Diffraction at a Plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
3.3.10 Propagation of Waves in Conductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
3.3.11 Summary: Maxwell’s Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
3.4 Lorentz Invariance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
3.4.1 Velocity of Light in Vacuum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
3.4.2 Lorentz Transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
3.4.3 Four-Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
3.4.4 Examples of Four-Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
3.4.5 Conservation Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
3.4.6 Covariance of the Microscopic Maxwell Equations . . . . . 239
3.4.7 Covariance of the Macroscopic Maxwell Equations . . . . . 241
3.4.8 Transformation Behavior of Electromagnetic Fields . . . . . 243
3.4.9 Relativistic Dynamics of Free Particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
3.4.10 Relativistic Dynamics with External Forces . . . . . . . . . . . 247
3.4.11 Energy–Momentum Stress Tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
3.4.12 Summary: Lorentz Invariance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
3.4.13 Supplement: Hamiltonian Formalism for Fields . . . . . . . . 250
3.5 Radiation Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
3.5.1 Solutions of the Inhomogeneous Wave Equations . . . . . . 253
3.5.2 Radiation Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
3.5.3 Radiation Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
3.5.4 Radiation Fields of Point Charges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
3.5.5 Radiation Fields of Oscillating Dipoles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
3.5.6 Radiation Power for Dipole, Braking, and Synchrotron
Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
Contents xix
3.5.7 Summary: Radiation Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266

Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
List of Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
4 Quantum Mechanics I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
4.1 Wave–Particle Duality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
4.1.1 Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
4.1.2 Wave–Particle Dualism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
4.1.3 Probability Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
4.1.4 Pure States and Their Superposition (Superposition
Principle) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
4.1.5 Hilbert Space (Four Axioms) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
4.1.6 Representation of Hilbert Space Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
4.1.7 Improper Hilbert Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
4.1.8 Summary: Wave–Particle Dualism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
4.2 Operators and Observables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
4.2.1 Linear and Anti-linear Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
4.2.2 Matrix Elements and Representation of Linear
Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
4.2.3 Associated Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
4.2.4 Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
4.2.5 Expansion in Terms of a Basis of Orthogonal
Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
4.2.6 Observables. Basic Assumptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
4.2.7 Uncertainty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
4.2.8 Field Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
4.2.9 Phase Operators and Wave–Particle Dualism . . . . . . . . . . 304
4.2.10 Doublets and Pauli Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
4.2.11 Density Operator. Pure States and Mixtures . . . . . . . . . . . 311
4.2.12 Space Inversion and Time Reversal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
4.2.13 Summary: Operators and Observables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
4.3 Correspondence Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
4.3.1 Commutation Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
4.3.2 Position and Momentum Representations . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
4.3.3 The Probability Amplitude hr j Pi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
4.3.4 Wave Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
4.3.5 Wigner Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
4.3.6 Spin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
4.3.7 Correspondence Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
xx Contents
4.3.8 Angular Momentum Operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328

4.3.9 Spherical Harmonics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
4.3.10 Coupling of Angular Momenta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
4.3.11 Summary: Correspondence Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
4.4 Time Dependence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
4.4.1 Heisenberg Equation and the Ehrenfest Theorem . . . . . . . 338
4.4.2 Time Dependence: Heisenberg and Schrödinger
Pictures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340
4.4.3 Time Dependence of the Density Operator . . . . . . . . . . . 342
4.4.4 Time-Dependent Interaction and Dirac Picture . . . . . . . . . 345
4.4.5 Current Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
4.4.6 Summary: Time Dependence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
4.5 Time-Independent Schrödinger Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
4.5.1 Eigenvalue Equation for the Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
4.5.2 Reduction to Ordinary Differential Equations . . . . . . . . . . 352
4.5.3 Free Particles and the Box Potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
4.5.4 Harmonic Oscillations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358
4.5.5 Hydrogen Atom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
4.5.6 Time-Independent Perturbation Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368
4.5.7 Variational Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370
4.5.8 Level Splitting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
4.5.9 Summary: Time-Independent Schrödinger Equation . . . . . 373
4.6 Dissipation and Quantum Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374
4.6.1 Perturbation Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374
4.6.2 Coupling to the Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377
4.6.3 Markov Approximation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
4.6.4 Deriving the Rate Equation and Fermi’s Golden Rule . . . 382
4.6.5 Rate Equation for Degeneracy. Transitions Between
Multiplets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384
4.6.6 Damped Linear Harmonic Oscillations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386
4.6.7 Summary: Dissipation and Quantum Theory . . . . . . . . . . 389
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
List of Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396
5 Quantum Mechanics II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399
5.1 Scattering Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399
5.1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399
5.1.2 Basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403
5.1.3 Time Shift Operators in Perturbation Theory . . . . . . . . . . 403
5.1.4 Time-Dependent Green Functions (Propagators) . . . . . . . . 405
5.1.5 Energy-Dependent Green Functions (Propagators)
and Resolvents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406
Contents xxi
5.1.6
Representations of the Resolvents
and the Interactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408
5.1.7 Lippmann–Schwinger Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411
5.1.8 Möller’s Wave Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413
5.1.9 Scattering and Transition Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414
5.1.10 The Wave Function hr j k i þ for Large Distances r . . . . . 416
5.1.11 Scattering Cross-Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417
5.1.12 Summary: Scattering Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 418
5.2 Two- and Three-Body Scattering Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419
5.2.1 Two-Potential Formula of Gell-Mann
and Goldberger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419
5.2.2 Scattering Phases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421
5.2.3 Scattering of Charged Particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422
5.2.4 Effective Hamilton Operator in the Feshbach Theory . . . . 423
5.2.5 Separable Interactions and Resonances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425
5.2.6 Breit–Wigner Formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426
5.2.7 Averaging over the Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427
5.2.8 Special Features of Three-Body Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . 429
5.2.9 The Method of Kazaks and Greider . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 430
5.2.10 Faddeev Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 432
5.2.11 Summary: Two- and Three-Body Scattering
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 433
5.3 Many-Body Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 433
5.3.1 One- and Many-Body States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 433
5.3.2 Exchange Symmetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 434
5.3.3 Symmetric and Antisymmetric States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 436
5.3.4 Creation and Annihilation Operators for Fermions . . . . . . 438
5.3.5 Creation and Annihilation Operators for Bosons . . . . . . . 440
5.3.6 General Properties of Creation and Annihilation
Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 442
5.3.7 The Two-Body System as an Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443
5.3.8 Representation of One-Particle Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445
5.3.9 Representation of Two-Body Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 446
5.3.10 Time Dependence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448
5.3.11 Wave–Particle Dualism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 450
5.3.12 Summary: Many-Body Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451
5.4 Fermions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451
5.4.1 Fermi Gas in the Ground State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451
5.4.2 Hartree–Fock Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 454
5.4.3 Rest Interaction and Pair Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456
5.4.4 Quasi-Particles in the BCS Formalism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457
xxii Contents
5.4.5 Hartree–Fock–Bogoliubov Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 458

5.4.6 Hole States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 462
5.4.7 Summary: Fermions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 462
5.5 Photons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463
5.5.1 Preparation for the Quantization of Electromagnetic
Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463
5.5.2 Quantization of Photons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 466
5.5.3 Glauber States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470
5.5.4 Quenched States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473
5.5.5 Expansion in Terms of Glauber States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 476
5.5.6 Density Operator in the Glauber Basis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479
5.5.7 Atom in a Light Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 482
5.5.8 Summary: Photons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 487
5.6 Dirac Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 487
5.6.1 Relativistic Invariance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 487
5.6.2 Quantum Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 488
5.6.3 Dirac Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 490
5.6.4 Representations of the Dirac Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 492
5.6.5 Behavior of the Dirac Equation Under Lorentz
Transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 494
5.6.6 Adjoint Spinors and Bilinear Covariants . . . . . . . . . . . . . 497
5.6.7 Space Inversion, Time Reversal, and Charge
Conjugation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 498
5.6.8 Dirac Equation and Klein–Gordon Equation . . . . . . . . . . 501
5.6.9 Energy Determination for Special Potentials . . . . . . . . . . 504
5.6.10 Difficulties with the Dirac Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 509
List of Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 509
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510
6 Thermodynamics and Statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 513
6.1 Statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 513
6.1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 513
6.1.2 Statistical Ensembles and the Notion of Probability . . . . . 515
6.1.3 Binomial Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 516
6.1.4 Gauss and Poisson Distributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 518
6.1.5 Correlations and Partial Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 520
6.1.6 Information Entropy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 521
6.1.7 Classical Statistics and Phase Space Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . 523
6.1.8 Summary: Statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 525
6.2 Entropy Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 525
6.2.1 Entropy Law and Rate Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 525
6.2.2 Irreversible Changes of State and Relaxation-Time
Approximation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 527
Contents xxiii
6.2.3 Liouville and Collision-Free Boltzmann Equation . . . . . . 529

