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FIRST EDITION
A Basic Approach to PreCalculus Trigonometry

Preparing to Succeed in Calculus
csc
cos
cot
sin
tan sec
Young H. Kim
Youngsoo Kim
Ana M. Tameru
Wen Yan
Tuskegee University
Bassim Hamadeh, CEO and Publisher
Michael Simpson, Vice President of Acquisitions and Sales
Jamie Giganti, Senior Managing Editor
Jess Busch, Senior Graphic Designer
Angela Schultz, Senior Field Acquisitions Editor
Michelle Piehl, Project Editor
Alexa Lucido, Licensing Coordinator
Copyright © 2016 by Cognella, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reprinted, repro-
duced, transmitted, or utilized in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known
or hereafter invented, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or in any information retrieval
system without the written permission of Cognella, Inc.
First published in the United States of America in 2016 by Cognella, Inc.
Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used
only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.
Cover images copyright © Depositphotos/agsandrew.
Printed in the United States of America
ISBN: 978-1-63487-308-6 (pbk) / 978-1-63487-309-3 (br)

To our children
Contents
Page
1 Rational Functions 1
1.1 Graphing Rational Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Partial Fraction Decomposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2 Trigonometric Functions 15
2.1 Angles and Their Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.2 Right Triangle Trigonometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.3 Trigonometric Functions of Any Angle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.4 Graphs of Sine and Cosine Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.5 Graphs of Other Trigonometric Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
2.6 Inverse Trigonometric Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
3 Trigonometric Identities and Equations 51

3.1 Verifying Identities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
3.2 Sum and Difference Identities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
3.3 Double-Angle and Half-Angle Identities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
3.4 Product-to-Sum and Sum-to-Product Identities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
3.5 Trigonometric Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
4 Applications of Trigonometric Functions 77

4.1 The Law of Sines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
4.2 The Law of Cosines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
4.3 Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
4.4 The Dot Product of Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
4.5 Polar Form of Complex Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
5 Sequences and Series 107

5.1 Notations for Sequences and Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
5.2 Arithmetic Sequences and Their Sums . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
5.3 Geometric Sequences and Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
v
vi CONTENTS
Appendices 120
A Answers to Exercises 121
B Formulas 127
Chapter 1
Rational Functions
1.1 Graphing Rational Functions
A rational function is a function f (x) that can be written as the ratio of two polynomials N (x) and D(x)
where the denominator isn’t zero.
N (x)
f (x) = , D(x) 6= 0
D(x)
We use the domain, intercepts, and asymptotes of the function as a guide to draw the graph.
I Domain
The domain of a function is the set of values of x on which the function is defined. A rational function is
simply a fraction, and in a fraction the denominator cannot equal zero because the fraction would be
undefined. To find which values of x make the fraction defined, create an equation where the denominator is
not equal to zero and solve it. The domain of f is the set of all real numbers x for which D(x) 6= 0. The
answer is written in interval notation.
Example 1. Finding the Domain of a Rational Function

Find the domain of the rational function.
x−1 x−1 x−4
a) f (x) = b) g(x) = 2 c) h(x) =
x+3 x −1 x2 + 4
Solution.
a) Solve x + 3 6= 0 and get x 6= −3. Therefore, the domain of f consists of all real numbers except −3, and
it is written as (−∞, −3) ∪ (−3, ∞).
b) Solve x2 − 1 6= 0 and get x 6= ±1. Therefore, the domain of f consists of all real numbers except 1 and
−1, it is written as (−∞, −1) ∪ (−1, 1) ∪ (1, ∞).
c) Solve x2 + 4 6= 0 or x2 6= −4. A squared number never equals −4 because squared numbers are always
non-negative. Therefore, the domain is “all real numbers,” written as (−∞, ∞).
Practice Now. Find the domain of the rational function.

x−2 x+4 x+2
a) f (x) = b) g(x) = 2 c) h(x) =
x+1 x − 16 x2 + 1
1
2 CHAPTER 1. RATIONAL FUNCTIONS
I Intercepts
The intercepts of a function are the intersections of the graph with coordinate axes. The x-intercepts are
points of the form (x, 0) on the x-axis, and the y-intercepts are points of the form (0, y) on the y-axis. For
rational functions, we find intercepts as follows.
• Find the x-intercept(s) by solving N (x) = 0.
• Find the y-intercept by evaluating f (0).
Example 2. Finding Intercepts of a Rational Function

Find the x- and y-intercepts of the rational function.
2x − 1 8
a) f (x) = b) g(x) =
x+3 x2 + 8
Solution.
a) The x-intercepts occur at values for which the numerator is 0. To find

the x-intercepts, we solve the
1 1
equation 2x − 1 = 0. The solution is x = . So, the x-intercept is , 0 . To find the y-intercept, we
2 2
compute f (0).
2(0) − 1 −1 1
f (0) = = =− .
0+3 3 3

1
So, the y-intercept is 0, − .
3
b) The x-intercepts occur at values for which the numerator is 0. In this case the numerator is the constant
8, which is never zero. So, there are no x-intercepts. To find the y-intercept, we compute g(0).
8 8
g(0) = = = 1.
02 + 8 8
The y-intercept is (0, 1).
Practice Now. Find the x- and y-intercepts of the rational function.

3x 4
a) f (x) = b) g(x) = 2
8x + 3 x + 16
I Asymptotes
An asymptote of a curve is a line that the curve comes arbitrarily closer to as it extends farther. There are
three kinds of asymptotes—vertical, horizontal, and oblique asymptotes.
Vertical Asymptotes
N (x)
Assuming that there are no common factors in the numerator and denominator of the function f (x) = ,
D(x)
the vertical asymptotes are obtained by solving the equation D(x) = 0. A vertical asymptote is expressed as
an equation of the form x = a. The vertical line x = a is never touched by the graph.
1.1. GRAPHING RATIONAL FUNCTIONS 3
Example 3. Finding Vertical Asymptotes of a Rational Function Graph

Find the vertical asymptotes, if any.
x+5 x+4 x−4
a) f (x) = b) g(x) = c) f (x) =
x−2 x2 − 3x − 28 x2 + 5
Solution.
a) Because there are no common factors in the numerator and denominator, we solve the equation
x − 2 = 0 to get the only solution, 2. Therefore, the vertical asymptote is x = 2.
b) The denominator of the function g(x) is factored, and
x+4 x+
4
1
g(x) = = = .
x2 − 3x − 28 + 4)(x − 7)
(x
x−7
We solve the equation x − 7 = 0 to get the vertical asymptote x = 7.
c) Because the denominator x2 + 5 has no real zeros, the graph of f (x) has no vertical asymptote.
Practice Now. Find the vertical asymptotes, if any.

3x x+1 4
a) f (x) = b) f (x) = 2 c) g(x) =
8x + 3 x + 2x + 1 x2 + 16
Horizontal Asymptotes
The horizontal asymptote is determined using the following rule.
For a rational function

axn + · · · ← nth degree polynomial,
f (x) = where a 6= 0, b 6= 0.
bxm + · · · ← mth degree polynomial,
1. If n < m, then y = 0 (the x-axis) is the horizontal asymptote.

a
2. If n = m, then the horizontal asymptote is the line y = .
b
3. If n > m, then there is no horizontal asymptote.
Example 4. Finding the Horizontal Asymptote of a Rational Function Graph

Find the horizontal asymptote, if any.
x+1 7x + 4 x2 − 4x + 1
a) f (x) = b) g(x) = c) h(x) =
x2 − 2x + 3 28 − 3x −4x + 1
Solution.
a) The degree of the numerator is 1, and that of the denominator is 2. Because the degree of the
denominator is greater, the horizontal asymptote is y = 0 by the first case of the rule.
b) We rearrange terms of the function g(x) in descending order of degrees.
7x + 4 7x + 4
g(x) = =
28 − 3x −3x + 28
The numerator and the denominator have the same degree of 1. The leading coefficients of the
numerator and the denominator are 7 and −3, respectively. By the second case of the rule, the
7 7
horizontal asymptote is y = =− .
−3 3
c) The degree of the numerator is 2, and that of the denominator is 1. Because the degree of the numerator
is greater, by the third case of the rule, there is no horizontal asymptote.
Practice Now. Find the horizontal asymptotes, if any.

3x x+1 3x2 + 16
a) f (x) = b) f (x) = c) g(x) =
8x + 3 x2 + 2x + 1 x + 16
Oblique Asymptotes
If the degree of N (x) is exactly one more than the degree of D(x), then the graph of the rational function has
an oblique asymptote. Divide the numerator by the denominator using polynomial division to obtain the
quotient, which will be of the linear form mx + b. The oblique asymptote is y = mx + b.
Example 5. Finding the Oblique Asymptote of a Rational Function Graph

x2 − 4x + 5
Find the oblique asymptote of f (x) = .
x+3
Solution. Because the degree of the numerator is exactly one more than the degree of the denominator, the
graph of f (x) has an oblique asymptote. Performing the long division (or synthetic division) of polynomials,
we get the quotient x − 7 and remainder 26.
26
f (x) = (x − 7) +
x+3
Thus, the oblique asymptote is y = x − 7.
2x2 − 4x + 5
Practice Now. Find the oblique asymptote of f (x) = .
x+1
I Sketching the Graph of a Rational Function

N (x)
Follow the steps to draw the graph of a rational function f (x) = .
D(x)
1.1. GRAPHING RATIONAL FUNCTIONS 5
/
Sketching the Graph of a Rational Function
1. Find the domain.

