"Don't Worry, Just Speak!

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COURSE BOOK
 Table of Contents

Page
Module 1: Introduction to Early Childhood
Chapter 1
Introduction to Early Childhood Care and Education 1
Chapter 2
The Role of Preschool in Early Childhood Education 17
Module 2: Human Growth and Development
Chapter 3
Human Growth and Development 32
Chapter 4
Physical/ Motor Development 40
Chapter 5
Cognitive development 46
Chapter 6
Language Development 54
Chapter 7
Adaptive (Self-Help) Development: General Development 62
Chapter 8
Social-Emotional Development 69
Chapter 9
Personality Development 78
Module 3: Nature and Nurture (Factors Influencing on Child Development)
Chapter 10
Influencing Theory on Human Development 82
Chapter 11
Support Services: Need strategies and approaches 98
Chapter 12
Different types of parenting 107
Chapter 13
The International Early Years Curriculum (IEYC) 111

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 Page
Module 4: Play and its importance
Chapter 14
Play & its characteristics 127
Chapter 15
Theories of Play 142
Chapter 16
Play and Development 156
Module 5: How Young Children Learn
Chapter 17
Theories of Learning 167
Chapter 18
Approaches for Effective Learning 183
Chapter 19
Phonics Training 191
Chapter 20
Creating Early Childhood Environment 218
Module 6: Assessment in early childhood education
Chapter 21
Assessment 239
Chapter 22
Environmental Assessments in Early Childhood Education 252
Chapter 23
Teacher competencies for preschool teachers 280

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 Chapter 1
Introduction to Early Childhood Care and Education
Early Childhood Care and Education
The term ‘ECCE’ has been used by UNESCO to refer to a broad range of services
provided to children from preconception until the age of 8 years (UIS and Global Education
Monitoring Report Team, 2022). ECCE programmes include services that (1) promote good
health, adequate nutrition, good sanitation, and hygiene; (2) support children’s cognitive,
socio-emotional, and physical development; and (3) protect children from harm. ECCE also
supports parents and caregivers in enhancing their own and their children’s well-being through
micronutrient supplementation, psychosocial support, parental leave, and childcare. ECCE
services may be provided in formal settings, such as early childhood education centres and
primary schools, in non-formal settings, or informal settings, including homes. Increasingly,
online support services are provided, particularly to caregivers and educators. A wide range of
terms has been used interchangeably with ECCE, including early childhood education (ECE),
early childhood development (ECD), early childhood education and care (ECEC), early
childhood education and development (ECED), early childhood care and development (ECCD),
preschool education (PSE), and pre-primary education. These terms generally refer to holistic
and integrated services but reflect different stages and priorities including by age groups.
Significance of Early Childhood Care and Education
There are some scientific evidence three main domains that supports investment in early
childhood care and education.
Neuroscience
A wide range of research shows that the foundations of human development are laid in
the early years of life, and development proceeds at a very swift pace from birth to the age of
8 years (Centre on the Developing Child, 2010; Shonkoff, 2010). During the first few years of
life, the brain is very responsive to environmental stimulation. New neural connections form
at the remarkable rate of 700 to 1,000 per second as a consequence of the interaction between
the child and the environment (Glover et al., 2018). The early years, therefore, present a time-
critical opportunity to provide nurturing care and education and to promote all-round child
development.
Access to high-quality ECCE has been shown to be associated with early holistic
development and sustained better health outcomes, academic achievement, and career
development in subsequent schooling and adulthood (Britto et al., 2017). Conversely, brain
development in the early years can be adversely affected by prolonged stress, extreme poverty,
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abuse, and caregiver depression. Research shows that adversarial conditions in early childhood
and in families are detrimental to children’s development and could lead to chronic disease and
lower educational attainment and adult earnings, which can be perpetuated in subsequent
generations (Black et al., 2017). Given that a child’s physical, cognitive, language and social
skills also develop rapidly during the early years, the maturational and interactive processes
that take place during the early years can be derailed by exposure to adversity, which makes
for a compelling case for investment in early childhood. The association between adversity in
early childhood and child neurodevelopmental outcomes continues to be demonstrated. A
recent study randomly allocated 1,000 mother-infant dyads experiencing poverty to either a
high or nominal monthly cash prize group for the first year of the child’s life. Results showed
differences in brain activity between the two groups, favoring the high monthly prize group.
Findings demonstrate the neuroplasticity of young children and highlight the importance of
poverty reduction for promoting child development (Troller-Renfree et al., 2022).
Economic sciences
Investing in ECCE is considered beneficial for human capital formation and, in turn,
economic productivity, at both national and global levels. Empirical evidence has highlighted
the losses from a lack of investment in ECCE and economic gains from the investment in it.
For example, studies of the Perry Preschool Project and the Carolina Abecedarian Project in
the United States of America show a 7–13 per cent return on investment per year through
improved education, better health, reduced crime, and economic activities (Heckman, 2012).
Although the effectiveness of investment in the early years has predominantly been examined
in high-income countries, studies are beginning to show high returns from investment in ECCE
in programs in low- and lower-middle-income countries, where a child’s living environment is
likely to be less stimulating (Gertler et al., 2014). A randomized control experiment in Jamaica
revealed that stunted young children who received high-quality early stimulation support for
two years earned 25 percent more, even 20 years later, than those who did not receive such
support. The early stimulation support allowed children who were stunted at the baseline to
catch up to the earnings of their non-stunted peers. Furthermore, it has been found that early
childhood stunting has been linked to substantial productivity losses. A study using data from
34 developing countries (comprising 90 percent of the world’s stunted population) estimated
that the global gross domestic product (GDP) per capita is 5–7 percent lower as a consequence
of stunting in early childhood (Galasso and Wagstaff, 2019). The return on investment in ECCE
is highest at the prenatal stage, decreases gradually and eventually plateaus in the post-school
years (Heckman, 2008). Taken together, the scientific evidence across different contexts sheds
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light on the benefits and necessity of investment in ECCE. It is, therefore, not surprising that
investment in ECCE is deemed to yield ‘exceptional returns’. A recent study examined
projections made to determine GDP losses if enrolment rates in pre-primary education were
maintained at 2018 levels. The analysis included 134 countries. It was found that the median
cost of inaction for not reaching universal coverage for pre-primary education for one year was
0.58 per cent of GDP for high-income countries, 2.54 per cent of GDP for upper-middle-
income countries, 6.24 per cent of GDP for lower-middle-income countries, and 9.06 per cent
of GDP for low-income countries. The estimated loss, or the cost of inaction, tends to be greater
in lower-income countries, where it often exceeds the annual governmental expenditure on all
levels of education (Richter et al., 2021). Another study examined the impact of 115 ECCE
programs for children and parents from the prenatal period to age 5 years, and whether there
were economic returns on investment in these programs. It found that the majority of programs
had positive effects on at least one childhood outcome, regardless of the type of program, and
that there were considerable economic returns on investment (Cannon et al., 2018). This
highlights not only the benefit of ECCE programs on the outcomes of children, but also how
greater investment is both warranted and can be beneficial to the economic progress of nations.
Educational sciences
An abundance of research in the field of educational sciences has examined the impact
of scaling up, integration, and quality of ECCE services on childhood development and school
readiness across nations. There has, at times, been doubts regarding the effectiveness of ECCE
and pre-primary programs on children’s learning and development. Some studies have found
that the effects of ECCE wear off soon after children start primary school (Durkin et al., 2022).
However, research conducted in the field has established that ECCE programs are indeed
effective in bettering childhood outcomes. It has been demonstrated that programs that
integrate services, such as health and education, are highly beneficial for both developmental
outcomes and school readiness in developed and developing nations. In Colombia, it was found
that increased accessibility to the integrated ECCE program, ‘From Zero to Forever’, had a
significant, immediate and lasting positive effect on vocabulary (Bernal and Ramírez, 2019).
The findings regarding the effectiveness of ECCE programs in developing countries were
corroborated by a meta-analysis of 106 interventions from 62 studies across 30 developed
nations that found that compared to domain-specific programs, integrated programs covering
different key domains of children’s development were the most effective at enhancing
cognitive development (Rao et al., 2017). Another meta-analysis of the effects of ECCE
programs, conducted between 1960 and 2007 in the United States, found that adding
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components to existing ECCE programs to create more comprehensive programs led to better
ECCE outcomes in children, and thus enhanced school readiness (Joo et al., 2020). Although
increased access to integrated programs has been found to be beneficial in developing countries,
research conducted in high-, middle- and low-income countries finds that access alone does
not facilitate meaningful learning. Instead, it is the quality of ECCE programs that is positively
associated with child learning outcomes (Rao et al., 2012; Rao and Sun, 2015; van Huizen and
Plantenga, 2018). Finally, there has been a growing consensus that play is one of the most
important ways that young children acquire essential knowledge and skills. Play can take a
wide range of forms, e.g. free play, imaginary play and games with rules. Despite the various
forms of play, the essence of play lies in children’s control and agency during play (United
Nations Children’s Fund [UNICEF], 2018). When children can take the initiative and make
their own decisions and choices, they are more motivated to take an active role in exploring
and expanding their understanding of the environment. During play, their different skills across
all developmental domains can be encouraged through hands-on experience, including motor,
fine motor, cognitive, language, social and emotional skills, allowing for holistic development
and learning. In organized pre-primary education settings, play-based pedagogy with guidance
from adults is gaining professional recognition across countries for the previously mentioned
benefits (Zosh et al., 2018).Thus, the early years from birth to age eight are critically important
for all areas of learning and development.
In the first few years of life, more than 1 million new neural connections are formed
every second. These are the connections that build brain architecture – the foundation upon
which all later learning, behavior, and health depend. That is why it is important for everyone
– parents, grandparents, friends and neighbors – to help kids develop and start on a path to
success. Early experiences are important in shaping how successful children are later in life.
Exposure to positive factors, especially stable and responsive relationships with parents and
other adults, and safe and supportive environments promote positive development.
When brain development in infants and young children is fully supported, they are more
likely to reach milestones critical to future individual and community success. These include:
• Third-grade reading proficiency
• High school graduation and postsecondary education
• Gainful employment
• Lifetime physical and mental health and well-being
• Avoidance of substance use disorder and crime

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 Learning in the early years lays the foundation for a successful and happy future for our
kids. As a result, it is important for parents and those who work with children to understand
exactly what happens during these early stages of development. This allows them to meet a
child’s needs effectively, and ensure that they have the best start in life. All children learn more
if the adults around them make a purposeful effort to help them. Think of cognitive
development, for example; children can only learn the names of different colors or animals if
they have been told them. In terms of communication, they can only learn new words if they
are talked to frequently – there is a direct link between the rate a child’s vocabulary develops
at and the amount the mother talked to the child in the first year (Bee, 1984). Positive behavior
also needs to be promoted in the early years to ensure that they understand what is expected of
them in society.
However, research has shown that only 25% of parents recognize the importance of the
first five years; additionally, teacher training does not adequately cover the early years, despite
the fact that children are still within this period when they begin school. This lack of awareness
on both parts could cause failures to provide the best environments for children, and their
progress could be limited. If children’s developmental needs are not met, this can impact them
in the form of future mental health problems and deep-rooted issues. Studies have shown that
children who were not provided with enough mental stimulation are prone to behavioral issues,
low self-esteem, poor attention and insecurities which can last well beyond childhood. A
common developmental issue that has become evident is that children are failing to acquire
language and social skills in the way that they normally would. Technology, such as computers
and handheld devices, has caused this.
History of Early Childhood Education
The field of Early Childhood Education has a rich history. As you will soon discover,
history has not only provided us with a strong foundation, it has shaped our beliefs, instilled
an appreciation for children, and it has provided us with a context that guides our current
practices.
It is hard to imagine but children were not always considered valued members of
society. You might say, children were thought to be second-class citizens. In the past, many
believed that children should be seen and not heard and that children should be ruled by might
(e.g. “spare the rod spoil the child”). Often time’s children were punished harshly for behaviors
that today we understand to be “typical” development.
In the past, childhood was not seen as a separate stage of development. There was no time for
childhood curiosity and playful experiences. Children were thought of as little adults and they
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were expected to “earn their keep.” The expectation was that they would learn the family trade
and carry on their family lineage.
Going to school was thought to be a privilege and only children of a certain class, race,
and status were given the opportunity to have a formal education. The primary curriculum for
that era was based on biblical teachings and a typical school day consisted of lessons being
taught by an adult in charge who wasn’t trained as a teacher.
A Time for Change
It’s important to note that historically, parents had no formal training on how to raise a
healthy well-adjusted child. The only “parenting book” for that time was the Bible and even
then, many were not able to read it. They parented based on what the church taught, and it was
these strict morals and values that informed societal beliefs and guided child-rearing. It wasn’t
until the 1400-1600’s, during the Renaissance, that children were seen as pure and good. New
ideas began to surface. Individuals that thought differently (outside the box) began to question
and investigate the treatment of children. They began to observe and notice there was more to
children. These were the first advocates to try and enlighten society and change the adult
viewpoint in an effort to improve outcomes and support children’s growth and development.
Unfortunately, many were persecuted or ostracized for being outspoken and going against
society’s beliefs.

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Let’s take a look at some of the historical contributors to early care and education.
Philosophical Influences

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8
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10
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 The individuals mentioned in the roadmap were noted philosophers and educators who
sought to change the status quo. By advocating for the welfare and education of children they
were instrumental in bringing an awareness that childhood is an important stage of life. It is
critical to note that there were other influences from the field of psychology and medicine that
also informed the field of early care and education.
The following interdisciplinary influences have contributed directly and indirectly to
education, they run separate but parallel from the philosophers and educators on the roadmap,

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moving through time on their own track. As you consider these influences think about how
their philosophies and theories intersected with education and child development.
Interdisciplinary Influences
Interdisciplinary refers to more than one branch of knowledge. In the case of Early
Childhood Education, the disciplines include medicine, psychology, biology, parent
educators, and other early childhood professionals who have knowledge that helps to inform
our practices with children and families. The collective knowledge we gain from these
contributions gives our field the evidence to support the role of the teacher in providing
engaging environments, meaningful curriculum, guidance strategies, etc. This is often
referred to as “best practices.” As you continue to engage with this textbook, this will become
more apparent to you as it relates to the unique role of an early childhood professional.

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 Conclusion
This chapter has exposed you to the concept and significance of early childhood
education and some of the historical influences that have informed the field of early childhood
education. In summing up, the following main benefits of early childhood education enable us
to understand the importance of early childhood education and how it can improve your child’s
development:

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• Supports developing relationships and interaction with other children –
developing social skills and learning to share is a key stage of development – one that’s learnt
through trial and error and experience.
• Builds self-esteem and independence– developing through experiences to support
children’s growing confidence and autonomy.
• Takes pressure off parents – nursery staff undertake training to support the learning
and development of children in our care and we see it as a joint experience working in
partnership to support children learning both at nursery and with parents/ carers at home
• Fuels creativity and encourages curiosity – through play, exploration and fun
activities based on what children already know, what they are interested in and passionate
about.
• Opportunity to experience a different environment – exposes children to places
outside of their home and what they know in preparation for the future. Nurseries provided
specialized equipment and activities that most family homes couldn’t possibly have space for
• Prepares your child for school – builds further on the foundations of learning at home.
Through teaching and learning at nursery, children will continue at school in their education.

Reflection Questions

1. Summarize the significant role of Early Childhood Education in brain activity,

ecological process and educational performance.
2. How do interdisciplinary influences contribute to early childhood education?

References
1. Angelaccio, A. (2000). ECE Principles and Practices Prek-4. Creative Commons
Attribution. Bucks Country Community College, Newtown, PA.
2. UNESCO. (2022). Education starts early: progress, challenges and opportunities
(Conference background report). World Conference on Early Childhood Care and
Education. France.
3. NC Department of Health and Human Services (North Carolina). Why early childhood
matters. Retrieved from https://www.ncdhhs.gov/about/department-initiatives/early-
childhood/why-early-childhood-
matters#:~:text=Early%20childhood%20experiences%20from%20birth,to%20becom
e%20well%2Dfunctioning%20adults

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 Chapter 2
The Role of Preschool in Early Childhood Education
Early childhood education, including preschool programs, can be beneficial for a child's
development. Preschool is a type of school focused on students who are ages three to five
years old. It is the first time that many children attend school, and both the age of the children
and their unfamiliarity with school can pose challenges for teachers. The primary goal of
preschool is school readiness, or the cognitive and social preparation of children to be in a
school classroom with other students. That means that teacher is tasked with making sure that
her students are ready to take on the learning and social challenges that come with entering
school.
Common Preschool Educational Philosophies
Preschool educational philosophies provide a framework for how young children
should be taught and cared for during their early years. Preschool educational philosophies
provide the following key information:
• provide a consistent approach to teaching and caring for young children.
• emphasize different aspects of learning and development, such as creativity, self-
expression, or problem-solving.
• emphasize creating a safe, supportive, and engaging learning environment for children
• provide a framework for teacher training and professional development.
• provide parents with information about the teaching methods and curriculum used in a
preschool.
Most well-known preschool educational philosophies are:
1. the Montessori approach
2. the Reggio Emilia approach
3. the Waldorf approach
4. the HighScope approach
5. the Play-based approach

1. The Montessori approach

Amongst British parents, the Montessori method is one of the more widely-known
‘alternative’ educational pedagogies, and is used in over 22,000 schools worldwide. The
Montessori method is particularly prominent in early childhood and primary school education.
Developed by Italian educator and doctor Maria Montessori after extensive research with

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special needs children in the early years of the twentieth century, the method contains five basic
principles.
The Five Principles of the Montessori method

Principle 1: Respect for the Child

Respect for the Child is the major principle underlying the entire Montessori method.
Montessori believed children should be respected (not common practice in the early twentieth
century). Respect is shown for children by not interrupting their concentration. Respect is also
shown by giving pupils the freedom to make choices, to do things for themselves, and to learn
for themselves. Teachers model respect for all students as well as peaceful conflict resolution,
and must learn to observe without judgement.
Principle 2: The Absorbent Mind
Montessori education is based on the principle that, simply by living, children are
constantly learning from the world around them. Through their senses children constantly
absorb information from their world. They then make sense of it because they are thinking
beings.
Principle 3: Sensitive Periods
Montessori pedagogy believes there are certain periods during which children are more
ready to learn certain skills. These are known as sensitive periods, and last only as long as is
necessary for the child to acquire the skills. The order in which sensitive periods occur (i.e. a
sensitive period for writing) as well as the timing of the period varies for each child. Through
observation, Montessori teachers must identify sensitive periods in their students and provide
the resources for children to flourish during this time.
Principle 4: The Prepared Environment
The Montessori method suggests that children learn best in an environment that has
been prepared to enable them to do things for themselves. Always child-centred, the learning
environment should promote freedom for children to explore materials of their choice.
Teachers should prepare the learning environment by making materials and experiences
available to children in an orderly and independent way.
Principle 5: Auto education
Auto education, or self-education, is the concept that children are capable of educating
themselves. This is one of the most important beliefs in the Montessori method. Montessori
teachers provide the environment, the inspiration, the guidance and the encouragement for
children to educate themselves.

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 The Role of the Teacher
In Montessori education the role of the teacher is to guide children in their learning
without becoming an obstacle, and without inserting themselves too much into the natural
learning process. Therefore, the Montessori teacher is a facilitator, not a lecturer. Montessori
teachers encourage children to learn by placing the pupils, rather than the teacher, at the center
of the experience. They provide learning materials appropriate to each child after close
observation in the specially prepared learning environment. Teachers also demonstrate and
model learning activities whilst providing freedom for the students to learn in their own way.
Montessori teachers manage classroom behaviors by modelling ongoing respect for all children
and their work, by observing and using sensitive periods, interests and abilities to plan activity,
and by diverting inappropriate behavior to meaningful tasks.
The Widely Known Features of a Montessori Education
Multi-age classrooms
One of the more widely known features of a Montessori education is that of the multi-
age classroom. Rejecting the notion all children of the same age develop and progress at the
same page, Montessori schools believe multi-age classrooms enable children to work more
productively at their natural pace. Montessori classrooms are typically set up in 3-year age
ranges. Advocates believe this enable children to learn better social skills, and to develop
academically, in a co-operative, non-competitive learning environment.
The Montessori classroom
Montessori believed that the learning environment (including teachers, experiences and
the physical environment) may either positively or negatively impact upon auto education.
Thus, Montessori classrooms are set up in such a way as to best facilitate and encourage
learning. Practically, this typically includes the following considerations in classroom setup:
A Montessori Early Years Classroom
• Minimizing things that may over-stimulate and distract. Walls are painted in neutral
shades, minimal objects and artworks are displayed.
• The classroom is quiet, calm, uncluttered
• Artwork is carefully chosen and displayed at children’s eye level
• Resources that appeal to all five senses (sight, touch, smell, taste and hearing) are used
• The classroom is separated into different learning areas, with a place for everything
• Use of natural and real-life (rather than pretend) materials and activities
• Has sufficient space for children to move around without disturbing others

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 • Provides sufficient storage for children to store personal items and project work in an
orderly manner
• Living plants
The Montessori philosophy has been widely recognized as a highly effective approach
to education, and it has been adapted for use in schools around the world. The approach
emphasizes the importance of hands-on learning, individualized education, and respect for the
child, and it encourages children to develop independence, creativity, and a love of learning.
2. The Reggio Emilia Approach
The Reggio Emilia Approach is a type of educational pedagogies, or approach to
teaching, focused on young children. The approach originated in the Italian town of Reggio
Emilia after World War II, and it has since become widely recognized and practiced in early
childhood education around the world. This is one of the constructivist approaches, rooted in
the educational theory that learners acquire knowledge by constructing new understandings of
the world through social and personal experiences. The Reggio Emilia approach guides us on
our mission to provide a safe and nurturing environment that promotes knowledge and inspires
a life-long love of learning. There are key elements of the philosophy to which a school must
adhere to be a Reggio-inspired school.
Key Reggio Emilia Principles
There are 7 guiding principles of the Reggio Emilia approach that are critical in
distinguishing Reggio Emilia from similar or competing child-centered approaches to
education. These guiding principles are below:
Principle 1: Children are capable to construct their own learning.
In Reggio Emilia, children are the main initiators of the learning process. They are
inspired by their own interest to know and learn, and as such they are endowed with a uniquely
individualistic understanding of how to construct learning on their own. In other words,
children should be treated as active collaborators in their education, as opposed to passive
observers.
Principle 2: Children are collaborators and learn through interaction within their communities.
Learning is based on interrelationships – not just within Reggio Emilia but across all
spectrums of learning; however, in Reggio Emilia there is a close interaction between teachers,
parents, and children. As indicated by the first principle, children are collaborators and work
best when included in a community as opposed to working independently. Therefore, Reggio
Emilia places an emphasis on working in small groups, which is based on the idea that we form
ourselves through interaction with peers, adults, and the world around us.
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Principle 3: Children are natural communicators and should be encouraged to express
themselves however they feel they can.
One of the most profound aspects of Reggio Emilia is known as The Hundred
Languages of Children, written by the founder of the philosophy Loris Malaguzzi. The concept
of The Hundred Languages is that children are natural communicators, and thus should be
encouraged to communicate through whatever means they can. This may include words,
movement, drawings, paintings, buildings, sculptures, and more. Because of the many ways
that children express, discover, and learn, children should be encouraged to use many materials
for discovery, communication, and even demonstration of what they understand, wonder,
question, feel, or imagine. It is then, conversely, the teacher’s responsibility to facilitate the
exploration of a child’s surroundings.
Principle 4: The classroom environment acts as the third teacher.
One of the most powerful and important components of incorporating a Reggio-style
philosophy into a classroom environment is to ensure that the classroom acts as a “living
organism, a place of shared relationships among the children, the teachers, the parents, and a
feeling of belonging in a world that is alive, welcoming, and authentic.” Because the classroom
acts as a living organism, it is one of the more critical components in the Reggio philosophy.
Classrooms and common spaces are carefully integrated with one another, as well as with the
outside community. Classrooms also use natural furnishing to encourage real-life interactions.
Principle 5: Teachers are partners, nurturers, and guides who help facilitate the exploration of
children’s interests as they work on short and long-term projects.
In the Reggio Emilia philosophy, teachers are partners in the learning process. They are
expected to be the ones who guide experiences, open-ended discovery, and problem solving.
The main goal for the teacher is to listen and observe the children, as well as question and listen
for opportunities to encourage further exploration of a child’s interests. Children and teachers
are expected to collaborate, but it’s the responsibility of the teacher to identify when a concept
can be used to further discovery and learning. As a mentor, it also means that teachers are not
planning projects or learning points in advance – they’re allowing projects to emerge based on
the interests of the children.
Principle 6: Documentation is a critical component of communication.
Teachers, in addition to playing the role of a guide, are also responsible for
documenting the learning process within the classroom and transcribing the verbal language
used by children. Teachers may take photos and even videos to better understand the children
and assist parents in becoming more aware of what their child is doing. Documentation also
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provides teachers an opportunity to evaluate their own work and exchange ideas with others.
Moreover, documentation demonstrates to children that their work is of value. Through
documentation, a child may finish their preschool experience at a Reggio Emilia child care
center with a portfolio of projects, pictures, photos, scripts, and quotes that they make take
great pride in, as it represents the steps they’ve made throughout their education.
Principle 7: Parents are partners in education.
Reggio Emilia sees parental participation in their child’s education as a critical
component of the learning philosophy. It may take form in many ways, but parents should
always be invited to play an active role in their child’s learning experiences as well as help to
ensure the welfare of the children in the community around them. Parents, both their skills and
ideas, are very valuable in every Reggio community. Teachers in Reggio-inspired programs
even recognize and respect parents as a child’s true primary teacher, and educators are
positioned as advocates and learners alongside the children, also known as “the second teacher.”
Parental involvement is critical to the creation of a learning community for children.
Overall, the Reggio Emilia approach is focused on providing a supportive, collaborative,
and engaging learning environment that empowers children to explore their interests and
develop their own unique abilities and potential.
3. Waldorf Approach
The Waldorf approach focuses on helping children find their authentic selves and
implementing citizenship while remaining cognizant of the stages children naturally go through
in their development. The ultimate goal of the Waldorf method is to bring about self-
actualization. The Waldorf teaching method utilizes a holistic approach that focuses on
integrating the whole child, meaning the head, hands, and heart. It was first developed by
Rudolf Steiner, an Austrian philosopher, who opened the first school in Stuttgart, Germany in
1919. Today, there are around 1,000 Waldorf schools covering the globe, including 60 different
countries.
Key Components of the Waldorf Approach

Key components of the Waldorf teaching system include the following:

• Focus on child development
• Individualization
• Whole-Child emphasis
• Integration of art and nature
• Active learning

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 1. Stages of Development
The Waldorf stages are organized in seven-year increments which Steiner believed
were spiritual cycles. Waldorf methods are directly aligned with these development stages
which include the following:
• Early Childhood - birth to age seven
• Middle Childhood - ages seven to fourteen
• Adolescence - ages fifteen to twenty-one
2. Individual Pacing
Along with an emphasis on child development, Waldorf methods allow children to
develop at their own pace and in their own individual timelines. This differs from traditional
public school dogma which sets standards that students of a certain grade level must meet in
order to be considered proficient. Because of this unhurried methodology, Waldorf methods
tend to meet the needs of a variety of learners with varying learning profiles and needs.
3. Whole-Child Emphasis
Likewise, the whole-child approach emphasizes the three elements: head (thinking),
hands (feelings), and heart (physical). Cognitive, physical, emotional, and spiritual needs are
acknowledged. With this in mind, hands-on and multi-sensory methods to learning are
imperative. This experiential approach integrates the whole child and allows for meaningful
experiences that promote a love of learning aligned with intrinsic motivation. Experiences are
offered when the child is ready to maximize the given knowledge.
4. The Arts and Nature
Creativity and the arts are interwoven throughout the Waldorf curriculum. In fact, the
arts are so critical a component to Waldorf methodology that they receive equal attention and
emphasis as other core academic subjects. Students learn to draw and illustrate at a young age
to prepare for reading and writing. Playing instruments, acting, knitting, and sewing are other
activities implemented within the curriculum. Opportunities spent in nature may also be offered
including wilderness and outdoor education.
5. Active Learning
Unlike students in some traditional education settings, students are mostly engaged in
active, not passive learning. Standardized, quantitative assessments are not the focus. Instead,
assessments such as student-driven work products and portfolios are the primary tools for
assessing student knowledge. Textbooks are not used until the Upper Years. Instead, students
create their own books of learning which may include drawings, stories, poems, maps, and
math problems.
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 Overall, the Waldorf educational philosophy is focused on providing a well-rounded
education that fosters the development of the whole child - intellectually, emotionally,
physically, and spiritually. It is a child-centered approach that emphasizes creativity,
imagination, and practical skills, and aims to prepare children for a fulfilling and productive
life.
4. HighScope Approach
HighScope is an educational philosophy that emphasizes active learning through hands-
on experiences and promotes child-centered, developmentally appropriate practices. It was
developed by psychologist David P. Weikart in the 1960s and has since been implemented in
preschools, elementary schools, and other educational settings worldwide. The HighScope
approach is based on the belief that children learn best when they are actively engaged in the
learning process and are allowed to pursue their own interests and curiosities. HighScope, a
curriculum for early childhood education (generally defined as birth to age 8) has its origins in
the theories put forth by Constructivist psychology. The basic tenet of HighScope, active
learning, has its roots in constructivism. In a HighScope classroom, children take an active role
in choosing materials and activities. Teachers support and scaffold children in their play to
develop skills around a curricular framework that ensures all areas of early childhood
development are addressed. There is a balance between teacher-directed and student-directed
learning. Teachers provide opportunities for key learning experiences and, at the same time,
include children's interests which reflects constructivist ideals.
Key Features of the HighScope Approach
Active learning is the central tenet of the HighScope approach supported by the daily
routine, assessment, adult-child interaction, and the learning environment.
1. Daily Routine
A key component of the HighScope classroom is the daily routine. The routine is kept
consistent from day to day, and generally includes the following components:
• Greeting Time
• Large Group Time
• Small Group Time
• Planning Time
• Work Time
• Recall Time
• Clean-Up Time
• Snack Time
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 • Outdoor Time
• Read Aloud Time
• Rest Time
The schedule is indicated to the children through picture cards hung on the wall at child-
level, with a clip or marker to move along the elements in sequence as the day progresses. The
picture cards may be printed or hand-drawn but should include a symbol to indicate the part of
the routine, such as a drawing of a few stick-figures seated at a table for Small Group Time, or
a photo of a tricycle for Outdoor Time, with those words written under the picture to aid in
making connections to print. The daily routine follows the same structure each day, with a mix
of whole-group, small-group, and independent activities.
2. Assessment
Assessment is conducted informally using anecdotal records. Teachers often keep a
small notebook at hand to jot down observations during the day showing evidence of each
child's growth across the content areas. These observations are compiled in the Child
Observation Record, or COR, which is shared with parents and serves as a journal of each
child's progress.
3. Adult-Child Interaction
Adult-child interaction is key to HighScope's goal of shared control. With the help of
caring adults, children are encouraged to make choices in their play, while teachers scaffold
learning, help children make and review their plans for their play, and assist in mediating
conflicts.
4. Learning Environment
The learning environment should include three to four interest areas, clearly labeled
and stocked with materials. Possible interest areas include:
• art area
• book area
• house area
• writing area
• toy area
Specific materials are not required, so programs are free to develop their areas using
the materials they have available or are of interest to the children in their group. Children may
select materials freely, as opposed to programs that focus on a "centers" approach where
children rotate through activities. Areas should be laid out in a manner that considers how they
will be used. For example, having the house area near the building area may provoke children
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to use blocks to build a restaurant using dishes from the house area. Similarly, having the book
area in a quiet part of the room creates a cozy place for tired children to relax.
5. HighScope Content
The HighScope curriculum is based around Key Developmental Indicators, or KDI.
The 58 KDI (42 for infants and toddlers) are essential skills for early childhood education,
organized into eight categories:
• Approaches to Learning
• Social and Emotional Development
• Physical Development and Health
• Language, Literacy, and Communication
• Mathematics
• Creative Arts
• Science and Technology
• Social Studies
In each of these categories, teachers strive to incorporate the specific KDI in their lesson
planning, in the types of materials available to the children, and in the way they guide children
in their social-emotional development. Assessment incorporates these KDI and reflects the
child's progress in each of the eight categories in the Child Observation Record.
Overall, the HighScope educational philosophy emphasizes child-centered,
developmentally appropriate practices that support children's active learning and holistic
development. The approach is designed to foster children's independence, creativity, and self-
esteem, as well as to promote their cognitive and social development.
5. Play-based Approach
High quality early childhood programs teach children to think creatively so they may
succeed in a complex and ever-changing world. Purposeful play is developmentally appropriate
and a significant element of any early childhood program. The following emphasizes the
importance of play in a child’s intellectual, social, emotional and physical development. Play
is a way of learning for children. During a typical preschool day there will be structured and
unstructured periods, enabling children to learn through at their own rate. Values that support
learning through play include:
♣ Children are viewed as thinkers, reflecting about their world
♣ Purposeful play is when children learn through the process of their efforts
♣ Children gain knowledge by building on a path of ever increasing knowledge