6.2.4 Boltzmann Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 531
6.2.5 Proof of the Entropy Law Using the Boltzmann
Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533
6.2.6 Molecular Motion and Diffusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 534
6.2.7 Langevin Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 537
6.2.8 Generalized Langevin Equation and the
Fluctuation–Dissipation Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 539
6.2.9 Fokker–Planck Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 542
6.2.10 Summary: Entropy Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 546
6.3 Equilibrium Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 546
6.3.1 Maxwell Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 546
6.3.2 Thermal Equilibrium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 548
6.3.3 Micro-canonical Ensemble . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 549
6.3.4 Density of States in the Single-Particle Model . . . . . . . . . 550
6.3.5 Mean Values and Entropy Maximum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 552
6.3.6 Canonical and Grand Canonical Ensembles . . . . . . . . . . . 554
6.3.7 Exchange Equilibria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 557
6.3.8 Temperature, Pressure, and Chemical Potential . . . . . . . . 558
6.3.9 Summary: Equilibrium Distributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 561
6.4 General Theorems of Thermodynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 561
6.4.1 The Basic Relation of Thermodynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . 561
6.4.2 Mechanical Work and Heat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 563
6.4.3 State Variables and Complete Differentials . . . . . . . . . . . 565
6.4.4 Thermodynamical Potentials and Legendre
Transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 566
6.4.5 Maxwell’s Integrability Conditions and Thermal
Coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 568
6.4.6 Homogeneous Systems and the Gibbs–Duhem
Relation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 571
6.4.7 Phase Transitions and the Clausius–Clapeyron
Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 572
6.4.8 Enthalpy and Free Energy as State Variables . . . . . . . . . . 574
6.4.9 Irreversible Alterations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 576
6.4.10 Summary: General Theorems of Thermodynamics . . . . . . 576
6.5 Results for the Single-Particle Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 577
6.5.1 Identical Particles and Symmetry Conditions . . . . . . . . . . 577
6.5.2 Partition Functions in Quantum Statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . 578
6.5.3 Occupation of One-Particle States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 580
6.5.4 Ideal Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 582
6.5.5 Mixing Entropy and the Law of Mass Action . . . . . . . . . 586
6.5.6 Degenerate Fermi Gas and Conduction Electrons
in Metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 588
xxiv Contents
6.5.7 Electromagnetic Radiation in a Cavity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 594

6.5.8 Lattice Vibrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 596
6.5.9 Summary: Results for the Single-Particle Model . . . . . . . 599
6.6 Phase Transitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 599
6.6.1 Van der Waals Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 599
6.6.2 Conclusions Regarding the van der Waals Equation . . . . . 601
6.6.3 Critical Behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 603
6.6.4 Paramagnetism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 605
6.6.5 Ferromagnetism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 607
6.6.6 Bose–Einstein Condensation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 608
6.6.7 Summary: Phase Transitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 611
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 612
List of Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 618
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 620
Appendix A: Important Constants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 623
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 625
Chapter 1
Basics of Experience
1.1 Vector Analysis
1.1.1 Space and Time
Space and time are two basic concepts which, according to Kant, inherently or
innately determine the form of all experience in an a priori manner, thereby making
possible experience as such: only in space and time can we arrange our sensations.
[According to the doctrines of evolutionary cognition, what is innate to us has devel-
oped phylogenetically by adaption to our environment. This is why we only notice
the insufficiency of these “self-evident” concepts under extraordinary circumstances,
e.g., for velocities close to that of light (c0 ) or actions of the order of Planck’s quan-
tum h. We shall tackle such “weird” cases later—in electromagnetism and quantum
mechanics. For the time being, we want to make sure we can handle our familiar
environment.]
To do this, we introduce a continuous parameter t. Like every other physical
quantity it is composed of number and unit (for example, a second 1 s = 1 min/60
= 1 h/3600). The larger the unit, the smaller the number. Physical quantities do not
depend on the unit—likewise equations between physical quantities. Nevertheless,
the opposite is sometimes seen, as in: “We choose units such that the velocity of light
c assumes the value 1”. In fact, the concept of velocity is thereby changed, so that
instead of the velocity v, the ratio v/c is taken here as the velocity, and ct as time or
x/c as length.
The zero time (t = 0) can be chosen arbitrarily, since basically only the time
difference, i.e., the duration of a process, is important. A differentiation with respect to
time (d/dt) is often marked by a dot over the differentiated quantity, i.e., dx/dt ≡ ẋ.
In empty space every direction is equivalent. Here, too, we may choose the zero
point freely and, starting from this point, determine the position of other points in
a coordinate-free notation by the position vector r, which fixes the distance and
direction of the point under consideration. This coordinate-free type of notation is
© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2018 1
A. Lindner and D. Strauch, A Complete Course
on Theoretical Physics, Undergraduate Lecture Notes in Physics,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-04360-5_1
2 1 Basics of Experience
particularly advantageous when we want to exploit the assumed homogeneity of

space. However, conditions often arise (i.e., when there is axial or spherical sym-
metry) which are best taken care of in special coordinates. We are free to choose a
coordinate system. We only require that it determine all positions uniquely. This we
shall treat in the next section.
Besides the position vector r, there are other quantities in physics with both
value and direction, e.g., the velocity v = ṙ, the acceleration a = v̇, the momentum
p = mv, and the force F = ṗ. The appropriate means to handle such quantities is
vector algebra, with which we shall be extensively concerned in this section. This
method allows us to encompass both the value and the direction of the quantities
under consideration much better than using components, which, moreover, depend
on the coordinate system.
For the time being—namely for plane and three-dimensional problems—we
understand a vector as a quantity with value and direction, which can be repre-
sented as an arrow of corresponding length. (Generally, vectors are mathematical
entities, which can be added together or multiplied by a number, with the usual rules
of calculation being valid.) Sometimes they are denoted by a letter with an arrow
atop. The value (the length) of a is denoted by a or |a |.
1.1.2 Vector Algebra
From two vectors a and b, their sum a + b may be formed according to the con-
struction of parallelograms (as the diagonal), as shown in Fig. 1.1. From this follows
the commutative and associative law of vector addition:
a+b=b+a , (a + b) + c = a + (b + c) .
The product of the vectors a with a scalar (i.e., directionless) factor α is understood
as the vector α a = a α with the same (for α < 0 opposite) direction and with value
|α| a. In particular, a and −a have the same value, but opposite directions. For α = 0
the zero vector 0 results, with length 0 and undetermined direction.
Fig. 1.1 Sum and difference of vectors a and b. The vectors may be shifted in parallel, e.g., a−b
can also lie on the dashed straight line
1.1 Vector Analysis 3
Fig. 1.2 Scalar and vector products: e · a is the component of a in the direction of the unit vector
e, and | a × b | is the area shown
The scalar product (inner product) a · b of the two vectors a and b is the product
of their values times the cosine of the enclosed angle φab (see Fig. 1.2 left):
a · b ≡ a b cos φab .
The dot between the two factors is important for the scalar product—if it is missing,
then it is the tensor product of the two vectors, which will be explained in Sect. 1.2.4—
with a · b c = a b · c, if a and c have different directions, i.e., if a is not a multiple
of c . Consequently, one has
a·b=b·a
and
a·b=0 ⇐⇒ a ⊥ b or a = 0 or b = 0 .
If the two vectors are oriented perpendicularly to each other (a ⊥ b), then they are
also said to be orthogonal. Obviously, a · a = a 2 holds. Vectors with value 1 are
called unit vectors. Here they are denoted by e. Given three Cartesian, i.e., pairwise
perpendicular unit vectors ex , e y , ez , all vectors can be decomposed in terms of these:
a = e x a x + e y a y + e z az ,
with the Cartesian components
a x ≡ e x · a , a y ≡ e y · a , az ≡ e z · a .
Here the components will usually be written after the unit vectors. This is particularly
useful in quantum mechanics, but also meaningful otherwise, since the coefficients
depend on the expansion basis. Since for a given basis a is fixed by its three compo-
nents (ax , a y , az ), a is thus often given as this row vector, or as a column vector, with
the components written one below the other. However, the coordinate-free notation
a is in most cases more appropriate to formal calculations, e.g., a + b combines the
three expressions ax + bx , a y + b y , and az + bz . Because e x · e x = 1, e x · e y = 0
(and cyclic permutations e y · e y = 1, e y · ez = 0 and so on), one clearly has
a · b = a x b x + a y b y + az bz .
Hence it also follows that a · (b + c) = a · b + a · c.