2. Find the x- and y-intercepts.
3. Find vertical and horizontal (or oblique) asymptotes.

4. Find additional points on the graph of f , particularly near zeros of
N (x) and D(x).
5. Sketch the graph by using the information obtained previously. Draw
the asymptotes, plot the intercepts and additional points, and com-
plete the graph with a smooth curve. The number of curves is equal
to the number of intervals in the domain.
Example 6. Sketching the Graph of a Rational Function

x+2
Sketch the graph of f (x) = .
x+1
Solution.
Step 1. Find the domain.

Solve x + 1 6= 0 to get x 6= −1. The domain of f consists of all real numbers except −1, written in
interval notation as (−∞, −1) ∪ (−1, ∞). The domain consists of two intervals, so the graph will
consist of two curves, separated by x = −1.
Step 2. Find the x- and y-intercepts.
• The x-intercept: Solve x + 2 = 0 and get x = −2. The x-intercept is (−2, 0).
0+2 2
• The y-intercept: f (0) = = = 2. So, the y-intercept is (0, 2).
0+1 1
Step 3. Find the asymptotes.
• The vertical asymptote(s): Solve x + 1 = 0 and get x = −1. Thus, the vertical asymptote is
x = −1.
• The horizontal asymptote: Because the degrees are the same in the numerator and the
1
denominator, the horizontal asymptote is y = = 1, obtained by taking the ratio of the leading
1
coefficients.
• The oblique asymptote: The graph of f has no oblique asymptote because both numerator and
denominator have the same degrees.
Step 4. Find additional points on the graph of f .

The zeros of numerator and denominator are −2 and −1. Find points near these values.
x −3 −2 − 32 − 21 0 1
1 3
y 2 0 −1 3 2 2
Step 5. Graph the function.

y
x = −1
• Sketch the vertical asymptote x = −1 x+2
y=
and the horizontal asymptote y = 1 in x+1
− 12 , 3 •

dotted lines.
1, 32

• Plot the intercepts (−2, 0) and (0, 2). •2
•
−3, 12

• Plot additional points from Step 4. 1 y=1
•
• x
• Draw two curves by connecting dots and −3 −2 −1 0
letting them get closer to the asymptotes 3
− 2 , −1 •
as they go farther.
3x2
Practice Now. Sketch the graph of f (x) = .
x2 −4
Exercises 1.1
(1–6) Find the domain of each rational function. 6x2 + 5x + 1 x2 − 4x − 5
17. f (x) = 18. f (x) =
3x2 − 5x − 2 x − 12
1 x−1 x−1 5 − 2x
1. f (x) = 2. f (x) = 19. f (x) = 2 20. f (x) =
x+2 x+7 x + 8x + 15 (2x + 1)(3x + 4)
x+1 x+4
3. f (x) = 4. f (x) = 2
(x − 2)2 x + x − 12 (21–26) Find the oblique asymptote, if any, of the graph of
2
x − 4x − 5 4x each rational function.
5. f (x) = 6. f (x) = −
x−5 x2+9
x2 + 4x + 4 2x2 + 14x + 7
21. f (x) = 22. f (x) =
(7–12) Find the x- and y-intercepts of the rational function. x+3 x−5
x2 2x − 1
23. f (x) = 24. f (x) =
x−1 3x x2 − 6x − 6 x2 + 5x + 6
7. f (x) = 8. f (x) =
x+2 5−x 5 − 2x 2x6 − 1
25. f (x) = 26. f (x) = 5
x2 + x − 2 2 (2x + 1)(3x + 4) x + 3x + 1
9. f (x) = 10. f (x) = 2
x+7 x − 3x − 4
5x + 4 x2 − 3x − 4 (27–32) Use the method outlined in this section to graph
11. f (x) = 2 12. f (x) =
x + 10x + 25 2x2 + 4x − 1 each rational function.
(13–20) Find the vertical and horizontal asymptotes (if x 2x2 − 7x + 6

any). 27. f (x) = 28. f (x) =
x2 −4 x2 − 3x − 4
x 2x − 3 x2 − 4 5x + 21
13. f (x) = 14. f (x) = 29. f (x) = 30. f (x) =
x+3 4−x x−1 x2 − 6x − 7
x2 2x + 1 x+3 2x3 − x2 − x
15. f (x) = 2 16. f (x) = 2 31. f (x) = 32. f (x) =
x − 5x − 6 x − 5x + 6 x+1 x2 − 4
1.2 Partial Fraction Decomposition

N (x)
To find the partial fraction decomposition of a rational expression is to express it as a sum of
D(x)
several fractions, each of which is called a partial fraction, with denominators of smaller degrees.
1.2. PARTIAL FRACTION DECOMPOSITION 7
N (x) N1 (x) N2 (x) N2 (x) Nm (x)

= + + + ··· +
D(x) D1 (x) D2 (x) D2 (x) Dm (x)
In this book, we only deal with the “proper” cases where N (x) and D(x) have no common factors and the
degree of N (x) is less than the degree of D(x). If this is not the case, we can first perform polynomial division
x3
to reduce the degree of N (x). For example, if we were to find the partial fraction decomposition of 2 , we
x −1
3
x x
would perform long division to obtain 2 =x+ 2 . Then we would find the partial fraction
x −1 x −1
x
decomposition of 2 .
x −1
The form of partial fractions is determined by the factors of the denominator D(x). Depending on the form of
the factors, one of four possible cases will arise.
Case 1) D(x) is a product of distinct linear factors.

Let us assume that D(x) is a product of m distinct linear factors.
D(x) = (a1 x + b1 )(a2 x + b2 ) · · · (am x + bm ).
Then the partial fraction decomposition is of the form
N (x) A1 A2 Am
= + + ··· + ,
D(x) a1 x + b1 a2 x + b2 am x + bm
where A1 , ..., Am are constants to be determined.

Remark. Finding the decomposition amounts to solving equations for the constants A1 , ..., Am .
This can be done in two different ways. We illustrate them in examples.
Case 2) D(x) has distinct irreducible quadratic factors.

If D(x) contains an irreducible quadratic factor ax2 + bx + c, then the partial fraction for this factor
will be of the form
Ax + B
,
ax2 + bx + c
where A, B are constants to be determined.
Remark. A quadratic factor is called irreducible if it cannot be factored into two linear factors. An
easy way to check whether it is irreducible is to use the discrminant b2 − 4ac. If b2 − 4ac < 0, then it
is irreducible.
Case 3) D(x) has powered linear factors.

Suppose that D(x) contains (ax + b)m , that is, ax + b with the exponent m, where m ≥ 2. The
partial fractions for this factor will be of the form
A1 A1 Am
+ + ··· + ,
ax + b (ax + b)2 (ax + b)m
where A1 , ..., Am are constants to be determined.
Case 4) D(x) has powered irreducible quadratic factors.

Suppose that D(x) contains (ax2 + bx + c)m , that is, ax2 + bx + c with the exponent m, where
m ≥ 2. The partial fractions for this factor will be of the form
A1 x + B1 A2 x + B2 Am x + Bm
2
+ 2 2
+ ··· + ,
(ax + bx + c) (ax + bx + c) (ax2 + bx + c)m
where Ai and Bi are constants to be determined for i = 1, 2, . . . , m.