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 ♣ Children are encouraged to make choices and practice individual decision-making
Play-based educational programs use games as a context for learning, where
preschoolers can explore, discover, solve problems, and experiment in playful and imaginative
ways. The play-themed pedagogical philosophy for early childhood education (ECD) primarily
involves child-initiated learning, which is supported by the teacher or caregiver. This implies
that the preschooler is the principal participant and enjoys the liberty of creating roles and
choosing activities. However, the teacher plays an integral function in encouraging, facilitating,
engaging, and stimulating learning and inquiry through interactions, aiming to stretch
children’s thinking to higher levels. A nurturing and effective play-based learning environment
should provide diverse experiences and safe exploration through a wide selection of play
materials and opportunities in the progressive stages of solitary, onlooker, parallel, associative,
and cooperative games. Although disabilities, such as visual or hearing impairments, impede
the spontaneous engagement in childhood games, play-based learning promotes the executive
functioning, brain structure, and overall functionality of a child.
The Role of Children in Play-Based Education
Purposeful and meaningful childhood games should place the children at the center of
the play. The preschoolers should have the liberty to experience, create, imagine, and explore
the environment and the provided play materials without predetermined limitations or
guidelines. This implies that high-quality play-based learning programs allow spontaneous
child-driven activity. From this perspective, children’s role is to initiate self-chosen exercises,
which are undertaken for their interest, discovery, satisfaction, and enjoyment (Pinchover,
2017). For instance, when a preschooler is playing with blocks without disruption, their mind
explores and registers various experiences and information, such as cause-and-effect, weight,
and gravity. Pichover (2017) further contends that preschoolers attach profound meaning and
value to the activities they initiate, enhancing the knowledge and skills acquisition process. In
this regard, the child’s role in play-based learning is to imagine, create, and drive the playful
behavior with their internal motivations without the constraints of external expectations and
control. Therefore, the play-based education philosophy views children as the primary
participants and drivers of the learning process.
The Role of a Teacher in Play-Based Education
Although children are active participants in play-based education, teachers play an
indispensable role in supporting, facilitating, and enhancing the quality of the activities and
their outcomes. This implies that the appropriate participation of tutors enriches the standards
of the games through strategic engagement, creating opportunities for higher-level thinking,
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and ensuring the availability of materials, space, and time for play. According to Bubikova-
Moan et al. (2019), facilitation is the caregivers’ most significant and common role. This
responsibility entails the provision of the necessary and developmentally appropriate materials
and setting up the play environment. For instance, the educator can provide assistive items,
such as porcelain, blocks, and tree barks, allowing the children to initiate action but pose a
question that promotes problem-solving and literacy concepts.
Additionally, teachers support playful learning by making modifications and
adaptations to the environment for the inclusive participation of all learners. The assistance
also entails ensuring that the playtime is purposeful, memorable, and enjoyable through
thoughtful planning, arousing natural curiosities, and stimulating multidimensional activities
(Faas et al., 2017). However, teachers’ role expands significantly when dealing with children
with disabilities or when the plays are meant to impart content-specific experiences. This
implies that the educator may assume a significantly influential position to promote the
learning of a particular concept, enhancing the inclusivity of a game, and ensuring the safety
of the environment and the supportive play materials. For instance, teachers can increase their
level of engagement in activities that stimulate the acquisition of typical mathematical
quantitative skills and basic geometrical concepts, such as identifying, drawing, and
experimenting with shapes (Reikeras, 2020). Similarly, the educator can encourage the
preschoolers’ participation in dramatic plays to improve their language, social skills, and
literacy competencies.
Further, teachers offer companionship by participating and involving themselves in
various categories of plays. This may entail demonstrating how a specific game is played, the
safe handling of play material, and even assisting in forming playgroups for the cooperative
and associate exercises. Facilitating the development of dramatic role-plays, pairing the
learners in educationally useful formats, and encouraging collaborative peer engagement to
validate the preschoolers’ efforts and support their progress into complex phases of play (Gol-
Guven, 2017). Therefore, tutors under this philosophy of education play an integral role in
supporting, facilitating, validating, and constructing appropriate and safe scenarios for play-
learning.
The Role of Environment in Play-Based Education
Quality and enriched environments are the context and foundation on which an
effective and meaningful play-based education is built. The setting and the surroundings in
which learning occurs can either promote or impede learning. This implies that a well-designed
and arranged environment is an indispensable component that directly impacts the children’s
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social and language interactions. Poorly configured play areas can trigger disruptions and
adversely affect the interrelationship among learners and/or students and teachers. According
to Matthews and Lippman (2016), the physical organization, configuration, and arrangement
of the learning environment significantly affect the learners’ developmental trajectory and
overall wellbeing. Factors such as adequate lighting, temperature, and ventilation provide an
excellent and conducive atmosphere for a wide array of activities. For instance, a large open
space with expansive windows encourages exploration and play behaviors through natural light,
while minimizing the risk of injuries from crowding, obstacles, and assistive materials.
Additionally, a properly configured environment promotes the aspects of learners’
social, cognitive, emotional, and physical development, which cannot be achieved in any other
way. For instance, appropriate zoning, organization, and arrangement foster the children’s
freedom to choose their activities, which reinforces their ability to participate in complex
exercises. This implies that the setting should facilitate the easy transition from dramatic plays,
manipulative tasks, and experimentation engagements. The space and the specific attributes of
the neighborhood are also critical considerations with a potential effect on children’s levels of
aggression, unfocused behavior, and opportunities for discovery, interactions, and
communication (Meier & Sisk-Hilton, 2017). Therefore, the environment generally shapes the
complexity, flow, safety, and effectiveness of the plays.
Moreover, the environment plays a vital role in facilitating various play stages,
including the solitary, onlooker, parallel, associative, and cooperative phases. This implies that
the play area’s arrangement and configuration should be developmentally appropriate and
support the different stages of play among the learners. For instance, the play area should be
spacious enough and designed to accommodate learners at the onlooker level without
disrupting those at the associative phase. Similarly, those in the cooperative part should not be
inhibited by the solitary players.
Learning environments support purposeful play by:
• Blocks of various sizes and materials
• Materials and time for dramatic, imaginative play
• Manipulative and table toys
• Art materials and tools to explore
• Sensory play materials, including sand and water
• A library area • Music and movement activities
• Cooking experiences
• Computer exploration
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• Outdoor and gross motor play
• A quiet area for the child who needs to be alone
• Ample and rich language and print
• Writing tools and materials
Therefore, the environment is a fundamental factor and is an essential consideration in the
play-based education philosophy.
Conclusively, play-based education allows preschoolers to gain intellectual and
developmental momentum in the early years of their schooling. This model uses meaningful
and purposeful play as the context within which learners’ experiment, discover, explore, and
acquire complex skills in imaginative ways. Although effective learning integrates both the
child and the educator, the former is the primary participant and the driver of the process.
However, teachers play the fundamental role of supporting, facilitating, and ensuring the
activities’ safety. Additionally, the environmental design, organization, and configuration are
critical components that shape and influence the effectiveness of the playful activities in
enhancing the knowledge acquisition process. Although play-based education provides
numerous vital benefits to children with disabilities, it poses severe challenges due to their
impairments, limiting their ability to explore and engage in diverse activities fully.
Conclusion
A school’s program philosophy centers on the kinds of learning goals the school
emphasizes, how the teachers interact with the students, and the kinds of toys and materials in
the classroom. Finding the right fit for your child’s personality and your family’s values helps
make the preschool years a positive experience. In checking out a preschool for your kid,
remember that different schools have different doctrines. Some preschools combine various
philosophies, while others use a specific one. It is essential to understand the philosophies and
how they fit your child before choosing any.
Reflection Questions

1. Describe common preschool educational philosophies.

2. Which philosophy do you personally prefer?
3. How do you implement preschool program depending on your preferred educational
philosophy?

References
1. Child Care Answers. Early Childhood Education Philosophies. Retrieved from
https://childcareanswers.org/resources/ece-philosophies/
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2. CNE. Types of Early Childhood Program Philosophies. Retrieved from
https://www.eclearningil.org/sites/default/files/hero-
resources/early_childhood_progam_philosophies.pdf
3. ChalkyPapers. (2023). Play-based Philosophy for Early Childhood Education.
Retrieved from https://chalkypapers.com/play-based-philosophy-for-early-
childhood-education/
4. Bartolone, G. (2019). 7 Popular Types of Preschool: Which One Fits Your Child?
Retrieved from https://www.niche.com/blog/7-popular-types-of-preschool-which-
one-fits-your-child/

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 Chapter 3
Human Growth and Development
The early intervention dictionary defines development as “the lifelong process of
growth to maturity through which an individual acquires increasingly complex abilities” (EID).
Children experience many changes as they grow and develop. The process is called child
development.
Process and Periods of Development
From birth to death, living and learning go hand-in-hand. However, nothing quite
compares to the first few years of our lives, when we first learn to walk, talk, and interact with
other people and our environments — as well as process how these things make us feel. The
pattern of child development is complex because it is the product of several processes:
biological, cognitive, and socioemotional. Development also can be de- scribed in terms of
periods. Although children progress at different rates, there are a number of key milestones
each individual should hit as they develop.
Periods of Development
For the purposes of organization and understanding, we commonly describe
development in terms of periods. In the most widely used system of classification, the
developmental periods are infancy, early childhood, middle and late childhood, adolescence,
early adulthood, middle adulthood, and late adulthood.
Development can be predicted based on age, as categorized below:

Stage Age

Infancy and Toddlerhood birth - 2 years

Early Childhood 2 - 6 years

Middle Childhood 6 - 11 years

Adolescence 11 - 18 years

 Infancy extends from birth to 18 to 24 months. It is a time of extreme dependence on adults.

Many activities are just beginning, such as language development, symbolic thought,
sensorimotor coordination, and social learning.
 Early childhood (sometimes called the preschool years) extends from the end of infancy to
about 5 years. During this period, children become more self-sufficient, develop school

32
 readiness skills (such as learning to follow instructions and identify letters), and spend
many hours with peers. First grade typically marks the end of early childhood.
 Middle and late childhood (sometimes called the elementary school years) extends from
about 6 to 11 years of age. Children master the fundamental skills of reading, writing, and
math, achievement becomes a more central theme, and self-control increases. In this period,
children interact more with the wider social world beyond their family.
 Adolescence involves the transition from childhood to adulthood. It begins around ages 10
to 12 and ends around 18 to 21. Adolescence starts with rapid physical changes, including
height and weight gains and development of sexual functions. Adolescents intensely pursue
independence and seek their own identity. Their thought becomes more abstract, logical,
and idealistic.
Biological, Cognitive, and Socioemotional Processes
Biological processes produce changes in the child’s body and underlie brain
development, height and weight gains, motor skills, and puberty’s hormonal changes. Genetic
inheritance plays a large part.
Cognitive processes involve changes in the child’s thinking, intelligence, and language.
Cognitive developmental processes enable a growing child to memorize a poem, figure out
how to solve a math problem, come up with a creative strategy, or speak meaningfully
connected sentences.
Socioemotional processes involve changes in the child’s relationships with other people,
changes in emotion, and changes in personality. Parents’ nurturance toward their child, a boy’s
aggressive attack on a peer, a girl’s development of assertiveness, and an adolescent’s feelings
of joy after getting good grades all reflect socioemotional processes in development.
Biological, cognitive, and socioemotional processes are inextricably intertwined
(Diamond, Casey, & Munakata, 2011). Consider a child smiling in response to a parent’s touch.
This response depends on biological processes (the physical nature of touch and responsiveness
to it), cognitive processes (the ability to understand intentional acts), and socioemotional
processes (the act of smiling often reflects a positive emotional feeling, and smiling helps to
connect us in positive ways with other human beings). These three processes serve as a way of
activating brain areas. The experience acquired through the three interrelated processes shapes
the structure of the brain. Changes in neural connection with experiences is a property called
plasticity. The more experiences the child has, the more neural connection the brain has. The
brain is much more sensitive to experience in the first few years of life than in later years. The
plasticity of the brain underlies much of the learning that occurs during this period.
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 Brain Development
Brain development begins a few weeks after conception and is thought to be complete
by early adulthood. The basic structure of the brain is laid down primarily during the prenatal
period and early childhood, and the formation and refinement of neural networks continues
over the long term. The brains’ many functions do not develop at the same time nor do their
developmental patterns follow the same time frame. Although basic sensation and perception
systems are fully developed by the time children reach kindergarten age, other systems such as
those involved in memory, decision making, and emotion continue to develop well into
childhood. The first years of a child’s life are extremely important, starting from the first
trimester of pregnancy. The stages of brain development that happen in the first five years have
lifelong impacts.
Neurons
Neurons and synapses are brain structures that help different parts of your brain
communicate. They take chemical signals, transport them, and form new wiring within your
brain. The work that neurons and synapses do lays the foundation for learning, memory, and
other brain functions. When you’re born, you have all the neurons that you’ll have for your
entire life. It’s the synapses that encourage development in your brain. Your first few years of
creating these connections will determine the abilities you have later on in life. Before a child
turns three, they’ll have almost double the number of synapses that they’ll have later on as
adults. Synapses are created at such a high rate during early childhood that your brain will end
up making more than you actually need. Synapses are strengthened as you use skills or are
exposed to things repeatedly. For example, if as a child you were constantly surrounded by
people talking, the synapses in language-related parts of your brain were often activated. This
repeated activation strengthened them until you learned how to speak for yourself. This is proof
that your life experience and environment make huge contributions to the development of the
brain.
Baby Brain development
As a child, a baby is born ready to learn! Healthy growth comes from their surroundings
and repeated exposure to new things. The stages of brain development build on each other.
They form essential brain connections to support you throughout your life. From birth to age
5, a child’s brain develops more than at any other time in life. And early brain development
has a lasting impact on a child’s ability to learn and succeed in school and life. The quality of
a child’s experiences in the first few years of life – positive or negative – helps shape how their

34
brain develops. At birth, the average baby’s brain is about a quarter of the size of the average
adult brain. Incredibly, it doubles in size in the first year. It keeps growing to about 80% of
adult size by age 3 and 90% – nearly full grown – by age 5. The brain is the command center
of the human body. A newborn baby has all of the brain cells (neurons) they’ll have for the rest
of their life, but it’s the connections between these cells that really make the brain work. Brain
connections enable us to move, think, communicate and do just about everything. The early
childhood years are crucial for making these connections. At least one million new neural
connections (synapses) are made every second, more than at any other time in life. Different
areas of the brain are responsible for different abilities, like movement, language and emotion,
and develop at different rates. Brain development builds on itself, as connections eventually
link with each other in more complex ways. This enables the child to move and speak and think
in more complex ways. The early years are the best opportunity for a child’s brain to develop
the connections they need to be healthy, capable, successful adults. The connections needed
for many important, higher-level abilities like motivation, self-regulation, problem solving and
communication are formed in these early years – or not formed. It’s much harder for these
essential brain connections to be formed later in life.
Factors influencing brain development includes both the heredity factors and sensory
experiences such as
• Early multilingual experiences
• Early musical experiences
• Early stress
• Exposure to psychoactive drugs
• Parent-infant relationships
• Diet
• Poverty
• Brain injury
Brain development is a dynamic and ongoing process that is shaped by the combination
of genetic and environmental factors, and continues throughout childhood and into adulthood.
Brains do not develop normally in the absence of critical genetic signaling and they do not
develop normally in the absence of essential environmental input.
From infancy to adolescence, children grow and develop at different rates. Development occurs
at fairly predictable stages according to age. Age helps predict the aspects of development that

35
 occur. Growth and development can be categorized into five areas known as the developmental
domains.

Major Domains of Development

1. Motor Development:
Motor development refers to the development of a child’s bones, muscles and
ability to move around and manipulate his or her environment. Motor development can be
divided into two sections:
◊ gross motor development and
◊ fine motor development.
• Gross motor development involves the development of the large muscles in the child’s body.
These muscles allow us to sit, stand, walk and run, among other activities.
• Fine motor development involves the small muscles of the body, especially in the hand.
2. Cognitive development
Cognitive development involves the child’s ability to grow and develop their thinking
or evaluation skills, and adapt to changes. It begins with the infant developing “object
permanence object permanence and realizing action and reaction, or “cause and effect”.
3. Language/Communication development
Language and communication refer to the ways children get their message across to
others and understand what others are saying to them. Communication takes place either
verbally, by using words, or non-verbally, through the use of gestures. Verbal communication
includes oral and written language, such as reading and writing. Non-verbal communication
includes waving bye-bye and smiling.
4. Social and emotional development
Social and emotional development include behaviors that represent children’s
emotional growth and their ability to successfully navigate their world through interactions
with adults and peers. Social-emotional development covers 2 important concepts of
development including the development of self or temperament and relationship to others or
attachment.
5. Self-help/ Adaptive skills
Adaptive skills and behaviors are the skills needed to do everyday tasks. These skills
are tools adults use to live independently within our community norms. They include dressing
and undressing, bathing and hygiene, toileting, and later cleaning, cooking and maintaining a
household.

36
 Every child has a unique developmental path that is influenced both by their biological
make-up and by the environment in which they live. There are some key points to keep in mind
when thinking about child development. They are:
◊ Child development (CD) exists on a continuum. Some children develop fast and early.
Others children the same age develop slower, both in quality and quantity. They reach
developmental milestones (Fig. 3.1) later than others, or not at all. If they do reach a certain
developmental milestone, they may not master it the same way typically developing
children do.

Fig. 3.1: This image shows examples of baby motor milestones, or skills that develop
at certain ages
◊ The development of most children falls in the middle part of the continuum. The children
whose development falls on either the lower OR upper parts of the continuum as usually
described as developing “atypically”.
◊ The development of the children whose development falls on the lower part of the
continuum is somewhat slower than that of others their age. The development of children
whose development falls on the upper part of the continuum is somewhat faster than that
of others their age.
◊ Development starts from the inner body and goes to the outer body; for example, children
usually develop or gain control over their arms, before their fingers.
◊ Development also starts from top to bottom; for example, children cannot have good
control over their legs if they do not have good control over their heads.
◊ Development is gradual and usually follows a predictable sequence. Children usually
learn how to sit before they learn how to walk. They learn how to say individual words,
before they speak in sentences. Every skill a child acquires will later be used as a

37
 foundation for more complex skills. Learning how to stack rings in the correct order is a
great feat on its own for both the child and the parents. At the same time, this skill that is
seen as a game is also paving the way for other skills,
e.g. motor, cognitive and academic skills.
◊ Child development experts often divide development into several areas or domains. The
most common division (and one that will be used throughout this course) is the
following:
♣ cognitive development,
♣ social-emotional development,
♣ communication development,
♣ motor development and
♣ self-help development.
◊ Child development experts also understand that all areas of development are important
and inter-connected. A child who cannot pronounce certain sounds properly may not be
developing typically, when it comes to communication skills. This may have an effect on
their social skills which may impact their self-esteem, a major component of emotional
development. A child who needs help to eat, and may use a special tool to eat, because of
delayed fine-motor skills, may feel anxious about this situation, which may impact
their social and emotional skills. It’s important to note that this child may be quite
comfortable with the special tool that they use to eat, and what is making them
uncomfortable is the reaction that they may see from those around them.
Reflection Questions

1. State periods of human lifespan.

2. What are the main processes leading to human development.
3. Describe major domains of human development.

References
1. Early Childhood Intervention. (2010). Typical development. Team: Including all
Children and Families Expanding Partnerships.
Retrieved from https://blogs.ubc.ca/earlychildhoodintervention1/category/1-1-
rationale-goals-and-objectives/

38
2. Expert Community Care Management. Understanding the five domains of early
childhood development. Retrieved from https://www.eccm.org/blog/understanding-
the-five-domains-of-early-childhood-development
3. Santrock, J. W. (2011). Educational psychology (5th edition). University of Texas at
Dallas.

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 Chapter 4
Physical/ Motor Development
Motor development involves how well children’s muscles work. This is referred to as
muscle tone. Children need a balanced muscle tone in order to develop their muscles and use
them with ease when standing, sitting, rolling, walking, running, swimming and all other
postures and actions.
Motor development also involves the child’s vestibular and proprioceptive systems.
Both of these are part of the child’s sensory system.
• The vestibular system is located in the inner ear and allows the body to maintain balance.
• The proprioceptive system involves the inner ear, the muscles, joints and tendons. It
allows the body to understand where it’s located. Maintaining balance and posture and
having coordinated movements are only possible if the proprioceptive system is
functioning well.
The typical development of a child’s motor skills usually follows a predictable order or
sequence.
♣ Development occurs from the inner body to the outer body. This means that children
usually develop or gain control over their arms before they develop or gain control over
their fingers.
♣ Development also starts from top to bottom. Children need to control their head first, then
they will gain control over their legs and feet.
Thus, this domain involves the senses (taste, touch, sight, smell, hearing, and
proprioception — or bodily awareness of one’s orientation in space), gross motor skills (major
movements involving large muscles), and fine motor skills (involving small muscles,
particularly of the fingers and hands). Humans develop physical ability directionally, from top
to bottom and the center outward. A baby will at first have the ability to turn the head and sit
upright, before being able to reach, grab, and eventually walk and run as they progress into
toddlerhood (2-3 years). All the while child should be able to instinctively respond and react
to stimuli in his or her physical environment.
Motor Development: Gross Motor Skills
Gross motor development, also called large motor development, refers to the
development of the large muscles in the body. These are the muscles that help us sit, stand,
walk, run, go up and down the stairs, and kick a ball, among many other activities.
Typically developing children usually develop gross motor skills in this order:

40
holding head straight up or erect (Fig 4.1)
rolling from stomach to back, and then back to stomach
sitting with support or assistance
sitting without support (but with supervision!)
creeping (i.e. moving on stomach, usually while using mostly the arms)
crawling (i.e. moving while using both arms and legs)
rolling a ball
walking with both hands held by an adult
pulling to a stand
standing
stopping to retrieve or collect something
walking a few steps on their own
walking on their own
squatting to retrieve or collect something
kicking a ball
throwing and catching a ball
climbing on and off furniture
running
walking upstairs and downstairs
jumping
walking backwards
pedaling a tricycle or a mini-bike
hopping forward and landing on both feet
riding a bicycle

41
 Figure 4.1: Child lifting head while on tummy
Ways to promote gross motor development
Children grow rapidly during early childhood, which is why it’s important to let them
move in a variety of ways. In the early education setting, this means giving them outlets for
free movement and exploration, thereby developing gross motor skills. More examples include
the following:
o Make physical activity a big part of children’s daily life.
o Provide adequate space and age-appropriate equipment and materials, with adaptations as
needed.
o Supervise and participate in daily outdoor play.
o Plan daily physical activities that are vigorous as well as developmentally and individually
appropriate.
o Provide appropriate modifications for children with special needs.
Motor Development: Fine Motor Skills
Fine motor skills involve the small muscles of the body, usually located in the hands.
Eye/hand coordination is essential in developing fine motor skills. Fine motor development
involves skills that we will need for most things we do through our life.
Motor development also includes the oral/motor area that surrounds the child’s mouth.
In order for children to be able to swallow and eat properly, or to pronounce words the right
way, they need to have good control over their oral/motor muscles. A child whose oral/motor
muscles are either too tight (hypertonic) or too flabby (hypotonic), may require help in learning
to talk, and assistance in feeding and swallowing.
Fine motor development includes the following:

42
reaching for objects
playing with hands at midline
manipulating objects with both hands
banging two toys together
transferring or passing objects from one hand to the other
picking up an object
using the thumb and index fingers (pincer grasp) to pick small objects
removing or taking away objects from containers
putting objects into containers
holding large markers with the fist
turning pages of books
scribbling
opening doors
solving simple puzzles
stacking blocks and cups
holding pencils using the tripod position
building three dimensional structures with blocks
making simple forms with play dough or clay
nesting cups
using scissors
drawing simple forms
tracing letters and numbers
buttoning buttons
fastening snaps
stringing beads
writing letters and numbers

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 Figure 4.2: Nesting cups
Ways to promote fine motor development
o Provide adequate time for drawing, cutting, and handwriting development.
o Provide modeling materials (e.g., play dough, clay) and activities (e.g. beads, Legos, small
blocks) to strengthen hand and develop fine motor coordination.
o Provide handheld tools, such as spoons, paintbrushes, crayons, markers, tweezers,
eyedroppers, garlic press, clothespins, and safety scissors, with adaptations as needed.
o Provide adaptive writing utensils for children with fine motor delays.
o Show child how you use drawing and writing tools in your daily activities.
Development in Early Elementary
Motor Development: How Development in the Early Childhood Years Affects
Development in the Elementary School Years
The development of more complex skills is not possible without the development of
earlier, less complex skills. For example:

For children, fine motor skills include holding pencils and crayons, eating with utensils
properly, tying shoe laces and playing the piano.

• Activities that require gross/ large motor skills and that impact on other skills and
activities include the following:
o Moving around the school, up and downstairs
o Participating in PE (Physical education class) and in school sports
o Play and socializing at recess and lunch hours
• For grown-ups, fine motor skills include being able sign one’s name, pour coffee, shell a
hard-boiled egg and unwrap and eat a burger.

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Reflection Questions

1. Differentiate between fine motor development and gross motor development.

2. Activities that can improve fine motor skills.
3. Activities that can improve gross motor skills.

References
1. Early Childhood Intervention. (2010). Typical development: Motor Development.
Team: Including all Children and Families Expanding Partnerships.
Retrieved from https://blogs.ubc.ca/earlychildhoodintervention1/category/1-3-what-
is-development-motor-development/
2. Mauro, T. (2022). Fine and Gross Motor Skills in Children. Verywell Family.

45
 Chapter 5
Cognitive development
Cognition refers to thinking and memory processes, and cognitive development refers
to long-term changes in these processes (the ability to mentally process information — to think,
reason, and understand what’s happening around you). It begins with the infant developing
“object permanence object permanence and realizing action and reaction, or “cause and effect”.
During the preschool years, it may involve simple abilities, like recognizing colors, or complex
abilities, like concentrating on a task.
Other cognitive abilities include the following:
• adapting to changes in one’s environment
• engaging in activities that require thinking “outside the box” or divergent thinking
• being creative
• learning new skills and apply them to other (old or new) situations
• pre-academic skills needed for the child to engage in directed or school-based learning
activities. These require self-regulation; for example, sitting quietly for certain periods of time,
listening to and following instructions, sorting and categorizing items (like shapes or colors)
and completing paper and pencil tasks, like drawing or writing.
Developing cognitive skills takes time, and takes both experience and practice. Some
more complex cognitive skills, like completing multiplication with decimals, are only possible
if equally important “simpler” skills develop first, like counting and sequencing. The
development of cognitive skills follows an order that is quite predictable for almost all children.
Although most children follow the same order, each child acquires these skills at slightly
different rates than other children.
Stages of Cognitive Development
One of the most widely known perspectives about cognitive development is the
cognitive stage theory of a Swiss psychologist named Jean Piaget. Piaget created and studied
an account of how children and youth gradually become able to think logically and
scientifically.
Let’s briefly explain about how Piaget explained learning, learning proceeded by the
interplay of assimilation (adjusting new experiences to fit prior concepts) and accommodation
(adjusting concepts to fit new experiences). The to-and-fro of these two processes leads not
only to short-term learning, but also to long-term developmental change. The long-term
developments are really the main focus of Piaget’s cognitive theory.

46
 After observing children closely, Piaget proposed that cognition developed through
distinct stages from birth through the end of adolescence. By stages he meant a sequence of
thinking patterns with four key features:
1. They always happen in the same order.
2. No stage is ever skipped.
3. Each stage is a significant transformation of the stage before it.
4. Each later stage incorporated the earlier stages into itself. Basically, this is the
“staircase” model of development mentioned at the beginning of this chapter.
Piaget proposed four major stages of cognitive development, and called them
(1) sensorimotor stage,
(2) preoperational stage,
(3) concrete operational stage, and
(4) formal operational stage.
Each stage is correlated with an age period of childhood, but only approximately.
The Sensorimotor Stage (Birth – 2 years)
The sensorimotor stage, which lasts from birth to about 2 years of age, is the first
Piagetian stage. In this stage, infants construct an under- standing of the world by coordinating
their sensory experiences (such as seeing and hearing) with their motor actions (reaching,
touching)—hence the term sensorimotor. At the beginning of this stage, infants show little
more than reflexive patterns to adapt to the world. By the end of the stage, they display far
more complex sensorimotor patterns.
The preoperational stage (2-7 years)
In the preoperational stage, children use their new ability to represent objects in a wide
variety of activities, but they do not yet do it in ways that are organized or fully logical. One
of the most obvious examples of this kind of cognition is dramatic play, the improvised make-
believe of preschool children. If you have ever had responsibility for children of this age, you
have likely witnessed such play. Ashley holds a plastic banana to her ear and says: “Hello,
Mom? Can you be sure to bring me my baby doll? OK!” Then she hangs up the banana and
pours tea for Jeremy into an invisible cup. Jeremy giggles at the sight of all of this and exclaims:
“Rinnng! Oh Ashley, the phone is ringing again! You better answer it.” And on it goes.
In a way, children immersed in make-believe seem “mentally insane”, in that they do not think
realistically. But they are not truly insane because they have not really taken leave of their
senses. At some level, Ashley and Jeremy always know that the banana is still a banana and
not really a telephone; they are merely representing it as a telephone. They are thinking on two
47
levels at once—one imaginative and the other realistic. This dual processing of experience
makes dramatic play an early example of metacognition, or reflecting on and monitoring of
thinking itself. Metacognition is a highly desirable skill for success in school, one that teachers
often encourage (Bredekamp & Copple, 1997; Paley, 2005). Partly for this reason, teachers of
young children (preschool, kindergarten, and even first or second grade) often make time and
space in their classrooms for dramatic play, and sometimes even participate in it themselves to
help develop the play further.
The concrete operational stage (7 - 11 years)
As children continue into elementary school, they become able to represent ideas and
events more flexibly and logically. Their rules of thinking still seem very basic by adult
standards and usually operate unconsciously, but they allow children to solve problems more
systematically than before, and therefore to be successful with many academic tasks. In the
concrete operational stage, for example, a child may unconsciously follow the rule: “If nothing
is added or taken away, then the amount of something stays the same.” This simple principle
helps children to understand certain arithmetic tasks, such as in adding or subtracting zero from
a number, as well as to do certain classroom science experiments, such as ones involving
judgments of the amounts of liquids when mixed. Piaget called this period the concrete
operational stage because children mentally “operate” on concrete objects and events. They are
not yet able, however, to operate (or think) systematically about representations of objects or
events. Manipulating representations is a more abstract skill that develops later, during
adolescence.
Concrete operational thinking differs from preoperational thinking in two ways, each
of which renders children more skilled as students. One difference is reversibility, or the ability
to think about the steps of a process in any order. Imagine a simple science experiment, for
example, such as one that explores why objects sink or float by having a child place an
assortment of objects in a basin of water. Both the preoperational and concrete operational
child can recall and describe the steps in this experiment, but only the concrete operational
child can recall them in any order. This skill is very helpful on any task involving multiple
steps—a common feature of tasks in the classroom. In teaching new vocabulary from a story,
for another example, a teacher might tell students: “First make a list of words in the story that
you do not know, then find and write down their definitions, and finally get a friend to test you
on your list”. These directions involve repeatedly remembering to move back and forth
between a second step and a first—a task that concrete operational students—and most
adults—find easy, but that preoperational children often forget to do or find confusing. If the
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younger children are to do this task reliably, they may need external prompts, such as having
the teacher remind them periodically to go back to the story to look for more unknown words.
The other new feature of thinking during the concrete operational stage is the child’s
ability to decenter, or focus on more than one feature of a problem at a time. There are hints of
decentration in preschool children’s dramatic play, which requires being aware on two levels
at once—knowing that a banana can be both a banana and a “telephone”. But the decentration
of the concrete operational stage is more deliberate and conscious than preschoolers’ make-
believe. Now the child can attend to two things at once quite purposely. Suppose you give
students a sheet with an assortment of subtraction problems on it, and ask them to do this: “Find
all of the problems that involve two-digit subtraction and that involve borrowing’ from the next
column. Circle and solve only those problems.” Following these instructions is quite possible
for a concrete operational student (as long as they have been listening!) because the student
can attend to the two subtasks simultaneously—finding the two-digit problems and identifying
which actually involve borrowing. (Whether the student actually knows how to “borrow”
however, is a separate question.)
In real classroom tasks, reversibility and decentration often happen together. A well-
known example of joint presence is Piaget’s experiments with conservation, the belief that an
amount or quantity stays the same even if it changes apparent size or shape (Piaget, 2001;
Matthews, 1998). Imagine two identical balls made of clay. Any child, whether preoperational
or concrete operational, will agree that the two indeed have the same amount of clay in them
simply because they look the same. But if you now squish one ball into a long, thin “hot dog”,
the preoperational child is likely to say that the amount of that ball has changed—either because
it is longer or because it is thinner, but at any rate because it now looks different. The concrete
operational child will not make this mistake, thanks to new cognitive skills of reversibility and
decentration: for him or her, the amount is the same because “you could squish it back into a
ball again” (reversibility) and because “it may be longer, but it is also thinner” (decentration).
Piaget would say the concrete operational child “has conservation of quantity”.
The classroom examples described above also involve reversibility and decentration.
As already mentioned, the vocabulary activity described earlier requires reversibility (going
back and forth between identifying words and looking up their meanings); but it can also be
construed as an example of decentration (keeping in mind two tasks at once—word
identification and dictionary search). And as mentioned, the arithmetic activity requires
decentration (looking for problems that meet two criteria and also solving them), but it can also
be construed as an example of reversibility (going back and forth between subtasks, as with
49
the vocabulary activity). Either way, the development of concrete operational skills support
students in doing many basic academic tasks; in a sense they make ordinary schoolwork
possible.
The formal operational stage (11 years and beyond)
In the last of the Piagetian stages, the child becomes able to reason not only about
tangible objects and events, but also about hypothetical or abstract ones. Hence it has the name
formal operational stage—the period when the individual can “operate” on “forms” or
representations. With students at this level, the teacher can pose hypothetical (or contrary-to-
fact) problems: “What if the world had never discovered oil?” or “What if the first European
explorers had settled first in California instead of on the East Coast of the United States?” To
answer such questions, students must use hypothetical reasoning, meaning that they must
manipulate ideas that vary in several ways at once, and do so entirely in their minds.
The hypothetical reasoning that concerned Piaget primarily involved scientific
problems. His studies of formal operational thinking therefore often look like problems that
middle or high school teachers pose in science classes. In one problem, for example, a young
person is presented with a simple pendulum, to which different amounts of weight can be hung
(Inhelder & Piaget, 1958). The experimenter asks: “What determines how fast the pendulum
swings: the length of the string holding it, the weight attached to it, or the distance that it is
pulled to the side?” The young person is not allowed to solve this problem by trial-and-error
with the materials themselves, but must reason a way to the solution mentally. To do so
systematically, he or she must imagine varying each factor separately, while also imagining
the other factors that are held constant. This kind of thinking requires facility at manipulating
mental representations of the relevant objects and actions—precisely the skill that defines
formal operations.
As you might suspect, students with an ability to think hypothetically have an advantage
in many kinds of school work: by definition, they require relatively few “props” to solve
problems. In this sense they can in principle be more self-directed than students who rely only
on concrete operations—certainly a desirable quality in the opinion of most teachers. Note,
though, that formal operational thinking is desirable but not sufficient for school success, and
that it is far from being the only way that students achieve educational success. Formal thinking
skills do not insure that a student is motivated or well-behaved, for example, nor does it
guarantee other desirable skills, such as ability at sports, music, or art. The fourth stage in
Piaget’s theory is really about a particular kind of formal thinking, the kind needed to solve
scientific problems and devise scientific experiments. Since many people do not normally deal
50
with such problems in the normal course of their lives, it should be no surprise that research
finds that many people never achieve or use formal thinking fully or consistently, or that they
use it only in selected areas with which they are very familiar (Case & Okomato, 1996).
Cognitive Development: Thinking or Evaluation Skills
Cognitive skills allow a child to function well in school and society. These skills refer
to a child’s ability to receive, process and organize information in a way that allows him or her
to use the information properly, both in the present time and later on. They include simple and
complex skills.
LESS COMPLEX SKILLS INCLUDE:

recognizing shapes and colors

recognizing qualitative, quantitative and spatial concepts
telling one’s age
solving simple, inter-connected puzzles
recognizing “which one is different” and why
sorting and categorizing items
understanding “relative” concepts
understanding class inclusion
identifying objects by their function
describing how two things are “different” and “the same”
being able to recall past events and predict future ones
object permanence
cause and effect

COMPLEX SKILLS INCLUDE:

paying attention to and concentrating on a task or activity

easily changing from one task to another
recognizing and understanding when a situation is unsafe
pointing out that something is silly
identifying missing parts of objects
engaging in divergent and creative thinking, or thinking “outside the box”
answering “why do we” questions
adjusting to changes in the environment and modifying one’s plans, accordingly

51
 remembering directions and instructions
generalizing what one has learned from one situation to the next
being able to give simple directions
being able to describe a certain goal viewing a situation from more than one perspective
understanding that there are consequences to one’s actions.