The vector product (outer product) a × b of the two vectors a and b is another
vector which is oriented perpendicularly to both and which forms with them a right-
hand screw, like the thumb, forefinger, and middle finger of the right hand. Its value
is equal to the area of the parallelogram spanned by a and b (see Fig. 1.2 right):
|a × b | = a b sin φab .
Hence it also follows that
a × b = −b × a , a × (b + c) = a × b + a × c ,
and
a×b=0 ⇐⇒ a b or a = 0 or b = 0 .
Using a right-handed Cartesian coordinate system, we have
ex × e y = ez (and cyclic permutations e y × ez = e x , . . .) ,
and also e x × e x = 0, etc., whence
a × b = e x (a y bz − az b y ) + e y (az bx − ax bz ) + ez (ax b y − a y bx ) .
This implies
a × (b × c) = (c × b) × a = b c · a − c a · b .
(This decomposition also follows without calculation because the product depends
linearly upon its three factors, lies in the plane spanned by b and c, vanishes for
b ∝ c, and points in the direction of b for c = a ⊥ b.) According to the last equation,
every vector a can be decomposed into its component along a unit vector e and its
component perpendicular to it:
a = e e · a − e × (e × a) .
In addition, it satisfies the Jacobi identity (note the cyclic permutation)
a × (b × c) + b × (c × a) + c × (a × b) = 0 .
The scalar product of a vector with a vector product, viz.,
a · (b × c) = b · (c × a) = c · (a × b) ,
is called the (scalar) triple product of the three vectors. It is positive or negative, if
a, b, and c form a right- or left-handed triad, respectively. Its value gives the volume
of the parallelepiped with edges a, b, and c. In particular, ex · (e y × ez ) = 1.
In this context, the concept of a matrix is useful. An M × N matrix A is understood

as an entity made of M × N “matrix elements”, arranged in M rows and N columns:
Aik (i ∈ {1, . . . , M}, k ∈ {1, . . . , N }), e.g.,
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
A11 A12 A13 A11 A21 A31
A = ⎝ A21 A22 A23 ⎠ ⇐⇒ = ⎝ A12 A22 A32 ⎠ .
A
A31 A32 A33 A13 A23 A33
just introduced has elements A

The transposed matrix A ik = Aki , hence N rows and
M columns. We shall mainly be concerned with square matrices, which have equal
numbers of rows and columns, i.e., M = N . The matrix product of A and B is

N
C = AB with Cik = Ai j B jk ,
j=1
which is, of course, defined only if the number of columns of A is the same as the
number of rows of B. We have AB =
B A.
If we now combine the 3×3 Cartesian components of the vectors a, b, and c in
the form of a matrix, its determinant
a x a y az
bx b y bz ≡ ax (b y cz − bz c y ) + a y (bz cx − bx cz ) + az (bx c y − b y cx )
c x c y cz
= ax (b y cz − bz c y ) + bx (c y az − cz a y ) + cx (a y bz − az b y )
is equal to the triple product a · (b × c). For determinants, we have
= det A
det A and det (AB) = det A × det B .
Therefore, also
a·f a·g a·h
a · (b × c) f · (g × h) = b · f b · g b · h .
c·f c·g c·h
Moreover, from (a × b) · c = a · (b × c) and replacing c by c × d, it follows that
a·c a·d
(a × b) · (c × d) = (a · c)(b · d) − (a · d)(b · c) ≡ ,
b·c b·d
the determinant of a 2×2 matrix, and in particular,
(a × b) · (a × b) = a 2 b2 − (a · b)2 ,
which, of course, follows from sin2 φab = 1 − cos2 φab .

Table 1.1 Space-inversion Type Original image Mirror image

behavior
Polar vector ↑ ↓
Axial vector −↑− −↑−
It is not allowed to divide by vectors—neither scalar products nor vector products

can be decomposed uniquely in terms of their factors, as can be seen from the
examples a · b = 0 and a × b = 0.
In the context of the vector product, we have to consider the fact that only in
three-dimensional space can a third vector be assigned uniquely as a vector normal
to two vectors. Otherwise a perpendicular direction cannot be fixed uniquely, and
no direction can be given in the sense of the right-hand rule. In fact, in Sect. 3.4.3,
in order to extend the three-dimensional space to the four-dimensional space-time
continuum of the theory of special relativity, we change from the vector product to
a skew-symmetric matrix (or a tensor of second rank) which, in three-dimensional
space, has three independent elements, just like every vector.
Actually, we also have to distinguish between polar vectors (like the position
vector r and the velocity v = ṙ) and axial vectors (e.g., the vector product of two
polar vectors), because they behave differently under a space inversion (with respect
to the origin): the direction of a polar vector is reversed, while the direction of an
axial vector is preserved. Correspondingly the triple product of three polar vectors is
a pseudo-scalar, because it changes its sign under space inversion. Axial vectors can
actually be viewed as rotation axes with sense of rotation and not as arrows—they
are pseudo-vectors (Table 1.1).
Inversion involves a special change of coordinates: it cannot be composed of
infinitesimal transformations, like rotations and translations. General properties of
coordinate transformations will be treated in the next section. Until then we will
thus assume only right-handed Cartesian coordinate systems with e x × e y = ez (and
cyclic permutations).
1.1.3 Trajectories
If a vector depends upon a parameter, then we speak of a vector function. The vector
function a (t) is continuous at t0 , if it tends to a (t0 ) for t → t0 . With the same limit
t → t0 , the vector differential da and the first derivative da/dt is introduced. These
quantities may be formed for every Cartesian component, and we have
d(a + b) = da + db , d(αa) = α da + a dα ,
d(a · b) = a · db + b · da , d(a × b) = a × db − b × da .
Obviously, a · da/dt = 21 d(a · a)/dt = 21 da 2 /dt = a da/dt holds. In particular the

derivative of a unit vector is always perpendicular to the original vector—if it does
not vanish.
As an example of a vector function, we investigate r (t), the path of a point as