/
Finding the Partial Fraction Decomposition
1. Factor the denominator and set up the form of partial fraction de-
composition with unknown constants A, B, C, . . . in the numerator of
the decomposition.
2. Multiply both sides of the resulting equation by the denominator of
the left-hand side (the original denominator).
3. Remove the parenthesis using the distributive property. Group like
terms on the right-hand side.
4. Write both sides in descending powers, equate coefficients of like pow-
ers of x, and equate constant terms.
5. Solve the system of linear equations for A, B, C, . . .
6. Substitute the values A, B, C, . . . into the equation in Step 1 and write
the partial fraction decomposition.
Example 1. Find the Partial Fraction Decomposition with Linear Factors

2x + 1
Find the partial fraction decomposition of 2 .
x + 3x + 2
Solution.
2x + 1
• Step 1: We begin by factoring the denominator. We obtain . The denominator is the
(x + 1)(x + 2)
product of linear factors. So, we have
2x + 1 A B
= + .
(x + 1)(x + 2) (x + 1) (x + 2)
We need to determine the values of A and B.
• Step 2: Multiply both sides by the denominator (x + 1)(x + 2). We obtain

( 2x + 1 A B
+ 2) × × (x + 1)(x + 2).
(
(x(
+(1)(x
(( ((= +
( (x(
( +(1)(x
(( + 2) (x + 1) (x + 2)
• Step 3: Simplify the right-hand side of the equation using the distributive property.
2x + 1 = A(x + 2) + B(x + 1)
• Step 4: Expand and write both sides in descending power of x, then combine like terms.
2x + 1 = Ax + 2A + Bx + B
2x + 1 = (Ax + Bx) + (2A + B) (Rearrange terms.)
2x + 1 = (A + B)x + (2A + B) (Combine like terms.)
Two polynomials are equal if their corresponding coefficients are equal. This gives us the following
system. (
A+B =2
2A + B = 1
• Step 5: Solve the equations for A and B. You may use any method such as the substitution method, the
elimination method, or Cramer’s rule. The solution of this system is A = −1 and B = 3.
• Step 6: Substitute the values of A and B into the form in Step 1 and write the partial fraction
decomposition to get the answer.
A B −1 3
+ = +
(x + 1) (x + 2) (x + 1) (x + 2)
1 3
=− +
(x + 1) (x + 2)
Remark. There is an alternative way to find A and B by substituting well-chosen values for x in this case.
The solution is the same until Step 3. We begin with the setup.
2x + 1 A B
= +
(x + 1)(x + 2) (x + 1) (x + 2)
We multiply both sides by the denominator of the left-hand side, and simplify to obtain the equation in Step 3.
2x + 1 = A(x + 2) + B(x + 1).
From here, we select values for x, which will make all but one of the coefficients go away. We will then be able
to solve for that coefficient. More precisely,
• When x = −1, we obtain
2(−1) + 1 = A(−1 + 2) + B(−1 + 1)

−1 = A (Simplify.)
A = −1 (Get the solution.)
• When x = −2, we obtain:
2(−2) + 1 = A(−2 + 2) + B(−2 + 1)

−3 = −B (Simplify.)
B=3 (Get the solution.)
Therefore, the decomposition is

A B −1 3
+ = +
(x + 1) (x + 2) (x + 1) (x + 2)
1 3
=− +
(x + 1) (x + 2)
x + 14
Practice Now. Find the partial fraction decomposition of .
x2 − 6x + 8
Example 2. Finding the Partial Fraction Decomposition with Irreducible Quadratic Factors
3x2 + 2x − 6
Find the partial fraction decomposition of .
x(x2 + 2x + 6)
Solution.
• Step 1: The denominator is already in factored form. Note that the quadratic factor is irreducible
because b2 − 4ac = 22 − 4(1)(6) = −20 is negative. Set up the form of the partial fraction decomposition.
3x2 + 2x − 6 A Bx + C
2
= + 2
x(x + 2x + 6) x x + 2x + 6
• Step 2: Multiply both sides by the denominator x(x2 + 2x − 6) of the left-hand side.
3x2 + 2x − 6

A Bx + C
(2( × x(x2 + 2x + 6)
((
x(x +(2x(+ 6) × (( = + 2
(2(
x(x +(2x(+ 6) x x + 2x + 6
(
(
• Step 3: Simplify the right-hand side using the distributive property.
3x2 + 2x − 6 = A(x2 + 2x + 6) + (Bx + C)x
• Step 4: Expand and group like terms on the right-hand side.
3x2 + 2x − 6 = Ax2 + 2Ax + 6A + Bx2 + Cx

3x2 + 2x − 6 = (Ax2 + Bx2 ) + (2Ax + Cx) + 6A (Rearrange terms.)
2 2
3x + 2x − 6 = (A + B)x + (2A + C)x + 6A (Combine like terms.)
Then equate coefficients. 

A + B
 =3
2A + C =2

6A = −6

• Step 5: Solve for A, B, and C. The solution of this system is A = −1, B = 4, and C = 4.
• Step 6: By substituting the values into the form in Step 1, we have the partial fraction decomposition.
A Bx + C −1 4x + 4
+ 2 = + 2
x x + 2x + 6 x x + 2x + 6
1 4x + 4
=− + 2
x x + 2x + 6
x2 + 5x + 4
(x − 2)(x2 + 2)
Example 3. Finding the Partial Fraction Decomposition with Powered Linear Factors
−x2 + 3x + 1
x(x + 1)2
Solution.
• Step 1: The denominator is already factored. Note that x + 1 is squared. The powered factor will
introduce multiple partial fractions with increasing exponents in the denominator. Set up the form of
the partial fraction decomposition.
−x2 + 3x + 1 A B C
= + +
x(x + 1)2 x x + 1 (x + 1)2
• Step 2: Multiply both sides by the denominator of the left-hand side x(x + 1)2 .
−x2 + 3x + 1

2 A B C
× x(x + 1)2

x(x + 1) × = + +

2 2
x(x
+
1)
x x + 1 (x + 1)
−x2 + 3x + 1 = A(x + 1)2 + Bx(x + 1) + Cx
We need to find the values of A, B, and C.

• Step 4: We select values for x, which will make all but one of the coefficients go away.
– When x = 0, we obtain:
−(0)2 + 3(0) + 1 = A(0 + 1)2 + B(0)(0 + 1) + C(0)
1=A (Simplify.)
A=1 (Solve.)
– When x = −1, we obtain:

−(−1)2 + 3(−1) + 1 = A(−1 + 1)2 + B(−1)(−1 + 1) + C(−1)
−3 = −C (Simplify.)
C=3 (Solve.)
– To find B, we choose for x any small number, say, 1, then use already found values of A and C.
−12 + 3(1) + 1 = A(1 + 1)2 + B(1)(1 + 1) + C(1)
3 = 4A + 2B + C (Simplify.)
3 = 4(1) + 2B + 3 (Substitute.)
B = −2 (Solve.)
• Step 5: Substitute the values A = 1, B = −2, and C = 3 into the form in Step 1 and write the partial
fraction decomposition.
A B C 1 −2 3
+ + = + +
x x + 1 (x + 1)2 x x + 1 (x + 1)2
1 2 3
= − +
x x + 1 (x + 1)2
5x2 − 8x + 2
x3 − 2x2 + x
Example 4. Finding the Partial Fraction Decomposition with Powered Irreducible Quadratic Factors
x2
(x2 + 9)2
Solution.
• Step 1: The denominator is already factored. Set up the form of the partial fraction decomposition.
x2 Ax + B Cx + D
2 2
= 2 + 2
(x + 9) x +9 (x + 9)2
• Step 2: Multiply both sides by the denominator of the left-hand side (x2 + 9)2 .
x2

2 2 Ax + B Cx + D
× × (x2 + 9)2

(x + 9) 2 2 = 2+9
+ 2 + 9)2
(x
+ 9) x (x
x2 = (Ax + B)(x2 + 9) + (Cx + D)
• Step 4: Expand and group like terms on the right-hand side.

x2 = Ax3 + 9Ax + Bx2 + 9B + Cx + D (Expand.)
2 3 2
x = Ax + Bx + (9Ax + Cx) + (9B + D) (Rearrange terms.)
2 3 2
x = Ax + Bx + (9A + C)x + (9B + D) (Combine like terms.)
Then equate coefficients. 

A=0

B = 1


9A + C = 0
9B + D = 0

• Step 5: Solve the system of linear equations for A, B, C, and D.

We get A = 0, B = 1, C = 0, and D = −9.
• Step 6: Substitute the values into the form in Step 1 and write the partial fraction decomposition.
Ax + B Cx + D 0 · x + 1 0 · x + (−9)
+ 2 = 2 +
x2 + 9 (x + 9)2 x +9 (x2 + 9)2
1 9
= 2 − 2
x + 9 (x + 9)2
x2 + 5x + 4
(x − 2)(x2 + 2)
Exercises 1.2
(1–8) Write the form of the partial fraction decomposition (9–16) Find the partial fraction decomposition of the ra-
of the function. Do not determine the constants. tional function.
1
1. 1
(x − 1)(x + 2) 9.
x(x + 1)
x
2. 15x − 42
x2 + 3x − 4 10. 2
x − 6x + 8
3x + 5
3. 2
x(x + 2)2 11.
9x2 − 16
1
4. 3x − 28
(x − 3)(x2 + 4) 12.
(x − 7)2
9x − 2
5.
(x2 + 1)(x2 + 2) 2x2 − 23x + 57
13.
(x + 3)(x − 3)2
7x + 3
6. 12x2 − 15x + 6
x3 + 2x2 − 3x 14.
4x − 3 (x − 2)(x2 + 2)
7.
x2 (x2 + 4)2 6x2
15.
4x − 3 (x2 + 2)2
8.
x3 (x2 + x + 1)3 3x4 + x3 + 20x2 + 3x + 31
16.
(x + 1)(x2 + 4)2
Chapter 2
Trigonometric Functions
2.1 Angles and Their Measurement
I Angles in Standard Position
An angle is the figure formed by two rays or line segments terminal side
that have a common endpoint. The angle is measured from
the initial side to the terminal side. The common endpoint angle
is called the vertex of the angle. vertex •
initial side
An angle is in standard position if it y y

is drawn on the xy-plane with its vertex
at the origin and its initial side along the positive angle
positive x-axis. A positive angle rotates • • x
counterclockwise, and a negative angle x negative angle
rotates clockwise.
I Measurement of Angles
Two ways to measure the size of an angle are with degrees and radians.
Degree Measure
An angle formed by one complete counterclockwise rotation has measure 360 degrees, denoted 360◦ .
1
Therefore, 1◦ = of a complete revolution
360
Example 1. Drawing an Angle in Standard Position