Cognitive Development: Pre-academic Skills

Pre-academic skills are part of cognitive development. Young children who develop
these skills have better chances of succeeding later on at school, and carry the skills with them
as they grow older.
Pre-academic skills include:

being interested in books

enjoying being read to
understanding that letters and numbers are symbols that mean something
being able to retell basic parts of a story
recognizing certain logos (e.g. McDonald’s golden arches)
being able to engage in simple and complex phoneme awareness exercises
identifying letters of the alphabet
matching forms and letters
demonstrating an understanding of one to one correspondence
scribbling
imitating vertical and horizontal strokes
completing simple and complex sequences.

Cognitive Development: Early Elementary Years

The development of cognitive and thinking skills follows a predictable order. As
children develop their cognitive skills during the early years, they get a set of tools that will
allow them to cope with (and also function within) the later demands of their school years.
This discovery will continue throughout their preschool, middle and high-school years
as they experiment with different activities and situations. Young children who are given room
to play and to try out different toys and tools will be more likely develop the skills needed to

52
learn to read, write, do math and try out different life-skills situations as they grow from
children to adults.
Ways to Promote Cognitive Development
The traditional academic approach includes many methods to promote this area of
holistic development. There are, however, a variety of ways you can playfully promote
cognitive development in the early childhood education setting.
• Provide a versatile learning environment and make changes in the environment
regularly for the children to observe and notice.
• Discuss various topics with children and ask open-ended questions.
• Encourage independent problem-solving and decision-making - do not give ready-
made answers.
• Play games that support cognitive development: memory games, puzzles, card games,
hand games, reading, singing, and rhyming.
• Utilize play-based activities, hands-on learning and thematic projects that let children
engage with the learning

Reflection Questions

1. What are cognitive abilities?

2. Summarize Piaget’s stages of cognitive development.
3. Activities that can improve cognition.

References
1. Early Childhood Intervention. (2010). Typical development: Cognitive Development.
Team: Including all Children and Families Expanding Partnerships.
Retrieved from https://blogs.ubc.ca/earlychildhoodintervention1/category/1-3-what-
is-development-cognitive-development/
2. Seifert, K & Sutton, R. (2009). Educational Psychology (Second Edition). The Jacobs
Foundation, Zurich, Switzerland.

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 Chapter 6
Language Development
Language is a form of communication—whether spoken, written, or signed—that is
based on a system of symbols. Language consists of the words used by a community
(vocabulary) and the rules for varying and combining them (grammar and syntax).
All human languages have some common characteristics (Berko Gleason, 2009). These
include infinite generativity and organizational rules. Infinite generativity is the ability to
produce an endless number of meaningful sentences using a finite set of words and rules.
When we say “rules,” we mean that language is orderly and that rules describe the way
language works (Berko Gleason & Ratner, 2009). Language involves five systems of rules:
phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, and pragmatics.
• Phonology Every language is made up of basic sounds. Phonology is the sound system
of a language, including the sounds used and how they may be combined (Stoel-
Gammon & Sosa, 2010). For example, English has the sounds sp, ba, and ar, but the
sound sequences zx and qp do not occur.
• A phoneme is the basic unit of sound in a language; it is the smallest unit of sound that
affects meaning. A good example of a phoneme in English is /k/, the sound represented
by the letter k in the word ski and the letter c in the word cat. The /k/ sound is slightly
different in these two words, and in some languages such as Arabic these two sounds
are separate phonemes.
• Morphology The morphology of a language refers to the units of meaning involved in
word formation. A morpheme is a minimal unit of meaning; it is a word or a part of a
word that cannot be broken into smaller meaningful parts. Every word in the English
language is made up of one or more morphemes. Some words consist of a single
morpheme (for example, help), whereas others are made up of more than one
morpheme (for example, helper, which has two morphemes, help 1 er, with the
morpheme -er meaning “one who”—in this case “one who helps”). Thus, not all mor-
phemes are words by themselves; for example, pre-, -tion, and -ing are morphemes.
• Just as the rules that govern phonology describe the sound sequences that can occur in
a language, the rules of morphology describe the way meaningful units (morphemes)
can be combined in words (Tager-Flusberg & Zukowski, 2009). Morphemes have many
jobs in grammar, such as marking tense (for example, she walks versus she walked) and
number (she walks versus they walk).

54
 • Syntax The way words are combined to form acceptable phrases and sentences is their
syntax (Naigles & Swensen, 2010). If someone says to you, “Bob slugged Tom” or
“Bob was slugged by Tom,” you know who did the slugging and who was slugged in
each case because you have a syntactic understanding of these sentence structures. You
also understand that the sentence “You didn’t stay, did you?” is a grammatical sentence
but that “You didn’t stay, didn’t you?” is unacceptable and ambiguous.
• Semantics The term semantics refers to the meaning of words and sentences. Every
word has a set of semantic features, or required attributes related to meaning
(Diesendruck, 2010). Girl and women, for example, share many semantic features, but
they differ semantically in regard to age.
• Words have semantic restrictions on how they can be used in sentences (Li, 2009). The
sentence, The bicycle talked the boy into buying a candy bar, is syntacti- cally correct
but semantically incorrect. The sentence violates our semantic knowl- edge that
bicycles don’t talk.
• Pragmatics A final set of language rules involves pragmatics, the appropriate use of
language in different contexts. Pragmatics covers a lot of territory. When you take turns
speaking in a discussion, you are demonstrating knowledge of pragmatics (Siegal &
Surian, 2010). You also apply the pragmatics of English when you use polite language
in appropriate situations (for example, when talking to a teacher) or tell stories that are
interesting.
• Pragmatic rules can be complex, and they differ from one culture to another (Bryant,
2009). If you were to study the Japanese language, you would come face- to-face with
countless pragmatic rules about conversing with individuals of various social levels and
various relationships to you.
Language is one way of communicating with others. It can be oral, written or signed (for
example, American Sign Language).
 Young children usually learn to communicate with others long before they learn how
to talk. When young infants cry, they are trying to tell their caregiver that something is
wrong. At this early stage, the only way they know how to express this is through crying.
Babies who smile at their caregiver are telling the caregiver that they are glad to see
them!
 Children will continue to use non-verbal language, long after they have learned how to
talk. Adults do the same thing. A two year-old who is speaking in two and three word
phrases will still stomp his/her foot on the floor, when protesting something, even
55
 though he/she can talk. Children and adults alike use verbal and non-verbal language
to communicate with others and get their points across all the time.
Components of language
Language usually has four components:
♣ Expressive language,
♣ receptive language,
♣ pragmatics and
♣ articulation.
Communication Development: Receptive Language
Receptive language refers to a child’s ability to understand language. It usually
develops earlier than expressive language. That is, children, and some adults, usually
understand more language than they can produce. Receptive language can be divided into non-
verbal, verbal and written language.
Non-verbal receptive language includes:

understanding others’ facial expressions, body language and hand signs

Verbal receptive language includes:

understanding what someone is saying

understanding qualitative concepts (e.g. big/small, short/tall…)
understanding quantitative concepts (e.g. a lot, a little, all, none…)
understanding and following simple directions (e.g. give me the book)
listening to stories
understanding and following complex directions (e.g. go to your room, pick up the book
from the floor and bring it back to me)
understanding someone’s questions

Written receptive language includes:

recognizing letters (lower case)

recognizing letters (upper case)
recognizing numbers
reading and understanding simple sentences
reading and understanding complex sentences
reading and understanding paragraphs

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 tracing, copying and writing letters
tracing, copying and writing numbers
copying simple (e.g. “mom“) and complex words (e.g., “truck“), from an example
writing letters together, in sequence to form words (from memory), e.g., m-o-m-m-my
writing words next to each other to form sentences, e.g. I-love-my-puppy
putting sentences together to form paragraphs, e.g., I love my puppy. One day I will take my
puppy to school. I will show my puppy to my friends and to my teacher

Receptive language skills are extremely important for the development

of expressive and pragmatic language skills. They are also crucial for the development
of cognitive and social/emotional skills. In fact, receptive language, expressive language,
pragmatic language, cognition and social/emotional skills are all related. Any delay or
difficulties in one of these areas is likely to result in delays or difficulties in the other areas.
Communication Development: Expressive Language
Expressive language is what we use in order to get our message across to someone.
This can be done verbally (e.g. by saying something) or non-verbally (e.g. by waving bye-
bye to someone). Children develop their expressive language gradually and sequentially. In
order to become experts in the expressive language domain, children will have to develop and
master the following non-verbal, verbal and written language skills:
Nonverbal expressive language includes:
crying
smiling
laughing
frowning
waving bye-bye
pointing
throwing something (like a toy on the floor, in protest)
Verbal expressive language includes:
cooing (i.e. saying vowel sounds, over and over again: e.g., aaaaaaaaaaaa, uuuuuuuuuuuuu,
eeeeeeeeee…)
producing guttural sounds when happy and content
babbling (i.e. saying consonant/vowel sound combinations, over and over again: e. g. bababa,
dadada, badaga…)

57
imitating sounds and facial expressions
saying “mama” and “dada”, when referring to primary caregivers
repeating what others are saying
saying one word phrases (or “holophrases”): for example, “up” could mean “pick me up,
please” or “see birdie up there”
labeling objects, animals, or people (e.g., “car,” “ouwee,” “cat,” “baby”, while pointing at
these
saying please and thank-you
asking questions
answering questions
putting two words together (e.g. Mommy go, Daddy shoe)
using negatives (e.g. “no”)
using qualitative concepts (e.g. big/small, short/tall…)
using quantitative concepts (e.g. a lot, a little, all, none…)
using the present progressive (e.g. he is walking)
using pronouns (e.g. I, you)
using possessives (e.g. my, mine)
using prepositions (e.g. in, on, under, over)
using the regular and irregular past tense (e.g. walked, gave)
using the future tense (e.g. will walk, is going to walk)
putting three and four words together (e.g. I want milk, daddy go here)
putting more than four words together in a full sentence (i.e., I can read this book)

Communication Development: Articulation

Articulation refers to how a child pronounces the different sounds when they speak
their language. Children develop the ability to pronounce certain sounds before others, simply
because some sounds are more difficult to pronounce than others.
Babies’ first sounds are usually vowel sounds. This is called “cooing.” A baby will say,
for example, aaaaa, uuuuuuuuuuu….
After that, comes the production of simple consonant sounds. Most children by the
time they are 18 to 24 months old, can produce the following consonant sounds: p (papa), b
(baba), d (dada), and the m (mama) and n (nana) sounds. After that, come the k (kaka), g (gaga,
gugu), t (tata). The “r”, “l” and “s” sounds are a bit more difficult to pronounce and some

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children do not master the production of these consonant sounds until they are five or six years
old.
Communication Development: Pragmatic Language
Pragmatic language is the social reason we use language, or the “practical’ aspect
of language. We use language to communicate our thoughts and ideas to those around us. We
also use language to explain and wonder about things, and try to make sense of the world
around us.
Some pragmatic milestones include the following:

making eye contact with others (unless not culturally appropriate)

learning to take turns
using a tone of voice that mirrors that of adults (e.g. using different intonation when telling
something, when asking a question, when excited , upset or scared)
modulating intensity of voice as needed (e.g. inside vs. outside voice)
using language to label things (e.g. it’s a dog)
using language to protest something (e.g. it’s not fair)
using language to express emotions (e.g. I feel happy/sad)
using language to express opinions (e.g. well, I don’t like it one bit!)
answering questions (e.g., it wasn’t me…)
telling others about experiences, briefly at first, then in detail (e.g., I saw that movie; I went
to the movies with my older brother and his girlfriend)
staying on topic in a conversation (e.g., brings examples or ideas on the same topic)
moving to a different topic in a conversation (e.g., understands that topic of conversation
has changed)

Communication Development: How Development in the Early Childhood Years Affects

Development in the Elementary School
Children will need to use oral language and make themselves understood by others
by the time they start elementary school. They will need language in order to communicate
their needs and wants with others―both peers and adults. They also need to understand what
others want or expect from them. This also refers to non-verbal language, like understanding
gestures. These are known as non-verbal communication cues because communication
happens without any words. Developing these skills will help children to be effective
communicators, and will give them the tools to learn how to read and write. It’s important to

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note that language skills are needed for all areas of the elementary curriculum, not just reading
and writing.
Children need language skills that are well-developed so that they can learn the
subjects taught at school, for example, math, science, language arts, home economics and
even physical education. This is because children will need to follow the directions of their
teachers in all areas of the curriculum. The need to develop language and communication skills
extends beyond the early childhood years. In fact, as children grow older, the communication
and language demands that are placed on them will be higher. A solid language and
communication foundation in the early years will provide children with the tools they need to
understand and be understood by others.
Ways to support language development
Young children have an astonishing capacity for learning language. As such, their
language skills develop rapidly in this area during their first few years of life. The following
are some ways to encourage this area of holistic development:
• Interact with children and talk to them as much as possible. Use rich vocabulary and
introduce new words on a regular basis.
• Support language learning by using pictures and pictograms.
• Verbalize actions, objects or feelings constantly.
• Use music activities, drama and movement to support language development like songs,
rhymes and puppet theater.
• Ask open-ended questions instead of “yes or no” questions. This encourages children
to speak.
• Encourage children to speak, describe things and ask and answer questions and share
their stories.
• Support language learning with positive feedback.

Reflection Questions

1. What are components of language?

2. Activities that can improve communication skills.

References
1. Early Childhood Intervention. (2010). Typical development: communication
Development. Team: Including all Children and Families Expanding Partnerships.

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 Retrieved from https://blogs.ubc.ca/earlychildhoodintervention1/category/1-3-what-
is-development-communication/
2. Santrock, J. W. (2011). Educational psychology (5th edition). University of Texas at
Dallas.

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 Chapter 7
Adaptive (Self-Help) Development: General Development
Adaptive skills and behaviors are the skills needed to do everyday tasks. These skills
are tools adults use to live independently within our community norms. They include dressing
and undressing, bathing and hygiene, toileting, and later cleaning, cooking and maintaining a
household.
Like all areas of development, the successful development of adaptive skills relies heavily on
the successful development of other skills.

For instance, a child needs to have good fine motor skills in order to fasten snaps or hold a
fork, spoon or chopsticks properly. Similarly, a child needs to have basic cognitive skills in
order to understand when and how they need to wash his or her hands.

Like other developmental areas for most typically developing children, the development of
adaptive skills follows a predictable order. Learning “simpler” skills is crucial to the
development of the more complex skills that are learned later on.

For instance, when a child becomes aware of their soiled diapers and is bothered by this
event, then they are ready to start the toilet training process.

When developing dressing and undressing skills, children usually go through the following
sequence of skills:

cooperating with dressing and undressing, e.g., extending arms and legs; putting head
through opening of shirt
taking off certain items of clothing, with help
putting on simple items of clothing, e.g., a hat)
independently taking off certain items of clothing, e.g., shoes or socks
putting shoes on
independently putting on certain items of clothing, e.g., a T-shirt
unfastening snaps
unbuttoning buttons
fastening snaps
fastening buttons
helping to pull zipper down, then up

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 connecting a zipper and zipping it up
knowing what to wear, depending on the weather, e.g. coat for a rainy day; sunglasses if out
in the sun

Adaptive (Self-Help) Development: Typical Sleep Patterns in Infants, Toddlers And Young
Children
Newborns spend a good portion of their time sleeping. As months go by, they spend
more hours awake. However, sleep and rest continue to be essential for the healthy physical
and emotional development of infants, toddlers and older children. Recent research has also
connected good sleep patterns to cognitive skills development. In fact, those children with poor
sleeping habits who do not get the minimum 10 hour sleep per night may experience stunted
growth and development in children in preschool ages. These children may also be more
irritable and cranky when they are awake―very much like adults who have difficulties with
their sleep!
Sleep habits and a family’s’ cultural background and beliefs are connected. Different
families hold different views of nighttime sleep. They can also hold different views on the
“correct” way a baby is put to sleep, where they sleep and for how long they are left asleep.

For example, some parents may prefer keeping their babies in the same room and sleep with
them, instead of having a special room for the baby; some families try to keep their babies
awake for most of the day with short naps on and off, instead of fostering mid-morning and
mid-afternoon naps.

Night waking happens at different stages. It’s important for parents to realize there are
different reasons a baby may wake up during the night. Parents react and respond differently
to night waking based on why the infant or child is up.

For example, if a baby is distressed, in pain or hungry, a natural response for the parent will
be to pick the baby up, soothe them, feed them, comfort them and gently put them back to
bed.

By the time they between 6 and 9 months old, most babies are not hungry when they
wake up during the night. At this stage, the recommendation from experts in baby sleep is for
parents to give baby a chance to calm themselves down before picking them up, unless the

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parents learn, through the baby’s cry, that they might be in pain or discomfort. For babies who
are not hungry, in pain or discomfort, self-soothing and self-regulation are important skills they
need to develop early in life. These skills will help them be able to take good care of themselves
when they are older. For some children, it could be more difficult to learn this type of
independence if they are not given the opportunity to calm themselves down when they are
babies. Giving the baby a gentle pat on the back or singing to them after a couple of minutes
of cry generally help babies to calm down. At the same time, parents may want to pick the baby
up if crying persists and gets louder. Between 9 and 12 months, most babies are sleeping
through the night, or an average of six to eight hours, non-stop.
As babies and toddlers grow older, they may require less continuous sleep. Most
babies will benefit from one or two naps per day. As they enter the early childhood years, they
may need just one nap (or no naps at all) during the day.
It’s important not to force a baby to eat or play when they are tired or sleepy. Babies
will most likely not enjoy these activities and may end up associating these activities with
“feeling cranky or tired”, which may cause them to avoid these activities in the future.
Difficulties with sleep have also been linked somewhat to the baby’s temperament.
Babies with predominantly “difficult temperament” may have difficulty with regular/irregular
feeding or changing habits.

Adaptive (Self-Help) Development: Typical Feeding and Nutrition Patterns for Infants, Toddlers
and Young Children
Children go through specific stages in the development of their feeding
skills. Although completely dependent on others at first, they quickly learn to eat and drink on
their own, first with baby materials (e.g. baby bottles and sippy cups) then with grown-up
materials (e.g. spoons and chopsticks).
Most children develop feeding patterns and skills in this order:

turning head toward mother’s breast or bottle

sucking from mother’s breast or bottle
opening mouth in anticipation of food being offered
pulling food off the spoon
holding own bottle
eating strained foods
eating solid foods

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 feeding self-finger foods
drinking from a sippy cup
using a spoon (may not hold it properly)
drinking from a glass
sucking from a straw
distinguishing between edible and non-edible foods
using a fork (may not hold it properly)
holding eating utensils correctly (e.g. spoon, fork, chopsticks)
pouring liquid from one container to another
fixing a simple sandwich (e.g. spreading cream cheese, with plastic knife, on a slice of bread)

It’s important to note that some children may go through stages of “food refusal.”
This is a typical part of development. Food refusal usually happens when a child is starting to
develop a sense of self. They are learning how to talk and communicate and want to let others
know that they are the “boss.” They may decide to refuse a certain type of food that they were
willing to eat the week before. Parents and those who work with young children should not
force children to eat what they do not want to eat. Instead, we should realize that this is a part
of growing up and a food that is refused today may be eaten in a few weeks’ time. We should
let children exercise a little bit of control with regards to what they want to eat, and reintroduce
the refused food a few weeks later. This shows children they can make their own decisions and
that they can have a say in what happens to them.

Adaptive (Self-Help) Development: Toileting Skills for Infants, Toddlers and Children
Toilet training is an area of development that many parents struggle with. Although
we would like to see our children get toilet trained early and quickly, each child has their own
timetable with regards to when they are ready to be toilet trained. The ability to hold one’s
bowel and bladder is largely a biological/physiological function and cannot be rushed. It’s
therefore important not to force a child to sit on a potty or a toilet seat before they are ready.
Children are also more likely to be toilet trained quickly when they receive praise when they
do use the toilet, rather than being criticized when they have a toileting accident. Most children
are usually not ready to be toilet trained until they are two years of age or older. Parents who
wait until after the second year of life to toilet train their children are usually able to do so
much faster and with fewer accidents than parents who choose to start earlier.

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In order to develop good toileting skills, children usually go through the following:

indicating that their diapers are soiled and are bothered by it

staying dry for a few hours, while wearing diapers
urinating when placed on toilet seat or potty
having bowel movements when placed on toilet seat or potty
seldom having toileting “accidents” (i.e. usually indicating a need to go to the bathroom)
wiping self after using the bathroom

Adaptive (Self-Help) Development: How Development in the Early Years Affects Development in
the Elementary School Years
Adaptive skills relate to daily habits and routines. The adaptive or self-help skills that
children develop in the early years are essential in their overall development during the
elementary and high-school years. Developing these skills is important for children because
they may influence a person’s quality of life. Here are a few examples:

Sleeping: Children whose sleeping needs were met in the early years have a better chance
of having a good sleeping routine every night (e.g., bedtime story, bath) by the time they
begin elementary school. Unless they are dealing with a health or developmental condition
that makes it hard for them to self-regulate at night, children generally learn to self-soothe or
require of less one-to-one time with their parents if and when they become restless during
the night.
Toilet-training: Children who were toilet trained when they were ready generally become
independent bathroom users who can usually use the school bathrooms without unnecessary
fears.
Feeding: Young children who were given some freedom in terms of their eating habits (for
example, tasting different foods and eating a full meal if and when hungry) are generally
ready to try new food as they grow older.

Ways to Encourage Self-Help Skills in Children

• Stair Climbing. When your child completes 12-18 months, encourage them to discover the
joy of climbing. They will want to climb on everything and everywhere but in the beginning,
try to hold hands as they go up and down. Improve their balance, muscle strength, body-
mind coordination and focus.

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• Guide your child on Eating. Start by helping them eat using a spoon or folk and describe
your actions that make it engaging for them. Once they get familiar, encourage them to use
their fingers to eat. Slowly give them spoon and folk to eat. This increases their fine motor
skills & teaches them independence.
• Holding Brush and Toothpaste. Even before your child turns 2, give them a brush just for
fun. Just pretend to play with them and act like you’re brushing with lots of movement to
make it fun for them. This increases their likeness towards the activity and they become
familiar with the process. As they grow, break down brushing activities into small actions
like taking the brush, washing it, taking toothpaste, opening the lid and so on.
• Washing Hands. The most important and hygienic behavior your children can learn on their
own because you won’t always be around to make sure they do. Explain to them that hand-
washing activity isn't only for keeping their hands clean, but to get rid of the germs that
make them ill.
• Brushing hair: This is another skill they can learn while standing beside you in front of a
mirror and mimicking your movements.
• Helping around the house. Model good habits like cleaning, making bed, placing things in
order and right places by ensuring they are in your presence when you do it. Tell them what
you’re doing. Ask them nicely to repeat and help you. This not only improves their
confidence, but makes them independent and aware.
• Self-dressing. Teach your child how to dress-up. Now not all children are patient enough
but you need to keep your cool. Start with dressing up a toy bear. Tell them that first they
need to unbutton the shirt, try to put their arms through the two sleeve holes, check the collar
and button up. They learn by observing first. Then move on to asking them to unbutton their
shirt. Help them label and identify different parts of clothing.
Reflection Questions

1. What are examples of adaptive skills (self-help) in children?

2. Activities that can improve self-help skills.

References
1. Early Childhood Intervention. (2010). Typical development: Adaptive Development.
Team: Including all Children and Families Expanding Partnerships.
Retrieved from https://blogs.ubc.ca/earlychildhoodintervention1/category/1-3-what-
is-development-adaptive/

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2. EuroKids. (2023). Activities to develop adaptive skills in toddlers. Retrieved from
https://www.eurokidsindia.com/blog/10-activities-to-develop-adaptive-skills-in-
toddlers.php

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 Chapter 8
Social-Emotional Development
Social and emotional skills are key to child’s overall development. Babies, even at
birth, are social beings! Newborns are hard-wired to get the attention, love and care of their
parents, or anyone else who may be taking care of them. They are biologically programmed to
be near people.
Emotional development is a broad term that describes how a child develops, displays,
regulates and understands feelings and emotions. It also includes the way a child feels about
him- or herself. The development of a child’s self-concept and self-esteem) are part
of emotional development.
Social development is also a broad term that describes how a child relates to others
around them, including people they know, strangers, children their age and older or younger
children. The ability to share, take turns, understand someone else’s perspective, and carry on
a conversation is part of social development.
Babies are also born with distinct personality features or temperaments. Babies are
different also from their siblings in sleeping and eating habits, arousal level and how much
stimulation they can tolerate. These are qualities that we all have when we are born. They
develop as we grow older to form the adult personalities that we will later have.
Social and emotional development is the area of development more likely to be
influenced by the environment. The different temperament styles and how babies learn to relate
to their parents and others around them are greatly influenced by the kind of care they receive.
• A child growing up in a healthy, loving and nurturing environment has a better chance to
develop into an emotionally healthy and well-adjusted adult.
• On the other hand, a child growing up in an environment where their basic needs for love,
food, shelter, and safety are not met, has less opportunities to feel secure and to develop
good relationships with others.
Although these are important factors, not all children growing up in adverse situations will
show atypical development or will become maladjusted adults. Development is a complex
process that includes a combination of biological and environmental factors.
• Children are resilient; some of them have an immense capacity to thrive even under the
most difficult circumstances.
• Nevertheless, it’s important to consider the influence of those raising the children and the
environment in which they live as a child’s overall development.

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Providing security, love and support is essential for our children to ensure their well-being and
optimum development.
Social Skills
Social development is a broad term that describes how a child relates to others around
them. The ability to share, to take turns, to understand someone else’s perspective, and to carry
on a conversation with people a child knows and with strangers, with children their own age,
and those older and younger, are all part of social development.
Babies and children are social beings. Babies are born social. As they grow older, they
learn how to act in socially acceptable ways. They learn how to do so by watching others
around them.
• For example, a child watching their parents being kind to others will likely develop a sense
of kindness.
• In contrast, witnessing violence, and especially at home on an ongoing basis, increases the
chances that a child will use violence as an adult.
Children develop and refine their social skills mostly by watching others. A child’s
culture and family structure will heavily influence what is viewed as socially acceptable
behavior and what is viewed as as socially unacceptable behavior.
• For example, children who are always teased may grow up thinking that teasing is a
socially acceptable behavior; although feeling hurt, they might tend to tease others.
• In contrast, children whose opinions are listened to and valued will most likely listen to
and value the opinion of others.
Children’s environment plays an important role in shaping their social skills. Parents
may not always be able to protect their children from outside circumstances, but they are able
to provide them with a safe haven, inside the walls of the home. This safe haven is what helps
children become healthy well-adjusted adults. Home stability and safety are key elements in
the development of social and emotional development and the child’s overall well-being.
Children need to develop certain skills and achieve certain milestones in order to turn
into socially competent grown-ups.
The following are the most important social skills/milestones that children need to achieve

establishing eye contact with others

establishing and maintaining eye contact with others

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smiling, first as a response, then to familiar persons (one of the first signs of attachment),
then laughing
enjoying daily routines (such as bathing and feeding)
establishing joint attention with others
establishing joint action with others
participating in simple turn-taking games (e.g. peek-a-boo)
playing alongside other children, or parallel play
making choices
imitating simple actions of others (e.g. clapping hands, waving bye-bye)
sharing (when being asked)
sharing spontaneously
saying “no” (first in perhaps socially “unacceptable” and then in socially acceptable ways)
playing with other children, or cooperative play
trying to comfort those in distress
asking for permission before using something that does not belong to them
putting toys (and other things) away, when asked
following simple rules (e.g. no jumping on furniture)
following complex rules (e.g. not hurting others’ feelings)
performing simple chores
answering the phone
conversing with someone on the phone
imitating complex actions of others (e.g. vacuuming, shaving, putting on make-up)
imitating complex expressions of others (e.g. honey, I’m home)
engaging in pretend play
having meaningful conversations with peers, and then with adults in their family and home
circles (for a few minutes)
negotiating with peers, and then with adults, in their family and home circles, and finding
solutions to conflicts
choosing own friends
defending themselves and/or what is of their property in socially acceptable ways

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 Emotional Skills
Emotional development is a broad term that describes how a child develops, displays,
regulates and understands feelings and emotions. The development of a child’s self-
concept and self-esteem are part of emotional development.
Emotional development includes the development of emotional regulation, learning
how to soothe and calm oneself. This process starts early, with parents or caregivers providing
young children with the comfort they need when distressed; for example, crying, hurt, scared
and needing comfort.
• At first, children need their parents to calm down. Later, they do it mostly on their own.
Most parents know what to do, for example rocking their baby back and forth, and do not
need to be taught how to soothe their children. It is something that comes naturally.
• Some children may take more time to soothe than others. Their parents may find it harder
to read their children’s emotions. These children tend to be a bit more irritable than others,
but this does not mean that these children cannot be soothed. It’s important for parents to
know that this may be their child’s temperament. Parents should not feel guilty if their
child is not easy to comfort and should do their best to comfort their child regardless of
how irritable they are or how difficult it’s to read their emotions.
Children should develop certain skills and reach certain developmental milestones, in
order to become emotionally competent and stable adults. The most important of these
emotional milestones/skills, including self-concept, are listed below:

establishing eye contact with others

establishing and maintaining eye contact with others
smiling, and later laughing
enjoying being handled
smiling at familiar people
knowing the difference between familiar people and strangers
enjoying daily routines (such as bathing and feeding)
responding to name being called
recognizing self in mirror
using parent or other familiar adults as a social reference
playing, alone in solitary play, and later, with others in parallel and cooperative play
engaging in pretend play

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 displaying basic emotions
exploring their surroundings
having a “favorite” or “best” friend
displaying complex emotions
recognizing feelings and emotions in self and others
showing pride in achievements
making positive statements about self or showing a strong self-esteem
showing guilt over mistakes and/or having done something they should not have done
avoiding dangerous situations that may place them or others at risk
describing their own feelings and emotions
describing feelings and emotions in others

Attachment
Attachment is what allows a child to form healthy relationships, first with their primary
caregivers, and later with others. When children form attachment bonds, they learn love,
significance, safety, and security. Developing these feelings allow children to explore the world
with confidence, and foster their growth and learning. Exploring the world nurtures a child’s
cognitive development.
In order for a child to form healthy attachments, their needs must be met. It’s very
important that a baby learns that someone will always be there to help and protect them when
they are in distress and in need. Only then will the baby form an emotional bond, or attachment,
with their primary caregiver.
⎯ Babies and children whose needs are not met early in life may grow up to be insecure
toddlers and adults. This is because their experience has been that there is no one they
can count on. This may prevent them from learning to form healthy and long-lasting
relationships with others.
Caring or spoiling? Parents and caregivers who are present for their child
are not spoiling them. In fact, research in child development has shown that children who have
caring adults responding to them when they cry tend to feel safe and secure with their primary
caregivers.
The most famous study on attachment behavior in toddlers was the study conducted
by Mary Ainsworth, Jean Bowlby’s student. Ainsworth observed toddlers in situations of high

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distress. She described the biological drive of children and adults that gets activated when they
are distressed or feeling unsafe.
• When the biological drive is activated in a child, they need to be soothed as quickly as
possible because children “shut down”, or become inhibited when feeling threatened or
unsafe. For example, children in distress will not move around and explore their
environment or learn.
• Ainsworth reported that children needed comfort, to be held and soothed during these times,
to de-activate this biological drive.
Attachment Styles
According Bowlby, the four attachment styles include Secure, Preoccupied (Anxious
in children), Dismissive (Avoidant in children), and Fearful (Disorganized in children).
1. Secure Attachment: Securely attached individuals are comfortable with intimacy and can
balance dependence and independence in relationships.
2. Preoccupied Attachment (Anxious in Children): Individuals with this attachment style crave
intimacy and can be overly dependent and demanding in relationships.
3. Dismissive Attachment (Avoidant in Children): This style is characterized by a strong sense
of self-sufficiency, often to the point of appearing detached. Individuals with dismissive
attachment value their independence highly and may seem uninterested in close relationships.
4. Fearful Attachment (Disorganized in Children): Individuals with a fearful attachment style
desire close relationships and fear vulnerability. They may behave unpredictably in
relationships due to their internal conflict between a desire for intimacy and fear of it.
Ainsworth then listed the following conclusions about children and the different ways
they attach to caregivers.
• Securely attached: these children have healthy relationships with their mothers. They are
more likely to leave their mothers’ side to explore new surroundings. They are less likely
to be overly anxious when their mother leaves the room (because they know that she is
coming back) and are usually genuinely glad to see her return. They are less likely to be
wary of strangers.
Temperament
Temperament refers to “the way people are.” The definition of temperament refers to
“stable individual differences in quality and intensity of emotional reaction, activity level,
attention and emotional self-regulation.”
Thomas and Chess looked at nine areas of temperament:

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 activity level: the amount of time a child spends in active versus more quiet modes.
rhythmicity: regular or irregular eating patterns, bowel movements or sleep
distractibility: the child’s ability to stay focused on a task, even when something is
happening in their environment.
approach/withdrawal: the way a child responds to someone or something new in their
environment.
adaptability: the ease and speed with which a child adapts to changes in their environment.
attention span: how much time a child spends on a certain activity.
intensity of reaction: how intensely (e.g., in terms of being more or less loud or forceful) a
child responds to events in their environment.
threshold of responsiveness: how strong a stimulus or event has to be in order to get a
response from a child.
quality of mood: a child’s general mood (i.e., predominantly “sunny” or positive,
“negative,” or “labile” or up and down.