a function of the time t. Thus we want to consider also the velocity v = ṙ and the
acceleration a = r̈ rather generally. The time is not important for the trajectories as
geometrical lines. Therefore, instead of the time t we introduce the path length s as
a parameter and exploit ds = |dr | = v dt.
We now take three mutually perpendicular unit vectors eT , eN , and eB , which are
attached to every point on the trajectory. Here eT has the direction of v:
dr v
tangent vector eT ≡ = .
ds v
For a straight path, this vector is already sufficient for the description. But in general
the
deT d2 r
path curvature κ≡ =
ds ds 2
is different from zero. In order to get more insight into this parameter we consider a
plane curve of constant curvature, namely, the circle with s = R ϕ. For r (ϕ) = r0 +
R (cos ϕ e x + sin ϕ e y ), we have κ = |d2 r/d(Rϕ)2 | = R −1 . Instead of the curvature
κ, its reciprocal, the
1
curvature radius R≡ ,
κ
can also be used to determine the curve. Hence as a further unit vector we have the
deT d2 r
normal vector eN ≡ R =R 2 .
ds ds
Since it has the direction of the derivative of the unit vector eT , it is perpendicular to eT .
Now we may express the velocity and the accelerations because ėT = (deT /ds) v =
(v/R) eN as follows:
v2
v ≡ ṙ = v eT , a ≡ r̈ = v̇ eT + eN .
R
Thus there is a tangential acceleration a · eT ≡ aT = v̇, if the value of the veloc-
ity changes, and a normal acceleration a · eN ≡ aN = v2 /R, if the direction of the
velocity changes. From this decomposition we can also see why motions are often
investigated either along a straight line or along a uniformly traveled circle—then
only aT or only aN appears.
If the curve leaves the plane spanned by eT and eN , then the
binormal vector eB ≡ eT × eN
also changes with s. Because deT /ds = κeN , its derivative with respect to s is equal
to eT × deN /ds. This expression (perpendicular to eT ) must be proportional to eN ,
because derivatives of unit vectors do not have components in their direction. Since
eN = eB × eT , besides
deT deB deN

= κ eN , the derivatives = −τ eN and = τ eB − κ eT
ds ds ds
appear with the torsion τ , also called the winding or second curvature. For a right-
hand thread, one has τ > 0, and for a left-hand thread, τ < 0. The relation
dr d2 r d3r
τ = R2 × 2 · 3
ds ds ds
also holds, because of τ = eB · (deN /ds) and eB = eT × eN . (Here it is unimportant

for the winding whether the curvature depends upon s.)
With the Darboux vector
δ = κ eB + τ eT ,
the expressions just obtained for the derivatives of the three unit vectors with respect
to the curve length s (Frenet–Serret formulas) can be combined to yield
de•
= δ × e• with e• ∈ {eT , eN , eB } .
ds
As long as neither the first nor the second curvature changes along the curve, the Dar-
boux vector is constant: dκ/ds = 0 = dτ/ds =⇒ dδ/ds = 0, because κ deB /ds =
−τ deT /ds. The curve winds around it. An example will follow in Sect. 2.2.5,
namely the spiral curve of a charged particle in a homogeneous magnetic field:
in this case the Darboux vector is δ = −qB/(mv). The curves with constant δ thus
depend upon the initial velocity v0 . Among these are also circular orbits (perpen-
dicular to δ) and straight lines (along ±δ), where admittedly a straight line has
vanishing curvature (κ = 0 ), and the concept of the second curvature (winding)
thus has no meaning. The quantities δ and v0 yield the winding τ = δ · v0 /v0 and
curvature κ (≥ 0) because of δ 2 = κ 2 + τ 2 . The radius h and the helix angle α
(with |α| ≤ 21 π ) of the associated thread follow from h = κ/δ 2 and α = arctan τ/κ.
[With r = r0 + h (cos ϕ e x + sin ϕ e y + tan α ϕ ez ) and s cos α = h ϕ and because
of tan α = τ/κ, the scalar triple product expression for τ yields the equation
cos2 α = h/R.] The geometrical meaning of the curvature radius R and radius h
is thus the reciprocal of the length of the Darboux vector (see Fig. 1.3).
If the curve traveled is given by the functions y(x) and z(x) in Cartesian coordi-
nates, then we have
d2 r d dr d dr dx dx
2
= = ,
ds ds ds dx dx ds ds
and because ds 2 = dx 2 + dy 2 + dz 2 , we also have dx/ds = 1/ 1 + y 2 + z 2 with

y ≡ dy/dx and z ≡ dz/dx. Hence, the square of the path curvature is given by
Fig. 1.3 Spiral curve around the constant Darboux vector δ oriented to the right (constant curvature
and winding, here with κ = τ ). Shown are also the tangent and binormal vectors of the moving
frame and the tangential circle. Not shown is the normal vector eN = eB × eT , which points toward
the symmetry axis
(y z − y z )2 + y 2 + z 2
κ2 =
(1 + y 2 + z 2 )3
and the torsion by