Draw a brief sketch of each angle in standard position.
a) 150◦ b) −120◦
Solution.
150◦ 5 y
a) A 150◦ angle is = rotation counterclockwise.
360◦ 12
150◦
• x
15
16 CHAPTER 2. TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
120◦ 1 y
b) A −120◦ angle is ◦
= rotation clockwise.
360 3
• x
−120◦
Practice Now. Draw a brief sketch of the following angles in standard position.
◦
a) 330 b) −240◦
Each degree is divided into minutes and seconds. The degree is divided into 60 minutes (0 ). For even finer
measurements the minute is divided again into 60 seconds (00 ).
/
Relationships between Degrees, Minutes, and Seconds
We use the following rules for conversion between units.
1◦ = 600 10 = 6000 1◦ = 360000

◦ 0 ◦
0 1 00 1 00 1
1 = 1 = 1 =
60 60 3600
Example 2. Converting Angles from DMS to DD

Write 46◦ 360 1800 in DD (decimal degrees) notation.
Solution.
1. The degrees are in whole number: 46◦ .

◦
0 36
2. Divide the minutes by 60: 36 = = 0.6◦ .
60
◦
18
3. Divide the seconds by 3600: 1800 = = 0.005◦ .
3600
4. Add all: 46◦ + 0.6◦ + 0.005◦ = 46.605◦ .
5. Answer: 46◦ 360 1800 = 46.605◦
Practice Now. Convert the angle to DD notation.

◦ 0 00
a) 50 18 40 b) 26◦ 230 5000
Example 3. Converting Angles from DD to DMS

Write 38.347◦ in DMS (in degrees, minutes, and seconds) notation.
2.1. ANGLES AND THEIR MEASUREMENT 17
Solution.
1. The integer part of the number is the degrees: 38◦ .

2. Multiply the decimal part by 60: 0.347 × 60 = 20.82.
3. The integer part of the number is the minutes: 200 .
4. Multiply the decimal part by 60: .82 × 60 = 49.2. Round to the nearest whole number, in this case 49.
This represents the seconds: 4900 .
5. Answer: 38.347◦ = 38◦ 200 4900
Practice Now. Convert the angle to DMS notation.

◦
a) 67.634 b) 29.032◦
Radians
The radian measure of an angle θ, which intercepts an arc in a circle, is equal to the ratio of the arc length to
s
the radius of the circle; that is, θ = , where s is the arc length, and r is the radius.
r
/
Relationships between Degrees and Radians

◦
◦ 180 π
180 = π rad, 1 rad = , 1◦ = rad.
π 180
π rad
• To convert degrees to radians, multiply degrees by .
180◦
180◦
• To convert radians to degrees, multiply radians by .
π rad
Example 4. Conversion from Degrees to Radians

Convert each angle in degrees to radians.
a) 45◦ b) −120◦
π
Solution. Multiply the angle by rad, and simplify the answer.
180◦
π π π
a) 45◦ = 45◦ · ◦ rad =
◦
45 · ◦ rad = rad
180 4(
45 )
4
π π 2π
b) −120◦ = −120◦ · ◦ rad = −2(
◦
60 )· ◦ rad = − rad
180 3(
60 )
3
Practice Now. Convert each angle in degrees to radians.

◦
a) 135 b) −225◦
Example 5. Conversion from Radians to Degrees

Convert each angle in radians to degrees.
4π 7π
a) b) −
3 15
180◦
Solution. Multiply the angle by and simplify the answer.
π rad
180◦ 180◦

4π 4
π ◦ 7π 7
π ◦
a) rad = rad
= 240 b) − rad = − rad
= −84
3 3 π
rad 15 15 π
rad
Practice Now. Convert each angle in radians to degrees.

3π 8π
a) b) −
8 9
I Types of Angles
y y y
θ θ θ
x x x
acute angle right angle obtuse angle

(0◦ < θ < 90◦ ) (θ = 90◦ ) (90◦ < θ < 180◦ )
.
I Complements and Supplements

Two positive angles are complementary if their sum equals 90◦ . They are supplementary if the sum
equals 180◦ . If one angle is known, its complementary angle (complement) and supplementary angle
(supplement) can be found by subtracting the known angle from 90◦ and 180◦ , respectively.
Example 6. Finding the Complement and Supplement of an Angle

Find the complement and the supplement for angle 78◦ .
Solution. The complement of 78◦ is 90◦ − 78◦ = 12◦ . The supplement is 180◦ − 78◦ = 102◦ .
Practice Now. Find the complement and the supplement for angle 47◦ .
2.1. ANGLES AND THEIR MEASUREMENT 19
I The Length of a Circular Arc
r s
An arc of a circle is a “portion” of the circumference of the circle. θ

The length of an arc of a circle is proportional to its central angle.
/
The Length of a Circlular Arc
In a circle of radius r, the length s of an arc that subtends a central angle

of θ radians is
s = rθ
Example 7. Finding the Length of an Arc

Find the length of an arc in a circle of radius 10 meters that subtends a central angle of 30◦ .
π
Solution. Convert the angle to radians: 30◦ = rad. Then the length of the arc is
6
π 5π
s = rθ = 10 = ≈ 5.24 meters
6 3
Practice Now. In a circle of radius 10 centimeters, an arc is intercepted by a central angle with measure
135◦ . Find the arc length.
/
The Area of a Sector
In a circle of radius r, the area A of a sector with a central angle of θ radians

is
1 2
A= r θ.
2
Example 8. Finding the Area of a Sector

Find the area of a sector of a circle with central angle 45◦ if the radius of the circle is 3 meters.
π π
Solution. Convert the angle to radians: 45◦ = 45◦ rad = rad. Then the area of the sector is
180◦ 4

1 1 π 9π
A = r2 θ = (3)2 = ≈ 3.53 square meters
2 2 4 8
Practice Now. Find the area of the sector associated with a single slice of pizza when the pizza, with a
diameter of 14 inches, is cut into eight equal pieces.
I Linear and Angular Speed

time t > 0
• distance s Suppose that an object moves along a circle of radius r, traveling
a distance s over a period of time t, as in the figure. Let θ be the
θ angle swept by the object in that period of time. Then we define
• time t = 0
r the (average) linear speed v and the (average) angular speed w
of the object as:
/
Linear Speed and Angular Speed

s
• The (average) linear speed: v =
t
θ
• The (average) angular speed: w =
t
s rθ θ
• v= = = · r = wr
t t t
Example 9. Finding Linear Speed and Angular Speed

π
An object sweeps out a central angle of radians in 0.5 seconds as it moves along a circle of radius 3 m. Find
3
its linear and angular speed over that time period.
π
Solution. We have t = 0.5 sec, r = 3 m, and θ = rad. So, the angular speed is
3
π
θ rad 2π
w= = 3 = rad/sec,
t 0.5 sec 3
and the linear speed is

2π
v = wr = rad/sec (3 m) = 2π m/sec.
3
Practice Now. An object travels a distance of 35 feet in 2.7 seconds as it moves along a circle of radius 2
feet. Find its linear and angular speed over that time period.
2.2. RIGHT TRIANGLE TRIGONOMETRY 21
Exercises 2.1
(1–8) Draw a brief sketch of the following angles in stan-

dard position. (Do not use a protractor.)
30. 19◦ 31. 42◦ 32. 89◦
1. 60◦ 2. 225◦ 3. −180◦ 33. 75◦ 34. 170◦ 35. 275◦