Three major categories define children’s temperament. This will mostly depend on how
children react to changes in their environment and to new situations:

The easy child: usually complacent, these children are generally joyful, adapt easily to
changes in their environments and usually establish sleep and eating routines quickly.
The difficult child: usually with irregular sleep and eating routines, these children may react
intensely to changes in their environments. At the same time, they tend to be careful; they
are unlikely to jump into new situations without having first “testing” them out them
carefully.
The slow-to-warm-up child: usually slow to react to changes in their environments, these
children tend to have low-key responses.

Having “easy” or “difficult” temperaments is not just what makes it easier for those
raising or working with children. It’s instead how parents can read their infant or child’s cues
and how well they respond to those cues. This is what child development experts refer to as
the “goodness of fit”.
• For example, the parents of a child with a difficult temperament who are “in-tune” with
their child’s feelings and emotions and respond to them are likely to find less challenges.

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 This child, in turn will have more opportunities to develop other positive qualities because
their needs were met.
• In contrast, a child with an “easy” temperament growing up in a non-responsive
environment may become more demanding because of not having their needs met during
their early years.
How Development in the Early Childhood Years Affects Development in the Elementary School
Years
How a child is treated during their early years1 has a clear and direct impact on how
well they do in their later childhood, adolescent and adult years. A child who lives in a tolerant
home may learn to be tolerant. A child who lives with firm but flexible rules may grow to be
firm, flexible and capable of understanding and following everyday rules. A child who
understands early on that things “may not always go their way” will probably become an adult
who accepts other people’s opinions and decisions without feeling rejected or belittled.
Securely vs. insecurely attached children. Many people believe that if we respond to a
baby or toddler’s every emotional need (if we pick up an infant every time he or she cries, for
example), we will end up with children who are clingy and who won’t let go of their parents.
In fact, research strongly indicates that the opposite is true. Children who have had their needs
met most of the time and in a timely manner tend to be securely attached to their primary
caregivers and they will not cling to their parents when they are older. They may not like it
when Mom leaves, but they will be ok, because they know that Mom will be back. On the other
hand, children whose needs were not met on a regular basis and in a timely manner may end
up feeling that they cannot always trust that their parent will come back, because earlier
experiences have taught them that. These are the children who will cling to their parents. They
do so because their experiences with their parents leaving were inconsistent. They were not
picked up consistently when they cried so they may not be confident that their parents will be
there when they need them. So, an emotionally secure child, who grows up in a loving,
consistent, firm but kind environment has better chances of learning how to listen to their
teacher during their school years. The benefits of emotional security may also be seen later on,
as adults who can work well with their employer, who can stand up for themselves, and who
value diverse and different opinions from their own.
In conclusion, parents and caregivers should understand that a child’s early
environments have long-lasting effects. It’s necessary and important to provide safe, loving
and secure environments, especially during the early years, when children are extremely
dependent on their caregivers.
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Ways to promote social-emotional development
There are many ways you can promote children’s social-emotional development. First
and foremost, you can be an active role model of healthy social-emotional skills. Your example
is extremely powerful in promoting children’s holistic development. Other ways to encourage
their growth include the following:
• Establish warm and caring relationships with children - smile, respond to children’s
initiatives, talk in a calm voice, and comfort children in need.
• Help children understand that all emotions are acceptable, including negative feelings.
• Encourage children's participation and agency by giving them responsibilities or asking
for their opinions.
• Engage in activities and support children when they interact with each other.
• Establish group rules with children and help them understand how their negative
behavior affects the children around them.
• Discuss and agree on how to resolve conflicts and ask for children’s ideas and opinions.
• Offer encouragement and reinforcement for appropriate behaviors.

Reflection Questions

1. Describe examples of social skills in children.

2. What are three major categories of temperament?
3. Explain four types of attachment defined by Bowlby.
4. Activities that can improve social-emotional development.

References
1. Bowlby, J. (1969). Attachment and Loss: Volume I. Attachment. London: Hogarth
Press.
2. Early Childhood Intervention. (2010). Typical development: Adaptive Development.
Team: Including all Children and Families Expanding Partnerships.
Retrieved from https://blogs.ubc.ca/earlychildhoodintervention1/category/1-3-what-is-
development-adaptive/

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 Chapter 9
Personality Development
Erikson maintained that personality develops in a predetermined order through eight
stages of psychosocial development, from infancy to adulthood. During each stage, the person
experiences as a psychosocial crisis that could positively or negatively affect personality
development. For Erikson (1958, 1963), these crises are psychosocial because they involve the
psychological needs of the individual (i.e., psycho) conflicting with the needs of society (i.e.,
social).
According to the theory, successful completion of each stage results in a healthy
personality and the acquisition of basic virtues. Basic virtues are characteristic strengths that
the ego can use to resolve subsequent crises. Failure to complete a stage can result in a reduced
ability to complete further stages and, therefore, a more unhealthy personality and sense of
self. These stages, however, can be resolved successfully at a later time.

Figure 9.1 Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development

Eight Stages of Human Development
In Erikson’s (1968) theory, eight stages of development unfold as people go through
the human life span (Figure 9.1). Each stage consists of a developmental task that confronts
individuals with a crisis. For Erikson, each crisis is not catastrophic but rather a turning point
of increased vulnerability and enhanced potential. The more successfully an individual resolves
each crisis, the more psychologically healthy the individual will be. Each stage has both
positive and negative sides.

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 Trust versus mistrust is Erikson’s first psychosocial stage. It occurs in the first year of
life. The development of trust requires warm, nurturing caregiving. The pos- itive outcome is
a feeling of comfort and minimal fear. Mistrust develops when infants are treated too
negatively or are ignored.
Autonomy versus shame and doubt is Erikson’s second psychosocial stage. It occurs in
late infancy and the toddler years. After gaining trust in their caregivers, infants begin to
discover that their behavior is their own. They assert their indepen- dence and realize their will.
If infants are restrained too much or punished too harshly, they develop a sense of shame and
doubt.
Initiative versus guilt is Erikson’s third psychosocial stage. It corresponds to early
childhood, about 3 to 5 years of age. As young children experience a widening social
world, they are challenged more than they were as infants. To cope with these challenges, they
need to engage in active, purposeful behavior that involves initiative. Children develop
uncomfortable guilt feelings if they see themselves as irresponsible or are made to feel
too anxious.
Industry versus inferiority is Erikson’s fourth psychosocial stage. It corresponds
approximately with the elementary school years, from 6 years of age until puberty or early
adolescence. As they move into the elementary school years, children direct their energy
toward mastering knowledge and intellectual skills. The danger in the elementary school years
is that of developing a sense of inferiority, unproductiveness,
and incompetence.
Identity versus identity confusion is Erikson’s fifth psychosocial stage. It corresponds
to the adolescent years. Adolescents try to find out who they are, what they are all about, and
where they are going in life. They are confronted with many new roles and adult statuses (such
as vocational and romantic). Adolescents need to be allowed to explore different paths to attain
a healthy identity. If they do not adequately explore different roles and fail to carve out a
positive future path, they can remain confused about their identity.
Intimacy versus isolation is Erikson’s sixth psychosocial stage. It corresponds to the
early adult years, the twenties and thirties. The developmental task is to form positive close
relationships with others. The hazard of this stage is that one will fail to form an intimate
relationship with a romantic partner or friend and become socially isolated.
Generativity versus stagnation is Erikson’s seventh psychosocial stage. It corresponds
to the middle adulthood years, the forties and fifties. Generativity means transmitting
something positive to the next generation. This can involve such roles as parenting and teaching,
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through which adults assist the next generation in developing useful lives. Erikson described
stagnation as the feeling of having done nothing to help the next generation.
Integrity versus despair is Erikson’s eighth and final psychosocial stage. It corresponds
to the late adulthood years, the sixties until death. Older adults tend to review their lives,
reflecting on what they have done. If the retrospective evaluations are positive, they develop a
sense of integrity. That is, they view their life as positively integrated and worth living. In
contrast, older adults become despairing if their back- ward glances are mainly negative.
Strategies for Educating Children Based on Erikson’s Theory
1. Encourage initiative in young children.
Children in preschool and early childhood education programs should be given a great
deal of freedom to explore their world. They should be allowed to choose most of the activities
they engage in. If their requests for doing certain activities are reasonable, the requests should
be honored. Children at this stage love to play. It not only benefits their socioemotional
development but also is an important medium for their cognitive growth. Provide exciting
materials that will stimulate their imagination. Especially encourage social play with peers and
fantasy play. Help children assume responsibility for putting toys and materials back in place
after they have used them. Criticism should be kept to a minimum so that children will not
develop high levels of guilt and anxiety. Structure activities and environment for successes
rather than failures by giving them developmentally appropriate tasks; for example, don’t
frustrate young children by having them sit for long periods of time doing academic paper-and-
pencil tasks.
2. Promote industry in elementary school children.
Teachers have a special responsibility for children’s development of industry. It was
Erikson’s hope that teachers could provide an atmosphere in which children become passionate
about learning. In elementary school, children thirst to know. Most arrive at elementary school
steeped in curiosity and a motivation to master tasks. In Erikson’s view, it is important for
teachers to nourish this motivation for mastery and curiosity. Give students meaningful tasks
to accomplish that are challenging, but not overwhelming. If students consistently have tasks
to do that are too easy for them, they will not learn to be industrious. Be firm in requiring
students to be productive, but don’t be overly critical. Especially be tolerant of honest mistakes,
allow students to correct these, and make sure that every student has opportunities for many
successes.

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 3. Stimulate identity exploration in adolescence.
Recognize that the student’s identity is multidimensional. Ask adolescents to write
essays about such dimensions, including vocational goals, intellectual achievement, and
interests in hobbies, sports, music, and other areas, exploring who they are and what they want
to do with their lives. Have people from different careers come and talk with your students
about their work regardless of the grade you teach. Offer short exploratory courses or units that
allow adolescents to explore a domain without making a long- term commitment to it.
Encourage adolescents to think independently and to freely express their views by listen- ing
to, reading about, and participating in debates on religious, political, and ideological issues.
This will stimulate them to examine different perspectives. Understand that adolescents often
express their developing identities through their appearance, language choices, and peer group
choices.
Conclusion
The early years are the time to build a strong foundation in all developmental areas.
Meeting specific milestones in all domains of development and learning helps preschoolers
establish behaviors and skills that will make them successful. All homes, preschools, and
daycare programs should aim to address each of the domains when teaching a young child.

Reflection Questions

1. Describe Erikson’s stages of personality development?

2. How do you implicate Erikson’s theory in your preschool classroom?

References
1. Mcleod, S. (2023). Erik Erikson’s Stages Of Psychosocial Development. Simply
Psychology
2. Santrock, J. W. (2011). Educational psychology (5th edition). University of Texas at
Dallas.

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 Chapter 10
Influencing Theory on Human Development
Ecological Systems Theory
Developed by psychologist Urie Bronfenbrenner, ecological systems theory explains
how human development is influenced by different types of environmental systems.
Researchers, policy makers, and practitioners are interested in the opportunities and risks
associated with how youth spend their discretionary time outside the regular school day. One
of the primary settings in which youth spend their out-of-school hours is in organized activities,
which include extracurricular activities, after-school programs, and activities at community-
based organizations. Much research on out-of-school activities has utilized ecological systems
theory to understand how activities foster positive, healthy development of youth from
different backgrounds.
Modern theories of human development propose that development occurs over time as
part of a complex process involving a system of interactions within the individual and between
the individual and the environmental contexts of which he or she is a part. In 1979,
Bronfenbrenner’s seminal work on ecological systems theory described the child’s ecology in
terms of a set of nested levels of the environment. In 2006, Bronfenbrenner revised his original
theory, adapting the name to bioecological systems theory, emphasizing the active role of the
individual in the developmental process. This entry discusses what constitutes the ecological
system in Bronfenbrenner’s original ecological systems theory, the defining properties of
bioecological systems theory, the critiques of ecological systems theory, and the implications
of ecological systems theory for research and practice.
BRONFENBRENNER’S ECOLOGICAL THEORY
The ecological theory developed by Urie Bronfenbrenner (1917–2005) primarily
focuses on the social contexts in which children live and the people who influence their
development.
Five Environmental Systems
Bronfenbrenner’s (1995, Bronfenbrenner & Morris, 2006) ecological theory consists of
five environmental systems that range from close interpersonal interactions to broad-based
influences of culture. The five systems are the microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem,
macrosystem, and chronosystem (Figure 10.1).
A microsystem is a setting in which the individual spends considerable time, such as
the student’s family, peers, school, and neighborhood. Within these microsystems, the
individual has direct interactions with parents, teachers, peers, and others. For Bronfenbrenner,
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the student is not a passive recipient of experiences but is someone who reciprocally interacts
with others and helps to construct the microsystem.
Relationships in a microsystem are bi-directional, meaning other people can influence
the child in their environment and can also change the beliefs and actions of other people.
Furthermore, the child’s reactions to individuals in their microsystem can influence how they
treat them in return. The interactions within microsystems are often very personal and are
crucial for fostering and supporting the child’s development. If a child has a strong nurturing
relationship with their parents, this is said to have a positive effect on the child. Whereas distant
and unaffectionate parents may have a harmful effect on the child.
The mesosystem involves linkages between microsystems. Examples are the
connections between family experiences and school experiences and between family and peers.
The mesosystem is where a person’s individual microsystems do not function independently,
but are interconnected and assert influence upon one another. For instance, if a child’s parents
communicate with the child’s teachers, this interaction may influence the child’s development.
Essentially, a mesosystem is a system of microsystems. According to the ecological systems
theory, if the child’s parents and teachers get along and have a good relationship, this should
have positive effects on the child’s development, compared to negative effects on development
if the teachers and parents do not get along.
The exosystem is at work when experiences in another setting (in which the student
does not have an active role) influence what students and teachers experience in the immediate
context. For example, consider the school and park supervisory boards in a community. They
have strong roles in determining the quality of schools, parks, recreation facilities, and libraries,
which can help or hinder a child’s development. It incorporates other formal and informal
social structures, which do not themselves contain the child but indirectly influence them as
these social structures affect one of the microsystems. Examples of exosystems include the
neighborhood, parents’ workplaces, parents’ friends, and the mass media. These are
environments in which the child is not involved and are external to their experience but
nonetheless affect them anyway. An instance of exosystems affecting the child’s development
could be if one of the parents had a dispute with their boss at work. The parent may come home
and have a short temper with the child as a result of something which happened in the
workplace, which may result in a negative effect on development.
The macrosystem involves the broader culture. Culture is a very broad term that
includes the roles of ethnicity and socioeconomic factors, wealth, poverty, and ethnicity in
children’s development. It’s the broadest context in which students and teachers live, including
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the society’s values and customs (Shiraev & Levy, 2010). For example, some cultures (such as
rural China and Iran) emphasize traditional gender roles. Thus, the culture that individuals are
immersed within may influence their beliefs and perceptions about events that transpire in life.
The macrosystem differs from the previous ecosystems as it does not refer to the specific
environments of one developing child, but the already established society and culture in which
the child is developing in. This can also include the socioeconomic status, ethnicity, geographic
location, and ideologies of the culture. For example, a child living in a third-world country
would experience a different development than a child living in a wealthier country.
The chronosystem includes the sociohistorical conditions of students’ development.
For example, the lives of children today are different in many ways from when their parents
and grandparents were children (Schaie, 2010, 2011). Today’s children are more likely to be
in child care, use computers, and grow up in new kinds of dispersed, deconcentrated cities that
are not quite urban, rural, or suburban.
This system consists of all the environmental changes that occur over the lifetime that
influence development, including major life transitions and historical events. These can include
normal life transitions, such as starting school, and non-normative life transitions, such as
parents getting divorced or having to move to a new house.

Figure 10.1. Bronfenbrenner’s ecological theory of Development

Evaluating Bronfenbrenner’s Theory Bronfenbrenner’s theory has gained popularity in
recent years. It provides one of the few theoretical frameworks for systematically examining
social contexts on both micro and macro levels, bridging the gap between behavioral theories

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that focus on small settings and anthropological theories that analyze larger settings. His theory
has been instrumental in showing how different contexts of children’s lives are interconnected.
As we have just discussed, teachers need to consider not just what goes on in the classroom but
also what happens in students’ families, neighborhoods, and peer groups. It should be
mentioned that Bronfenbrenner (2000) added biological influences to his theory and
subsequently described it as a bioecological theory. Nonetheless, ecological, environmental
contexts still predominate in Bronfenbrenner’s theory (Gauvain & Parke, 2010). Criticisms of
Bronfenbrenner’s theory are that it gives too little attention to biological and cognitive factors
in children’s development and it does not address the step-by-step developmental changes that
are the focus of theories such as Piaget’s and Erikson’s.
Defining Properties of Human Development
The process of human development can be more precisely defined by Bronfenbrenner’s
revised bioecological theory. Development is hypothesized to be the joint product of four
defining properties: (1) person, (2) context, (3) process, and (4) time. First, person factors refer
to the individual characteristics, such as age, gender, and competency, that interact with the
setting to influence development. Person factors help explain who participates versus who does
not participate in activities (also referred to as “selection” effects) as well as the roles that
different youth occupy within the activity setting and how activity effects vary across
individuals (termed moderating effects). The second property, context factors, includes the four
systems of Bronfenbrenner’s original ecological systems theory described earlier. The primary
mechanism of development is engendered in the third property, termed process factors, and
represents the interactions between person and context factors. Process factors are the complex
reciprocal exchanges between an active, evolving human organism and its immediate external
environment, termed proximal processes. Development is largely induced by proximal
processes that occur on a regular basis over extended periods of time.
However, to adequately describe the dynamic nature of development, proximal
processes must be understood with reference to the fourth defining property of development,
namely, time. Proximal processes occur in a specific time and place and within a specific
historical context. Time is construed at various levels of the ecological system. Microtime
refers to specific episodes of proximal processes (e.g., minute-by-minute exposure), whereas
mesotime captures the periodicity of proximal processes, such as over longer intervals like
days or weeks. Time is conceptualized at the macrolevel as the chronosystem and is concerned
with the historic changes in society across generations. In general, greater intensity (minutes

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or hours per week) and longer durations (consistency across months or years) of participation
are found to predict larger program effects than does less exposure.
Implications for Research and Practice
Taken together, out-of-school research situated in ecological systems theory provides
insight into how youth engage with activities, how other settings affect development in
activities, and the role of the broader society in activities. Knowledge about how the various
ecological levels affect out-of-school activities should be considered in program design.
Research findings indicate that it is ineffective to take a “one-size-fits-all” approach to
designing activities.
Practitioners should place high emphasis on using research to design high-quality
activities that foster positive youth development and provide professional development for staff
to positively and effectively lead youth. Practitioners should be trained about youth
development processes generally (e.g., typical cognitive, social, emotional, and physical
development), as well as have working knowledge of the characteristics of the population of
youth served by the activity. Moreover, practitioners should have some understanding of the
other primary settings in youth’s lives, such as families or schools. The scientific community
should take an active role in forming collaborative partnerships with practitioners to codevelop
and share this knowledge. Ultimately, no given out-of-school activity is beneficial for all youth,
and all youth do not necessarily benefit from participating in activities. These findings help
identify which activities are most beneficial for which youth and provide insight into designing
optimal activity settings.
What Constitutes the Ecological System of out of school activities?
There are four interrelated types of environmental systems in Bronfenbrenner’s classic
rendition of ecological systems theory, namely, the (1) micro-, (2) meso-, (3) exo-, and (4)
macrosystems. These levels range from smaller, proximal settings in which individuals directly
interact to larger, distal settings that indirectly influence development. The various levels
within ecological systems theory are often presented graphically as a series of four systems
nested around a focal individual like a set of concentric circles (see Figure 10.2) or a set of
Russian dolls (i.e., a matryoshka doll). Considering organized out-of-school activities as part
of youth’s ecology helps elucidate the particular features of activity settings that can promote
positive, healthy development and how relations between activities and other settings
contribute to the developmental process. Next, each level of the ecological system is described
using associated research on out-of-school activities.

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 Figure 10.2 Nested Model of the Micro-, Meso-, Exo-, and Macrosystems in
Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory with Organized Sports Activity

Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory in out of school activities

Microsystem
The most proximal ecological level is the microsystem, which includes the settings in
which individuals directly interact. Organized out-of-school activities represent one
microsystem, encompassing different types of activities, such as sports, academic clubs,
service projects, and faith-based youth groups. Overall, youth who participate in any activities
display more positive social, emotional, psychological, and physical outcomes than their
nonparticipating counterparts. Among activity participants, certain types and patterns of
activities are associated with more positive outcomes than others. Adolescents report more
positive developmental experiences in faith-based activities than in any other type of activity,
particularly for identity formation and acquiring prosocial norms. Moreover, participating in
combination of sports and youth development programs (which may or may not be faith based)
seems most beneficial, at least compared with participation in only sports or other combinations
of solely nonsport activities. Superficially, this might suggest that certain types of activities are
the most beneficial. However, research on program quality alludes that quality is likely more
important than activity type, though little systematic research has addressed type and quality
jointly.
Program quality is defined as the set of activity features known to foster positive youth
development. There are a variety of measures available to assess program quality, such as the
Youth Program Quality Assessment, which can be used in researchers’ or practitioners’ efforts
to improve and promote the quality of activities. In general, these measures assess the degree

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to which activities are asset-rich environments that provide youth life skill–building
opportunities, adult leaders who serve as mentors, and leadership opportunities. Moreover,
high-quality activities foster healthy identity development and positive social relationships of
youth with peers and leaders. These features are important to build youth’s sense of belonging
in the activity and to create a safe environment where youth have the confidence to try new
things. Scholars studying out-of-school activities as microsystems may ask questions specific
to the activity setting, such as “Why do youth participate in certain types of activities versus
others?” “Why are certain types of activities linked with certain developmental outcomes?”
Mesosystem
Moving outward in Bronfenbrenner’s ecological levels is the mesosystem, which
involves processes that occur between the multiple microsystems in which individuals are
embedded. There are many microsystems that interact with activities to affect development.
The key point is that what happens in one microsystem affects what happens in another
microsystem. Thus, to truly understand development within activities, it is important to
understand youth’s developmental settings beyond activities. Families and schools are the
central microsystems interacting with youth’s organized out-of- school activities. Research on
families highlights the importance of coordination across settings. Parents are more likely to
support and encourage their children when the goals and norms of the activity align with those
of the home setting. Coordination between activities and schools may be more easily achieved
because many activities are school based and are led by school teachers. Nevertheless, clear
communication between activity leaders and parents and teachers is necessary to foster
alignment across settings. Researchers interested in the mesosystem might extend this research
by asking questions such as “Do the norms of programs align with family values or school
mission statements?” “Is participation in out-of- school activities affected by school
experiences or familial responsibilities, such as caring for younger siblings?”
Exosystem
The exosystem is the next outermost level and includes the microsystems in which
individuals are involved but not directly embedded. The exosystem “trickles down” to
influence development through the other people involved in individuals’ lives. Research at the
exosystem level is rather limited in out-of-school activities, but an example line of research
elucidates how parents affect their children’s activities. One way in which parents matter is
through their previous experiences with activities. Parents often expose their children to
activities they are familiar with, and thus, children tend to participate in the same types of
activities that their parents participated in as children. However, even for parents with
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knowledge of the depth and breadth of activities available, increasingly demanding work
schedules impede opportunities for participation. Children from families with working parents
participate in fewer activities than children with at least one nonworking parent at home. This
line of research is important to pursue as factors in the exosystem can be the gateway to
accessing activities, particularly for young children. Examples of research questions include
“How can activities be designed to overcome barriers to participation, such as parents’ inability
to provide transportation to and from activities due to work schedule conflicts?” “What other
constructs or variables explain the relation between parents’ work and activities?”
Macrosystem
Finally, the outermost system is the macrosystem, which is defined as the set of
overarching beliefs, values, and norms, as reflected in the cultural, religious, and
socioeconomic organization of society. The macrosystem influences development within and
among all other systems and serves as a filter or lens through which an individual interprets
future experiences. Research on macrosystems provides insight into what predicts participation,
why some individuals in the same activity have different experiences, and issues related to fit-
in activities. Social class and culture are important macrosystems influencing out-of-school
activities, though social class has received considerably more attention than culture. Social
class refers to individuals’ or families’ economic and educational positions occupied within the
larger, hierarchical society, whereas culture is defined as the set of values, practices, and beliefs
that characterize a specific ethnic group. Findings suggest that youth from lower social-class
families are less likely to participate in activities than wealthier families, often because they
have fewer monetary resources, have more family responsibilities (e.g., child care), and tend
to reside in neighborhoods with fewer resources and where safety is a concern. Research on
the role of culture has unveiled important information about fit-in activities, particularly for
adolescents. Participating in activities aligned with one’s cultural background, such as by
celebrating cultural holidays during the activity or by speaking the primary language used at
home with activity leaders and coparticipants, is associated with more positive experiences and
outcomes than participating in activities in which one’s cultural background is not reflected.
These areas of research on macrosystems should be explored more in-depth and extended to
questions such as “How should activities be tailored for targeted populations, such as ethnic
minorities or youth in high poverty schools?” “How do social class and culture intersect to
predict activity participation?”

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 TEACHING CONNECTIONS: Best Practices Strategies for Educating Children Based on
Bronfenbrenner’s Theory
1. Think about the child as embedded in a number of environmental systems and influences.
These include schools and teachers, parents and siblings, the community and neighborhood,
peers and friends, the media, religion, and culture.
2. Pay attention to the connection between schools and families. Build these connections
through formal and informal outreach. There are a number of ways to do this, including inviting
parents into the classroom for special occasions, such as open houses, asking parents to read
with their children at home, bringing parents into the school as volunteers, speakers, or room
parents, and holding parent/child activity nights.
3. Recognize the importance of the community, socioeconomic status, and culture in the child’s
development. These broader social contexts can have powerful influences on the child’s
development (Leventhal, Dupéré, & Brooks-Gunn, 2009). In Through the Eyes of Teachers,
Juanita Kirton, an assistant principal at Gramercy Preschool in New York City, describes the
community’s value for her students.
Classroom Application
The Ecological Systems Theory has been used to link psychological and educational theory to
early educational curriculums and practice. The developing child is at the center of the theory,
and all that occurs within and between the five ecological systems are done to benefit the child
in the classroom.

• According to the theory, teachers and parents should maintain good communication
with each other and work together to benefit the child to strengthen the development of
the ecological systems in educational practice.
• Teachers should also be understanding of the situations their student’s families may be
experiencing, including social and economic factors that are part of the various systems.
• According to the theory, if parents and teachers have a good relationship, this should
positively shape the child’s development.
• Likewise, the child must be active in their learning, both academically and socially.
They must collaborate with their peers and participate in meaningful learning
experiences to enable positive development (Evans, 2012).

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 The Bioecological Model
It is important to note that Bronfenbrenner (1994) later revised his theory and instead
named it the ‘Bioecological model’. Bronfenbrenner became more concerned with the
proximal development processes, meaning the enduring and persistent forms of interaction in
the immediate environment. His focus shifted from environmental influences to developmental
processes individuals experience over time.
‘…development takes place through the process of progressively more complex reciprocal
interactions between an active, evolving biopsychological human organism and the persons,
objects, and symbols in its immediate external environment.’ (Bronfenbrenner, 1995).
Bronfenbrenner also suggested that to understand the effect of these proximal processes on
development, we have to focus on the person, context, and developmental outcome, as these
processes vary and affect people differently (Bronfenbrenner & Evans, 2000).
Gene Expression
Whether or not a gene is expressed depends on two different things: the interaction of the gene
with other genes and the continual interaction between the genotype and the environment.
• Genetic Interactions: Genes can sometimes contain conflicting information, and in most
cases, one gene will win the battle for dominance. Some genes act in an additive way.
For example, if a child has one tall parent and one short parent, the child may end up
splitting the difference by being of average height. In other cases, some genes follow a
dominant-recessive pattern. Eye color is one example of dominant-recessive genes at
work. The gene for brown eyes is dominant and the gene for blue eyes is recessive. If
one parent hands down a dominant brown eye gene while the other parent hands down
a recessive blue eye gene, the dominant gene will win out and the child will have brown
eyes.
• Gene-Environment Interactions: The environment a child is exposed to both in utero
and throughout the rest of his or her life can also impact how genes are expressed. For
example, exposure to harmful drugs while in utero can have a dramatic impact on later
child development. Height is a good example of a genetic trait that can be influenced
by environmental factors.4 While a child's genetic code may provide instructions for
tallness, the expression of this height might be suppressed if the child has poor nutrition
or chronic illness.
Genetic Abnormalities
Genetic instructions are not infallible and can go off track at times. Sometimes when a
sperm or ovum is formed, the number of chromosomes may divide unevenly, causing the
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organism to have more or less than the normal 23 chromosomes. When one of these abnormal
cells joins with a normal cell, the resulting zygote will have an uneven number of
chromosomes.
Researchers suggest that as many as half of all zygotes that form have more or less than 23
chromosomes, but most of these are spontaneously aborted and never develop into a full-term
baby. In some cases, babies are born with an abnormal number of chromosomes. In every case,
the result is some type of syndrome with a set of distinguishing characteristics.
Sex Chromosome Abnormalities
The vast majority of newborns, both boys and girls, have at least one X chromosome.
In some cases, about 1 in every 500 births, children are born with either a missing X
chromosome or an additional sex chromosome. Klinefelter syndrome, Fragile X syndrome, and
Turner syndrome are all examples of abnormalities involving the sex chromosomes.
Kleinfelter's syndrome is caused by an extra X chromosome and is characterized by a lack of
development of secondary sex characteristics, as well as learning disabilities. Fragile X
syndrome is caused when part of the X chromosome is attached to the other chromosomes by
such a thin string of molecules that it seems in danger of breaking off. It can affect both males
and females, but the impact can vary. Some with Fragile X show few if any signs, while others
develop mild to severe intellectual disability.
Turner syndrome occurs when only one sex chromosome (the X chromosome) is present. It
affects only females and can result in short stature, a "webbed" neck, and a lack of secondary
sex characteristics. Psychological impairments associated with Turner syndrome include
learning disabilities and difficulty recognizing emotions conveyed through facial expressions.
Down Syndrome
The most common type of chromosomal disorder is known as trisomy 21, or Down
syndrome.8 In this case, the child has three chromosomes at the site of the 21st chromosome
instead of the normal two. Down syndrome is characterized by facial characteristics including
a round face, slanted eyes, and a thick tongue. Individuals with Down syndrome may also face
other physical problems including heart defects and hearing problems. Nearly all individuals
with Down syndrome experience some type of intellectual impairment, but the exact severity
can vary dramatically.
5 Ways Children’s Genes Shape their Behavior
Understanding the role of kids’ genes can help us parent more effectively.
• Parents care a lot about their children’s behavior, but they often ignore one of the
biggest things shaping it: their genes.
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 • Genes influence how childrens' brains develop, how others respond to them, and how
they choose and respond to their environments.
• Understanding how children’s genes shape their behavior can help parents allow them
to become the best version of themselves.
As parents, we care a lot about our children’s behavior; we want to shape our children into
responsible, kind, productive human beings. But very often we ignore one of the biggest things
shaping our children’s development: their genes! About half of the differences between
children across all dimensions of behavior, ranging from extraversion to impulsivity to anxiety
result from differences in their DNA, with the other half resulting from differences in their
environments. By ignoring the genetic piece, we actually make it harder on ourselves as parents
— because understanding how our children’s genes shape their behavior can help us parent
them to become the best version of themselves. Here are five key things parents need to know
about how their children’s genes impact their behavior:
1. Genes influence the way children’s brains get wired during development.
DNA doesn’t just code for brown or blond hair, blue or brown eyes, it shapes the way
our children’s brains form, which impacts their natural tendencies across many behavioral traits.
That’s why some kids are naturally more sociable, and others take longer to warm up to new
people and situations. Some kids are more go-with-the-flow, and others are more prone to
distress, frustration, and fear. Some kids have more self-control, and others are more impulsive.
It all starts with differences in their DNA.
To figure out what behaviors reflect your child’s natural disposition, think about their
tendencies that show consistency across time and across situations. For example, many children
get grumpy when they are tired or hungry, but if your child consistently seems to get very upset
over seemingly minor things — at home, at school, when you’re running errands — and has
been this way since they were little, it reflects a disposition toward higher emotionality.
2. Children’s genes influence how other people respond to them.
A happy baby is more likely to be held and smiled at than a baby who cries constantly.
A sociable toddler is more likely to get attention from teachers and other adults. A child with
low self-control may be more likely to elicit frustration or punishment from their parents.
Because our children’s genes influence their temperaments, they also impact the way other
people respond to them. This creates a developmental cascade whereby each child’s genes
impact their environmental experiences, which then further impact the child.
3. Genes influence how kids respond to their environments.