y z − y z 1
τ= .
(1 + y 2 + z 2 )3 κ 2
For the curvature, we have κ ≥ 0, while τ is negative for a left-hand thread.
1.1.4 Vector Fields
If a vector is associated with each position, we speak of a vector field. With scalar
fields, a scalar is associated with each position. The vector field a (r) is only contin-
uous at r0 if all paths approaching r0 have the same limit. For scalar fields, this is
already an essentially stronger requirement than in one dimension.
Instead of drawing a vector field with arrows at many positions, it is often visu-
alized by a set of field lines: at every point of a field line the tangent points in the
direction of the vector field. Thus a dr and a × dr = 0.
For a given vector field many integrals can be formed. In particular, we often
have to evaluate integrals over surfaces or volumes. In order to avoid double or triple
integral symbols, the corresponding differential is often written immediately after
the integral symbol: dV for the volume, df for the surface integral, e.g., df × a
instead of − a × df (in this way the unnecessary minus sign is avoided for the
introduction of the curl density or rotation on p. 13). Here df is perpendicular to the
related surface element. However, the sign of df still has to be fixed. In general, we
consider the surface of a volume V , which will be denoted here by (V ). Then df
points outwards. Corresponding to (V ), the edge of an area A is denoted by (A).
An important example of a scalar integral is the line integral dr · a (r) along
a given curve r (t). If the parameter t determines the points on the curve uniquely,
then the line integral
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reach Greybridge, and, on arriving there, found the dog-cart in
waiting.
The driver this time was not his old friend Dawson, but a much
less communicative person, whose observations were confined to
“Gently then, old lady,” and “Wo-ho now.” He was evidently not
accustomed to driving the “quality,” and his whole attention was
given to his steed; so they drove on for a mile or two in silence.
Suddenly a turn in the road made visible a little group of figures in
front; they were those of a man and a woman and a horse, walking
slowly along side by side. Mr. Guildford observed them with a sort of
half idle curiosity, but before the dog-cart was near enough for him to
distinguish the features of the man and the girl, they separated, the
girl entering a road to the right, the man mounting his horse and
riding on quickly; but, before separating, they had stood still for a
moment, evidently saying “Good-bye,” thus giving the carriage time
to approach them more nearly. Suddenly Mr. Guildford was surprised
by a remark from his companion.
“She’s a nice little mare, sir, isn’t she—her as the young squire’s
on?”
He pointed with his whip to the gentleman in front, now fast
leaving them far behind.
“The young squire?” repeated Mr. Guildford.
“Yes, sir, young Mr. Fawcett.”
“Oh! I did not recognize him,” said Mr. Guildford; “that was Mr.
Fawcett in front of us then leading his horse?”
“Yes, sir, him as were walking with the young lady—
Maddymuzelle.”
Then he relapsed into silence again.
When they came to where the Abbey road branched off, the figure
of Geneviève walking quickly in front was again distinctly visible; but
before they overtook her, Mr. Guildford had made a little change in
his plans.
“Is there not a short cut to Dr. Farmer’s house somewhere about
here?” he inquired of the groom, and finding that it was so, and that
ten minutes’ quick walking across the fields would save a long round
by road, he left the dog-cart, sending by the servant a message to
Colonel Methvyn explaining the delay in his appearance.
Half an hour later Mr. Guildford entered the Abbey grounds,
having executed the little commission entrusted to him by Dr.
Farmer. He walked slowly up the drive, enjoying the sight of the
pleasant, quaint old garden, which as yet he had hardly seen by
daylight in its summer dress; it was a garden such as there are few
of nowadays,—the paths edged with box, whole beds of lavender
and sweet William, sweet peas and clove-pinks, marigold, and snap-
dragon; for on this side of the house the good taste of its owners
allowed of no “new-fangled” gardening; all—from the moss-grown
sun-dial on the lawn, to the curiously cut yew-trees guarding the
entrance to the bowling green,—remained as it might have been in
many a long, long ago summer, when the ever-young flower faces
smiled to old-world Cicelys in hoop and farthingale, just as they did
now to the fair-haired girl who came swiftly across the smooth short
grass to meet the stranger, the mellow light of the afternoon sun
falling full upon her.
The young man started when he first caught sight of her, yet at
that very instant she had been in his thoughts.
“I am so very glad you have come today,” she said, as she drew
near; “my mother and I have just come back from Haverstock,—and
oh! by the bye, I must apologise for that stupid old Hodge having
been sent to meet you at Greybridge; he can’t drive a bit, but the
coachman was away, and Dawson out with us, when your telegram
came,—and we have found my father in a perfect fever of eagerness
to go out a little. He has not been out since the day before you were
here last, it has been so much colder, you know; do you think he
may come out this?”
“I don’t see any reason against it,” said Mr. Guildford; “the air is
fresh, but perfectly mild. Shall I go and talk about it to Colonel
Methvyn before it gets later?”
“Yes,” said Cicely, “I think he is anxious to see you.”
She turned and walked back again with him across the lawn in the
direction of the house.
“I should have been here earlier,” said Mr. Guildford, “but I came
round by Dr. Farmer’s; he wrote to ask me to look out some books
and papers that he wants forwarded, and that his servants could not
have found.”
“Did he say how he was?” asked Cicely.
“Yes, he says he is better,” replied Mr. Guildford; “but I thought the
tone of his letter seemed dull, and he says he finds it rather lonely
work travelling about all by himself.”
“Yes, poor old man,” said Miss Methvyn thoughtfully; “I think it is
very sad to see any one grow old with no one belonging to them. Dr.
Farmer has nobody at all.”
“Was he never married?” asked Mr. Guildford.
“No,” said Cicely, “but he was going to be married once. There
was some story about it, my father knows it I think—Dr. Farmer
belongs to this neighbourhood—the girl died I believe. Fancy! it must
be nearly fifty years ago, and I speak of her as a girl; but she will
always have seemed a girl to him.”
“Yes,” replied the young man, “to him she will always have been
sweet-and-twenty. And if she had lived to be Mrs. Farmer, she would
probably have grown stout and buxom, and not impossibly the cares
of life would have developed a temper.”
Miss Methvyn glanced at her companion with some curiosity.
Then she said quietly, “You are not really the least cynical, Mr.
Guildford, why do you talk as if you were?”
He smiled, “Do you dislike it?”
“I think I do,” she said. “Don’t think me rude for saying that that
tone of talk is so commonplace nowadays, that—”
She stopped short. He smiled again, but with a slight change of
expression, “You mean that the affectation of it is commonplace, I
think,” he said. “It is very easily affected, but I was in earnest. I think
it is well to look on both sides of a possible picture, and a
disappointed bachelor should surely be allowed the consolation of
thinking that, after all, the fairest flowers do fade, or at least lose their
beauty.”
“But youth and beauty are not everything,” remonstrated Cicely
with a very unusual colour in her cheeks.
“They are a good deal,” said Mr. Guildford drily.
A slight look of disappointment over-clouded the girl’s fair face,
but she said nothing. A curious feeling came over her that the man
beside her was not expressing his true sentiments, and this instinct
made her averse to say more. But Mr. Guildford understood her
better than she thought.
“You are disgusted with me, Miss Methvyn,” he said. “You think I
am worse than commonplace, that I don’t believe in there being
women whose grandeur and real beauty have little to say to ‘the
beauty that must die.’ But you are mistaken.”
Cicely’s face cleared; but she still looked puzzled.
“Then I must confess I don’t understand you,” she said.
“You can’t reconcile my having a high ideal of woman, with my
talking in a commonplace matter-of-fact way of marriage? But do not
facts strengthen my position? Don’t think I mean to compare myself
with such people; but isn’t it true that the giants among men have not
looked for, or wished for anything out of the way in their wives? And
when a man is by no means a giant, but still feels he has it in him to
do something, surely his best strength lies in keeping his powers
concentrated, in deprecating any overwhelming outside influence?”
He spoke almost as if he were trying to argue his theory out to
himself, to prove its soundness for his own satisfaction rather than
for that of his hearer. And his hearer was not to be so readily
convinced.
“But, appealing to facts, as you say,” she objected, “you cannot
maintain that women’s influence has not in innumerable instances,
been an elevating and ennobling one, as well as a softening and
purifying one? Of course whatever softens and purifies ennobles, in
a sense, but I mean ennobling in the sense of strengthening and
widening.”
“Women’s influence has certainly done all you say,” he replied;
“but it has seldom been the influence of wives. The grandest women
make splendid friends; but I still appeal to past experience to support
the side of my position which I see you dislike.”
“Do I dislike it?” said Cicely. “I don’t know. Is it true, I wonder? I
am not clever enough to prove that it is not; but still a strong instinct
tells me it should not be true.”
An earnest questioning stole into her blue eyes, and, as she
spoke she looked up into her companion’s face without a shadow of
embarrassment. They had reached the front of the house by now,
and were standing just within the old grey porch. The dark leaves of
the thick-growing ivy creeping round its entrance seemed to make a
frame for the girl’s fair quiet face, and to throw out in relief the
delicate features and pure complexion. For a moment Mr. Guildford
forgot, in looking at her, what they had been talking about. But
recovering his wits he repeated quietly, “I am afraid it is true.
Sometimes I have wished it were not, but then again I see that it is
better as it is. But I am sorry to destroy your faith in beautiful
impossibilities.”
She turned upon him with a merry laugh.
“Don’t distress yourself about that,” she exclaimed. “I am much
more obstinate than you think. I am by no means an optimist in the
sense of not thinking that what is might not be made a good deal
better. And even your giants may have been short-sighted, and one-
sided in some directions, may they not? Are you shocked at my
irreverence? As for disliking your theory, I am by no means sure that
I do dislike it. If I were an ideal woman—that sounds silly, but you
know what I mean—hif I were worthy of such a thing, I mean, I
should feel infinitely more honoured by being the chosen friend of a
clever man than of being—” she stopped abruptly and blushed a
little. Then seemingly ashamed of her confusion, she went on
bravely, “than by his just falling in love with me,” she added, with a
slight tinge of contempt in her tone.
“Then you do agree with me,” said Mr. Guildford triumphantly.
And judging it wise to retire while master of the field, he went into
the house and ran upstairs to Colonel Methvyn’s room.
Cicely stood in the porch, thinking. Then she went away to see if
the cushions of her father’s Bath chair were properly aired, and was
standing ready beside it at the door when the invalid was brought
down for his little airing.
Poor Colonel Methvyn enjoyed the sun shine and the flowers and
the soft fresh air very much. His expressions of pleasure and
Cicely’s satisfaction in his enjoyment touched Mr. Guildford infinitely
more than the weary complaints, but too often well founded, which
so many of his Sothernbay patients seemed to think necessary to
enlist his sympathy.
“It is a nice old place of its kind; is it not, Guildford?” said Cicely’s
father, when the chair was brought to anchor in a sheltered corner,
whence the principal beauties of the garden—the rose fence
enclosing “the lady’s walk,” the yew “peacocks,” the ancient sun-dial