4π 11π
4. −300◦ 5. 6. (36–39) Find the exact length of the arc made by the indi-
3 3
5π 4π cated central angle and radius of each circle.
7. − 8. −
6 3
π 3π
36. θ = , r = 8 ft 37. θ = , r = 4 yd
(9–10) Write each angle in DD notation. Round your an- 12 4
swers to the nearest hundredth. 38. θ = 22◦ , r = 20 m 39. θ = 210◦ , r = 5 cm
9. 50◦ 180 4500 10. 78◦ 250 800 (40–43) Find the area of the circular sector given the indi-
cated radius and central angle. Round your answers to the
(11–12) Write each angle in DMS notation. Round your neartest tenth.
answers to the nearest hundredth. π
40. θ = , r = 7 ft
6
11. 45.5125◦ 12. 50.5228◦
3π
41. θ = , r = 1.2 yd
(13–21) Convert from degrees to radians. Leave the an- 8
swers in terms of π. 42. θ = 56◦ , r = 2.1 m
43. θ = 210◦ , r = 6 cm
◦ ◦ ◦
13. 20 14. 155 15. 225
16. 270◦ 17. −60◦ 18. −120◦ (44–45) Find the linear speed of a point traveling at a con-
◦ ◦ ◦ stant speed along a circle with radius r and angular speed
19. −240 20. −315 21. −330
w.
(22–29) Convert from radians to degrees. 2π

44. w = rad/sec, r = 9 in
3
π
π 7π 3π 45. w = rad/sec, r = 5 in
22. 23. 24. 20
6 6 8
3π 5π (46–47) Find the angular speed of a point traveling at a
25. 26. − 27. −6π
4 12 constant speed along a circle with radius r and linear speed
2π π v.
28. − 29. −
9 15
46. v = 3 ft/sec, r = 9 in
(30–35) Find, if possible, the complement and the supple-
ment of the given angle. 47. v = 14 in/sec, r = 6 in
2.2 Right Triangle Trigonometry
I The Pythagorean Theorem and Trigonometric Functions

The Pythagorean theorem states that in any right triangle, the square of the hypotenuse is equal to the
squared sum of the lengths of two other sides. It implies that given the lenghts of any two sides of a right
triangle, we can find the third as in the following formulas.
B
Hypotenuse
c c2 = a2 + b2 , c=
p
a2 + b2 ,
a
Opposite p
a2 = c2 − b2 , a = c2 − b2 ,
θ p
b2 = c2 − a2 , b = c2 − a2 .
A b C
Adjacent
(0◦ < θ < 90◦ )
.
Given the measure of an angle θ, we name three sides of the triangle as hypotenuse, opposite side, and
adjacent side in reference to the relative position of sides to the angle as in the picture above. Six
trigonometric values of the angle (sine, cosine, tangent, cosecant, secant, and cotangent) are defined as
the ratios of the sides. The precise definitions are as follows.
/
The Trigonometry of Right Triangles
Opp a Hyp c
sin θ = = csc θ = =
Hyp c Opp a
Adj b Hyp c
cos θ = = sec θ = =
Hyp c Adj b
Opp a Adj b
tan θ = = cot θ = =
Adj b Opp a
Mnemonic: SOH CAH TOA
Example 1. Finding Trigonometric Function Values Given a Right Triangle.

B
Find the six trigonometric function values of the angle θ in the figure.
c
3
θ
A C
4
Solution.
Step 1. Find the hypotenuse.

√ By the Pythagorean theorem, c2 = 32 + 42 = 9 + 16 = 25. So, by taking square
roots, c = ± 25 = ±5. The lengths of sides must be positive. Thus, c = 5.
Step 2. Label the sides of the triangle with values a = 4, b = 3, and c = 5.
Step 3. Find the values of trigonometric functions as ratios.
Opp 4 Hyp 5
sin θ = = csc θ = =
Hyp 5 Opp 4
2.2. RIGHT TRIANGLE TRIGONOMETRY 23
Adj 3 Hyp 5
cos θ = = sec θ = =
Hyp 5 Adj 3
Opp 4 Adj 3
tan θ = = cot θ = =
Adj 3 Opp 4
Practice Now. Find the exact values of six trigonometric functions of an acute angle θ in a right triangle,
assuming that the lengths of the side opposite and the side adjacent to θ are 7 and 24, respectively.
Example 2. Finding Other Trigonometric Function Values Given One

3
If for an acute angle α, sin α = , find the values of five other trigonometric functions of α.
4
Solution. We first sketch a right triangle with an acute angle α. Because sin α is defined as the ratio of the
opposite side to the hypotenuse, we first sketch a right triangle with acute angle α, hypotenuse of length 4,
2 2 2
and a side of length
√ 3 opposite to α. If the adjacent side is x, then by the Pythagorean theorem, 3 + x = 4
or x2 = 7, so x = 7.
Opp 3 Hyp 4
sin α = = csc α = =
Hyp 4 Opp 3
√
Adj 7 Hyp 4
cos α = = sec α = =√
Hyp 4 Adj 7
√
Opp 3 Adj 7
tan α = =√ cot α = =
Adj 7 Opp 3
2
Practice Now. If for an acute angle α, cos α = , find the other five trigonometric functions of α.
7
I Special Right Triangles

Trigonometric function values of 30◦ , 45◦ , and 60◦ are obtained from two special right triangles. The first one
is an equilateral triangle folded in halves, and the second is an isosceles right triangle.
30◦ -60◦ -90◦ triangle 45◦ -45◦ -90◦ triangle

B B
60◦ √
2 2 45◦
1 1
◦
30 45◦
√
A 3 C A 1 C
θ◦ θ rad sin θ cos θ tan θ csc θ sec θ cot θ

√ √ √
π 1 3 3 2 3 √
30◦ 2 3
6 2 2 3 3
√ √
π 2 2 √ √
45◦ 1 2 2 1
4 2 2
√ √ √
π 3 1 √ 2 3 3
60◦ 3 2
3 2 2 3 3
Example 3. Using Special Trigonometric Values

Find the exact values of the following expressions.
π π
a) sin 45◦ cos 30◦ − cos 45◦ sin 30◦ b) sin2 + tan
3 4
π π 2
Solution. Use the values in the table. Note that sin2 is a short-hand notation for sin .
3 3
π π
a) sin 45◦ cos 30◦ − cos 45◦ sin 30◦ b) sin2 + tan
√ √ √ √ √ 3 4
2 3 2 1 6− 2 √ !2
= · − · = 3 3 7
2 2 2 2 4 = +1= +1=
2 4 4
Practice Now. Find the exact values of the following expressions.

π π
a) sin2 30◦ + cos2 30◦ b) sec + cot
6 3
I Cofunction Identities for Complementary Angles

A trigonometric function of an angle is always equal to the cofunction of the complement of the angle.
/
Cofunction Identities
sin θ = cos (90◦ − θ) cos θ = sin (90◦ − θ)

tan θ = cot (90◦ − θ) cot θ = tan (90◦ − θ)
sec θ = csc (90◦ − θ) csc θ = sec (90◦ − θ)
π
If θ is measured in radians, replace 90◦ with in the equations above.
2
Example 4. Using Cofunction Identities

a) Given tan 22◦ ≈ 0.4040, find cot 68◦ . b) Given sin 18◦ ≈ 0.3090, find cos 72◦ .
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Capm. xxi. Qui sibi commemorans, puto, singula ponderat
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Deuiat, vt Cristi vix sciat vnus iter:
Est caro que fragilis, demon versutus, iniqus
1170 Mundus, in hoc hominum tempore regna colunt:
Et sic bruta quasi perit humane racionis
Virtus, dum vicium corporis acta regit.
Est homo nunc animal dicam, set non racionis,
Dum viuit bruti condicione pari.
Nescia scripture brutum natura gubernat,
Iudicis arbitrium nec racionis habet:
Est igitur brutis homo peior, quando voluntas
Preter naturam sola gubernat eum.
Corporis, heu! virtus per singula membra
revoluens
1180 Naturam viciis seruit ad acta foris;
Ac anime racio carnis viciata vigore
De virtute nichil interiore sapit.
Morigeri cicius modo sunt derisio plebis,
Et scola peccati iustificabit opus:
Que solet illa viros veteri de more beare,
Iam noua virtuti frena libido mouet.634
Inter eos mundi quibus est donata potestas,
‘Sic volo, sic iubeo,’ sunt quasi iura modo.
Succumbunt iusti clamantes, ‘Ve! quod in orbe
1190 Impia pars hominum singula regna terit.’
Vis prohibet leges, euertunt crimina mores,
Virtus peccati turbine quassa perit:
Mundus turbatur, rerum confunditur ordo,
Involuitque simul omnia grande chaos.
Squalidus in terra sic stat genitor genitusque,
Quod natura suo vix stat in orbe loco.
Liuor et ambicio, gula, fraus, metuenda libido,
Ira, tumor mentis, scismata, laudis amor,
Ambiciosus honor, amor et sceleratus habendi,
1200 Ipse voluptatis vsus et ecce malus,
Furta, rapina, dolus, metus et periuria, testes
Sunt mundi quod erit ammodo nulla fides.
Hic loquitur de variis vindictis occasione

peccati in hoc seculo iam quasi cotidie635
contingentibus, que absque iustorum virorum
meritis et oracionibus nullatenus sedari
poterunt.
Ecce dies veniunt, predixit quos fore Cristus,