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 A harsh look from a parent may bring one child to tears but barely register for another
child. An encounter with a dog on the street might lead one child to squeal in delight, and
another to cower behind their parent’s leg. Kids with different dispositions actually experience
the world in different ways. Certain environments can be more or less stressful, or enjoyable,
depending on the child’s genetic disposition.
4. Genes influence the environments children seek out.
When our kids are little, they are largely at the mercy of adults as to their daily activities,
but their reactions to different environments impact whether we repeat activities or not. If you
take your child to a museum and they love looking at the art and you have a fun afternoon
together, you’re likely to take your child to more museums. But if your child runs wild around
the museum and you spend most of the afternoon disciplining him or her and apologizing to
museum staff, then you are less likely to seek out more museum bonding experiences in the
future. Through their reactions to certain environments, children indirectly shape the
experiences that the adults in their life seek out for them.
As they get older, children directly select environments that match their genetic
temperaments: risk-taking children climb to the top of tall trees and jump off the playground
equipment. Risk-taking adolescents hang out at concerts and bars. Children who are more
anxious or introverted prefer to spend more time at home or in small group activities.
Children’s genes influence their development in part by influencing the environments they
select.
5. Children’s genetic dispositions can be tuned up or down by parents.
This is perhaps the key piece for parents: Our children’s genes aren’t destiny! They are
born with natural dispositions, but we can play a role in how those dispositions unfold. By
understanding the way our children’s genes shape their behavior, parents can work with their
kids to accentuate their natural strengths, and to avoid potential challenges that come with
different dispositions. By understanding the good, and the not-so-good associated with
different temperamental styles, and the gene-environment feedback loop described above, we
can help guide our children as they grow. For example, kids who are high on emotionality
(whose genes lead them to be quicker to frustration, anger, or fear) actually need different
disciplinary strategies to teach them to manage their disposition. But parents frequently
mistaken their child’s behavior as “being naughty” rather than originating in their child’s
wiring, and respond by implementing consequences in ways that make the behavior worse.
Mismatches between children’s dispositions and their environments are also frequently
at the heart of family tension. For example, children differ in levels of extraversion from a very
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young age. Just as with adults, throwing an introvert into an unfamiliar setting with many new
people can be overwhelming. But in children, their still-developing brains don’t have the ability
to explain to us (or even to recognize) why they are so upset — they just respond with tears or
tantrums. Understanding our children’s temperaments, and the needs of children with different
dispositions, helps parents understand the why behind their children’s behavior, allowing them
to put practices in place to ease the day-to-day stressors.
What are Epigenetics?
As per the epigenetic definition, epigenetics are the study of heritable changes that
occur due to the activation and deactivation of genes without altering said genes (see Figure
10.3). In other words, epigenetic changes modify the DNA, but do not change the sequence of
DNA building blocks. As a field, epigenetics studies the impact of age and exposure to
environmental factors in activating or deactivating these genes. Factors that might affect this
activation or deactivation include diet, exercise, and exposure to certain chemicals.
The primary difference between epigenetics and genetics is that genetics studies the
genes controlling the functions of the body, whereas epigenetics studies the inheritable changes
due to modified gene expressions. Genetics focuses on the basic unit of heredity that passes
genetic information onwards, while epigenetic covers the modifications in the genes. Of course,
genetic mechanisms can make changes, or mutations, in a DNA sequence. Epigenetic changes,
as stated above, do not modify the DNA sequence.
The following examples are different changes in epigenetics vs genetics. For genetics,
red hair is caused by a mutation in a certain gene. That gene can then be passed on to one's
children, who may inherit the gene and then also have red hair. For epigenetics, something
called DNA methylation adds a methyl group or a chemical cap to a part of the DNA molecule.
This then prevents the affected genes from expressing themselves. It is possible these caps can
be passed on as well, but the actual DNA is not different.

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 Figure 10.3. Epigenetic expression
DNA Methylation adds a methyl group and prevents the affected genes from expressing
themselves.

What Role Do Epigenetic Modifications Play in Development?

Epigenome stems from Greek, where "epi" means "above." Hence, epigenome literally
means "above" the genome. This idea of being "above" the genome reflects how epigenomes
contains compounds that modify or mark the genome; in other words, they tell the genomes
what to do and when to do it.
As per the epigenetic view of development, these marks are not uniform. Different cells
carry different marks. These marks are not a part of the DNA, either. Instead, they pass from
cell to cell when they divide. The epigenetic framework regulates the development process of
growth, differentiation, and apoptosis. Any kind of variation in these modifications may result
in abnormal cell signaling and other diseases, such as cancer.

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 The epigenetic theory heavily relies on the previously mentioned molecular caps. Also
known as methyl groups, these form an attachment with the gene and block the instructions
going to the cell. Epigenetics also rely on spoon-like histones. Histones are proteins that coil
the DNA so tight that some genes can become unreadable to cells.
Changes in epigenetics begin even before birth and affect human development. All the
cells are made of the same genes but they appear and act differently. With growth and
development, epigenetics influences the functions of the cells; i.e. they decides whether a cell
will be a heart cell, nerve cell, or skin cell. The changes in epigenetics continue throughout the
life cycle. They do not remain the same from childhood to adulthood.

Reflection Questions

1.Is the child influenced by nature or nurture? Give your reason to your answer.
2. How can we nurture the child to have a good manner and useful member of society?

References

1. Good, T. L., & Brophy, J. E. (1995). Contemporary educational psychology.

Longman/Addison Wesley Longman.
2. Retrieved from
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/316046039_Ecological_Systems_Theory
3. Retrieved from https://www.verywellmind.com/genes-and-development-2795114

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 Chapter 11
Support Services: Need strategies and approaches
Myanmar Policy for Early Childhood Care and Development
The Myanmar Policy for Early Childhood Care and Development (ECCD) presents
major national initiatives for child and family development. The Government of Myanmar
places high priority on the development, education, health, nutrition and protection of young
children, from conception to eight years of age. Successive Five-Year ECCD Strategic Plans
will provide operational guidance for implementing this Policy over the next 15 to 20 years.
Benefiting from investments in ECCD Services
Through expanding investment in ECCD services, Myanmar will benefit from lower
costs for health and nutrition care, welfare and child protection services, and especially from a
reduction of the high costs of educational inefficiencies, such as overage primary school entry,
high levels of grade repetition and school drop-out, special and remedial education services,
and low rates of timely school completion and progression to the next school level. Culturally
and linguistically appropriate ECCD services will help to achieve peaceful relations among
ethnic groups, and will enable children from all ethnic groups to succeed in school. Short,
medium and long-term impacts from the provision of quality ECCD services will enable
Myanmar to achieve a high rate of return from its investments in children. As abundant research
has demonstrated, these benefits will produce savings that will more than pay for the original
investments that were made to develop, expand and improve ECCD services, and national
economic productivity will be greatly increased.
Meeting the major needs of children, parents and ECCD services in Myanmar
The Consultation Workshops by the Multisectoral ECCD Policy Steering Committee,
interviews and Situation Analysis identified many major needs of children, parents and ECCD
services. Briefly, they found the following needs and challenges (Myanmar Policy for Early
Childhood Care and Development, 2014):
 Many young children and their parents live in marginalized, disadvantaged or remote
communities that lack access to preventive and basic child development services.
Outreach and the development of expanded ECCD services are urgently required.
 More preconception, antenatal and postnatal education services and health and nutrition
care are still needed to reach many families, and they need to be greatly expanded to
improve birth outcomes and lower maternal and infant mortality.
 The period from birth to three years of age is critical for the development of children’s
brains, and yet few of them are able to access ECCD services, such as parent education
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 and support, Mothers Circles, home visits and quality day care. Myanmar lacks a
national parent education and support system, and it must be culturally and
linguistically appropriate in order to serve all of the nation’s parents.
 The rate of stunting in young children is 35.1 per cent, and this malnutrition causes
them to become developmentally delayed, drop out of school and unproductive adults.
 Children with developmental delays, disabilities, atypical behaviours, malnutrition and
chronic diseases are unable as yet to access individualised and intensive early childhood
intervention services that they require to achieve their full potential.
 Only 22.9 per cent of preschool age children are able to access preschool services, and
most of them come from middle to higher income families. Therefore, a major effort is
needed to expand preschool services and offer them to all three and four-year old
children, with an emphasis on those from marginalised and disadvantaged groups.
 To ensure children have a smooth transition from home or preschool to kindergarten
and the early grades of primary school and achieve well in school, a nationwide
transition programme is needed.
 Most early primary school classes still use rote drill and practice methods. Teachers
need to learn new skills in order to provide more child-centred, family focused and
developmentally appropriate learning methods and contents.
 ECCD services, including kindergarten, must be mother tongue-based and culturally
appropriate to be effective, and early primary school grades should use local languages
to the extent possible and as requested to ensure children from minority ethnic groups
succeed in school.
 Myanmar’s children with special needs require more appropriate services. Many are
still trapped in institutional care, and child protection services tend to serve limited
numbers of certain types of children. Therefore, a new planning approach that unifies
child protection services is required to address the needs of these children and their
families.
 Myanmar currently lacks a formal pre-service training system for ECCD, preschool and
kindergarten service providers. In-service training is irregular although it is often of
good quality. Therefore, a full pre- and in-service training system for professionals,
paraprofessionals and volunteers is urgently needed.
 A national ECCD Management Information System (ECCD MIS) is lacking, and a
database with guidance for monitoring and evaluation is required in order to ensure
effective ECCD accountability, quality assurance and planning.
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  There is a need for a system to provide policy advocacy and regular ECCD
communication for development that uses all media to reach parents and communities.
 A strong ECCD organizational system is urgently required to conduct effective
coordination among ministries and non-governmental partners at all levels and to lead
processes for the development of programs in collaboration with development partners.
Establishing Myanmar’s ECCD Vision and Mission
Vision Statement
From birth to 8 years of age, all children of the Republic of the Union of Myanmar will
receive holistic, high-quality and developmentally-appropriate care from their parents,
caregivers and service providers to ensure they will be happy, healthy, well nourished, socially
adept, emotionally balanced and well protected in conditions of freedom, equity and dignity in
order to contribute positively to their families, communities and the nation.
The Mission Statement affirms the commitment of the Government of the Republic of
the Union of Myanmar to achieve this Vision for all children and parents.
Mission Statement
The Vision will be achieved through establishing high-quality ECCD services and
multisectoral coordination at all levels in the fields of education, health, nutrition,
environmental sanitation and protection. ECCD collaborations will include governmental, non-
governmental, faith-based and community-based organizations, professional associations,
foundations, higher education institutions, private sector groups and international development
partners.
To ensure ECCD services are provided equitably, they will be culturally and
linguistically appropriate. All children from birth to 8 years of age will receive integrated or
multisectoral ECCD services to achieve holistic development in perceptual, physical, social,
emotional, language and cognitive areas.
To improve birth outcomes, services for prospective parents, pregnant women and their
partners will include preconception, antenatal and postnatal education, health and nutrition care.
To ensure balanced child development from birth to 3 years, continuous and
comprehensive services will be offered for parent education, early care and development, and
health and nutrition care.
To improve child development, early childhood intervention services will be provided
for children 0 to 5 years of age with developmental delays, atypical behaviors, malnutrition,
disabilities or chronic illnesses. Child and parental rights will be guaranteed through legal,
social and child protection services, with a focus on birth registration, safe child environments,
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case management, tracking and follow-up. Universal, affordable and inclusive preschool
services will be offered for all 3 and 4 year old children, including the beginning of transition
activities to kindergarten and primary school. At 5 years of age, free, compulsory and inclusive
kindergarten and primary school services will be provided. Kindergarten and primary school
will feature active learning methods and will be child-centered and developmentally
appropriate.
To improve child health, nutrition and development, special attention will be given to
providing improved water and good home, preschool, kindergarten and school sanitation. The
national ECCD system infrastructure will be developed and quality assurance initiatives will
be implemented, including annual program planning and budgeting; service standards and
guidelines; high-quality pre- and in-service training for professionals, paraprofessionals and
volunteers; comprehensive supervisory systems; monitoring and evaluation activities to assess
program outcomes and ensure accountability; timely provision of materials, supplies, feeding
and health services; and the development of plans and interventions for children affected by
emergencies.
Establishing Policy strategies, activities and services
In line with the Vision and Mission Statements, the core Conceptual Framework, Goals
and Objectives of the ECCD Policy are presented. Based on the Objectives, the following 10
Strategies were selected, along with key ECCD activities and services that will be developed
or expanded and improved.
Policy Strategy 1: Preconception, antenatal and postnatal services

Prepare adolescents and prospective mothers and fathers for positive parenting through
providing preconception services as well as antenatal and postnatal education home
visits and group sessions, and postnatal health and nutrition care.

Strategy 1 focuses on the development of expanded and accessible services for preconception,
reproductive, antenatal and postnatal education, health and nutrition care.

Policy Strategy 2: Services for children, 0 to 3 years

Ensure parents of children from 0 to 3 years receive integrated parent education

through home visits and center-based services; all children and parents access regular
preventive and basic health, nutrition, environmental sanitation and protection
services; and children of mothers working outside of the home receive high-quality
care and development services (i.e., day care centers, Mother Circles).

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Strategy 2 includes the development of an Early and Preschool Strategy and the mapping and
assessment of services for children 0 to 3. A strong emphasis is placed on ensuring universal
birth registration, developing culturally and linguistically-appropriate national parent
education and support services, and expanding and improving Mothers Circles and other early
care and development centers. It also calls for developing an expanded emphasis on home visits,
especially for vulnerable children and families, complemented by mobile teams and satellite
centers for remote areas. Comprehensive and continuous maternal, newborn and child health
and nutrition services are highlighted with emphasis on postnatal services, maternal nutrition
and breastfeeding, child health and nutrition services, children affected or infected by HIV
infection, substance abuse or other forms of abuse or neglect.

Policy Strategy 3: Early childhood intervention services, 0 to 5 years

Develop, improve and expand early childhood intervention and rehabilitation services to
help each child achieve his or her full potential, and to prevent the discrimination and
stigmatization of children with special needs.

Strategy 3 introduces early childhood intervention (ECI) services to support families who have
children with developmental delays, malnutrition, chronic illnesses, disabilities and atypical
behaviors such as autism. It calls for multisectoral coordination to design and implement ECI
services, including community outreach for the identification and referral of children and the
establishment of ECI policies and procedures, standards, screening, assessments, individual
plans and the provision of home-based services appropriate for each child and family’s needs.
It calls for developing a plan for the phased development and coordination of ECI services,
including pre- and in-service training and monitoring and evaluation.

Policy Strategy 4: Preschool education for children, 3 to 4 years

Implement and expand high-quality, culturally and linguistically-appropriate and

inclusive preschool education, continuing parent education and involvement and
related early childhood services, and conduct awareness raising workshops from
community to national levels regarding the importance of preschool education.

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Strategy 4 features improving preschool curricula, with a focus on developing culturally and
linguistically appropriate methods, materials and related teacher training. It calls for a plan to
expand and improve preschools that builds on existing resources to ensure preschool education
becomes universally available, affordable and inclusive throughout the nation. Parent
involvement and oversight are emphasized, along with expanded governmental support and
continued community participation. Preschool standards, regulations and standards will be
instituted along with health care and feeding systems and improved water, environmental
sanitation and hygiene, furniture, playgrounds, libraries, and disaster prevention and
preparedness. Pre- and in-service training, supervision, monitoring and evaluation,
coordination and networking are also emphasized.

Policy Strategy 5: Transition, kindergarten and early primary grades, 5 to 8 years

Develop a strong transition program for children from 4 to 5 years of age from home
and preschool to inclusive kindergarten and primary school that includes parent
participation in the schools, use of the mother tongue for learning basic concepts to the
extent possible and as requested, and child-centered approaches with active learning
methodologies for early grade teaching, learning through play, and learning corners.

Strategy 5 focuses on the importance of child-centered teaching and learning activities in

inclusive kindergarten classes and primary schools as well as the development of a strong
nationwide transition program to ensure children are ready for school and are successful in
completing primary school. Learning targets are called for as well as child-centered
kindergarten and primary school curricula, methods, media and training manuals. Emphasis is
placed on parental involvement in schools, school health and feeding services, improved water,
environmental sanitation and hygiene, child-friendly furniture, playgrounds and libraries. For
ethnic minority communities, mother tongue-based education will be provided as possible and
requested in order to improve learning achievement and honor the education rights of all
peoples of Myanmar. Finally, training and support are called for to improve school supervision.

Policy Strategy 6: Children with special needs

Fulfil the rights of children with special needs and reduce institutionalization through
providing family preservation and/or family placement and training services,
establishing inclusive preschools, kindergarten classes and primary schools, and
ensuring quality care to protect all children from birth to 8 years from abuse, neglect
and exploitation.
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Strategy 6 ensures that child rights will be honored and child protection services will be
expanded and improved. Attention is given to ensuring young children will participate as
possible in developing programs that will affect them. The Policy calls for a review of current
child laws to ensure they are in line with the amended Child Law and the ECCD Policy. A
comprehensive Child Protection Policy and Strategic Plan will be developed, with a strong
focus on children from birth to 8 years of age. Attention is given to children with developmental
delays and disabilities, their parents and the implementation of the National Plan of Action for
Disability. The Policy calls for gradually reducing and ultimately ending the placement of
children from birth to 3 years in institutions. It also calls for the registration and improvement
of existing residential institutions. It addition to children with disabilities and developmental
delays services are included for the following groups: children of ethnic and linguistic
minorities; children affected by abuse, neglect or exploitation; children of parents in
correctional facilities; internally displaced and refugee children; street and working children,
including the eradication of abusive child labor; and children affected by HIV and AIDS.

Policy Strategy 7: Pre- and in-service training system

Establish a comprehensive, high quality, multisectoral and sustainable preservice ECCD

training system, with career ladders and certification as well as continuous and flexible
in-service training services at all levels for the recertification of professionals and
upgrading of paraprofessionals and volunteers.

Strategy 7 calls conducting ECCD workforce development and training studies in order to
design and implement a comprehensive pre- and in-service training system. Key elements will
be the establishment of career ladders, personnel standards, and a certification and
recertification system. The pre-service training system will include training for ECCD
professionals at the Institutes of Education and Colleges of Education, with a special focus on
the training of trainers and the training of ethnic minorities. A plan will be developed to provide
additional training for accomplished but uncertified preschool, kindergarten and primary
school teachers. Regular in-service training will be provided for ECCD professionals,
paraprofessionals and volunteers. Special training will be provided for principals, head teachers,
teachers and supervisors of ECCD, ECE and ECI services, with a special focus on inclusive
education. A National Centre for ECCD Resources and Training will be complemented by
Regional Centers to ensure nationwide coverage and quality assurance, and promote ECCD
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networking and professionalism. Education for peace and disaster prevention and preparedness
will be given special priority in all training programs.

Policy Strategy 8: ECCD system of accountability and quality assurance

Establish a multisectoral ECCD management information system that is fully

accountable and features processes for frequent service supervision, monitoring and
evaluation, and annual reporting at all levels.

Strategy 8 calls for a plan to support quality assurance and ensure accountability and evaluation
through developing an ECCD Management Information System (MIS). It will include
monitoring and evaluation manuals, training workshops, instruments and guides. The ECCD
MIS will be linked with a Nationwide Child Tracking System beginning with birth registration
and including all ECCD services for children. The ECCD MIS will also provide technical and
managerial support to help ensure good service quality. In addition, annual plans for high-
priority applied ECCD research projects will be developed and funded.

Policy Strategy 9: Policy advocacy and communications

Disseminate up-to-date, culturally appropriate and internationally recommended

information on ECCD through visual, auditory and print media, with the goal of
reaching all targeted beneficiaries, including leaders, service providers, caregivers,
parents, teachers and communities.

Strategy 9 calls for Annual Plans for Policy Advocacy and Communication, including seminars,
workshops and advocacy documents. Initial advocacy activities will include the nationwide
dissemination of the ECCD Policy and Strategic Plan and a special booklet for parents and
communities. Annual ECCD Forums will be held to advocate for policy implementation and
provide special training workshops for ECCD services of all regions. A National Network of
ECCD Service Providers will be established. Each year, at least 10 messages for children,
parents and communities will be selected for nationwide dissemination through visual, audio
and print media, Internet, dances, theatre, posters and banners. ECCD Advocacy Weeks and
Months will also be celebrated.

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Policy Strategy 10: Organization of the ECCD system

Develop the National ECCD Committee, National ECCD Policy Implementation

Institute and a decentralized system for the implementation and multisectoral
coordination of this Policy, with an emphasis on supporting all communities, districts,
townships and regions/states in developing ECCD committees, annual plans, budgets
and reports.

Strategy 10 presents the organization structure of Myanmar’s ECCD system, with leadership
from the National ECCD Committee that also chairs the ECCD International Cooperation
Committee.

Reflection Questions

1. Explain Myanmar ECCD vision and mission.

References

1. Ministry of Social Welfare, Relief and Resettlement. (2014). Myanmar Policy for
Early Childhood Care and Development. The Republic of Union of Myanmar.

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 Chapter 12
Different types of parenting
Baumrind’s Parenting Styles Baumrind (1971)
Baumrind’s Parenting Styles Baumrind (1971) offers a model of parenting that includes
three styles. In 1983, Maccoby and Martin modified this model, and it has become one of the
most commonly referenced models for describing patterns of parenting. The current model is
comprised of two components of parenting: the parent’s responsiveness and the parent’s
demandingness. Responsiveness is the connection that the parent facilitates through love,
affection, warmth, and support. Unresponsive parents may ignore a child’s need for connection
or even reject the child. Demandingness is the parent’s control and management of the child’s
behavior; this includes setting expectations, limits, and enforcing consequences. The
combination of these two parenting behaviors defines the parenting style. (see Figure 12.1)

Figure 12.1 Baumrind’s parenting styles.

The first, the uninvolved (or neglectful) parenting style. These parents are low on
responsiveness and often disengaged from their children. They are also low on demandingness,
with little control over their children’s behavior. As a result, their children can be withdrawn,
noncompliant, aggressive, and have insecure attachments to others. They suffer in school and
in their relationships with their peers (Gecas & Self, 1991).
The permissive parent is highly responsive but lacks control. These parents are warm
and communicative but provide little structure for their children. They may act as a friend to
their child rather than an authority figure. Children are allowed to make their own rules and
determine their activities. Children may fail to learn self-discipline and be relatively immature.
They have low social competence and may feel somewhat insecure because they do not know
the limits. These children may also be demanding, rebellious, and aggressive.
The authoritarian parent is low on responsiveness and high on demandingness. This
parent makes the rules, and the children are expected to be obedient. Baumrind suggests that
authoritarian parents tend to place maturity demands on their children that are unreasonably

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high and tend to be aloof and distant. Consequently, children reared in this way may fear rather
than respect their parents and, because their parents do not allow discussion, may take out their
frustrations on safer targets – perhaps as bullies toward peers. These children tend to have
lower self-control and are less independent. They also may be more aggressive, resistant to
correction, or anxious.
Finally, the authoritative parent is responsive and reasonably in control. Parents allow
negotiation where appropriate and discipline matches the severity of the offense. As a result,
their children are friendly, socially competent, confident, self-reliant, cooperative, successful,
and happy (Chao, 2001; Stewart and Bond, 2002). Baumrind’s Parenting Styles explains the
differences be- tween parenting styles and the potential consequences on child behavior.
Lemasters and Defrain’s Parenting Model
Lemasters and Defrain (1989) offered yet another model of parenting. This model is
interesting because it looks more closely at the motivations of the parent and suggests that
parenting styles are often designed to meet the psychological needs of the parent rather than
the developmental needs of the child. The martyr is a parent who will do anything for the child,
even tasks that the child should do for himself or herself. All of the good deeds performed for
the child, in the name of being a “good parent,” may be used later should the parent want to
gain compliance from the child. If a child goes against the parent’s wishes, the parent can
remind the child of all of the times the parent helped the child and evoke a feeling of guilt so
that the child will do what the parent wants. The child learns to be dependent and manipulative
as a result.
The pal is like the permissive parent described in Baumrind’s model above. The pal
wants to be the child’s friend. Perhaps the parent is lonely, or perhaps the parent is trying to
win a popularity contest against an ex-spouse. Pals let children do what they want and focus
most on being entertaining and fun. They set few limitations. Consequently, the child may have
little self-discipline and may try to test limits with others.
The police officer/drill sergeant style of parenting is similar to the authoritarian parent
described above. The parent focuses primarily on making sure that the child is obedient and
that the parent has full control of the child. Sometimes this can be taken to extremes by giving
the child tasks that are really designed to check on their level of obedience. For example, the
parent may require that the child fold the clothes and place items back in the drawer in a
particular way. If not, the child might be scolded or punished for not doing things “right.” This
type of parent has a very difficult time allowing the child to grow and learn to make decisions
independently. Furthermore, the child may have much resentment toward the parent that is
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displaced on others. The teacher-counselor parent is one who pays much attention to expert
advice on parenting and who believes that as long as all of the steps are followed, the parent
can rear a perfect child. “What is wrong with that?” you might ask.
There are two major problems with this approach. First, the parent is taking all of the
responsibility for the child’s behavior, at least indirectly. If the child has difficulty, the parent
feels responsible and thinks that the solution lies in reading more advice and trying more
diligently to follow that advice. Parents can certainly influence children, but thinking that the
parent is fully responsible for the child’s outcome is faulty. A parent can only do so much and
can never have full control over the child.
Another problem with this approach is that the child may get an unrealistic sense of the
world and what can be expected from others. For example, if a teacher-counselor parent decides
to help the child build self-esteem and has read that telling the child how special he or she is
or how important it is to compliment the child on a job well done, the parent may convey the
message that everything the child does is exceptional or extraordinary. A child may come to
expect that all of his efforts warrant praise, and in the real world, this is not something one can
expect. Perhaps children get more of a sense of pride from assessing their performance than
from having others praise their efforts. So what is left?
Lemasters and Defrain (1989) suggest that the athletic coach style of parenting is best.
The principles of coaching are what are important to Lemasters and Defrain. A coach helps
players form strategies, supports their efforts, gives feedback on what went right and what went
wrong, and stands at the sideline while the players perform. Coaches and referees make sure
that the rules of the game are followed and that all players adhere to those rules. Similarly, the
athletic coach as a parent helps the child understand what needs to happen in certain situations,
whether in friendships, school, or home life, and encourages and advises the child about how
to manage these situations.
The parent does not intervene or do things for the child. Instead, the parent’s role is to
guide while the child learns first-hand how to handle these situations. The rules for behavior
are consistent and objective and presented in that way. So, a child who is late for dinner might
hear the parent respond in this way, “Dinner was at six o’clock.” Rather than, “You know good
and well that we always eat at six. If you expect me to get up and make something for you now,
you have got another thing coming! Just who do you think you are showing up late and looking
for food? You’re grounded until further notice!”
The most important thing to remember about parenting is that parents can always
improve. They can practice being more objective. They can learn about what is reasonable to
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expect of a child and their stage of development. They can recognize their own needs and
limitations. Parenting is more difficult when parents have physical or psychological needs that
interfere with decision making. Some of the best advice for parents is to try not to take the
child’s actions personally, and be as objective as possible.

Reflection Question
1. What kind of parenting is the best for you and for your students? Briefly discuss your own
opinion.
2. Discuss about the pros and cons of every parenting style.

References
Retrieved from https://lumenlearning.com/wm-lifespandevelopment/

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 Chapter 13
The International Early Years Curriculum (IEYC)
The International Early Years Curriculum (IEYC) is a child-centered and research
informed curriculum for 2-5+ year old. The IEYC recognizes best practice and the
developmental needs of early years education and enables teachers/practitioners to embrace
the interconnected nature of learning. Emphasizing playful, holistic and child-focused
approaches to learning and development, it provides a contemporary perspective that
empowers teachers as they help children learn effectively and with enjoyment.
I- There are Eight IEYC Learning Principles
1. The earliest years of life are important in their own right.
2. Children should be supported to learn and develop at their own unique pace.
3. Play is an essential aspect of all children’s learning and development.
4. Learning happens when developmentally appropriate, teacher-scaffolded and child-
initiated experiences harness children’s natural curiosity in an enabling environment.
5. Independent and interdependent learning experiences create a context for personal
development and are the foundation of international mindedness.
6. Knowledge and skills development lead to an increasing sense of understanding when
children are provided with opportunities to explore and express their ideas in multiple
ways.
7. Ongoing assessment, in the form of evaluation and reflection, is effective when it
involves a learning-link with the home.
8. Learning should be motivating, engaging and fun, opening up a world of wonder for
children where personal interests can flourish.
II- Our philosophy
The philosophy of the IEYC is designed around four essential constructs:
1. Child-centred – the child-centred approach is an application within the field of child
development that allows the child to have their own ideas. The interests of the child are
then fed into planning.
2. Learning Strands – each activity suggested in the IEYC covers a wide range of Learning
Strands, therefore providing a holistic approach to learning and development.
3. The IEYC Learning Process outlines the route to be taken through a unit. The stages
are defined as the ‘Entry Point’; ‘Capturing Curiosity’; ‘Enable the Environment’; ‘The
Big Picture’; ‘Explore and Express’; and ‘Exit Point’. The IEYC comprises a diverse

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 range of exciting and engaging units of learning, which are designed around the IEYC
Learning Process.
4. Knowledge, skills and increasing understanding. The overriding purpose of the IEYC
is to help children develop their knowledge, skills, and increasing understanding to
support their development in early years. The teacher should know what knowledge,
skills and increasing understanding needs to be taught but also to embrace the children’s
own ideas and understand the direction they wish to take their learning in. The result
would then prepare learners for deeper learning.
The representation of the IEYC as a curriculum model, including the child-centered design,
Learning Strands and Learning Process is provided below.

III- The 4 learning strands

1. Independence and interdependence: This strand focuses on developing personal, social
and emotional development. The strand links to the IEYC Personal Goals and the IEYC
International Dimension. This strand enables children to see themselves as unique
individuals with a cultural heritage.

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 2. Communicating: This strand focuses on developing a broad range of communication
skills including language development, early literacy, early mathematics, ICT and
computing, expressive arts and creativity.
3. Enquiring: This strand focuses on developing the skills of enquiry through exploring
people and the world. It will support children in understanding the similarities and
differences in people, living things, the environment and materials. Children will be
encouraged to investigate, pose questions and explore ideas.
4. Healthy living and Physical Well-Being: This strand focuses on developing a positive
attitude to health, self-care and physical activity. Children will know about the
importance of healthy eating and physical activity. They will learn how to take care of
basic hygiene and personal needs. They will understand how to keep themselves safe.
They will demonstrate control, coordination and increasing confidence in a range of
physical activities. This strand covers child development and the importance of
nurturing wellbeing in children.
IV- The IEYC Types of Learning
Fieldwork Education believes that differentiating between Knowledge, Skills and
Understanding is crucial to the development of children’s learning. We also believe that
Knowledge, Skills and Understanding have their own distinct characteristics that impact on
how each is planned for, learned, taught and assessed. The implications of these differences
are therefore far-reaching and deserve proper consideration.
• Knowledge: is relatively straightforward. We see knowledge as largely factual. For
example: my name is …….., my address is …….. At this moment I am painting.
Knowledge is what we assess by quizzes and test of various kinds.
• skills: skills are concerned with abilities, with being able to do things. Skills are what
we see in action. For example: I am able to find my way home, I am able to paint.
• Understanding: impossible to assess and difficult to evaluate. Understanding is built
upon knowledge and skills

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V- learning process

1. The Entry Point launches each new IEYC unit and should be planned to enable children
to explore new experiences in exciting and memorable ways. Each IEYC unit of
learning has a suggested Entry Point idea which can be adapted according to children’s
development needs. The IEYC encourages teachers to be creative and use their own
ideas to enhance the Entry Point.
2. Capturing Curiosity is achieved when teachers are aware of what children are curious
to learn and then the unit is adapted to enhance opportunities.
3. To Enable the Environment is the process of planning and developing relevant indoor
and outdoor learning spaces to create the positive climate for enquiry and learning to
take place.
4. The Big Picture provides the children with an overview of each unit of learning. It
prepares children for a new learning experience whilst at the same time helps establish
connections with previous learning. It gives teachers an overview of why the theme is
important and links to child development.
5. Explore and Express aims to provide children with opportunities to engage in activities
that have been holistically designed around the Learning Strands.
6. The Exit Point at the end of the IEYC provides opportunities for children to reflect,
share and celebrate what they have learnt. Exit Points are also used to share and
demonstrate learning with parents and the wider community
VI- IEYC Learning goals
1. Personal Learning goals
Enquiry To find out more and show an interest
Resilience To keep on going even when things get tricky

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Morality To do the right thing and make good choice
Communication To think about what we want to say and how to say it
Thoughtfulness To be a good listener, to think about others, to think about our learning
Cooperation To be able to learn and play together
Respect To be kind to others and look after ourselves
Adaptability To try new things
2. International Learning Goals
o Has a good sense of identity
o Is open-minded and adaptable
o Is respectful of other cultures and beliefs
o Is aware of and celebrates similarity and diversity
o Is a good communicator
o Has respect for the ideas and opinions of others
o Take an interest in global issues
3. Subject Learning Goals: Knowledge, skills and understanding
Learning and Development

Children are developing all the time and their learning reflects this. So, for example, when a
child can pull themselves up to stand they can suddenly reach things they couldn’t get to before,
or when they learn new words they begin to label objects such as a ball or a drink, or ask
questions ‘what’s that?’ The Revised EYFS uses the term Learning and Development to
describe seven areas of learning. These are all related to each other; however they are divided
into Prime and Specific Areas.