—were all visible. “It is a home a man may be forgiven for feeling
reluctant to leave, surely? It has always been my home; it would
break my heart to think of its ever going away to strangers.”
“I can understand the feeling,” said the young doctor quietly.
Thanks to Colonel Methvyn’s gentleness, his egotism did not go the
length of repelling sympathy; but yet the sympathy Mr. Guildford felt
for him was tinged with fully as much pity as respect. “It must be very
natural where one’s associations have been so concentrated. But,”
he hesitated a little, “I see no reason why it should not be your home
for many years to come.”
“You give me a chance of seeing my grand-children playing about
the old garden, do you, eh, Guildford?” asked the invalid, with an
affectation of cheerfulness which did not conceal his real anxiety.
Miss Methvyn was standing at some little distance, too far off to
overhear what was said, still Mr. Guildford lowered his voice as he
replied,
“Certainly, I do, my dear sir.”
Colonel Methvyn closed his eyes and leaned back. “I think I could
die happily if I could see it so,” he murmured. Then as if afraid of
having betrayed too much feeling, he went on speaking. “It is a
curious thing how few sons there have been in our branch of the
family. I was an only son, and so was my father; this place came to
him from his mother, and now there is only my little girl there for it to
go to.”
“But, happily, that prevents any fear of its going to strangers,” said
Mr. Guildford, more for the sake of showing interest in his
companion’s train of thought, than from any special remembrance of
his remarks.
“Of course, of course,” replied Colonel Methvyn, “of course that
could never be. It was a foolish idea that crossed my imagination. I
grow morbid, quite ridiculously morbid sometimes.”
He spoke with a nervous eagerness that made Mr. Guildford
regret the observation he had made, and he was glad that just at this
moment Cicely rejoined them.
“Here is mother coming,” she exclaimed. “Mr. Guildford, will you
help me to move papa a yard or two this way, and then she can see
him all the way from the house? You have sent Barry in? Ah, that’s
right! it is so much more comfortable without him. Mr. Guildford and I
can push you beautifully, can’t we papa?”
Her father laughed.
“Is there anything you don’t think you can do for me better than
any one else, my darling?” he said fondly, stroking the fair head, as
Cicely knelt on the grass beside him, looking up in his face with
bright tenderness in her blue eyes.
Mrs. Methvyn was not alone when she joined them. Geneviève
had seen her leave the house and ran after her, so the two came
across the lawn together.
“I have finished my letters at last, I am glad to say,” said Cicely’s
mother, after she had shaken hands with Mr. Guildford, “so now I
have nothing to do till dinner-time, and we can all stay out till the last
moment—till Mr. Guildford orders you in, I mean, Philip. What a
delicious afternoon it is!”
“Yes, here it is perfect,” said Cicely; “the sun was just a little too
hot driving to Haverstock, though the road is pretty shady. Did you
not find it disagreeable coming from Greybridge, Mr. Guildford—that
road is so unsheltered?”
“It was rather hot, but it is not a long drive,” he replied. “You must
have found it rather a tiring walk, did you not, Miss Casalis?” he
added, thoughtlessly, turning to Geneviève.
The girl looked at him with a curious half-terrified, half-appealing
expression. Her lips parted as if she were going to speak, but before
she had time to say anything, Mrs. Methvyn and Cicely interrupted
her.
“Geneviève has not been at Greybridge, Mr. Guildford,” they
exclaimed; “you must have been mistaken.”
“I did not mean to say I saw Miss Casalis at Greybridge,” he
replied quietly. “It was on my way here I thought I saw you in the
distance,” he went on, turning to Geneviève.
“Oh! that may be,” said Mrs. Methvyn. “You did go for a little walk
you told me, I think, my dear, but of course you would not dream of
going so far as Greybridge alone—that would never do.”
“I did not see Mr. Guildford when I was out,” said Geneviève.
“Was it at the distance you thought you saw me?”
The words sounded simple in the extreme, and her tone of voice
was quiet and collected, but as the young man turned to reply, he
saw in her eyes the same expression of mute appeal. A slight chill
seemed to run through him; so young, yet so disingenuous! Yet
surely, surely, more to be pitied than blamed; and with this reflection
there set in a strong feeling of contemptuous indignation against Mr.
Fawcett, the man who could in the least take advantage of a young
girl’s ignorance and inexperience. Not that Mr. Guildford was a man
of the world in the sense of being ready to give the worst explanation
to even the faintest appearances of evil, or of crediting his fellow-
beings in advance with wrong-doing; he would not have given a
second thought to what he had seen but for Geneviève’s
unmistakable terror of its being known to her aunt. That she had
really been at Greybridge, unknown to her friends, and that this, and
not the meeting with Mr. Fawcett, was the terrible secret, naturally,
never occurred to him. Had he known it, he would have been saved
some present regret and future embarrassment. He looked at
Geneviève gravely, as he answered her question.
“Yes, Miss Casalis, when I thought I saw you it was at some
distance.”
Something in his tone inclined Cicely to start up in her cousin’s
defence—defence from what, she knew not, but she fancied there
was a coldness and constraint in his manner to Geneviève, which
annoyed her. “Poor little Geneviève is looking quite frightened
again,” she thought to herself. “Mr. Guildford may be very clever and
estimable—I have no doubt he is, but he would be much pleasanter
if he were less abrupt.”
But aloud she only said, “If it was at a distance you thought you
saw her, I dare say it was not Geneviève at all. One requires to know
a person very well indeed—their appearance, I mean—to recognise
them at a distance.”
“Perhaps so,” said Mr. Guildford.
Then he turned to Colonel Methvyn, and began talking of some
different subject, but somehow the brightness and harmony of the
pleasant afternoon seemed to have fled.
But Cicely had no idea of allowing such desirable guests to take
their departure without making an effort to detain them.
“Papa,” she said, suddenly, “do you know what this day week will
be?”.
“This day week, my dear?” repeated her father, “this day week?—
no, I don’t remember. Oh! yes, to be sure, it will be—”
“My birthday,” she interrupted. “What shall we do to celebrate it?
Geneviève, help us to an idea.”
“Let us have a picnic,” exclaimed Geneviève, clapping her hands,
her eyes dancing with excitement and glee in a manner that
altogether nonplussed Mr. Guildford’s new opinion of her. He looked
at her in amazement.
“How can she be so childishly light hearted, and yet so deceitful?”
he thought.
Then he wondered if this could be “acting,” but a glance at her
pretty flushed face, at her dark eyes raised to Cicely’s in sweet
eagerness as they discussed the possibilities of the scheme,
altogether put to flight so terrible a suspicion, and the young man
was fain to take refuge in the old commonplace axiom of the
incomprehensible nature of even the most apparently transparent of
women. But, once or twice in the course of the afternoon, a certain
something in Geneviève’s manner to him touched his gentler
feelings; she seemed to be tacitly appealing to his forbearance and
pity. “Don’t judge me till I can explain it all,” she seemed to say, and
though he made no effort to reassure her, he grew unconsciously
softened by her trust in him. She certainly succeeded in making him
think a good deal more about her than would have been the case but
for the confidence thus forced upon him, and which he was the last
man in the world to welcome.
They all went on talking over Geneviève’s suggestion, but Mr.
Guildford hardly noticed what they were saying till he found himself
suddenly appealed to.
“Yes, the Lingthurst Copse would be the nicest after all,” Cicely
was saying. “If we could get you to the Witch’s Ladder, papa,
wouldn’t it be delightful? Think how many times we have had
birthday treats there when Amy and Trevor and I were children!
Would you not like to see the copse again dreadfully, papa?”
Colonel Methvyn laughed, half sadly. “You want to coax me into
fancying myself well again, Cicely,” he said. “But you forget, dear, it
is four years since I have been outside the gates except for those
weary journeys to town. No, you must go without me.”
“But we won’t; if you can’t come we shall give it up,” persisted
Cicely. Then she turned to Mr. Guildford, and unfolded her scheme in
full to him. Her father was to be driven in her low pony-carriage to
the Copse Farm, and there to be met by Barry and the Bath chair. “It
can be sent in a cart to the farm the day before,” she said, “and
Barry can go in it if it’s too far to walk, lazy creature that he is! And
the paths through the copse are quite wide enough for the chair. It is
so pretty there, Geneviève,” she exclaimed to her cousin, “prettier
even than in the woods we go to church by. And don’t you think it
would do my father good, Mr. Guildford? It is only a three miles’
drive.”
Mr. Guildford was able honestly to agree with her, for he had seen
enough of Colonel Methvyn to judge more favourably of his case
than at first sight, and to be of opinion that his general health would
be improved by less vigorous adherence to invalid rules. So it was
settled that Geneviève’s idea should be actually carried out, and that
Mr. Guildford’s next visit should be timed so that he should make one
of the party.
“Is it not inconvenient for you to promise to come on any particular
day?” said Cicely, as she was bidding him good-bye, after her father
had been wheeled back to the house again.
“Not now,” he said, “I have not much to do except what I give
myself; and before another busy season comes round, I shall
probably have left Sothernbay, so I don’t care much about extending
my acquaintance—my “business”—there,” he said lightly.
“Are you going to leave Sothernbay? Oh! I am so sorry,”
exclaimed Cicely in sudden alarm, “my father will miss you so!”
“I am not thinking of leaving at present,” he replied quickly. “I
should certainly not leave till I have done what I undertook to do; that
is to say, till I can resign my charge of Colonel Methvyn to Dr. Farmer
again.”
“Oh! thank you. I am so glad to be assured of it,” said Cicely
gently, but in a tone of great relief.
“Eventually,” continued Mr. Guildford, “I have quite made up my
mind that it will be best to leave. I think I see my way to doing more
good elsewhere and in a different way.”
But though Miss Methvyn listened courteously she made no reply
which could have led him to say more.
“She thinks of me only as her father’s doctor,” reflected Mr.
Guildford with a little bitterness when he had said good-bye and was
on his way home. It was disappointing. He had rather looked forward
to telling her of his change of plan, of his rapidly maturing belief that
by increased study and research, he might fit himself for a position
which he had long aspired to, and had considerable chance of
attaining—a position which would put him in the way of fulfilling his
darling ambition, that of doing something worth the doing for the
science of medicine. He had fancied she was the sort of woman to
have entered into his hopes and sympathised with his aspirations—
he had, in his own mind, begun to think of her, young as she was, as
belonging to the rare class of women of whom a man might make
friends. He had all but said so to her this very afternoon, and she
had then seemed thoroughly to enter into his feelings and opinions.
But this evening he felt unreasonably chilled and disappointed.
“After all,” he reflected, “I suspect it is safest to restrict one’s
relations with women in every direction. There are plenty of good
staunch men in the world to make friends of, fortunately—and a
gentle, clinging creature like poor little Geneviève even, would be
more satisfactory in the end. What can that fellow Fawcett be
thinking of to involve her in any underhand flirtation—I can’t make it
out.”
His brow darkened as he meditated upon what he had seen. He
determined to watch for an opportunity of giving Geneviève a word of
advice.
END OF VOL. I.
VOLUME II.
CHAPTER I.
WORK AND PLAY.
“If all the world and love were young