Capm. xxii.
Et patuere diu verba timenda dei.
Precessere fames, pestis, motus quoque terre,
Signaque de celo, stat quoque guerra modo:
Nititur aduersus regnum consurgere regnum,
Gens contra gentem, sic patet omne malum.
Vt pecoris sic est hominis fusus modo sanguis,
1210 Victa iacet pietas, et sinit ista deus:
Est et adhuc vindex extenta manus ferientis
Continuans plagas, nec timet vllus eas.
Longanimis domini sentencia sepe moratur,
Vir bonus inmunis nec malus vllus erit.
Quem deus ille ferit, nullo valet orbe tueri,
Si non contritum culpa relinquat eum.
Mortem peccantis non vult deus, immo misertus
Vult vt vertatur, quo sibi vita datur:
Est pius ipse deus, scripturis sicut habemus,
1220 Pro Sodomis Abrahe dixerat ipse pie:
‘Inter iniquorum tot milia tu populorum
Redde decem iustos, et miserebor eis.
Est michi nam soli proprium miseris misereri,
Multis pro paucis parcere curo libens.’
O deus, ergo tibi quid dicam, quomodo nostri
Luctus continui sunt tibi nuga quasi?
Nonne decem iusti modo sunt, meritis vt eorum
Stellifer ipse dies curet in orbe malos?
Aut deus oblitus est immemor ad miserandum,
1230 Dormit vel fingit, aut sibi facta latent.
Verius vt dicam, deus est accensus, et ignis
Fulminat inde Iacob, iraque lata furit:
Sic et plasma suum plasmator abhorret, et ipsum
Torquet pro factis que videt ipse malis.
O, qui mentali videt ex oculo mala nostra
Omnibus in gradibus continuare dies,
Dicere tunc poterit quod talia nullus ab euo
Impunita diu crimina vidit homo.
Quis status ille modo, quin sit transgressus, et
ordo,
1240 Quem iustum dicam, deficit vnde sciam.
Hoc nisi gratis emat, dubito prope quod generalis
Decasus nostre prosperitatis adest:
Set quia de summis gradibus mala progrediuntur,
Est qui summus eos corrigat ipse deus.
Hic loquitur sub compendio recapitulando

finaliter de singulis mundi gradibus, qui
singillatim a debito deuiantes ordine virtutes
diminuendo extingunt, et ea que viciorum sunt
augmentando multipliciter exercent.
Dudum prelatus solum diuina gerebat,

Capm. xxiii.
Nunc propter mundum nescit habere deum:
Curatus cure dudum seruiuit, et ipse
Nunc vagus exterius circuit omne genus:
Dudum presbiteri casti, nunc luxuriosi;
1250 Ocia que querunt plurima dampna fouent:
Ex studio mores dudum didicere scolares,
Nunc tamen econtra stat viciata scola:
Indiuisus amor monachos sibi strinxit vt ardor,
Nunc petit inuidia claustra tenere sua:
Asperitas dudum fratres in carne domabat,
Regula set mollis ammodo parcet eis:636
Dudum milicia fuit et sibi gracia prompta,
Gracia nunc tarda stat, quia vita mala:
Mercator dudum iustum peciit sibi lucrum,
1260 Nunc quoque fraude sua querit habere lucra:
Simplicitas animi fuerat sociata coloni,
Nunc magis indomitum cor gerit ipse ferum:
Lex dudum iusta nulli parcebat amica,
Quam vigor argenti subdit vbique sibi.
Par status imparibus est actibus attenuatus,
Exceditque suum quisque viator iter.
Sic pietas humilis teritur, que superbia regnat;
Liuor adest agilis, torpet et omnis amor:
Permanet ira ferox, et abit paciencia suplex,
1270 Viuit et accidia, sollicitudo perit:
Ebrietas, non sobrietas, tenet ammodo mensas,
Feruet et in viciis crapula plena cibis:
Casta pudicicia dudum precingere lumbos
Affuit, et modo vult soluere luxus eos:
Nuper larga manus inopi sua munera spersit,
Nunc cupit et bursam claudit auara tenax.
Dic modo quot viciis modo sola superbia
mundum
Ad varii sceleris precipitauit opus:637
Dic quot liuor edax acies sua signa sequentes
1280 Subdidit imperio vique metuque suo:
Dic quot auaricie manibus vel mente rapaci
Intendunt populi iura negando dei;
Quot gula deliciis torpet, quot torpor inanes
Carnis adulterio fedat in orbe suo.
Singula nempe vorat anime caro, sic quod vbique
Subdidit inmundam crimine mundus eam:
Singula fallacis mundi dulcedo subegit,
Nos tamen inmundos mundificare nequit.
Iam in fine libri loquitur magis in speciali de

patria illa in qua natus fuerat, vbi quasi
plangendo conqueritur, qualiter honores et
virtutes veteres a variis ibidem erroribus
superuenientibus, vt dicitur, ad presens
multipliciter eneruantur.
Singula que dominus statuit sibi regna per

Capm. xxiiii.
orbem,
1290 Que magis in Cristi nomine signa gerunt,
Diligo, set propriam super omnia diligo terram,
In qua principium duxit origo meum.
Quicquid agant alie terre, non subruor inde,
Dum tamen ipse foris sisto remotus eis;
Patria set iuuenem que me suscepit alumpnum,
Partibus in cuius semper adhero manens,
Hec si quid patitur, mea viscera compaciuntur,
Nec sine me dampna ferre valebit ea:
Eius in aduersis de pondere sum quasi versus;
1300 Si perstet, persto, si cadat illa, cado.
Que magis ergo grauant presenti tempore, saltem
Vt dicunt alii, scismata plango michi.
Vna meo sensu res est, que pessima cunctis
Iam poterit dici fons et origo mali.
Heu! quia iusticia procul abcessit fugitiua,
Cessit et est alibi pax sociata sibi:
Pax, que iusticie dudum solet oscula ferre,
Nunc fugit a terra, ius perit ecce quia.
Plures iam nocui sumunt sibi regna magistri,
1310 Vis iubet et velle, iura nec vlla videt:
Nunc vbi se vertit magnas, sine iure sequntur
Leges, set populus inde subibit onus:
Corpore sicque meo non tantum torqueor, immo
Sunt michi pro minimo res quibus vtar ego.
Non est de modicis quod adulterium modo ledit;
Que caro deposcit omnia namque licent.
In terris aliis Venus et si predominetur,
Exsoluunt meritis hoc aliunde suis;
Est ibi nam posita lex, que communis ad omnes
1320 Iudicat, et causas terminat absque dolo:
Non status aut sexus, non dona, preces, timor aut
quid
Possunt a minimo tollere iura viro:
Et sic iusticia redimit quodammodo culpam
Carnis, que fragili condicione cadit.
Set nos in patria non solum vincimur ista
Ex carnis stimulo, quo stimulatur homo;
Immo suas metas lex transit nescia iuris,
Sicque per obliquas patria nostra vias
Deuiat in tanto, quod, dicunt, amplius ordo
1330 Non erit in nostris partibus: vnde deus
Visitat has partes vindicta, qualis ab euo
In nullo mundi tempore visa fuit.
Non tamen est terra que gaudet in omnibus vna,
Set magis in nostra fit modo virga fera:
Clamor vbique, vide, non solus conqueror ipse;
Culpas tam patulas est reticere nephas:
Sic fleo cum flente, lex fallit, fallor et ipse;
Stat mea nam grauibus patria plena malis.
Nos, quibus assueuit numquam crudeliter vti
1340 Fatum, iam pressos sternit vbique reos.
Que fuerat tellus omni preciosa metallo,
Iam nequit ex plumbo pondus habere suum;638
Dignior argento, fuluo quoque dignior auro,
Nobile que genuit, vix valet esse quadrans.
Nuper dixerunt quicumque venire solebant,
‘Venimus ad portus, vbera terra, tuos.’
Nunc tamen vt sterilis reputaris et es, quia mores
Nunc neque diuicie sunt aliquando tue.
Quo ferar, vnde petam mestis solacia rebus?
1350 Anchora iam nostram non tenet vlla ratem.
Sic mea, que stabilis fuit, infirmatur iniquis
Patria iudiciis, iura negando viris:
Sic gentis domina, quasi iam viduata, tributa
Reddit peccato, statque remota deo.
Sic que morigera fuerat, nunc est viciosa;
Dudum legifera, nunc sine lege fera:
Sic ea que larga fuerat, nunc tollit egena;
Que fuerat sancta, fit Venus ipsa dea:
Est sale iam spersa, fuerat que fructibus ampla,
1360 Et velut vrtica, que solet esse rosa:
Que fuerat pulcra, quasi monstrum stat reputata;
Fit caput in caudam, sic terit omnis eam.
Scandala feda parit nouiter transgressa nouerca,
Omnis que laudis mater et hospes erat:
Que fuit angelica nuper, nunc angulus extat,
Languet et in tenebris sorde repressa magis.
Patria, quam famam dicunt habuisse sororem,
Est magis infamis omnibus ipsa locis:
Que fuerat digne super omnes celsior orbe,
1370 Nunc deus est alibi, subditur ipsa quasi:
Ordine retrogrado quicquid sibi laudis habebat
Cedit, et instabilis vndique spreta iacet.
Firma mouet, ruit alta, terit modo forcia discors
Error, et innumera spergit vbique mala:
Torpescunt proceres, clerus dissoluitur, vrbes
Discordant, leges sunt sine iure graues:
Murmurat indomitus vulgus, concrescit abvsus
Peccati solitus; sic dolet omnis humus.
Hinc puto quod seuit pes terreus in caput auri,
1380 Et lupus agnorum cornua vana timet.639
In meritis hominum solum deus aspicit orbem,
Et sua de facto tempora causat homo.
O sterilis terra morum, sani viduata