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Prime areas
• Personal, Social and Emotional Development
• Communication and Language
• Physical Development
Specific areas
• Literacy
• Mathematics
• Understanding the World
• Expressive Arts and Design
In addition the Revised EYFS refers to the different ways that children learn as the
Characteristics of Learning:
1. Playing and exploring: children investigate and experience things and ‘have a go’;
2. Active learning: children concentrate and keep on trying if they encounter difficulties, and
enjoy achievements;
3. Creating and thinking critically: children have and develop their own ideas, make links
between ideas, and develop strategies for doing things.
Together with the Prime and Specific areas these comprise the knowledge, skills and
experiences that are developmentally appropriate for children from birth to 5 years.
The Prime Areas: Personal, Social and Emotional Development
Involves helping children to develop a positive sense of themselves, and others; to form
positive relationships and develop respect for others; to develop social skills and learn how to
manage their feelings; to understand appropriate behavior in groups; and to have confidence in
their own abilities. This area develops children’s positive sense of themselves. It teaches about
having respect for oneself and others, developing social skills and a good attitude to learning.
To give children the best opportunities through Positive Relationships, adults form caring
relationships with all children. In Enabling Environments opportunities for play and learning
are created that help children embrace differences between themselves and others. Learning
and Development experiences are planned to promote all round development.
PSED is made up of these aspects:
• Self-Confidence and Self-Awareness
• Managing Feelings and Behaviour
• Making Relationships

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Communication and Language
Involves giving children opportunities to experience a rich language environment; to
develop their confidence and skills in expressing themselves; and to speak and listen in a range
of situations. This area provides children with opportunities for speaking and listening and
ignites children’s interest in reading and writing. To give children the best opportunities for
developing Communication and Language Positive Relationships support children to
communicate their ideas and thoughts with each other and with adults. Enabling Environments
contain signs, symbols, words, songs and notices. They also have books and pictures that take
into account interests, backgrounds and cultures.
CL is made up of these aspects:
• Listening and attention
• Understanding
• Speaking
Physical Development
Involves providing opportunities for young children to be active and interactive; and to
develop their co-ordination, control, and movement. Children must also be helped to
understand the importance of physical activity, and to make healthy choices in relation to food.
This area provides opportunities for children to be active and devlop their co-ordination,
manipulation and movement. It develops understanding of the importance of being physically
active and eating healthily. To give children the best opportunities through Positive
Relationships children are supported in their understanding of exercise, sleep and eating to
promote health. Activities in Enabling Environments both indoors and outdoors encourage
energetic physical play. In Learning and Development, snack times promote social skills and
the importance of making healthy food choices.
PD is made up of these aspects:
• Moving and Handling
• Health and Self-Care
The Specific Areas:
Literacy
Literacy development involves encouraging children to link sounds and letters and to
begin to read and write. Children must be given access to a wide range of reading materials
(books, poems and other written materials) to ignite their interest.
LD is made up of these aspects
• Reading
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 • Writing
Mathematics
Involves providing children with opportunities to develop and improve their skills in
counting, understanding and using numbers, calculating simple addition and subtraction
problems; and to describe shapes, spaces and measures. This area supports children’s
understanding in different situations by providing opportunities to explore, practice, learn and
talk. They practice skills and gain confidence and competence. To give children the best
opportunities through Positive Relationships children use mathematical words and ideas in
their play. Enabling Environments have resources for counting, calculating and shape available
indoors and outdoors. In Learning and Development, stories, songs and imaginative play help
with mathematical understanding.
Mathematics is made up of these aspects:
• Numbers
• Shape, Space and Measures
Understanding the World
Involves guiding children to make sense of their physical world and their community
through opportunities to explore, observe and find out about people, places, technology and
the environment. This area offers children opportunities to explore and observe the
environment, living things and objects. To give children the best opportunities through Positive
Relationships, parents’ and carers’ knowledge extend children’s experiences of the world. In
Enabling Environments, open-ended questions like, “How can we..?” and “What would happen
if…?” are used. Learning and Development is based on first-hand experiences to observe,
predict, make decisions and discuss.
UW is made up of these aspects:
• People and Communities
• The World
• Technology
Expressive Arts and Design
Involves enabling children to explore and play with a wide range of media and materials, as
well as providing opportunities and encouragement for sharing their thoughts, ideas and
feelings through a variety of activities in art, music, movement, dance, role-play, and design
and technology. This area supports children’s curiosity and play. They explore and share their
thinking, ideas and feelings in music, in art, movement and dance, role play and technology.
To give children the best opportunities through Positive Relationships children value their own
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unique ideas and those of others rather than reproducing those of someone else. Enabling
Environments are stimulating and originality and expressiveness are valued. Learning and
Development experiences allow children to express themselves through various types of
representation.
EAD is made up of these aspects:
• Exploring and Using Media and Materials
• Being Imaginitive
IEYC Implementation
1: Helping Children Deal with Their Feelings
When I’m upset or hurting, the last thing I want to hear is advice, philosophy,
psychology, or the other fellow’s point of view. That kind of talk only makes me feel worse
than before. But let someone really listen, let someone acknowledge my inner pain and give
me a chance to talk more about what’s troubling me and I begin to feel less upset, less
confused, more able to cope with my feelings and my problem. The process is no different
for our children. They too can help themselves if they have a listening ear and an empathic
response. But the language of empathy does not come naturally to us. It’s not part of our
“mother tongue.” Most of us grew up having our feelings denied. To become fluent in this
new language of acceptance, we have to learn and practice its methods. Here are some ways
to help children deal with their feelings.
1. Instead of half-listening, listen with full attention. It can be discouraging to try to get
through to someone who gives only lip service to listening. It’s much easier to tell your
troubles to a parent who is really listening. He doesn’t even have to say anything. Often a
sympathetic silence is all a child needs.
2. Instead of questions and advice, acknowledge with a word — “Oh ... Mmm ... I see.” It’s
hard for a child to think clearly or constructively when some-one is questioning, blaming, or
advising her. There’s a lot of help to be had from a simple “Oh ... umm ...” or “I see.” Words
like these, coupled with a caring attitude, are invitations to a child to explore her own
thoughts and feelings, and possibly come up with her own solutions.
3. Instead of denying the feeling, give the feeling a name. The child who hears the words for
what he is experiencing is deeply comforted. Someone has acknowledged his inner
experience. (“That sounds frustrating!”)
4. Instead of explanation and logic, give a child his wishes in fantasy. When children want
something they can’t have, adults usually respond with logical explanations of why they can’t
have it. Often the harder we explain, the harder they protest. Sometimes just having some-one
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understand how much you want something makes reality easier to bear. (“I wish I could
make the banana ripe for you right now!”) So there you have it — four possible ways to give
first aid to a child in distress: by listening with full attention, by acknowledging his feelings
with a word, by giving a name to his feelings, by granting him his wishes in fantasy. But
more important than any words we use is our attitude. If our attitude is not one of
compassion, then whatever we say will be experienced by the child as phony or manipulative.
It is when our words are infused with our real feelings of empathy that they speak directly to
a child’s heart.
It’s probably obvious to you by now that dealing with feelings is an art, not a science. Yet we
have faith (based upon years of observation) that parents, after some trial and error, can
master the art. You’ll sense after a while what is helpful to your individual child and what
isn’t. With practice you’ll soon discover what irritates and what comforts; what creates
distance and what invites intimacy; what wounds and what heals. There is no substitute for
your own sensitivity.
2. Engaging Cooperation
One of the built-in frustrations of parent-hood is the daily struggle to get our children
to behave in ways that are acceptable to us and to society. Part of the problem lies in the conflict
of needs. The adult need is for some semblance of cleanliness, order, courtesy, and routine.
The children couldn’t care less. A lot of parental passion goes into helping children adjust to
societal norms. And somehow the more intense we become, the more actively they resist. Some
of the methods most commonly used by adult to get children to cooperate are:
✓ Blaming and Accusing — “Your dirty fingerprints are on the door again! Why do you
always do that?”
✓ Name-calling — “You have to be a slob to keep such a filthy room. You live like an animal.”

✓ Threats — “If you don’t spit that gum out this minute, I’m going to open your mouth and
take it out.”
✓ Commands — “I want you to clean up your room right this minute.”
✓ Lecturing and Moralizing — “Do you think that was a nice thing to do — to grab that book
from me? I can see you don’t realize how important good manners are. What you have to
understand is that if we expect people to be polite to us, then
we must be polite to them in return.”
✓ Warnings — “Careful, you’ll get hit by a car!”

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✓ Martyrdom Statement — What ‘til you have children of your own. Then you’ll know what
aggravation is.”
✓ Comparisons — “Lisa has such beautiful table manners. You’d never catch her eating with
her fingers.”
✓ Sarcasm — “Is this the homework you’re bringing to school tomorrow? Well maybe your
teacher can read Chinese; I can’t.”
✓ Prophecy — “Just keep on being selfish. You’ll see, no one is ever going to want to play
with you. You’ll have no friends.”
Are there ways to engage our children ‘s cooperation without doing violence to their self-
esteem or leaving them with such a backwash of bad feelings? We’d like to share with you five
skills that have been helpful to us and to the parents in our workshops. Not every one of them
will work with every child. Not every skill will suit your personality. And there isn’t any one
of them that is effective all the time. What these five skills do, however, is create a climate of
respect in which the spirit of cooperation can begin to grow. 1. Describe. Describe what you
see, or describe the problem. It’s hard to do what needs to be done when people are telling you
what’s wrong with you. It’s easier to concentrate on the problem when someone just describes
it to you. (“There’s a wet towel on the bed.”)
2. Give information. Information is a lot easier to take than accusation. When children are given
information, they can usually figure out for themselves what needs to be done. (“The towel is
getting my blanket wet.”)
3. Say it with a word. Children dislike hearing lectures, sermons, and long explanations. For
them, the shorter the reminder, the better. (“The towel!”)
4. Talk about your feelings. Make no comment about the child’s character or personality. By
describing what we feel, we can be genuine without being hurtful. (“I don’t like sleeping in a
wet bed!”)
5. Write a note. Sometimes nothing we say is as effective as a written word. (“Please put me
back so I can dry. Thanks! Your Towel.”) Our purpose is to speak to what is best in our children
— their intelligence, their initiative, their sense of responsibility, their sense of humor, their
ability to be sensitive to the needs of others. We want to put an end to talk that wounds the
spirit, and search out the language that nourishes self-esteem. We want to create an emotional
climate that encourages children to cooperate because they care about themselves, and because
they care about us. We want to demonstrate the kind of respectful communication that we hope

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our children will use with us — now, during their adolescent years, and ultimately as our adult
friends.
3. Alternatives to Punishment
To punish or not to punish? What could I do instead?
1. Express your feelings strongly — without attacking character (“I’m furious that my new
saw was left outside to rust in the rain!”)
2. State your expectations. (“I expect my tools to be returned after they’ve been borrowed.”)
3. Show the child how to make amends. (“What this saw needs now is a little steel wool and a
lot of elbow grease.”)
4. Give the child a choice. (“You can borrow my tools and return them, or you can give up
the privilege of using them. You decide.”)
5. Take action. (Child: “Why is the tool box locked?” Father: “You tell me why.”)
6. Problem-solve. (“What can we work out so that you can use my tools when you need them,
and so that I’ll be sure they’re there when I need them?”) To problem-solve:
✓ Talk about the child’s feelings and needs.
✓ Talk about your feelings and needs.

✓ Brainstorm together to find a mutually agreeable solution.

✓ Write down all ideas—without evaluating.

✓ Decide which suggestions you like, which you don’t like, and which you plan to follow
through on.
We are teaching our children that they needn’t be our victims or our enemies. We are giving
them the tools that will enable them to be active participants in solving the problems that
confront them — now, while they’re at home, and in the difficult, complex world that awaits
them.
4. Encouraging Autonomy
Most of the books on child-rearing tell us that one of our important goals as parents is
to help our children separate from us, to help them become independent individuals who will
one day be able to function on their own without us. We’re urged not to think of our children
as little carbon copies of us or extensions of ourselves but as unique human beings with
different temperaments different tastes, different feelings, different desires, different dreams.
Yet, how are we to help them become separate, independent persons? By allowing them to do
things for themselves, by permitting them to wrestle with their own problems, by letting them
learn from their own mistakes. Fortunately, the opportunities to encourage our children’s

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autonomy present themselves everyday. Here are some specific skills that can help children to
rely on themselves rather than upon us.
1. Let children make choices. It must be very hard to be an adult who is forced to make
decisions about career, lifestyle, mate without having had a good deal of experience in
exercising your own judgment. (“Are you in the mood for your grey pants today, or your red
pants?”)
2. Show respect for a child’s struggle. When a child’s struggle is respected, he gathers courage
to see a job through himself. (“A jar can be hard to open. Sometimes it helps if you tap the side
of the lid with a spoon.”)
3. Don’t ask too many questions. Too many questions can be experienced as an invasion of
one’s private life. Children will talk about what they want to talk about when they want to talk
about it. (“Glad so see you. Welcome home.”)
4. Don’t rush to answer questions. When children ask questions, they deserve the chance to
explore the answer for themselves first. (“That’s an interesting question. What do you think?”)
5. Encourage children to use sources outside the home. We want our children to know that
they’re not completely dependent upon us. The world outside the home — the pet shop, the
dentist, the school, an older child — can all be called upon to help them with their problems.
(“Maybe the pet shop owner would have a suggestion.”)
6. Don’t take away hope. By trying to protect children from disappointment, we protect them
from hoping, striving, dreaming, and sometimes from achieving their dreams. (“So you’re
thinking of trying out for the play! That should be an experience.”) The fact is, this whole
business of encouraging autonomy can be quite complicated. As much as we understand the
importance of our children being independent, there are forces within us that work against it.
✓ First, there’s the matter of sheer convenience. Most of us today are busy and in a hurry. We
usually wake the children ourselves, button their buttons, tell them what to eat and what to
wear, because it seems so much easier and faster to do it for them.
✓ Then we have to cope with our strong feelings of connectedness to our children. We have to
fight against seeing their failures as our failures.
✓ It also takes great restraint and self-discipline on our part not to move in with advice,
particularly when we’re sure we have the answer.
✓ But there’s something even larger that interferes with our rational desire to help our children
separate from us. I remember so well the deep satisfaction that came from being so totally
needed by three small human beings. It’s a bittersweet road we parents travel. We start with

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total commitment to a small, helpless human being. Over the years we worry, plan, comfort,
and try to understand. We give our love, our labor, our knowledge and our experience—so that
one day he or she will have the inner strength and confidence to leave us.
Praise Granted, there are children who manage to brush off the belittling they get at home and
still rise to the challenges of the outside world. And granted, there are some children who are
treated with regard at home who still doubt their own abilities and shrink from challenge.
However, it would seem logical that those children who grow up in families where their best
is appreciated would be more likely to feel good about themselves, more likely to cope with
the challenges of life, and more likely to set higher goals for themselves than those who don’t.
If a child’s self-esteem is so important, then what can we as parents do to enhance it?
Certainly, all the principles and skills we’ve talked about so far can help a child see himself as
a person of worth. Each time we show respect for his feelings, each time we offer him a chance
to make a choice, or give him a chance to solve a problem, he grows in confidence and self-
esteem. Surely praising them would seem to be another part of the answer. But praise can be
tricky business. Sometimes the most well-meant praise brings about unexpected reactions.
You’ve probably discovered for yourself some of the built-in problems of praise. Along with
some good feelings can come other reactions:
✓ Praise can make you doubt the praiser. (“If she thinks I’m a good cook, she’s either lying or
knows nothing about good food.”)
✓ Praise can lead to immediate denial. (“Always beautifully dressed! ... You should have seen
me an hour ago.”)
✓ Praise can be threatening. (“But how will I look at the next meeting?”)
✓ Praise can force you to focus on your weaknesses. (“Brilliant mind? Are you kidding? I still
can’t add a column of figures.”)
✓ Praise can create anxiety and interfere with activity. (“I’ll never be able to hit the ball like
that again. Now I’m really uptight.”)
✓ Praise can also be experienced as manipulation. (“What does this person want from me?”)
Instead of evaluating, describe.
1. Describe what you see. (“I see a clean floor, a smooth bed, and books neatly lined up on the
shelf.”)
2. Describe what you feel. (“It’s a pleasure to walk into this room!”)
3. Sum up the child’s praiseworthy behavior with a word. (“You sorted out your pencils,
crayons and pens, and put them in separate boxes. That’s what I call organization!”) Most of

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us are quick to criticize and slow to praise. We have a responsibility as parents to reverse this
order. Our children’s self-esteem is too valuable to be left to chance or entrusted to strangers.
Let us realize that along with food, shelter, and clothing, we have another obligation to our
children, and that is to affirm their “rightness.” The whole world will tell them what’s wrong
with them — loud and often. Our job is to let our children know what’s right about them.
5. Freeing Children from Playing Roles
Sometimes it takes no more than a few words, a look, or a tone of voice to tell you that you’re
either “slow or stupid,” “a pest,” or a basically likable and capable person. How your parents
think of you can often be communicated in seconds. When you multiply those seconds by the
hours of daily contact between parents and children, you begin to realize how powerfully young
people can be influenced by the way their parents view them. Not only are their feelings about
themselves affected, but so is their behavior. When a child persistently behaves in any one way
over a period of time, it requires great restraint on our part not to reinforce the negative behavior
by shouting, “There you go again!” It takes an act of will to put aside the time to deliberately
plan a campaign that will free a child from the role he’s been playing. To free children from
playing roles:
1. Look for opportunities to show the child a new picture of himself or herself. (“You’ve had
that toy since you were three and it almost looks like new!”)
2. Put children in situations where they can see themselves differently. (“Sara, would you
take the screwdriver and tighten the pulls on these drawers?”)
3. Let children overhear you say some-thing positive about them. (“He held his arm steady
even though the shot hurt.”)
4. Model the behavior you’d like to see. (“It’s hard to lose, but I’ll try to be a sport about it.
Congratulations!”)
5. Be a storehouse for your child’s special moments. (“I remember the time you...”)
6. When your child acts according to the old label, state your feelings and/or your
expectations. (“I don’t like that. Despite your strong feelings, I expect sportsmanship from
you.”)
Putting It All Together
The real-life dramas that children engage us in every day don’t give us time for rehearsal or
careful thought. However, with your new guidelines, though we may do and say things we
regret, we have a very clear direction to which we can return. There are basic principles we can
depend upon. We know that we can’t go too far wrong if we take time to listen to our children’s
feelings; or talk about our own feelings; or work in terms of future solutions, rather than past
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blame. One final though: Let’s not cast ourselves in roles either — good parent, bad parent,
permissive parent, authoritarian parent.
Let’s start thinking of ourselves as human beings first, with great potential for growth and
change. The process of living or working with children is demanding and exhausting. It
requires heart, intelligence, and stamina. When we don’t live up to our own expectations —
and we won’t always — let’s be as kind to ourselves as we are to our youngsters. If our children
deserve a thousand chances, and then one more, let’s give ourselves a thousand chances — and
then two more.

Reflection Question
1. What is your experience in IEYC and your implementation in early childhood education

References
1. Faber, A., & Mazlish, E. (2012). How to talk so kids will listen & listen so kids will talk.
Simon and Schuster.

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 Chapter 14
Play & its characteristics
What is play?
Playing is a natural and enjoyable way for children to keep active, stay well and be
happy. Freely chosen play helps children and young people’s healthy development. To have
good physical and mental health and to learn life skills, they need various unstructured play
opportunities from birth until they’re teenagers. Play improves the cognitive, physical, social,
and emotional well-being of children and young people. Through play, children learn about the
world and themselves. They also learn skills they need for study, work and relationships such
as:
• confidence
• self-esteem
• resilience
• interaction
• social skills
• independence
• curiosity
• coping with challenging situations
Play is an essential part of a child’s development, and it is particularly important in
early childhood when children are growing and learning most rapidly. School recognizes the
importance of play for young students and regularly incorporates play into its curriculum. It
is through playing those children learn how to interact with others, explore their environment,
practice motor skills, develop creativity, and create meaning from their experiences
On the surface, play may just seem like, well, play - playing and having fun. But play
is so much more than simply having fun. Playing actually plays a critical role in a child’s
development. It’s through play that children will learn fundamental skills needed in life - social
skills, cognitive skills, and even developing motor skills, to name few.
Characteristics of Play
According to Aistear: the Early Childhood Curriculum Framework’s “Learning and
developing through play”, play can have 10 characteristics. Play can be:
1. Active
2. Adventurous and risky
3. Communicative
4. Involved
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 5. Meaningful
6. Sociable and interactive
7. Symbolic
8. Therapeutic
9. Voluntary
10. Enjoyable
1. Active

Play can be active, and during active play, children physically interact with their environment,
with different materials, and with others. Active play helps a child develop various kinds of
motor skills, the most basic being fine motor skills and gross motor skills. When children play
by manipulating small objects with their hands (think duplo blocks, beading, or picking up
small objects), they are strengthening their fine motor skills that can help prepare them for
skills like writing and drawing. Children practice their gross motor skills when they use larger
muscle movements, like climbing, jumping, and running.
Mastering these basic motor skills is important for developing more complex abilities like:
• physical strength
• body awareness
• reaction time
• Balance
• Bilateral coordination (the ability to coordinate both sides of the body at the same time
in a controlled and organized manner)
• Hand-eye coordination (the ability to move your hands depending on what they eyes
see, i.e. cutting paper with scissors)
• Foot-eye coordination (the ability to move your feet in order to respond to what your
eyes see i.e. kicking a ball into a soccer net)
• visual motor integration (the ability to interpret visual information and respond with a
motor action)

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2. Adventurous and Risky

Adventurous play, sometimes called ‘risky play’, can be described as a thrilling and exciting
activity that may involve a risk of (minor) physical injury. Examples of adventurous/risky play
include climbing tree, going up and down slides, biking, playing chase, and hide and seek. This
type of play lends opportunities for exploring new concepts, testing limits, assessing risks, and
managing challenging situations.
The benefits of adventurous play includes:
• Promotes independence and problem-solving
• Provides direct experience of cause and effect (natural consequences)
• Develops coordination and bodily control
• Boosts self-confidence and emotional resilience
• Promotes self-regulation
• Reduces stress and fears
• Satisfies natural need for challenge and thrill
The important thing with this type of play is to ensure the right balance between allowing
children to engage in adventurous play while preventing serious injuries. If you struggle with
blurting out 'be careful!' every time your child engages in this type of play, try providing more
specific and less alarming prompts next time. Some examples that we find work well:
• “Look up” or “Stay low” when there's a chance they could hit their head
• “Stay still” if there’s an unfamiliar animal nearby or if you want them to stop (by saying
“Stop,” they likely won’t know exactly what you want them to stop doing)
• “Ouch!” as you point to a stove or hot beverage

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3. Communicative

Play presents a natural opportunity for children to share information and knowledge. Children
can communicate verbally, using words or their bodies, postures and other non-verbal cues and
these messages can be simple or more complicated. During play, there are natural opportunities
for children to exchange knowledge and information. Communication encompasses both
verbal and non-verbal communication:
Verbal Communication
As children play, they use verbal communication that will help build their language and
vocabulary concepts.
Non-verbal communication
Nonverbal communication plays a significant role in our lives, as it can improve a person’s
ability to relate, engage, and establish meaningful interactions in everyday life, and can lead
people to develop stronger relationships with others. Examples of non-verbal communication
includes:
• Gestures
• Body movements
• Eye contact
• Facial expressions
4. Involved
As you can see, there is a lot of learning involved in play! It might seem obvious (but can be
overlooked in the moment) that for the learning to happen best, children should be involved,
engaged, and actively thinking about what they are doing. Take note that the more motivating
an activity is, the more involved your child will be, and the more learning can happen!

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5. Meaningful
Play is meaningful and has purpose. It lends wonderful opportunities for children to make sense
of the world. Through play, children build upon their knowledge, experiment with new theories,
and grow their knowledge and skills.
6. Sociable and interactive

While it is healthy and necessary for children to play independently, at least some of the time,
play presents a unique and formative opportunity for children to engage in social interactions
and build relationships with other children and adults.
7. Symbolic

Symbolic play (or pretend play) is the ability to use objects, actions, or ideas to represent other
objects, actions, or ideas within play and begins to develop between 18-20 months of age.
Symbolic play allows children to test out different roles, behaviours, and relationships. When
children engage in symbolic play, they strengthen their:
• Cognitive skills
• Social skills
• Self-esteem
• Language
• Motor skills
• Creativity
Symbolic play may just look like pretending, but it is actually laying the foundation for
understanding of themselves and the world outside of themselves as well.

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8. Therapeutic

When play is fun, engaging and meaningful, it can be very therapeutic for children. Play can
be a natural way for children to relieve stress and work through different emotions and
experiences. Along with many other developmental benefits, sensory play can be especially
therapeutic for children to self-regulate and relieve stress. We all have different sensory needs
and meeting those needs is important, especially for children and children with special needs
and exceptionalities.
9. Voluntary

Play is a self-chosen, spontaneous pursuit that children can change, alter and manipulate freely.
Children should and will change the story, characters, materials, events, locations and purpose
of their play at will.
10. Enjoyable
Simply put, play is fun! When children play they should be enjoying themselves and they can
often find excitement and humour in or through their play. If they aren’t having fun, it probably
isn’t play. Instead of playing to win, children should be playing to participate and have fun.
What is learning through play?
Learning through play is not merely a child's pastime but a profound educational tool
that fosters cognitive development and essential skills. It's a dynamic approach that transcends
the boundaries of age, offering a positive impact on children from primary schools to secondary
settings. The power of play in building executive functions is more than a theory; it's a

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scientifically backed method that encourages children to focus on an activity, work through
challenges, and engage in a learning process that leads to deeper learning.
In the realm of education, play-based activities are not confined to building bricks or
simple games. They are intricate designs that enhance language skills, stimulate creative skills,
and provide a platform for children to connect, talk, and build. According to research,
incorporating play into the classroom can increase learning outcomes by up to 30%. Dr. Sarah
Miller, a renowned child psychologist, emphasizes, "Play is the language of children. It's not
just about fun; it's about exploring, understanding, and growing. The impact on children's
cognitive development is profound and lasting."
One compelling example is the integration of play into literacy activities. By weaving
playful experiences into reading and writing, educators can create an engaging and interactive
environment that resonates with every child. Whether it's a physical activity in a primary setting
or a complex problem-solving game in a secondary classroom, the essence remains the same:
Play is an indispensable part of the learning journey.
Key Insights and Important Facts:
• Beyond Early Years: Play is beneficial for students of all ages, enhancing cognitive
development and essential skills.
• Literacy Integration: Play can be seamlessly incorporated into literacy activities,
fostering language skills.
• Scientific Backing: Evidence supports the positive impact of play on learning
outcomes and executive functions.
• Universal Application: From primary schools to secondary settings, play has a place
in every classroom.
• Holistic Growth: Play offers more than fun; it's a pathway to deeper learning, creativity,
and connection.

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Why is learning through play so important?
Playing has a major role in a children's early development. Playing is important for young
children’s brain development and for their communication skills and language acquisition.
Simple games such as shaking a rattle or peek-a-boo, are much more meaningful than just a
way to please the children. They strengthen young children's motor skills, communication and
problem-solving skills. Games of stacking and knocking over blocks help toddlers with science
and maths concepts, including counting, balance, shapes and gravity. Games are also important
for preparing children for formal education in early childhood years. For most children,
learning through play begins with the carers or parents responding to, playing with or engaging
with the child.
What is Meaningful Play?
Schools that provide Montessori education emphasize learning through “meaningful
play.” In the book, "From Play to Practice: Connecting Teachers' Play to Children's Learning,
“meaningful play,” Marcia L. Nell has described the following five characteristics of
meaningful play:
1. It enables the child to choose what he/she wants to do;
2. It feels enjoyable and fun-filled for the children;
3. It allows the child to evolve naturally, rather than providing a script to follow;
4. It is led by intrinsic motivation about what the child wishes to do;
5. It provides a risk-free environment where children can experiment and use new ideas.
Children are the main participants in meaningful play. For example, instead of passively
participating in a lesson, children accept roles along with their peers and follow the self-created
rules of play. It is believed that “rules” can be counterintuitive to the concept of free, voluntary
play, a scheme of mind rules is one of the additional main characteristics of play. Children may
demonstrate mind rules explicitly, create them with collaboration or make a leader, or use an
innate sense of what regulates the rules of their playful actions.

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 Elements of Learning Through Play
Ways to incorporate Learning Through Play
Play or first-hand experience has a major role in children's learning. Play supports,
stimulates and motivates children to develop a variety of skills. Children use all of their senses
during play, they learn to convey their opinions and emotions, discover their environment, and
connect their pre-existing knowledge with new knowledge, skills and abilities. Following are
some of the most effective ways to incorporate learning through play in a classroom.
1. Play-Based Learning Centers
This is an easy way to include play into a classroom's everyday routine. Whether the
collection of boxes on a shelf or traditional play centres (blocks, dramatic play and sand etc.),
it is the first step to have the essential resources available to add more play into the class routine.
Teachers can add things like blocks, puppets and puzzles in these centres and connect these to
classroom learning.
2. Manipulatives
Young students learn by doing as they are concrete learners. This makes play a
powerful tool! It is also suggested to use manipulatives to teach new concepts. For example,
Letter tiles can be used to teach spelling and toy cars can be used to teach about sounds.
3. Taking Learning Outside the Classroom
When teachers take learners outside the classroom, they show great interest in learning.
For example: For Science lessons, children can collect seeds, grass, flowers, to learn about
their characteristics. Teachers can also take students outside to teach about seasons of the year.

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 4. Act it Out
Instead of retelling a story, teachers can act it out to increase students' interest in the
lesson. Students show great engagement and love it when they are chosen to be actors. Students
can learn concepts such as sentence structure or social problem solving through role-plays or
acting it out in the classroom.
5. Making Learning an Adventure
Instead of sharing the title of the new topic, teachers can encourage students to visualize
through their imagination. For instance, to teach about the life under-water, a classroom can be
changed into an ocean! Pictures of underwater plants and animals can be displayed around the
classroom and students can pretend to be scuba diving or exploring new things.
Advantages of Play in the Classroom
In a classroom, play can help young learners to learn and grow. The use of educational toys
and play can help children learn a variety of skills they will use later in life.
1. Effective Communication: When a child is engaged in the play, either alone or with
other children, he builds significant listening skills as well as language and speaking
skills. Activities such as role-playing and action stories are great for building
communication skills in children.
2. Social Skills: Playtime helps young learners in learning to work with other children
with a mutual goal. Through play, children develop collaborative skills, which is
important in building friendships and developing social skills. Games such as 'staring
contest' and virtual gaming are important for building social skills.
3. Cognitive, Critical Thinking, & Motor Skills: Throughout the play, children are
provided with enormous opportunities to try new stuff and see the outcomes of that
learning. Simple board games and stacking and building games support cognitive skills
building. Games such as 'guess the toy' or 'food tasting' develop critical thinking.
Games such as playing with sponges and play-dough are good for building motor skills
in children.
4. Confidence Building: A major advantage of play is confidence building. Children
need the confidence to develop their ability to try new things and take risks. Activities
such as unstructured outdoor games and climbing up high objects are helpful to build
confidence in children.
5. Creativity: Creativity occurs when a child’s skill development and critical thinking are
combined to develop something new and different. Creativity is developed when

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 children use a familiar object unusually or uniquely, and when children engage in
imaginative play.
6. Intelligence: When children use all of their senses in learning, they expand their ability
to learn. A play-based curriculum enables children to use all of their senses in learning
which improves their intelligence.
7. Problem-Solving Skills: Learning through play gives a chance to children to ask
questions, guess an answer and assess their answer through experiment and error.
During play, children are constantly guessing and making choices. This gives them a
chance to check those guesses and reveal how to work out a problem. They can stack
up some blocks and check how tall their tower can become before falling, or mix
different colours of paint to make a new colour.
8. Emotional Literacy: Play-based learning greatly enhances children's ability to work
with other people, wait for their turn and understand others' emotions. While playing in
the sand, or building with blocks, children will learn how to share ideas, talk about their
play, share different materials, and understand the emotions of others.
To conclude, learning through play is effective because it enables learners to express
themselves, ask questions, take creative risks and collaborate with others. Who doesn't know
about the famous saying of Maria Montessori about the play: "Play is the work of the child."
In simple words, play helps a child's learning and growth. However, Montessori also identified
that children enjoy the most when play is based upon reality. Children are even happier when
they play with real objects that lead to real outcomes. Providing opportunities for children to
explore their environment and have a go is an important part of an effective classroom
experience. We know that intelligence in children is influenced by the quality of play they
engage with in early-years. The block building methodology that we have been researching
over the last few years develops interactions between children. This acts as a vehicle for
children to develop emotional and social intelligence.
These experiences for children allow groups of learners to practice how things fit together. The
first version won't probably be their last version and this is part of the learning cycle. We
believe that providing experiences for children that build an understanding of the world around
them is a vital part of childhood.
In many classrooms, the pressures of the curriculum force us to deny opportunities for children
that would enable them to construct complex schemata. An aspect of children's play is to give
them time and space to try things out. We are not limiting this to early years practice either,
our mental modelling concept has been utilised in six forms around the United Kingdom.
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Taking a playful approach gives the learner a more active role in their education. The pupil
now takes a critical role in the development of their knowledge, it's not simply 'chalk and talk.'

Play brings engagement to any classroom

How does learning through play build knowledge?
As well as playing a central role in the fundamental development of a child's emotional
and social well-being, being playful can also enable a child to build abstract knowledge. The
block-building activity that we have been promoting in classrooms enables students to
construct knowledge meaningfully.
The many benefits that have been cited include the development of both declarative
knowledge and procedural knowledge. What we mean by this is, the method can help make a
body of knowledge more concrete and accessible. At the same time, this play-based learning
approach helps students build the critical thinking skills they need to be successful in education.
Being able to elaborate and expand upon the block structures is an essential part of the
learning process. When students are modelling with the blocks they are making academic
knowledge meaningful. Depending on the circumstance, these collaborative structured
activities can be self-directed or guided by a learning coach.
Should we ever Stop Learning playfully?
The philosophy of never ceasing to learn playfully isn't confined to childhood but
extends into adulthood, professional development, and even the corporate world. Here's why
we should continue to playfully explore the world as adults, and the potential impact it has on
relationships and workplace outcomes:
1. Enhances Creative Thinking: Playful learning fosters creative thinking, allowing
adults to break free from conventional thought patterns. It encourages innovative
solutions in an ever-increasingly complex world.
2. Promotes Positive Dispositions: Engaging in play-based learning activities nurtures a
positive attitude towards challenges and failures, fostering resilience and adaptability.

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 3. Facilitates Language Acquisition: Playful interaction in a multicultural workplace can
enhance language skills and cultural understanding, vital in our globalized society.
4. Encourages Executive Functions: Activities like building blocks or Lego, used even
in corporate settings, enhance problem-solving and strategic planning abilities.
5. Fosters Cooperative Learning: Playful activities in professional development
workshops promote teamwork and collaboration, essential for project-based learning.
6. Enables Inquiry-Based Learning: Play allows adults to explore new ideas and
concepts without the fear of being wrong, encouraging a culture of continuous inquiry
and growth.
7. Provides First-Hand Experience: Playful exploration offers experiential learning,
bridging the gap between theory and practice, vital for skill development in various
professions.
According to Dr. Sarah Williams, a researcher at the PEDAL centre, "Playful learning is not a
child's prerogative. It's a human necessity that fosters creativity, collaboration, and emotional
well-being, transcending age and professional boundaries." A study shows that incorporating
playful activities in the workplace can increase creative output by 27%.
Key Insights and Facts:
• Enhances Creativity: Breaks conventional thinking patterns.
• Builds Resilience: Encourages a positive attitude towards failure.
• Promotes Teamwork: Essential for cooperative and project-based learning.
• Encourages Continuous Growth: Fosters a culture of inquiry and exploration.
• Relevant Statistic: Increases creative output by 27%.
In conclusion, the philosophy of learning playfully is not a transient phase but a lifelong
approach that has profound implications on personal growth, professional development, and
societal progress. It's not merely a tool for education but a mindset that can transform the way
we live, work, and interact in an increasingly complex world.

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 Learning Through Play at School
9 Ways to Weave the Benefits of Play into Your Curriculum
1. Integrate Playful Approach in Math: Utilize puzzles and games that require logical
thinking. For example, a Sudoku challenge can enhance problem-solving skills for 6-9
years people. According to research, playful math activities can increase mathematical
understanding by 24%.
2. Literary Play in English: Create story-building activities that allow students to
develop characters and plot, fostering creativity in the primary school classroom.
3. Outdoor Exploration for Science: Nature walks and scavenger hunts can be a basis
for learning about biology and ecology, encouraging active engagement.
4. Artistic Expression for Emotional Learning: Encourage painting and sculpting to
express feelings and emotions, especially for 3-6 years people, nurturing positive
dispositions.
5. Historical Role-Playing: Simulate historical events through role-playing, enhancing
empathy and understanding of different cultures.
6. Technology and Play-Based Learning Approaches: Integrate coding games to teach
basic programming, preparing students for future skills in a digital world.
7. Physical Education through Games: Incorporate traditional games that require
teamwork and strategy, building socio-emotional skills.
8. Music and Rhythm for Language Learning: Use songs and rhymes to teach new
vocabulary and grammar rules, making language learning experiences more engaging.