And truth in every shepherd’s tongue”
The Nymph’s Reply.
EARLY summer was the time of all others for seeing Lingthurst Copse
to advantage, for the soil thereabouts was dry and gravelly, and a
few weeks of hot weather destroyed the freshness of the tints and
made all the vegetation look thirsty. It was only a copse, and the
trees which composed it were somewhat stunted and meagre, but
still it was a very pretty spot in itself, and worth driving more than
three miles to, for the sake of the loveliness of the view from the top
of the rugged old rock, one side of which was skirted by the
miniature forest. The latter part of the ascent of this rock was very
steep—in places almost perpendicular, but a series of rough steps
greatly facilitated matters in the hardest parts of the climb—these
were the steps known as the Witch’s Ladder. Who the witch was and
from what uncanny motive she had devoted herself to thus amiably
preparing the way for those who were to come after her, had been
matter for much grave speculation, but had never been satisfactorily
explained, and remained a pleasantly tantalising mystery to the
visitors of her ancient haunts. That there had never been a witch at
all, and that the steps were but natural irregularities on the rock’s
surface, worn, in the lapse of time, to more definite shape by the feet
of many climbers, was a theory which had suggested itself to some
few irreverent minds. But, as a rule, these scoffers had the grace to
keep their scepticism to themselves, and the witch, young or old, fair
or hideous, was allowed to retain undisputed possession of
Lingthurst Copse and Rock.
Cicely’s—or rather Geneviève’s picnic—had assumed unexpected
dimensions. Sir Thomas and Lady Frederica had been invited to join
the expedition and had asked leave to bring with them two young
ladies, no longer in the very first blush of youth, the daughters of the
Haverstock rector, whom Lady Frederica had invited to spend a
week with her, from a vague notion that “it would be nice for them to
meet Mr. Hayle, poor girls!”—a young and unmarried clergyman
being an unprecedented novelty in the neighbourhood. But though
the “poor girls” were very ready to come, Lady Frederica found the
entertaining of them by no means so easy a matter as she had
anticipated. She asked Mr. Hayle to dinner every other day at least,
and in her innocent way prepared him to be captivated by one, if not
by both, of the Misses Kettering by telling him beforehand what dear
good girls they were, how indefatigable in the manufacture of
ecclesiastical cushions and altar cloths, how unfailing in their
attendance at the daily service instituted since the opening of the
new Haverstock church. And Mr. Hayle listened gravely, expressed
his satisfaction at finding that the neighbourhood contained such
right thinking young women, came to dinner when he was asked,
disgusted the elder Miss Kettering the very first evening by
remarking that he wondered she had never thought of joining a
sisterhood if the secular tone of her home life was not to her mind,
and still more desperately offended the younger and better-looking
sister by not admiring her rendering of Liszt’s ‘Ave Maria,’ got up by
her with considerable labour for the occasion. So Lady Frederica’s
benevolent intentions were defeated, and her guests lay heavy on
her mind, and the news of the Methvyns’ picnic was welcome
indeed, not only to the young ladies themselves but to all their
entertainers, including Miss Winter and Mr. Fawcett who were
growing very tired indeed of the labours Lady Frederica’s good
nature had imposed upon them.
Mr. Hayle, in happy unconsciousness of the offence he had given,
accompanied the Lingthurst party to the rendezvous at the Copse
Farm, and almost reinstated himself in Miss Kettering senior’s favour
by calmly declining to agree with her, when she gushingly demanded
of him if he did not think that lovely Miss Casalis the most exquisitely
beautiful girl he had ever seen.”
“I don’t care about that sort of beauty,” said Mr. Hayle, and then
he walked away to where Cicely and Mr. Guildford were improvising
a comfortable couch for Colonel Methvyn with the cushions of the
carriages, as the invalid declared himself able to join the lowly
luncheon party instead of remaining in the solitary state of his Bath
chair.
He really looked and felt better than he had done for years, and
Mr. Guildford was not a little elated at the success of his new mode
of treatment. Long, long afterwards Cicely looked back with pleasure
on that bright morning in the copse, and felt warm gratitude to the
man whose care and kindness had enabled her suffering father to
enjoy again a breath of the out-door life he had loved so well. And to-
day the sight of the invalid’s pleasure seemed to cheer every one
else. To all outward appearance they were a very happy little party.
Geneviève’s clear soft laugh rang as merrily as if its owner had
never known a care or perplexity, and the tender brightness of
Cicely’s face was sunshine in itself. Mr. Hayle looked at her and
wondered. Edmond Guildford forgot all his cynical theories in the
unconscious happiness of the present, forgot even to marvel at his
own inconsistency—only Trevor looked moody and dissatisfied,
unlike his usual equable contented self.
There were more reasons than one for his gloom. Good-natured
and kindly as he was, Cicely’s extreme devotion to her parents and
home interests at times tried his patience, and suggested unpleasing
comparisons. And a long conversation he had had the night before
with his father was also on his mind. Nor was the day to close
without yet further annoyance falling to his share.
Mr. Guildford had not forgotten his intention of coming to some
sort of understanding with the little lady whose eyes had so
successfully appealed to his forbearance. After luncheon the able-
bodied members of the party felt themselves in duty bound to scale
the Witch’s Ladder; in the ascent they naturally fell apart into little
groups of twos and threes, and Mr. Guildford found himself alone
with Miss Casalis. He had not sought the opportunity, and she had
not evaded it, but now that it occurred, both were plainly conscious
that the sooner what had to be said could be got over, the more
comfortable they would feel. Somewhat to Mr. Guildford’s surprise,
Geneviève herself hastened to break the ice.
“I fear much you thought me very strange the last day you came
to Greystone,” she began, with some timidity, but on the whole less
trepidation than he had expected. “I know well you did see me on the
road, and it grieved me—indeed it grieved me to seem deceitful. But
I was so frightened, oh! oh! so frightened, that my aunt would be
very angry. And I would not for all the world make her angry. She is
so very good for me. And I thank you so much that you did not insist
that it was me that you had seen.”
Mr. Guildford was rather taken aback by the calmness of this
confession—the girl did not seem by any means ashamed of herself,
even though tacitly owning that her conduct deserved her aunt’s
serious displeasure—he walked on (they were just now on a
comparatively speaking level piece of ground, a sort of landing
between the flights of stairs), for a few moments in silence; then he
said abruptly,
“Why do you do what would make Mrs. Methvyn angry, if you
dread her anger so much?”.
“I could not help it—indeed I could not,” said Geneviève
penitently, without appearing in the least to resent his tone. “I was
obliged to go to Greybridge, and at the first I did not think how it
might displease my aunt.”
Mr. Guildford grew still more puzzled.
“I didn’t know you had been at Greybridge,” he said. “It was not
there I saw you—indeed it was not very far from home. It wasn’t on
account of—of the distance from home I thought Mrs. Methvyn would
be displeased.”
“How then?” exclaimed Geneviève, looking up at him in perplexity.
“What else for could I have feared? I went but to Greybridge to the
post-office—” and in a few words she explained to him the reason of
her secret expedition—the same reason that she had given to Mr.
Fawcett, the wish to post unobserved the letter she feared she might
be “thought silly” for having written. It sounded sincere enough,
indeed; so far as her explanation went, it actually was so, but still Mr.
Guildford felt puzzled. Was she telling him all? Had there been no
second motive for her walk? Hitherto Mr. Fawcett had not been
named, and it had actually not occurred to Geneviève that he was in
any way connected with Mr. Guildford’s disapproval of her behaviour.
So she looked up with some anxiety, but without embarrassment, to
read in her companion’s grave face the effect of her explanation.
And something in her expression made him ashamed of his
suspicions, though it was not without an effort that he made up his
mind to discard them.
“I have done you injustice, Miss Casalis,” he said at last, and I
beg your pardon. Don’t you see that if I had had any idea that the
mere fact of your being out on the road would have displeased your
aunt, I would not have mentioned it so carelessly and casually as I
did?”
“Yes,” said Geneviève, after a little cogitation; “I see, but I
understand not. You saw nothing wrong, yet you spoke as if you
thought I had done wrong. What then was there?”
“There was nothing,” replied the young man, half annoyed, half
inclined to laugh. “I should have thought nothing of seeing you
walking along the road, had you not immediately shown me you
were afraid of its being known, Then, of course, I began to wonder
why, and pitched upon the most natural explanation. Now I know
why you were afraid, so there is nothing more for me to say except
to repeat that I am sorry for having misunderstood you.”
But Geneviève was not satisfied. Light was beginning to dawn
upon her. She stood still, her hands clasped together, the colour
coming and going in her face.
“What then was it you thought I feared?” she exclaimed
vehemently. “I must know. Mr. Guildford, you shall then tell. You are
not kind.”
She seemed on the point of tears, and Mr. Guildford was not fond
of tears. Still he was sorry for her, and provoked with himself.
“I wish you would believe me, Miss Casalis,” he said earnestly,
“that I saw nothing in your conduct that I even fancied unbecoming—
nothing that I would have given a second thought to.”
“But what thought you then when you saw that I feared?” she
persisted, beginning to lose command both of her temper and her
English. “Was it that you have seen me walk with Mr. Fawcett? I
thought not that one was so little amiable, so little kind in England!
What then was there of wrong in what I have done? I meet the
nephew of my aunt, he speaks to me, I answer him—voilà tout!
Would you that I should run away—would you—?”
But by this time the tears have come in earnest—the rest of the
sentence is lost in sobs.
“My dear Miss Casalis,” exclaimed Mr. Guildford in desperation, “I
really entreat you to be reasonable. Have I not told you half-a-dozen
times that your behaviour so far as I know was irreproachable? Nor,
whatever I had thought of it, would I have presumed to express an
opinion but for this unfortunate misunderstanding, brought about—
you must do me the justice to allow—by yourself. You appealed to
me, silently it is true, but still you did appeal to me, to refrain from
drawing attention to what I had seen, and to-day you honoured me
with an explanation of the whole. I understand it all now, and for the
third time I beg your pardon.”
“Then you do not think I—I was to blame for—for speaking to Mr.
Fawcett?” said Geneviève, calming down, but still sobbing.