Consilii, lesa nec medicamen habens,
Dic vbi fortuna latitat modo, qua reputabas
Nuper in orbe tuum non habuisse parem.
Si Lachesis sortem tibi contulit esse dolosam,
Iam venit ipsa tui r e d d e r e pacta doli:640
Nunc palletque tuis nigris Aurora venenis,
1390 Cuius lux aliis fulsit in orbe magis;
Nuncque iuuentutis flos que tibi creuit habunde
Aret, et a viciis inveterata peris;
Fedaque nunc volucris, venturi nuncia luctus,
Concinit in fatis bubo propheta tuis.
Scit deus hanc causam specialius esse notandam,
Qua locus iste modo distat honore suo:
Hoc scio, quod cunctis locus in prouerbia crescit,
Et quasi nunc speculum denotat omnis eum.
Talia per terras fatali lege geruntur,
1400 Vt reputant, set ego non ita stare puto:
Non est fortuna, que talia causat habenda,
Nec sors, set merita nostra per acta mala.
Qui tamen hanc stare modo credit et hanc
reuocare
Vult, purget crimen, sic reuocabit eam:
Gracia prompta dei querentibus inuenietur,
Nam sibi conuersis vertitur ipse deus.
Dum pia pro pace cecinit processio terre,
Firmaque iusticia fecerat acta sua,
Dumque fides steterat et amor s i n e l a b e
m a n e b a t,641
Tunc, quia pax viguit, sors bona
1410 c u n c t a t u l i t.
N u n c igitur nostra s i t v i t a d e o renouata,642
Ne sors fortuita plus queat esse mala:
Vota vetusta precum redeant domino dominorum,
Vt redeat dominus cum pietate suis;
Per quem pax et honor et tempora sana redibunt,
Que pro peccato sunt fugitiua modo.
Prospera qui veteris vult temporis esse renata,
Reddat et emendet facta priora nouis.
Est deus ipse piis pius et seuerus iniquis,
1420 Sic valet ob meritum quisquis habere deum.
Nos igitur, domine, tua gracia, que solet olim
Ferre reis veniam, te miserante iuuet:
Anticipet pietas tua nos, ne dicat eorum
Gens, ‘Vbi sit dominus, qui solet esse pius?’
Da, precor, accessum lacrimis, mitissime, nostris,
Nam sine te nullum scis quod habemus opem:
Nunc tua pro lapsis nitatur gracia rebus,
Nostra nec anterior sit tibi culpa memor:
Numquam pigra fuit causis tua gracia nostris:
1430 Est vbi nunc illa, que solet esse salus?
Nos peccatores sumus, et tu plus miserator,
Scit bonitasque tua nos opus esse tuum:
Si plus peccaret vir, plura remittere posses,
Materiam venie sors tibi nostra dedit.
Si quociens homines peccant, tua fulmina mittas,
Exiguo presens tempore mundus erit:
A te pendentem sic cum circumspicis orbem,
Auctor, pacificum fac opus esse tuum.
Nos, deus alme, tui serui, quamuis modo tardi,
1440 Te, non fortunam, credimus esse deum:
Scimus te solum super omnes esse colendum;
Sic nostri solus tu miserere, deus!
Hic loquitur qualiter ea que in hoc presenti

libello quasi sompniando de mundi scripsit
erroribus, non ex se tantum, set ex plebis voce
communi concepit. Consulit tamen finaliter
quod, si quis inde se culpabilem senciat,
priusquam nobis peiora succedant tempora,
suam ex humili corde culpam penitens
emendet.
Capm. xxv. Hos ego compegi versus, quos fuderat in me

Spiritus in sompnis: nox erat illa grauis.
Hec set vt auctor ego non scripsi metra libello,
Que tamen audiui trado legenda tibi:
Non tumor ex capite proprio me scribere fecit
Ista, set vt voces plebis in aure dabant.
Quem sua mens mordet, de voce sit ille remorsus,
1450 Curet vt in melius que tulit egra prius:
Qui tamen inmunem se sentit, ab inde quietus643
Transeat, et meritis sic stet vterque suis.
Quem non culpa grauat mea non sentencia culpat,
L e d i t u r h i n c n u l l u s, sit nisi forte reus:644
N e g r a u e t e r g o t i b i, gibbosus namque
panelli645
Et non sanus equs ferre recusat onus.
Non tamen in specie quemquam de pondere culpe
Accuso, set eo se probet intus homo:
Non ego mordaci distrinxi crimine quemquam,
1460 Nec meus vllius crimina versus habet.
Que sompno cepi, vigilans mea scripta peregi,
Sint bona dicta bonis, et mala linquo malis:
Omnis enim mundum gemit esse dei laceratum
Vindicta nostri pro grauitate mali.
Ergo suam culpam contrito corde, priusquam
Consumpti simus, corrigat ipse malus.
Corrigit hic mundum, qui cor retinet sibi
mundum:
Cor magis vnde regat, hec sibi scripta legat.
Quod scripsi plebis vox est, s e t e t i s t a
v i d e b i s,646
Quo clamat populus, est ibi sepe
1470 d e u s.
Qui bonus est audit bona, set peruersus obaudit,
Ad bona set pronus audiat ista bonus.
Hec ita scripta sciat malus, vt bonus ammodo fiat,
Et bonus hec querat, vt meliora gerat.
Mundus non ledit iustum, bene dummodo credit,
Quando set excedit, mundus ad arma redit:
Mundus erit talis, fuerit viuens homo qualis;
Obstet vitalis quilibet ergo malis.
Culpa quidem lata, qua virtus stat
v i c i a t a ,647
Cum non purgata fuerit set
1480 continuata,
Que meruit fata sunt sibi fine data.
648Explicit libellus qui intitulatur Vox

Clamantis, editus precipue super articulo primi
infortunii, quod infortunato Ricardo secundo in
primordiis regni sui, vt audistis, quasi ex dei
virga649 notabiliter in Anglia contingebat. Et
nunc vlterius, quia ipse non inde remorsus,
immo magis ad modum tiranni induratus,
regnum suum assiduis oppressionibus
incessanter flagellare non desistit, diuine
vindicte flagellum vsque in sue deposicionis
exterminium non inmerito assecutus est. Tres
namque tunc regni nobiles super hoc specialius
moti, scilicet Thomas Dux Glouernie, qui
vulgariter dictus est Cignus, Ricardus Comes
Arundellie, qui dicitur Equs, Thomas Comes de
Warrewyk,650 cuius nomen Vrsus, hii vero
vnanimes cum quibusdam aliis proceribus sibi
adherentibus, vt regie malicie fautores delerent,
ad dei laudem regnique commodum in manu
forti iusto animo viriliter insurrexerunt, prout in
hac consequenti cronica, que tripertita est,
scriptor manifestius declarare intendit.
FOOTNOTES:
590 9 magnanimi CEHDL magnatum S
591 27 Consilium CEHDL
592 43 descessit SHG descescit L decessit CED
593 87 da pinguibus CE
594 125 circumprecordia SG
595 160 Est S Et CEHDL
596 167 grossantur S grassantur HDLT crassantur CEG
597 182 dolum SCGDL suum EHT
598 184 scelus] dolus EH
599 187 rutilans albedo set SCGDL albus paries tamen EHT
600 189f.
Sic foris ex auro tumulus splendescit, et intro

Fetet putredo, vermibus esca caro. EHT
DL have both this couplet and that in the text