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 9. Community Projects for Social Studies: Engage students in community service
projects that align with social studies topics, promoting civic responsibility.
Dr. Emily Thompson, an expert in child education, states, "The experience of teachers
supporting play in the classroom is not just about fun. It's about connecting, growing, and
preparing our children for the future in a way that resonates with their natural curiosity."
Examples and Statistics:
• Math Games: Sudoku, puzzles, and logical games.
• Literary Play: Story-building, character creation.
• Outdoor Exploration: Nature walks, scavenger hunts.
• Technology Integration: Coding games, digital art.
• Community Engagement: Service projects, community involvement.
• Statistical Impact: Playful math activities can increase understanding by 24%.
These methods are not confined to a specific curriculum or country but are universal
approaches that can be adapted and implemented across different educational settings.

Reflection Question
1. How can you use the play activities in teaching learning process?
2. Discuss about the activities that you can design based on your academic expertise or
teaching experience?
References
1. Retrieved from https://www.jennyandy.ca/blogs/jenny-andy-blog/10-characteristics-of-
play

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 Chapter 15
Theories of Play
Theories of Play: There are at least five distinct theories of play, viz.:
1. Surplus Energy Theory
2. Re-creative Theory
3. Anticipatory Theory
4. Recapitulation Theory
5. Cathartic Theory
A brief discussion of each of the above theories is given below. Illustration 8 presents
all the above theories:
1. Surplus Energy Theory:
The exponents of this theory have been the German poet Schiller, and the English
philosopher Herbert Spencer. According to them play is the expression of a surplus of energy.
A child gets food and nutrition for its growth. An adult spends his energy in his daily work.
But the child has no such work.
He accumulates the energy and it remains surplus. Play provides an outlet for the
discharge of this surplus energy. Play thus acts as a safety valve to keep the normal balance of
the individual’s energy. As the excessive steam is discharged through valve from the boiler,
lest the boiler burst out, similarly the excessive energy of a child is discharged through play
activities.
Criticism:
This theory has been criticised on the following grounds:
(i) If the purpose is simply to discharge the surplus energy, why does it take a particular form
of play? We don’t see a child go about running and exhausting himself for nothing.
(ii) This theory fails to explain why we play even when we are tired, and have apparently no
surplus energy. A tired factory worker, coming home after the day’s toil, would like to lie
down, or to play table-tennis. Does he not get reset from playing?
(iii) The metaphor of safety valve as used by Spencer does not work. Surplus steam must go
out and it in no way makes the engine itself a better engine. But play does help the growth of
the child. Play-activity is not a waste, and the energy spent in play is not wasted like the surplus
steam of an engine thrown out in the atmosphere. A play is a purposeful activity enabling the
child to discover his own powers, physical, mental and moral.

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2. Re-Creative Theory:
This theory was first propounded by Lazarus of Berlin. Lazarus says that through play,
the child gets recreation and he gains his spent up energy. He recoups his energy spent during
his work, and feels refreshed when he plays for some time. Play thus removes fatigue and
compensates for the energy spent. It refreshes the tired organism.
Criticism:
(i) This theory does not explain why a child goes to play even when he is not tired. Generally,
children have no serious work to perform, and still they play.
(ii) Play does not follow hard work always, even in the case of adults. Some adults will play
cards or chess all day long. Hence this theory cannot be accepted as a universal interpretation.
3. Anticipatory Theory:
This theory, also known as PRACTICE THEORY was propounded by Karl Groos in
his two works ‘The Play of Animals’ and ‘The Play of Man’. He observed that play is a sort of
preparation for adulthood. The child anticipates his future activities and he prepares himself to
meet the problems of life in anticipation.
Karl Groos gave numerous illustrations from animal behaviour, thus proving this
propositions. Puppies quarrel in a playful way, because dogs have to fight. Kittens run after
moving objects, as they have to catch mice. Animals play, practising an art that will prove
useful to them in future.
Confirming this principle, T.P. Nunn says, “Nature invented play not merely as a means
of disposing of harmlessly the young animal’s superfluous energy, but as a device for using
that energy to prepare him for serious business of life.”
In the same way, explains Karl Groos, the children play different roles (soldiers, kings,
teachers, mothers etc.) as a rehearsal for future. They unconsciously prepare for their future
vocation and for the serious business of life. Play is thus a serious activity, as it has serious
potentialities for future. Thus Stern says, “Play is needed to life as manoeuvre is to warfare.”
Play thus is teleological, always anticipating the future needs of the animal. It serves the
biological utility of the race.
Karl Groos bases his explanation on some specific observations. Every child is helpless
at birth. It has to pass through a period of incubation during which it attains maturity of the
adult. This is true for birds, animals and men. Play serves as the nature’s mode of education
during the period of incubation, for adaptation to environment. “The higher the position in the
scale of intelligence to which the animal ultimately rises, the longer is the period of immaturity
accorded by nature, and the more pronounced is the impulse to play”.
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 It is, therefore, that human child has to pass the longest period of immaturity, during
which he gets opportunity to reach the level of adults in adaptation to the environment. J.S.
Ross summarises this phenomenon:
The need for education consists in helplessness at birth, the possibility of it arises from
the plasticity of instincts, the time given for it is the period of immaturity, the method of it is
play.
Criticism:
(i) Although Karl Groos theory is convincing, explaining certain aspects of play, but it remains
to be known why adults have a tendency to play even when they have actually entered the
serious business of life.
(ii) It remains to be explained why there is little correspondence between the type of play
selected by the child and the profession selected in future. A child has multifarious forms of
play. Groos, however, argues that the child takes up a number of play-activities, because he is
unconsciously ‘trying out’ various possible occupations of adulthood. The activities are well-
marked. A boy will play a soldier, and a girl…………. a mother, and not the vice-versa. Groos
thus meets this objection to a great extent.
(iii) But when we make a list of numerous play-activities of children, we find most of these are
not at all related to the adult-activities. It will be absurd to imagine that ‘hide and seek’ is
played to prepare for guerilla warfare in future, or ‘destroying little mud-hut’ is for destroying
the enemy’s civilian population. All plays cannot be explained through the anticipatory theory.
4. Recapitulation Theory:
G. Stanley Hall refuted the Anticipatory Theory and put forth a better explanation that
play is reminiscent rather than anticipatory. According to him, “the child is not so much
rehearsing the serious activities of his own adult life as harking back to and recapitulating those
of his remote ancestors.”
Stanley Hall has been a believer in what is known as ‘Culture-epoch theory” which
states that there is a parallelism between the racial development and individual development.
So he says that the mental development of the child recapitulates some of the history of his
ancestors – experimenting with the ordinary tools, trying to adapt to the physical environment,
curiously manipulating things and objects, trying to accumulate bits of knowledge etc.
Although the world in general advances, the individual must start from the very
beginning and traverse the epochs of the world’s culture. The poet Goethe, the philosopher
Hegel, the scientist Herbert Spencer and the Educationist Ziller (disciple of Herbert) lived this
theory. The Culture-epoch Theory has stayed so far.
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 Stanley Hall is not, therefore, far from the truth when he asserts that in play the child
recapitulates certain activities of primitive man. What otherwise can be the explanation for
such activities as playing with pebbles, throwing stones, shooting arrows, riding a bamboo
stick, chasing others, hide and seek, scribbling on stones and trees, building toy-huts and
fishing in streams? Observe the folk-dances of aborigines and compare these with the group
dances of children and their hilarious shouting in circles, or even the twist-dance in a club.
Criticism:
Hall’s theory explains a good number of play activities, but not all. Some play activities
are related with future business of life, rather than with past of the race. Playing with cart is
explainable but what about playing with trains, aeroplanes, toy-rockets and ships? Did these
exist in the hoary past?
Secondly, it is not explained, why a child gets pleasure out of play? What special
attraction does it provide, so that he will afford to miss his meals but not his play? Again, it is
not explained why a child makes a selection of his play activities according to his interests. If
the play is the recapitulation of the activities of the race, all the activities of the race must be
of equal interest to the child.
5. Cathartic Theory:
Perhaps to explain the above phenomena that presents valid criticism of the
Recapitulation theory, that some psychologists propound the Cathartic Theory, according to
which play provides an outlet for certain pent-up instincts and emotions, which do not get
sufficient expression directly. Our present life is so refined that our primitive impulses do not
get direct opportunity for expression. So with ingenuity we invent activities which though not
uncivilized, are expressions of our primitive instincts.
There is a release of psychic energy, when we play Holi and take the liberty of throwing
colours on all and sundry. Our Kabaddi is but an epitome of the ancient combats, providing a
vicarious channel for the instinct of pugnacity. So many impulses like anger, self-assertion,
gregariousness and laughter find their expression in a sublimated form in play activities.
Play is an expression of emotions. But this theory goes a step further. It states that our
pent-up emotions are ‘purged out’ through play. And hence the word catharsis is used, which
in Greek means ‘purging out’ or ‘cleaning’. The word ‘catharsis’ has been taken from the
writings of Aristotle, wherein he explains that a tragedy is cathartic in effect, while the spectator
projects himself in the life of the hero, experiences the violent emotions and relieves his pent-
up feelings. If a tragedy has an unpleasant end, why do we love to see it over and over again?
We see it for our own sake, to get emotional relief.
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 The difference between the surplus energy theory and the cathartic theory is only this
much that the former talks of release of physical energy, and the latter describes release of
psychic energy. Ross opines that cathartic theory is the most comprehensive formula yet
offered.
Criticism:
(i) Is every child emotionally unbalanced, so that he has got pent-up emotions to be released?
We don’t have any such evidence.
(ii) Children with no emotional problems, do play and play vigorously.
(iii) Not all the play activities are connected with emotions. Chess and cards, perhaps do not
provide any opportunity to relieve emotional tension.
(iv) This theory ignores the physical aspect of play activities.
6. Synthesis of the Theories:
It is shown above that no single theory provides a complete explanation of play. Each
theory has some valid points and some limitations. We can, however, correlate these theories
and come to some agreed solution.
(i) The surplus energy theory, recreational theory and cathartic theory are inter-related. In play,
both the physical and the emotional energy is given expression. We can easily follow surplus
physical and mental energy, or catharsis of physical and mental tensions. Recreation is a by-
product of release of emotions.
(ii) The anticipatory theory and the recapitulation theory are complementary. Play is both
recapitulation of ancestoral activities and anticipation of adult activities. The past experiences
are usefully employed to meet the problems of future life. Indian psychologists, while
explaining the theory of Sanskaras, direct our attention to the past as well as future of the child.
The future depends upon the past.
They combine the forward look of Groos and back-ward look of Hall. If we widen the
connotation of play and include in it all make-believes dramas, the Rasa theory of Indian
experts corresponds well to the cathartic theory of Aristotle. Play culminates in the
development of our basic emotions into Rasa, a state of pure delight. We may weep profusely,
but yet take delight in the tragic events, and wish to see these over and over again. Play,
therefore, is anticipatory, recapitulatory, and cathartic all combined. The different theories are
complementary rather than contradictory.
Types of Play: Karl Groos mentions five types of play, viz.:
(i) Experimental,
(ii) Movement,
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(iii) constructive,
(iv) fighting, and
(v) intellectual.
As Groos believed in culture- epoch theory, he mentioned the above order of the types
of play, in accordance with the types of activities of man at different epochs. The primitive
man made experiments about the objects in the environment.
So does the infant. Next, the child runs about, and his play is movement play-like the
man of iron-age, trying to construct things, the child manipulates objects. Then he is engaged
in group-games, and he organises play of fighting type. Lastly, he has the intellectual type of
play, preparing for the various situations of life.
Another Classification is:
(i) Motor play,
(ii) Constructive play,
(iii) Destructive play,
(iv) Make-believe,
(v) Initiative, and
(vi) Group play.
1. Motor Play:
From the very beginning the child displays his restlessness. Even an infant throws his
limbs. A child of two will sit and stand and move about in sportive manner, thus performing
motor activities of various types.
2. Constructive Play:
The instinct of constructiveness is displayed in constructive plays of various kinds such
as constructing a hut, joining cubes to construct pyramids, joining parts of machine, and
assembling objects. A girl prepares meals, and makes ornament of various flowers. A boy
usually likes assembling mechanical toys.
3. Destructive Play:
A child not only assembles objects, but also demolishes these once assembled. He uses
scissors to cut paper into pieces, matches to burn waste-paper and straw, a stick to demolish
the brick-hut constructed, stones to disturb the calm surface of a pond, an elastic rubber and
stone to shoot at birds on a tree, a knife to dissect insects and birds caught etc. At one time he
puts things in order and soon he applies a sportive kick to disturb the order.

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4. Make Believe:
It is the most interesting and important form of the play. Children assume various roles
such as the role of a mother, a father, a teacher, a villager, an old man, a beggar, a fool, a
milkman, etc. In such a make- believe, the child finds a channel for the relief of his pent-up
energy, which would otherwise be blocked. In his world of fantasy he finds expression to his
unfulfilled desires. Sometimes, the child talks to an imaginary companion who is an epitome
of his own new image. He projects his own life in fairy tales, or tales about step-mother
torturing the step-son. He gets catharsis of his repressed feelings by the action of the fairy god-
mother who loves the child and kills the step-mother.
The survival of a wealth of fairy-tales and children’s stories from generation to
generation is because of their cathartic effect. The Panchatantra stories, first composed in India,
travelled all the Arab and European countries in the 9th century A.D. Aesop’s Fables are the
European edition of Panchatantra. Stories from Kathasaritasagara (a Sanskrit story-book) that
deal with children have been popular in Indian homes uptil now.
5. Imitative Play:
In make-believe, there is imagination and fantasy to the extent that the story has no real
base. But sometimes the child imitates persons who are performing various roles in the society.
A village boy imitates farmer’s ploughing, a city child imitates the movement of a train and
gesticulates the same. A small girl takes a doll and plays a mother. A young boy rests a stick
on his shoulder and imitates a soldier in the army. He may march like a soldier and sing a
marshal song. A young girl plays the role of a nurse in the hospital.
6. Group Play:
In the early childhood, the child loves to play with other children. It is only the introvert
and the maladjusted child who withdraws himself from his appearingly unpleasant social
surroundings, and broods over his own fantasies. But normally, the child mixes with other
children of his age- group. He obeys the rules of the game and is faithful to the group. Children
play ‘hide and seek’, handkerchief game, Kabbadi, Kho-Kho, skipping etc.
Indoor games like ludo, mechano, serpent and ladder are most common. Intelligent
teachers have invented group games for teaching each subject. Scouting and Girl-guiding
includes numerous group-plays. Group-singing, group, dance, dramatics, Karwali, Bhangra
and Giddha (in Punjab), are all examples of group play. Even adults do not lag behind in
purging out their emotions through playful activities like Holi, Dewali, folk-dances, folk-songs,
and celebration of festivals.

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 When we discover the enormous variety of playful activities suiting each age we
conclude with Ross that “Play is joyful, spontaneously, creative activity, in which man
finds his fullest self-expression”.
Characteristics of Play
1. Innate Tendency:
Play is an innate tendency. It is a creative tendency which is related to a number of
instincts and emotions. It is therefore, that the expression of play-activity is spontaneous, a
result of an inner urge.
2. Play is Characterised by Freedom:
The child absorbs himself in play according to his own will, and is not impelled by any
outward force. He will play whatever he likes, whenever he likes, and for whatever period he
likes. That is why Stern defines play as ‘voluntary, self-constrained activity.’
3. Play is Cathartic:
The child expresses his emotions through play, and finds his fullest self-expression. In
words of Ross, “Play is cathartic in its action, that is to say, it provides an out-let for certain
pent-up instincts and emotions, which, whether in childhood or in adult life, cannot find
sufficient direct expression.”
4. Play is for the Sake of Play:
Play is a non-serious activity, and is pursued for its own sake. Play does not produce
pleasure, but is pleasure itself. A child plays not for any end in view.
5. Play is Characterised by Child-Fantasy and Make Believe:
A child may absorb himself in imaginative plays, and express his overt behaviour
through those. In make-believe, he may find compensation for the inadequacies of his
surroundings or of his own self.
6. Play is Interesting and Recreating:
The child engages himself in play with absorbing interest. Even if physically tired, he
will feel supreme satisfaction in the performance of play while his psychic energy is
discharged. Play is always refreshing.
7. Play is a Mirror of Cultural Activities:
A child anticipates the future adult activities, and recapitulates the activities of the race
through his playful activities. This has already been discussed above.

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8. Play is Different from Work:
In play, we are away from the serious business of life, rigours of our profession, and the
economic and other worries. There is no external motive. There is no boredom. Work, on the
other hand, is tiring and taxing. This is further explained below.
The 6 Stages of Play And How to Facilitate Each Stage For Healthy Development
Playing Is How Children Learn and Develop Crucial Skills
For children, play isn’t just for fun. It’s how they learn. Children develop important
skills through play that they continue to use throughout their life. Often this is referred to as
play-based learning. And it goes beyond just the skills you might expect, like conflict
resolution, communication, working with others, and problem-solving. Play is also how
children learn academic skills like language, reading, writing, mathematics, and
comprehension. And while play might appear random to us as adults, there are actually 6 stages
of play that children progress through as part of their development.
The 6 stages of play were identified by researcher Mildred Parten, at the University of
Minnesota’s Institute of Child Development. Her research has been used and is still referenced
in many influential papers to this day.
The six stages of play as identified by Parten are:
1. Unoccupied play (Birth – 3 Months of Age)
2. Solitary play (3 Months of Age – 2 Years of Age)
3. Onlooker Play (2 Years of Age)
4. Parallel Play (2 Years of Age and Older)
5. Associate Play (3-4 Years of Age
6. Cooperative Play (4+ Years of Age)
Stage of Play -1: Unoccupied Play (Birth – 3 Months of Age)
Unoccupied play is the first stage of play, and begins almost right from birth. This type
of play can be characterized by your child making seemingly random movements, such as
relatively uncontrolled movements of the arms, legs, hands and feet. Tummy time can also be
considered a form of unoccupied play. Although unoccupied play may not look like it, it is
actually considered play in very young children.
How to Facilitate and Encourage Unoccupied Play
There’s very little needed in order to facilitate this stage of play. Simply place your
baby in a safe place on the floor with room to move. You can also give them something
interesting to look at for additional stimulation. For very young children, something with high-
contrast colors (black and white is excellent) because babies have an easier time focusing on
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high contrast colors at this stage of their development. My favourite toy at this age is a baby
play gym.
Stage of Play -2: Solitary Play (3 Months – 2 Years of Age)
Solitary play is the second of the six stages of play and usually begins at around three
months of age. During this stage, children play alone and do not interact with other children.
They engage in activities that are self-directed, such as playing with toys or exploring their
environment. Children begin to display an increased level of focus during this stage. They also
sustain play for longer periods of time than in the unoccupied stage.
Solitary play helps children develop their cognitive skills as they are learning to explore
and experiment with their environment. They are learning to recognize patterns, form mental
images, and identify objects. This also helps children develop their problem-solving skills as
they are learning to explore and experiment with their environment.
These play behaviors also help children develop their sense of self-awareness and
independence. This stage of play remains unstructured, and although your child doesn’t show
interest in other children or adults, it’s perfectly normal in younger children.
How to Facilitate Solitary Play
Age-appropriate toys are a great way to facilitate this type of play in early childhood.
Because the age range for solitary play is so broad, you’ll need to make sure you provide new
toys as they get older. Variety is also key at this stage. Providing a variety of different toys,
activities and environments help facilitate your child’s desire to explore the world and objects
around them.
Stage Of Play -3: Onlooker Play (2.5 – 3.5 Years of Age)
As your child’s play skills develop, they will progress to onlooker play at around two
and a half years of age. At this stage, children are observing other children playing and learning
from them. At this stage, children will tend to watch other children playing, but won’t engage
with them. They’ll simply observe, or be an onlooker.
While you may want to encourage your child to engage, there really is no need, as
children showing interest in others and observing them is a totally normal part of development.
This stage is important for children to learn about social cues and to understand how others
play. As your child watches, they are learning to understand the boundaries of others and the
rules around social play. This also helps children develop their observational skills. They’ll
likely have lots of questions about what they are seeing as well.

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How to Facilitate Onlooker Play
Simply being around other children who are the same age (or similar) to yours will facilitate
this stage. The key is placing them in an environment where they can observe other children’s
play. Childcare/daycare, playgroups, mothers groups, spending time with friends who have
similar age children, or simply spending time at the local part are all fantastic ways to do this.
Stage of Play -4: Parallel Play (3.5 to 4 Years of Age)
Parallel play is the fourth of the 6 stages of play development and usually occurs between three
and a half, to four years of age. Parallel play occurs when children are playing side-by-side but
not interacting with each other. They’ll be playing with similar toys, but not playing together.
This stage of play helps children further develop social skills. Although they aren’t directly
interacting, they will often share toys without playing together directly. For example, one might
sit something down, and the other child then picks it up. Or children will be using the same
toys but playing separate games right next to each other. At this stage, your child starts learning
to understand social cues and develop empathy. They are learning to recognize the emotions
and feelings of others, and they are learning to take turns and share. This stage of play also
helps children develop their communication skills, as they are learning to interact with others
in a respectful manner.
How to Facilitate Parallel Play
Like onlooker play, parents and early childhood educators can facilitate this by
providing an environment where different children of similar ages are able to play in close
proximity. For example, in a sand pit or toy room. But in this case, it’s important to provide
lots of age-appropriate toys, with enough for two children (or more) to each play with them
independently.
Stage of Play -5: Associative Play (3 – 4 Years of Age)
Associative play is fifth in the 6 stages of play. This type of play starts at around three
years of age. This is a key stage in your child’s development because it’s where they begin to
develop social skills through playing with others. This is the stage in child development where
they begin directly engaging in activities with other children.
Children start to collaborate and share toys and resources in a more deliberate way.
This is where your child learns to cooperate and collaborate with other children. Although they
will be engaging with peers, the play won’t be organized, and the children won’t be focused
on a common goal. Each child will still be very focused on their own play and their own goals.
At this stage, children are learning to develop their communication and teamwork skills. They
are also learning to understand and respect the boundaries of others.
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How to Encourage Associative Play
Create play spaces where children of a similar age are able to play in close proximity
to each other, with toys that encourage them to play together. For example, a car track with
multiple cars. Or a dollhouse with several dolls who all share the house.
Stage of Play -6: Cooperative Play (4 Years of Age and Older)
Cooperative play is the final stage of the 6 stages of play and usually doesn’t develop
until around four and a half years of age. The main difference between associative play and
cooperative play is that the child begins to play with others in a way that is directed toward a
common goal.
Cooperative play is a more advanced form of social play. Often at this stage of play
development children engage in imaginative or pretend play where they take on different roles.
They will often create imaginative worlds and recreate scenes or scenarios that they are familiar
with.
Some examples are:
• Playing schools, with one child acting as the teacher, while the rest act as students
• Creating a restaurant scene, where they divide into chefs and customers
• Re-creating scenes from movies
• Board games
• Organised sports
Children are learning to understand the perspective of others, and how to work as a
team. They are also developing their language skills and learning how to compromise and
negotiate. This stage of play also helps children develop their self-confidence and
independence.
How to Encourage Co-operative Play
The key to encouraging cooperative children’s play is to create opportunities for
children to work together and collaborate. A few ways you can do this include:
• Organising sports
• Providing board games other structured, team based games and activities
• Encouraging them to build things together. This could include things like towers, art
projects, science experiments, and other creative endeavours.
What is Play-Way Method of Learning?
Play-way method of learning is a complete package that enables overall development
of the child by developing in terms of feelings, intellect and skills parameters. It not only
focuses on subjective development but the emotional development of the child as well. In this
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method of learning, playing acts as the driving force as the entire learning method revolves
around activity-based learning. It encourages expression and creative skills among children.
How effective is play-method of learning
Surprisingly, the pre-primary stage of education is often overlooked but actually, it
needs immense exploration and attention. The base of a child is formed right from pre-school.
Play-way method of learning is very popular modus operandi of imparting knowledge to
children and is introduced in major parts of India in preschools. While going to play school the
child steps out of his/her home and the nutshell for the first time. Hence, if an environment of
play is entertained for them in pre-schools than it will give them the feeling of comfort and will
help them to create a bond with their teachers and other kids. Children’s always tend to get
excited if certain fun element and play is involved in it. With this particular method, the child
can give wings to their imagination ability. It enables the child to improve various skills like
motor, creative, imaginative, aesthetic, cognitive, linguistic etc.
The play-way method is a unique method of learning and can be customized as per the
child’s interests and requirements. Hence, it may vary from child to child. Teachers should
develop different customized learning activities by creating a joyful environment and shall plan
the activities ranging from simple to complex. What can be best for child other than to get a
complete feeling of freedom? This method of learning is unplanned and hence encourages the
complete freedom of expression. The traditional methods of assessing kids based on grading
system are completely eliminated under this method rather, the teachers assess the aptitudes
and skills of a child on regular intervals and keep their parents informed about same. The
children get promoted to next level by participating in ample of activities like music,
communication with teachers and other kids, art, learning and inculcating skills etc. All these
activities ensure the child’s development such as physical, intellectual, psychological along
with the development of different skills.
There is no rigid method of applying a play-way method of learning and it can be
combined with other methods of learning as well. All the appropriate knowledge regarding this
method can be acquired by preschool trainer certification. A school who wishes to incorporate
a play-way method of learning in its curriculum needs to study every minute detail of it and
prepare the set up accordingly.
Principles of Play-way method
• A practical approach helps in easy learning for the child.
• The complete atmosphere of freedom is conductive for learning.
• The customized method designed and adopted should suit the needs of the child.
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 • Learning methods used should be related to real life rather than books.
• This method provides a plethora of opportunities for the child to express
themselves.
Why Play-way method
• It turns entire learning into fun element by involving play in it.
• It develops the feeling of satisfaction among children.
• Every child is given equal exposure and ample of opportunities for learning and
participation.
• Along with knowledge, it inculcates various other skills in a child.
• It helps children to connect with peers and teachers easily.
• It facilitates the overall and holistic development.

Reflection Questions

1. How can you implement these theories and different play method in your classroom?
2. Identify the stage of play and discuss the activities that you can use for each stage of
play.

References

1. Retrieved from https://www.psychologydiscussion.net/child-psychology/play-theories-

types-and-educative-value-psychology/2489

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 Chapter 16
Play and Development
The young child is not born with the ability to get along with others or to cooperate in
activities of give and take. This skill of learning to live and work with others begins in the first
year of life; the ability to be truly cooperative is normally accomplished by age seven, when
see children gaining the ability to play games with rules (Erikson, 1950). It is in the early years
that children move through pre-stages to cooperation (Burton- Jones, 1967). These pre-stages
are
1. Unoccupied behavior
2. Solitary independent play
3. Onlooker
4. Parallel play
5. Associative play
6. Cooperative play
In the prestages, unoccupied behaviour is introverted and nonactive, but in solitary and
independent play the child begins to manipulate objects and begins to make believe, although
by himself. This is followed by parallel play, which can be seen when older toddlers play side
by side, each doing a similar imitative activity (eg. washing dolls) but without true
communication or cooperation.
The true social stage of play, near age three, is associative play, in which children work
on one task, sharing materials with peers. Two children might build a garage with blocks or
work together to create a sand “city”. Later, after much experience with other children, we
begin to see the development of highly valued socio-dramatic play as true cooperative play.
The is the dress-up and make believe role play that adults finds so appealing during the
preschool to kindergarten years (ages 3 to 7). Young children learn to understand social roles
through role playing mommy, daddy, doctor, grocer, firefighter, and a host of other roles that
they have seen in their culture (Connolly, 1980).
Finally, near the beginning of middle childhood (ages 7 to 11) and the beginning of
formal schooling, the child acquires the ability to play games with rules (Ross & kay,1980).
These include competitive games (sports and board games) and mental games (word games
and those often played in the car while travelling).
The value of play for emotional development
A young child, whose language is limited, is better able to express his feelings and
understand his world through play than through complicated words. The child who has had a
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highly emotional negative experience (such as a trip to the dentist) or a positive experience (a
birthday party) can retreat to his or her play world of and play out dentist or birthday. This
recreation in the safe world of play allows the child to digest both pleasant and unpleasant
experiences to better understand them and to begin to gain some control over his or her feelings
related to the experiences. Fantasy or make believe play is a built in therapy system for the
well-developed young child (Jackowitz & Watson, 1980).
The value of play for intellectual development
Learning is not simply a process of putting information into the child and then having
the child put it out. The child must play with the new information to understand it (Flavel,
1985). Children use toys and gestures symbolically in play as attempts to understand objects
and experiences in their real world (Athey, 1984).
The symbols seen in children’s play and artwork indicate the development of the ability
to use representation (one thing stands for another). Just as a child, the letters C-A-T will
represent the animal that says “meow” to the older, school age child. The young child needs
many experiences of playing with symbols before he or she is ready to unlock the world of
words (the letters CAT stand for the animal:cat) and this is required for success in beginning
reading (Garvey, 1977). It is during the preschool years that the child is moving from the make-
believe symbols Bretherton, 1984) in play to the world of words in reading and writing.
The value of play for physical development
It is through sensorimotor play (play using both the senses and muscles) that the infant
or toddler discovers his or her own body and its abilities. The preschool child is still developing
this awareness through both small muscle activity (crawling, walking, running, balancing, and
climbing). It is also through play with the senses of taste, smell, touch, sight and hearing that
fellings become coordinated and useful for testing and gathering information about the world.
The sensorimotor play of preschool children helps them master both understanding of their
bodies and the ability to control the use of their bodies more effectively.
How does play support your child’s development and learning?
Physical development - active play using large and small muscles such as climbing, running,
ball games, digging, jumping, and dancing. This supports children’s overall health and sense
of wellbeing, physical growth, appreciation for the benefits of active lifestyles and skills for
independence in self-help such as dressing or feeding.
Social and emotional development - dramatic and imaginative play which includes dressing
up and role play can develop positive social and emotional skills and values. This provides
opportunities for children to:
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 • practise how to work with other children, negotiate ideas, and make choices and
decisions
• develop self-confidence by experiencing success and challenges
• learn to control their emotions, reduce impulsive behaviour, or reduce stress as they
act out feelings and events that might be worrying them
• develop empathy and fairness as they learn to play alongside and with other children.
Cognitive development - when your child plays individually and with others their cognitive
skills, such as thinking, remembering, learning and paying attention are all being developed.
Children develop the following cognitive skills through play:
• problem solving
• the power of imagination and creativity
• concepts such as shapes, colours, measurement, counting and letter recognition
• strengths such as concentration, persistence and resilience.
Literacy and numeracy development - play requires thinking, language, interactions,
curiosity and exploration. Through play children develop skills and understandings including:
• an increased understanding of words and their use
• listening and speaking skills
• writing skills through scribbling, painting and drawing
• learning how stories work (plot, characters, structure, purpose and format of words on
a page)
• learning that objects can stand for something else (a block can be a symbol for a
telephone) which is foundation learning for formal reading, spelling and numeracy
because letters, words or numerals are part of symbol systems
• learning that letters, words, symbols, numerals and signs have a purpose and are
meaningful to others.
How can you contribute to your child’s learning through play?
Children’s success as learners depends on strong foundations developed from infancy.
Play based learning fosters critical skills, understanding and dispositions which are essential
for your child’s lifelong learning and wellbeing. You can encourage your child’s learning
through by:
• sharing information about your child’s interests and abilities with their educators so
that they can plan play experiences for your child based on their interests and abilities
• playing with your child

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 • discussing your child’s program with the educators at your child’s service, and the
activities your child enjoys playing and taking part in
• advocating for safe and interesting play spaces in your local community.
Educative Value of Play:
1. Physical Development:
• Education is growth and development. Play affords opportunity for the development of
body and mind. Group games enhance neuro-muscular activity and provide exercise
for all parts of the body. The restless child finds an outlet for his energies.
2. Mental Development:
• Play provides opportunity for the expression of psychic energy. It tones up emotions
and sublimates the instinct of curiosity, constructiveness, combat and gregariousness.
It provides additional information about various objects of the world. Through toys, the
child learns new colours, shapes, textures, movements and uses of objects.
• Through play-way, he acquires information and skill relating to the school subjects. He
develops into a balanced personality. Play is an irreplaceable ingredient for a balanced
personality. It trains head, heart and hands.
3. Social Development:
• Through group games, the child establishes social relationship with his mates and
acquires the social traits of cooperation, tolerance, friendliness, loyalty to the group,
adherence to rules, give and take, mutual help and social understanding. He gets
opportunity to assert himself and act as a leader. Without play, the child might become
introvert, selfish and egoistic. He understands his own capacities and locates himself in
the group. He enters a world of reality.
4. Moral Development:
• In play the child learns sportsmanship, honesty, fairness, justice, self-reliance, self-
restraint and courage. He gets moral training indirectly and unwittingly.
5. Therapeutic Cure:
• Play affords therapeutic cure to maladjusted children, on whom restrictions have been
imposed and who suffer mental tension. As play is cathartic in action, the pent-up
emotions are released through make-believe and fantasy. This has been explained above.
6. Motivation to Learning:
• If work cannot motivate a child to learn, play can motivate. Any subject, howsoever
dull and dreary, can be of absorbing interest to the child if it is taught in play-way
manner. We shall explain it in a movement.
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 7. An Index to Future Careers:
• A child may be interested in a particular type of activity. His constant attention to a
particular play may have a predictive value. Napolean in his childhood, played the
leadership role. Edison absorbed himself in scientific hobbies. Maharani Laxmi Bai
exhibited wonderfully her aptitude for military activities.
Play is essential to development because it contributes to the cognitive, physical, social,
and emotional well-being of children and youth. Play also offers an ideal opportunity for
parents to engage fully with their children. Despite the benefits derived from play for both
children and parents, time for free play has been markedly reduced. Children today receive less
support for play than did previous generations in part because of a more hurried lifestyle,
changes in family structure, and increased attention to academics and enrichment activities at
the expense of recess or free play. What are the benefits of play in a child’s life? According to
play therapist O. Fred Donaldson, a child who has been allowed to develop play resources
receives many enduring advantages. She develops a universal learning skill. Play maximises
her potential by developing creativity and imagination. Play promotes joy, which is essential
for self-esteem and health. The learning process is self-sustained based as it is on a natural love
of learning and playful engagement with life.
Emotional-behavioural benefits of play
• Play reduces fear, anxiety, stress, irritability
• Creates joy, intimacy, self-esteem and mastery not based on other’s loss of esteem
• Improves emotional flexibility and openness
• Increases calmness, resilience and adaptability and ability to deal with surprise and change
• Play can heal emotional pain.
Social benefits of play
• Increases empathy, compassion, and sharing
• Creates options and choices
• Models relationships based on inclusion rather than exclusion
• Improves nonverbal skills
• Increases attention and attachment Physical benefits
• Positive emotions increase the efficiency of immune, endocrine, and cardiovascular systems
• Decreases stress, fatigue, injury, and depression
• Increases range of motion, agility, coordination, balance, flexibility, and fine and gross motor
exploration

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 A review of more than 40 studies found that play is significantly related to creative
problem-solving, co-operative behaviour, logical thinking, IQ scores, and peer group
popularity. Play enhances the progress of early development from 33% to 67% by increasing
adjustment, improving language and reducing social and emotional problems (Fisher 1992).
As the developmental biologist Jean Piaget observed, ‘We can be sure that all happenings,
pleasant or unpleasant, in the child’s life, will have repercussions on her dolls’ (Piaget 1962).
The importance of constructive play
One of my favourite activities as a young child growing up on a farm in the beautiful
border country between England and Wales was to go outside after the frequent heavy rains
we often experienced (or even while it was raining) to dig and build little ditches, channels,
aqueducts, tunnels, diversions, and dams for all the runoff. I also loved creating fantastic
marble shoots with my peers at school using several sets of unit blocks. I remember some of
these block creations were so high that they touched the classroom ceiling! Both these activities
involved constructive play. In this article I argue that, while constructive play is often viewed
as secondary to both physical and symbolic/fantasy play, it is critically important for young
children, and should be encouraged and supported both in the classroom and on the playground.