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A Complete Course on Theoretical

Physics From Classical Mechanics to

Introductory Quantum Mechanics A Traditional Approach

Advanced classical mechanics 1st Edition Bagchi

A Course in Quantum Mechanics 1st Edition Nandita Rudra

Covariant Physics - From Classical Mechanics to General

The Weierstrass Elliptic Function and Applications in

A Course in Classical Physics 4 Waves and Light

Classical and Quantum Dynamics From Classical Paths to

Classical and Quantum Dynamics From Classical Paths to

ULNP titles must provide at least one of the following:

• An exceptionally clear and concise treatment of a standard undergraduate subject.

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/8917

ISSN 2192-4791 ISSN 2192-4805 (electronic)

Library of Congress Control Number: 2018961698

This textbook is a translation of the third German edition of Grundkurs

Regensburg, Germany Dieter Strauch

Hamburg, Germany Albrecht Lindner

Hamburg, Germany Albrecht Lindner

The Basic Course (Grundkurs) was discovered in a third, extensively revised

Regensburg, Germany Dieter Strauch

1.3.4 Error Propagation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... . . . . 49

2.3.6 Physical Pendulum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101

3.2.4Magnetic Moments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190

3.5.7 Summary: Radiation Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266

4.3.8 Angular Momentum Operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328

5.4.5 Hartree–Fock–Bogoliubov Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 458

6.2.3 Liouville and Collision-Free Boltzmann Equation . . . . . . 529

6.5.7 Electromagnetic Radiation in a Cavity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 594

1.1 Vector Analysis

1.1.1 Space and Time

particularly advantageous when we want to exploit the assumed homogeneity of

1.1.2 Vector Algebra

with the Cartesian components

Hence it also follows that a · (b + c) = a · b + a · c.

Hence it also follows that

Using a right-handed Cartesian coordinate system, we have

ex × e y = ez (and cyclic permutations e y × ez = e x , . . .) ,

and also e x × e x = 0, etc., whence

In addition, it satisfies the Jacobi identity (note the cyclic permutation)

The scalar product of a vector with a vector product, viz.,

In this context, the concept of a matrix is useful. An M × N matrix A is understood

 just introduced has elements A

is equal to the triple product a · (b × c). For determinants, we have

Moreover, from (a × b) · c = a · (b × c) and replacing c by c × d, it follows that

the determinant of a 2×2 matrix, and in particular,

which, of course, follows from sin2 φab = 1 − cos2 φab .

Table 1.1 Space-inversion Type Original image Mirror image

It is not allowed to divide by vectors—neither scalar products nor vector products

Obviously, a · da/dt = 21 d(a · a)/dt = 21 da 2 /dt = a da/dt holds. In particular the

As an example of a vector function, we investigate r (t), the path of a point as

deT deB deN

also holds, because of τ = eB · (deN /ds) and eB = eT × eN . (Here it is unimportant

and because ds 2 = dx 2 + dy 2 + dz 2 , we also have dx/ds = 1/ 1 + y  2 + z  2 with

and the torsion by

For the curvature, we have κ ≥ 0, while τ is negative for a left-hand thread.

1.1.4 Vector Fields

“If all the world and love were young

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just introduced has elements A

and because ds 2 = dx 2 + dy 2 + dz 2 , we also have dx/ds = 1/ 1 + y 2 + z 2 with