601 192 falco SCGDL nisus EHT
602 218 pulchra C
603 237 ingenii H (corr.) Ingenuum L assimulari CE
604 256 ipse SL ille CEHD
605 269 Ordinary paragr. in CDL, no paragr. E
606 291 Ordinary paragr. CEDL
607 350 credet CEHGDL credit S
608 409 seruus CE
609 470 estatis C (ras.)
610 490 Passebatque S
611 535 set] et CEL
612 562 sunt] sint CE
613 599 sitis] satis D
614 611 tradidit] contulit CE
615 684 queris SGL mauis (mavis) CEHD
616 691 regno peccato EHL Regni peccato D
617 707 eum CEHDH₂ enim SGLT
618 721 perinterius GLT
619 767 spernens famam C famam serpens L
620 816 iuuat S iuuant EGDLTH₂
621 Cap. xiii. Heading 1 mortui corporis CH
622 843 redolens dudum CEHD
623 903 nisi] sibi C
624 918 et] est S
625 921 nostre D nostri SCEHGL
626 931 imparat C
627 961 fit S sit CEHGDL
628 997 et om. S
629 Cap. xix. Heading 1 duplici CEGL dupplici SHT duplice D
630 1067 Tethis D
631 1095 si SGL sit CEHD
632 1107 Cumque ST Dumque CEHGDL
633 1151 comixta H
634 1186 mouet] tenet EDLT
635 Cap. xxii. Heading 2 quotidie CED
636 1256 parcit CE
637 1278 opes S
638 1342 suum SG suo CEHDL
639 1380 Et lupus SHDL Pastor et CG (ras.) Lupus et E
640 1388 reddere SEHG soluere CDLT
641 1409 f. commune regebat Perstitit in nobis tunc honor atque
salus EDLTH₂ (gerebat E)
642 1411 Sint igitur nostra bona facta deo renouata EDLTH₂
(reuocata L)
643 1451 inmunen S
644 1454 Text SCEG Sic precor vt nullus DLT
645 1455 Text SCEG Detrahet inde michi DL Se trahit inde michi
T
646 1469 f. Text SCEHG (in ista E) per scripta cauebis Que mala
sunt, ideo te dabis atque deo DLTH₂ (perscripta D)
647 1479-81 DLTH₂ have two lines only, as follows:—
Omnibus ipse tamen peior sum, sed

releuamen
Det michi per flamen conditor orbis.
Amen.1480*
648 Explicit, &c. Explicit libellus qui intitulatur Vox Clamantis

(omitting the rest) EDTH₂ Explicit liber intitulatus Vox
clamantis (omitting the rest) L
649 4 virga dei CHG
650 12 Warwyk CH
CRONICA TRIPERTITA651
Ista tripertita, sequitur que, Opus
mente perita humanum est
Cronica seruetur; nam pars que inquirere
pacem et
prima videtur
persequi eam.
Est opus humanum, pars illa Hoc enim
secunda prophanum fecerunt hii tres
Est opus inferni, pars tercia iure proceres de
superni quibus infra fit
Est opus in Cristo. Vir qui bene mencio, vbi
sentit in isto fides interfuit.
Scire potest mira, quid amor sit, Opus inferni
quid sit et ira: est pacem
Est tamen hoc clamor, ‘Omnia turbare,
iustosque regni
vincit Amor.’ interficere. Hoc
enim Ricardus
c a p i t o s u s65
2 dolosa
circumvencione
facere non
timuit.
Opus in
Cristo est
deponere
superbos de
sede et
exalt a r e
humiles.
Hoc enim
deus fecit;
o d i o sum
R i c a rdum de
Solio suo
proiecit, et
pium Henricum
omni dileccione
gratissimum
cum gloria
sublimari
constituit.
Tolle caput mundi, C ter et sex Hic in prima

lustra fer illi, parte653 cronice
Et decies quinque cum septem comp o s i t o r
post super adde: tempora
Tempus tale nota, qui tunc fuit distinguens,654
causas vnde
Anglia mota. regnum fuit in
Dum stat commotus se diuisum,
Ricardus amore postmodum per
remotus, singula
Principio Regis oritur tractabit.
transgressio legis,
Quo fortuna cadit et humus
retrogreda vadit.
Quomodo surrexit populus, quem
non bene rexit,
Te m p u s a d h u c p l a n g i t s u p e r h o c ,
quod cronica tangit.
Libro testante, stat cronica scripta
per ante;
Est alibi dicta, transit nec ab aure
10 relicta:
Audistis mira, vulgaris que tulit
ira:
Omnibus in villis timuit vir iustus
ab illis.
Rex induratum cor semper habet, Qualiter
neque fatum infortunatus rex
Tale remordebat ipsum, qui iure Ricardus,
virgam dei non
carebat:655 metuens, de
malo in peius
Stultorum vile sibi consilium suam semper
iuuenile maliciam
continuauit.
Legerat, et sectam senium dedit
esse reiectam:
Consilio iuuenum spirauerat ille venenum,
Quo bona predaret procerum, quos mortificaret:
Sic malus ipse malis adhesit, eisque sodalis
20 Efficitur, tota regis pietate remota.
Tunc accusare quosdam presumpsit auare,
Vnde catallorum gazas spoliaret eorum.
Tres sunt antiqui proceres, quos regis iniqui
Ira magis nouit, et eos occidere vouit:
Et sic qui cati pellem cupit excoriati,
Fingebat causas fallaci pectore Nota de
clausas. iudicibus illis,
Caucius vt factum sibi possit qui vt regis
errorem
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Factum disponunt et ad hoc sua robora ponunt.
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Expedit vt dicam referens, et eis benedicam.
Si non directe procerum cognomina recte,
Hec tamen obscura referam, latitante figura:
Scribere que tendo si mistica verba legendo
Auribus apportant, verum tamen illa reportant.
Sunt Olor, Vrsus, Equs, stat Nota de
eorum quilibet equs, nominibus trium
Non hii diuisi, set in vnum sunt procerum
predictorum
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sub figura.
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associata: Marescallus.
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eis contra
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dictos tres
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fauet ipsi: optinendo
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spergat.
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obuius iuit, quodam die
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resurgat:
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bella recepit. conspectu
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caudam in
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perhennis. Oxonie in
fugam se vertit,

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A Basic Approach to Precalculus

Trigonometry Preparing to Succeed in

Precalculus: Concepts Through Functions, A Right

A Graphical Approach to Precalculus with Limits John

Calculus On Manifolds: A Modern Approach To Classical

Precalculus Mathematics for Calculus 7th Edition James

Schools and Society: A Sociological Approach to

Precalculus with Calculus Previews 6th Edition Zill

Transactional Lean Preparing for the Digitalization Era

Temporomandibular Disorders: A Translational Approach

A Basic Approach to PreCalculus Trigonometry

First published in the United States of America in 2016 by Cognella, Inc.

Cover images copyright © Depositphotos/agsandrew.

Printed in the United States of America

ISBN: 978-1-63487-308-6 (pbk) / 978-1-63487-309-3 (br)

3 Trigonometric Identities and Equations 51

4 Applications of Trigonometric Functions 77

5 Sequences and Series 107

A Answers to Exercises 121

1.1 Graphing Rational Functions

Example 1. Finding the Domain of a Rational Function

Practice Now. Find the domain of the rational function.

• Find the x-intercept(s) by solving N (x) = 0.

• Find the y-intercept by evaluating f (0).

Example 2. Finding Intercepts of a Rational Function

a) The x-intercepts occur at values for which the numerator is 0. To find

The y-intercept is (0, 1).

Practice Now. Find the x- and y-intercepts of the rational function.

Example 3. Finding Vertical Asymptotes of a Rational Function Graph

b) The denominator of the function g(x) is factored, and

We solve the equation x − 7 = 0 to get the vertical asymptote x = 7.

Practice Now. Find the vertical asymptotes, if any.

For a rational function

1. If n < m, then y = 0 (the x-axis) is the horizontal asymptote.

Example 4. Finding the Horizontal Asymptote of a Rational Function Graph

b) We rearrange terms of the function g(x) in descending order of degrees.

Practice Now. Find the horizontal asymptotes, if any.

Example 5. Finding the Oblique Asymptote of a Rational Function Graph

Thus, the oblique asymptote is y = x − 7.

I Sketching the Graph of a Rational Function

1. Find the domain.

3. Find vertical and horizontal (or oblique) asymptotes.

Example 6. Sketching the Graph of a Rational Function

Step 1. Find the domain.

Step 2. Find the x- and y-intercepts.

Step 4. Find additional points on the graph of f .

Step 5. Graph the function.

(13–20) Find the vertical and horizontal asymptotes (if x 2x2 − 7x + 6

1.2 Partial Fraction Decomposition

N (x) N1 (x) N2 (x) N2 (x) Nm (x)

Case 1) D(x) is a product of distinct linear factors.

D(x) = (a1 x + b1 )(a2 x + b2 ) · · · (am x + bm ).

Then the partial fraction decomposition is of the form

where A1 , ..., Am are constants to be determined.

Case 2) D(x) has distinct irreducible quadratic factors.

Case 3) D(x) has powered linear factors.

where A1 , ..., Am are constants to be determined.

Case 4) D(x) has powered irreducible quadratic factors.

where Ai and Bi are constants to be determined for i = 1, 2, . . . , m.

Example 1. Find the Partial Fraction Decomposition with Linear Factors

We need to determine the values of A and B.

• Step 2: Multiply both sides by the denominator (x + 1)(x + 2). We obtain

2x + 1 = A(x + 2) + B(x + 1).