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Piaget’s stages of play
According to Piaget, children engage in types of play that reflect their level of cognitive
development: functional play, constructive play, symbolic/fantasy play, and games with rules
(Johnson, Christie & Wardle 2005).
• Functional play is the use of bodily movements, with or without objects, such as
running and jumping, sliding, gathering and dumping, manipulating and stacking
objects, and informal games without rules.
• Constructive play uses objects – blocks, Legos, tinker toys, or different materials
(sand, modelling clay, paint, blocks) – in an organised, goal-oriented way to make
something.
• Symbolic/Fantasy play is role playing or make-believe play, such as pretending to be
a baby, fire fighter, superhero, or monster, and make believe actions, such as driving a
car by moving a pretend steering wheel, or using a block of wood as a cell phone.
• Games with rules are games with peers that are controlled by pre-established rules,
such as tag, Mother-May-I, checkers, Duck-Duck-Goose, and so on.
Piaget also viewed these forms of play as progressive, or cumulative, beginning with
functional play (i.e. an infant playing with a rattle) and progressing to games with rules. But,
because a game with rules requires someone to make sure players adhere to these rules –
usually an adult – it is often not included within the framework of free play. And, while
functional play is the kind of play encouraged in most outdoor playgrounds (swinging, sliding,
riding tricycles, running, and climbing), symbolic/fantasy play is viewed by many experts as
the highest level of play in the preschool and kindergarten years (Leong & Bodrova 2015).
Early childhood scholars believe that symbolic/fantasy play develops children’s social skills,
basic mathematical abilities, early literacy concepts, and behavioural self-regulation.
Unfortunately some have even called it mature play (Leong & Bodrova, 2015). Thus
constructive play is often left out of the discussion regarding the critical importance of play, or
is simply viewed as a bridge between functional play and the supposedly more desirable and
sophisticated symbolic/fantasy play.
Constructive play is what young children do
With the current focus on early childhood standards, assessment of young children’s
progress, and early childhood academic activities, early childhood educators continually have
to justify the use of play in the curriculum. Often this justification is that play prepares children
for later academic, social, and emotional successes (Leong & Bodrova 2015). But, while
constructive play teaches children to be flexible thinkers (Bruner 1972), and develops a sense
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of control and self-esteem by encouraging children to control their environment (Chaille 2008),
I believe the main value of constructive play is that it enables children to be children: to do
what children need to do and want to do!
In fact, research shows that when given a choice of free play activities, constructive
play is chosen more than 50% of the time by preschool children (Rubin, Fein, & Vandenberg
1983), and for preschool children, constructive play was also their favourite outdoor activity
(Ihn 1998). Further, constructive play is wonderful for children who may not be quite ready to
move on to symbolic/fantasy play: many boys, children with delayed or slow language
development, those whose social development may be immature, and children with certain
disabilities.
Constructivist learning
I often enjoy playing with my 4-year-old grandson, Isaac. When he visits us at our home,
he loves to play with the set of unit blocks that we acquired for our own children. He loves to
make patterns on the floor, matching up different size blocks, and placing blocks of the same
shape and size together. But recently everything changed: he decided his goal now was to place
all the blocks on end, and to see how high he could build them! He even tried constructing
these structures on a gymnastics mat (which happened to be on the floor) until he discovered
that this did not provide the needed stability.
Isaac’s goal had changed because his view of the world had changed as a result of his
cognitive development. Our understanding of constructive play comes from the constructivist
view of development and learning (Chaille 2008). This approach to early childhood education
is about responding to children who are, by nature, exploring, discovering, and theory building
in everything they do. It is a theory that believes children construct knowledge through
interactions between their own ideas and experiences in the social and physical world. Thus,
learning from a constructivist perspective is intrinsic, because children continually try to make
sense of their world, which is what Isaac was doing.

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Encouraging constructive play
The most important thing in encouraging constructive play for young children is to
understand the value of this kind of play, in and of itself, and not to view it as preparation for
future academic success and development, or as a bridge to symbolic/fantasy play. Children
should be encouraged and supported to fully enjoy, explore, and appreciate constructive play.
Further, enough time every day needs to be provided for all kinds of play, and constructive
play should be encouraged inside, in transition areas (i.e. porches or decks), and on the
playground. This begins by providing a vast array of stimulating materials such as:
• Unit and hollow blocks
• A woodworking area
• A variety of puzzles
• Mosaic tiles and patterns
• Milk crates, boxes, and other cubes
• Clean pieces of wood of different sizes, shapes, and strengths
• Sticks and stones, leaves, bark, and other natural materials
• Sand and sand toys
• Water and water toys
• Clay, play dough, and other modelling materials

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 • Paints, brushes and easels, chalk, crayons, stencils, drawing tools, and other art
materials
• Car tires (bias and clean)
• Wagons and tools to move sand, dirt, and other materials (Wardle 2000).
Indoors
Because constructive play is driven by children’s interactions with their environment
(Chaille 2008), changing the environment encourages all sorts of constructive play. Adding
new and novel materials to indoor learning centres is one way to increase constructive play
indoors; another is to integrate materials across learning centres: the woodwork bench with the
art area, the science and block area, the literacy area with the maths manipulatives, and so on.
Finally, taking materials outside and bringing materials into the classroom from the playground,
are additional ways to increase constructive play.

Outdoors
Well-designed water play areas and sandboxes encourage constructive play because so
much can be done using these very flexible materials (Ihn 1998). A hardtop area within the
playground or transition area between the classroom and playground encourages play with unit
and hollow blocks, water tables, woodwork benches, art easels and paints, and other traditional
classroom materials. A large garden also encourages a variety of constructive play.
However, children also need to be encouraged to use traditional classroom materials and
equipment in novel and innovative ways outside, such as painting on the sidewalk or fence,
making garden signs and building birdhouses on the workbench, and building higher and bigger

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with blocks. In general, outdoor play is louder, takes up more space, uses more – and often
different – materials, and is messier than indoor play (Johnson, Christie & Wardle 2005).
Conclusion
Constructive play is what young children do naturally. While other forms of play can
be justified as preparing children for later academic and life successes, constructive play should
be encouraged and supported because it lets children simply be children. This, many believe,
is the best possible preparation for later achievements. Providing adequate time each day for
play, and continually changing, combining, and adding new and more complex materials, both
indoors and on the playground, are the best ways to support constructive play.

Reflection Questions

1. What kinds of constructive materials can you use in order to play constructively?
2. What are the indoor activities they you can manage to play meaningful?

References
1. Wolfgang, C. H. (2004). Child guidance through play: Teaching positive social behaviors
(Ages 2-7). Allyn & Bacon.
2.Retrieved from https://www.communityplaythings.co.uk/learning-library/articles/
constructive-play

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 Chapter 17
Theories of Learning
What is learning?
Learning is a central focus of educational psychology. When people are asked what schools
are for, a common reply is, “To help children learn.”
WHAT LEARNING IS AND IS NOT
When children learn how to use a computer, they might make some mistakes along the way,
but at a certain point they will get the knack of the behaviors required to use the computer
effectively. The children will change from being individuals who cannot operate a computer
into being individuals who can. Once they have learned how, they don’t lose those skills. It’s
like learning to drive a car. Once you have learned how, you don’t have to learn all over again.
Thus, learning can be defined as a relatively permanent influence on behavior, knowledge, and
thinking skills that comes about through experience.
Not everything we know is learned. We inherit some capacities—they are inborn, or innate,
not learned. For example, we don’t have to be taught to swallow, to flinch at loud noises, or to
blink when an object comes too close to our eyes. Most human behaviors, however, do not
involve heredity alone. When children use a computer in a new way, work harder at solving
problems, ask better questions, explain an answer in a more logical way, or listen more
attentively, the experience of learning is at work. The scope of learning is broad (Domjan, 2010;
Klein, 2009). It involves academic behaviors and nonacademic behaviors. It occurs in schools
and everywhere else that children experience their world.
APPROACHES TO LEARNING
Approaches to learning can be categorized as behavioral or cognitive.
Behavioral Approach
The learning approach that we discuss in the first part of this chapter is called
behavioral. Behaviorism is the view that behavior should be explained by observable
experiences, not by mental processes. For the behaviorist, behavior is everything that we do,
both verbal and nonverbal, that can be directly seen or heard: a child creating a poster, a teacher
explaining something to a child, one student picking on another student, and so on. Mental
processes are defined by psychologists as the thoughts, feelings, and motives that each of us
experiences but that cannot be observed by others. Although we cannot directly see thoughts,
feelings, and motives, they are no less real. Mental processes include children thinking about
ways to create the best poster, a teacher feeling good about children’s efforts, and children’s
inner motivation to control their behavior.
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For the behaviorist, these thoughts, feelings, and motives are not appropriate subject matter for
a science of behavior because they cannot be directly observed (Shanks, 2009). Classical
conditioning and operant conditioning, two behavioral views that we will discuss shortly, adopt
this stance. Both of these views emphasize associative learning, which consists of learning that
two events are connected or associated (Olson & Hergenhahn, 2009). For example, associative
learning occurs when a student associates a pleasant event with learning something in school,
such as the teacher smiling when the student asks a good question.
Cognitive Approaches
Cognition means “thought,” and psychology became more cognitive, or began focusing more
on thought, in the last part of the twentieth century. The cognitive emphasis continues today
and is the basis for numerous approaches to learning (Ashcraft & Radvansky, 2010; Martinez,
2010). We discuss four main cognitive approaches to learning in this book: social cognitive;
information processing; cognitive constructivist; and social constructivist. The social cognitive
approaches emphasize how behavior, environment, and person (cognitive) factors interact to
influence learning (Bandura, 2009, 2010a). The information-processing approaches focus on
how children process information through attention, memory, thinking, and other cognitive
processes (Martinez, 2010). The cognitive constructivist approaches emphasize the child’s
cognitive construction of knowledge and understanding (Halford, 2008). The social
constructivist approaches focus on collaboration with others to produce knowledge and
understanding (Holzman, 2009).
Adding these four cognitive approaches to the behavioral approaches, we arrive at five main
approaches to learning that we discuss in this book: behavioral, social cognitive, information
processing, cognitive constructivist, and social constructivist. All contribute to our
understanding of how children learn. A summary of the five approaches is presented in Figure
17.1.

Figure 17.1 Approaches to Learning

Students are more likely to learn in optimal ways in appropriate learning environments. Such
learning environments should be tailored to specific learning goals, to the students’

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backgrounds and prior knowledge, and to the contexts in which learning will occur. Thus
teachers not only need to understand the basic principles of learning but must also know how
to use them to meet diverse learning goals in contexts where students’ needs differ (Bransford
& others, 2005).
The behavioral approach emphasizes the importance of children making connections between
experiences and behavior. It includes two views: classical conditioning and operant
conditioning. In one experiment, Pavlov presented a neutral stimulus (bell) just before an
unconditioned stimulus (food). The neutral stimulus became a conditioned stimulus by being
paired with the unconditioned stimulus. Subsequently, the conditioned stimulus (bell) by itself
was able to elicit the dog’s salivation.
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
Classical conditioning is a type of learning in which an organism learns to connect, or associate,
stimuli so that a neutral stimulus (such as the sight of a person) becomes associated with a
meaningful stimulus (such as food) and acquires the capacity to elicit a similar response.
Classical conditioning was the brainchild of Ivan Pavlov (1927). To fully understand Pavlov’s
theory of classical conditioning, we need to understand two types of stimuli and two types of
responses: unconditioned stimulus (UCS), unconditioned response (UCR), conditioned
stimulus (CS), and conditioned response (CR).
Figure 17.2 summarizes the way classical conditioning works. An unconditioned stimulus
(UCS) is a stimulus that automatically produces a response without any prior learning. Food
was the UCS in Pavlov’s experiments. An unconditioned response (UCR) is an unlearned
response that is automatically elicited by the UCS. In Pavlov’s experiments, the dog’s
salivation in response to food was the UCR. A conditioned stimulus (CS) is a previously neutral
stimulus that eventually elicits a conditioned response aft er being associated with the UCS.
Among the conditioned stimuli in Pavlov’s experiments were various sights and sounds that
occurred prior to the dog’s actually eating the food, such as the sound of the door closing before
the food was placed in the dog’s dish. A conditioned response (CR) is a learned response to
the conditioned stimulus that occurs aft er UCS-CS pairing.

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 Figure 17.2 Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning
Classical conditioning can be involved in both positive and negative experiences of children in
the classroom. Among the things in the child’s schooling that produce pleasure because they
have become classically conditioned are a favorite song and feelings that the classroom is a
safe and fun place to be. For example, a song could be neutral for the child until he joins in
with other classmates to sing it with accompanying positive feelings.
Children can develop fear of the classroom if they associate the classroom with criticism, so
the criticism becomes a CS for fear. Classical conditioning also can be involved in test anxiety.
For example, a child fails and is criticized, which produces anxiety; thereafter, she associates
tests with anxiety, so they then can become a CS for anxiety (see Figure 17.3).

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 Figure 17.3 Classical Conditioning involved in Teachers’ Criticism of Children and
Tests
Some children’s health problems also might involve classical conditioning (Chance, 2009).
Certain physical complaints—asthma, headaches, and high blood pressure—might be partly
due to classical conditioning. We usually say that such health problems can be caused by stress.
Often what happens, though, is that certain stimuli, such as a parent’s or teacher’s heavy
criticism, are conditioned stimuli for physiological responses. Over time, the frequency of the
physiological responses can produce a health problem. A teacher’s persistent criticism of a
student can cause the student to develop headaches, muscle tension, and so on. Anything
associated with the teacher, such as classroom learning exercises and homework, might trigger
the student’s stress and subsequently be linked with headaches or other physiological responses.
Generalization, Discrimination, and Extinction
In studying a dog’s responses to various stimuli, Pavlov rang a bell before giving meat powder
to the dog. By being paired with the UCS (meat), the bell became a CS and elicited the dog’s
salivation. After a time, Pavlov found that the dog also responded to other sounds, such as a
whistle. The more bell-like the noise, the stronger was the dog’s response. Generalization in
classical conditioning involves the tendency of a new stimulus similar to the original

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conditioned stimulus to produce a similar response (Pearce & Hall, 2009). Let’s consider a
classroom example. A student is criticized for poor performance on a biology test. When the
student begins to prepare for a chemistry test, she also becomes very nervous because these
two subjects are closely related in the sciences. Thus, the student’s anxiety generalizes from
taking a test in one subject to taking a test in another.
Discrimination in classical conditioning occurs when the organism responds to certain stimuli
but not others. To produce discrimination, Pavlov gave food to the dog only after ringing the
bell, not after any other sounds. Subsequently, the dog responded only to the bell. In the case
of the student taking tests in different classes, she doesn’t become nearly as nervous about
taking an English test or a history test because they are very different subject areas.
Extinction in classical conditioning involves the weakening of the conditioned response (CR)
in the absence of the unconditioned stimulus (UCS). In one session, Pavlov rang the bell
repeatedly but did not give the dog any food. Eventually the dog stopped salivating at the sound
of the bell. Similarly, if a student who gets nervous while taking tests begins to do much better
on tests, his anxiety will fade.
OPERANT CONDITIONING
Operant conditioning (also called instrumental conditioning) is a form of learning in which the
consequences of behavior produce changes in the probability that the behavior will occur.
Operant conditioning is at the heart of B. F. Skinner’s (1938) behavioral view. Consequences—
rewards and punishments—are contingent on the organism’s behavior.
Reinforcement and Punishment A reinforcement (reward) is a consequence that increases the
probability that a behavior will occur. In contrast, punishment is a consequence that decreases
the probability a behavior will occur. For example, you might tell one of your students,
“Congratulations. I’m really proud of the story that you wrote.” If the student works harder and
writes an even better story the next time, your positive comments are said to reinforce, or
reward, the student’s writing behavior. If you frown at a student for talking in class and the
student’s talking decreases, your frown is said to punish the student’s talking.
To reinforce behavior means to strengthen the behavior (Domjan, 2010). Two forms of
reinforcement are positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement. In positive
reinforcement, the frequency of a response increases because it is followed by a rewarding
stimulus, as in the example in which the teacher’s positive comments increased the student’s
writing behavior. Similarly, complimenting parents on being at a parent-teacher conference
might encourage them to come back again.

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Conversely, in negative reinforcement, the frequency of a response increases because it is
followed by the removal of an aversive (unpleasant) stimulus. For example, a father nags at his
son to do his homework. He keeps nagging. Finally, the son gets tired of hearing the nagging
and does his homework. Th e son’s response (doing his homework) removed the unpleasant
stimulus (nagging).
One way to remember the distinction between positive and negative reinforcement is that in
positive reinforcement something is added. In negative reinforcement, something is subtracted,
or removed. It is easy to confuse negative reinforcement and punishment. To keep these terms
straight, remember that negative reinforcement increases the probability a response will occur,
whereas punishment decreases the probability it will occur. Figure 17.4 summarizes and
presents examples of the concepts of positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, and
punishment.

Figure 17.4 Reinforcement and Punishment (Remember that reinforcement comes in

positive and negative forms. In both forms, the consequences increase behaviour. In
punishment, behaviour is decreased.
Generalization, Discrimination, and Extinction
In our coverage of classical conditioning, we discussed generalization, discrimination, and
extinction. These processes also are important dimensions of operant conditioning (Chance,
2009). Remember that in classical conditioning, generalization is the tendency of a stimulus
similar to the conditioned stimulus to produce a response similar to the conditioned response.
Generalization in operant conditioning means giving the same response to similar stimuli.

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Especially of interest is the extent to which behavior generalizes from one situation to another.
For example, if a teacher praises the student for asking good questions related to English, will
this generalize to stimulating the student to do harder work in history, math, and other subjects?
Remember that in classical conditioning, discrimination means responding to certain stimuli
but not others. Discrimination in operant conditioning involves differentiating among stimuli
or environmental events. For example, a student knows that the tray on the teacher’s desk
labeled “Math” is where she is supposed to place today’s math work, whereas another tray
labeled “English” is where today’s English assignments are to be put. Th is might sound overly
simple, but it is important because students’ worlds are fi lled with many such discriminative
stimuli. Around school these discriminative stimuli might include signs that say “Stay Out,”
“Form a Line Here,” and so on.
In operant conditioning, extinction occurs when a previously reinforced response is no longer
reinforced and the response decreases. In the classroom, the most common use of extinction is
for the teacher to withdraw attention from a behavior that the attention is maintaining. For
example, in some cases a teacher’s attention inadvertently reinforces a student’s disruptive
behavior, as when a student pinches another student and the teacher immediately talks with the
perpetrator. If this happens on a regular basis, the student might learn that pinching other
students is a good way to get the teacher’s attention. If the teacher withdraws his attention, the
pinching might be extinguished.
Constructivism: Changes in How Students Think
Behaviorist models of learning may be helpful in understanding and influencing what students
do, but teachers usually also want to know what students are thinking, and how to enrich what
students are thinking. For this goal of teaching, some of the best help comes from
constructivism, which is a perspective on learning focused on how students actively create (or
“construct”) knowledge out of experiences. Constructivist models of learning differ about how
much a learner constructs knowledge independently, compared to how much he or she takes
cues from people who may be more of an expert and who help the learner's efforts (Fosnot,
2005). For convenience these are called psychological constructivism and social
constructivism, even though both versions are in a sense explanation about thinking within
individuals.
Psychological Constructivism: The Independent Investigator
The main idea of psychological constructivism is that a person learns by mentally organizing
and reorganizing new information or experiences. The organization happens partly by relating
new experiences to prior knowledge that is already meaningful and well understood. Stated in
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this general form, individual constructivism is sometimes associated with a well-known
educational philosopher of the early twentieth century, John Dewey (1938-1998). Although
Dewey himself did not use the term constructivism in most of his writing, his point of view
amounted to a type of constructivism, and he discussed in detail its implications for educators.
He argued, for example, that if students indeed learn primarily by building their own
knowledge, then teachers should adjust the curriculum to fit students’ prior knowledge and
interests as fully as possible. He also argued that a curriculum could only be justified if it related
as fully as possible to the activities and responsibilities that students will probably have later,
after leaving school. To many educators these days, his ideas may seem merely like good
common sense, but they were indeed innovative and progressive at the beginning of the
twentieth century.
A more recent example of psychological constructivism is the cognitive theory of Jean Piaget
(Piaget, 2001). Piaget described learning as interplay between two mental activities that he
called assimilation and accommodation. Assimilation is the interpretation of new information
in terms of pre-existing concepts, information or ideas. A preschool child who already
understands the concept of bird, for example, might initially label any flying object with this
term—even butterflies or mosquitoes. Assimilation is therefore a bit like the idea of
generalization in operant conditioning, or the idea of transfer described at the beginning of this
chapter. In Piaget’s viewpoint, though, what is being transferred to a new setting is not simply
a behavior (Skinner's “operant” in operant conditioning), but a mental representation for an
object or experience.
Assimilation operates jointly with accommodation, which is the revision or modification of
pre-existing concepts in terms of new information or experience. The preschooler who initially
generalizes the concept of bird to include any flying object, for example, eventually revises the
concept to include only particular kinds of flying objects, such as robins and sparrows, and not
others, like mosquitoes or airplanes. For Piaget, assimilation and accommodation work
together to enrich a child’s thinking and to create what Piaget called cognitive equilibrium,
which is a balance between reliance on prior information and openness to new information. At
any given time, cognitive equilibrium consists of an ever-growing repertoire of mental
representations for objects and experiences. Piaget called each mental representation a schema
(all of them together—the plural—was called schemata). A schema was not merely a concept,
but an elaborated mixture of vocabulary, actions, and experience related to the concept. A
child’s schema for bird, for example, includes not only the relevant verbal knowledge (like
knowing how to define the word “bird”), but also the child’s experiences with birds, pictures
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of birds, and conversations about birds. As assimilation and accommodation about birds and
other flying objects operate together over time, the child does not just revise and add to his
vocabulary (such as acquiring a new word, “butterfly”), but also adds and remembers relevant
new experiences and actions. From these collective revisions and additions the child gradually
constructs whole new schemata about birds, butterflies, and other flying objects. In more
everyday (but also less precise) terms, Piaget might then say that “the child has learned more
about birds”.
The upper part of Exhibit 1 diagrams the relationships among the Piagetian version of
psychological constructivist learning. Note that the model of learning in the Exhibit is rather
“individualistic”, in the sense that it does not say much about how other people involved with
the learner might assist in assimilating or accommodating information. Parents and teachers, it
would seem, are left lingering on the sidelines, with few significant responsibilities for helping
learners to construct knowledge. But the Piagetian picture does nonetheless imply a role for
helpful others: someone, after all, has to tell or model the vocabulary needed to talk about and
compare birds from airplanes and butterflies! Piaget did recognize the importance of helpful
others in his writings and theorizing, calling the process of support or assistance social
transmission. But he did not emphasize this aspect of constructivism. Piaget was more
interested in what children and youth could figure out on their own, so to speak, than in how
teachers or parents might be able to help the young to figure out (Salkind, 2004). Partly for this
reason, his theory is often considered less about learning and more about development, which
is long-term change in a person resulting from multiple experiences. For the same reason,
educators have often found Piaget’s ideas especially helpful for thinking about students’
readiness to learn, another one of the lasting educational issues that I discussed at the beginning
of this chapter. I will therefore return to Piaget later to discuss development and its importance
for teaching in more detail.
Learning According to Piaget:

Assimilation + Accommodation → Equilibrium → Schemata

Learning According to Vygotsky:

Novice → Zone of Proximal Development ← Expert

(ZPD)
Exhibit 1: Constructivist models of learning

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Social Constructivism: Assisted Performance
VYGOTSKY’S THEORY
In addition to Piaget’s theory, another major developmental theory that focuses on children’s
cognition is Russian Lev Vygotsky’s theory. In Vygotsky’s theory children’s cognitive
development is shaped by the cultural context in which they live (Gauvain & Parke, 2010). The
Zone of Proximal Development Vygotsky’s belief in the importance of social influences,
especially instruction, on children’s cognitive development is reflected in his concept of the
zone of proximal development. Zone of proximal development (ZPD) is Vygotsky’s term for
the range of tasks that are too difficult for the child to master alone but that can be learned with
guidance and assistance of adults or more-skilled children. Thus, the lower limit of the ZPD is
the level of skill reached by the child working independently. The upper limit is the level of
additional responsibility the child can accept with the assistance of an able instructor (see
Figure 17.5).

Figure 17.5 Vygotsky’s zone of Proximal Development

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Th e ZPD captures the child’s cognitive skills that are in the process of maturing and can be
accomplished only with the assistance of a more-skilled person (Daniels, 2011). Teaching in
the ZPD reflects the concept of developmentally appropriate teaching we described earlier in
the chapter. It involves being aware of “where students are in the process of their development
and taking advantage of their readiness. It is also about teaching to enable developmental
readiness, not just waiting for students to be ready” (Horowitz & others, 2005).
Scaffolding Closely linked to the idea of the ZPD is the concept of scaffolding. Scaffolding
means changing the level of support. Over the course of a teaching session, a more-skilled
person (a teacher or advanced peer) adjusts the amount of guidance to fit the child’s current
performance. When the student is learning a new task, the skilled person may use direct
instruction. As the student’s competence increases, less guidance is given. Scaffolding is often
used to help students attain the upper limits of their ZPD.
Asking probing questions is an excellent way to scaffold students’ learning and help them to
develop more sophisticated thinking skills. A teacher might ask a student such questions as
“What would an example of that be?” “Why do you think that is so?” “Now, what’s the next
thing you need to do?” and “How can you connect those?” Over time, students should begin
internalizing these kinds of probes and improve monitoring their own work (Horowitz & others,
2005). Many teachers who successfully use scaffolding circulate around the classroom, giving
“just-in-time” assistance to individuals, or detecting a class-wide misconception and then
leading a discussion to correct the problem. They also give “children time to grapple with
problems” and guide them when they observe that the child can no longer make progress
(Horowitz & others, 2005).
Language and Thought in Vygotksy’s view, language plays an important role in a child’s
development (Gredler, 2009). According to Vygotsky, children use speech not only for social
communication, but also to help them solve tasks. Vygotsky (1962) further argued that young
children use language to plan, guide, and monitor their behavior. This use of language for self-
regulation is called private speech. For example, young children talk aloud to themselves about
such things as their toys and the tasks they are trying to complete. Thus, when working on a
puzzle, a child might say, “This piece doesn’t go; maybe I’ll try that one.” A few minutes later
she utters, “This is hard.” For Piaget private speech is egocentric and immature, but for
Vygotsky it is an important tool of thought during the early childhood years (John-Steiner,
2007).
Vygotsky said that language and thought initially develop independently of each other and then
merge. He emphasized that all mental functions have external, or social, origins. Children must
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use language to communicate with others before they can focus inward on their own thoughts.
Children also must communicate externally and use language for a long period of time before
they can make the transition from external to internal speech. This transition period occurs
between 3 and 7 years of age and involves talking to oneself. After a while, self-talk becomes
second nature to children, and they can act without verbalizing. When this occurs, children
have internalized their egocentric speech in the form of inner speech, which becomes their
thoughts.
Vygotsky argued that children who use private speech are more socially competent than those
who don’t. He believed that private speech represents an early transition in becoming more
socially communicative. For Vygotsky, when young children talk to themselves, they are using
language to govern their behavior and guide themselves.
Piaget held that self-talk is egocentric and reflects immaturity. However, researchers have
found support for Vygotsky’s view that private speech plays a positive role in children’s
development (Winsler, Carlton, & Barry, 2000). Researchers have revealed that children use
private speech more when tasks are difficult, after they make mistakes, and when they are not
sure how to proceed (Berk, 1994). They also have found that children who use private speech
are more attentive and improve their performance more than children who do not use private
speech (Berk & Spuhl, 1995).

Figure 17.6 comparison of Vygotsky’s and Piaget’s Theories

In moving from Piaget to Vygotsky, the conceptual shift is from the individual to collaboration,
social interaction, and sociocultural activity (Gauvain & Parke, 2010). The endpoint of
cognitive development for Piaget is formal operational thought. For Vygotsky, the endpoint

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can differ, depending on which skills are considered to be the most important in a particular
culture (Daniels, 2011). For Piaget, children construct knowledge by transforming, organizing,
and reorganizing previous knowledge. For Vygotsky, children construct knowledge through
social interaction. The implication of Piaget’s theory for teaching is that children need support
to explore their world and discover knowledge. The main implication of Vygotsky’s theory for
teaching is that students need many opportunities to learn with the teacher and more-skilled
peers (Rogoff & others, 2007). In both Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s theories, teachers serve as
facilitators and guides, rather than as directors and molders of learning. Figure 17.6 compares
Vygotsky’s and Piaget’s theories.
Criticisms of Vygotsky’s theory also have surfaced. Some critics point out that Vygotsky was
not specific enough about age-related changes (Gauvain, 2008). Another criticism focuses on
Vygotsky not adequately describing how changes in socioemotional capabilities contribute to
cognitive development (Gauvain, 2008). Yet another charge is that he overemphasized the role
of language in thinking. Also, his emphasis on collaboration and guidance has potential pitfalls.
Might facilitators be too helpful in some cases, as when a parent becomes too overbearing and
controlling? Further, some children might become lazy and expect help when they might have
done something on their own.
In our coverage of cognitive development, we have focused on the views of two giants in the
field: Piaget and Vygotsky. However, information processing also has emerged as an important
perspective in understanding children’s cognitive development (Martinez, 2010). It emphasizes
how information enters the mind, how it is stored and transformed, and how it is retrieved to
perform mental activities such as problem-solving and reasoning. It also focuses on how
automatically and quickly children process information.
Teaching strategies for Applying Vygotsky’s Theory to Children’s Education

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Figure 17.7 Writing Progress of a 5-Year Old Boy over Two Months Using the Scaffolding
Writing Process in Tools of the Mind
Evaluating Vygotsky’s Theory How does Vygotsky’s theory compare with Piaget’s? Although
both theories are constructivist, Vygotsky’s is a social constructivist approach, which
emphasizes the social contexts of learning and the construction of knowledge through social
interaction.

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Reflection Questions
1. How the learning theories can be used in preschool children?
2. How do you think, which learning theory is most effective in your classroom?
References
1.Good, T. L., & Brophy, J. E. (1995). Contemporary educational psychology.
Longman/Addison Wesley Longman.

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 Chapter 18
Approaches for Effective Learning
Children always exhibit loads of enthusiasm to explore, experience and learn new things almost
every single day. That’s why it becomes important that both educators and administrators are
aware that learning can happen, effectively, only when the teaching approaches for early
childhood education address all the developmental needs of children. The key objective of
early childhood education is to provide activities and experiences that integrate all the 3 major
domains of development, thereby catering to the needs of each child individually, as well as in
groups.
There are four different types of teaching approaches for early childhood education:
1. Theme based approach
2. Activity based approach
3. Projects or Inquiry Based Approach
4. Integrated approach
1. Theme Based Approach
Theme based approach is the most common teaching approaches to early years education all
over the world. The main aim of this approach is to bring together a variety of knowledge and
skills that need to be obtained by children, and organise them into specific and logical themes,
such as:
• Nature
• Seasons
• Fruits
• Families
• Festivals, etc.
A planned and intentional spotlight on a specific theme helps young children to acquire more
proficient skills that are vital for them to practice at a later point in life.
What is a Theme?
A theme is a particular subject matter which is explored in the early childhood classroom.
Theme based approach for early childhood education and development makes a child’s
learning focus on a specific area of knowledge that falls within the umbrella (main) topic.
Theme based teaching approach enhances the ability of a child to make connections, transfer
knowledge and apply whatever he or she has learned earlier in meaningful ways with the new
learning. Early childhood educators can adopt this approach to engage children actively in the
learning process. This can be done by providing children a variety of activities in the form of
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art and music, dramatics, etc., and surround them with those themes that are connected to the
main topic they need to learn.
The theme based teaching-learning approach in early childhood education helps in:
• Creating associations with the real world
• Keeping children engaged through fun ways of learning
• Construct on already existing (previously gained) knowledge
• Spontaneously building a new vocabulary in a natural setting
• Providing them with a choice and select what they want to learn
• Encourage children to exhibit understanding of what they have learned
• Enable early childhood educators to create an effective teaching-learning experience
There are many dozens of activities out there to help children in some or all the seven ways as
mentioned above. That’s why we have compiled a collection of 47 different developmentally
appropriate activities split across two articles: one for infants up to one year and the other for
kids aged 1 year to 3 years.
2. Activity Based Approach
Our day-to-day life is filled with a plethora of activities, and the same holds good for early
childhood education too. That’s why it becomes important to ensure that activities for children
are designed in such a way that they derive a lot of experiences that help them learn. The
activity-based teaching approach in early years is based on the principle that children leverage
real life activities to benefit them across all the 3 major domains of development.
There are 3 different types of activities within the activity based approach:
a) Planned Activities
In this approach, the various activities to be implemented in the learning process are based
entirely on the educational goals. Educators need to procure and provide all the materials
required for the activities, and facilitate children to acquire the concepts (knowledge) and skills
related to the specific theme being taught.
b) Child Initiated Activities
There can be times when children will be attracted towards certain objects or themes other than
those being facilitated, as a consequence of which learning happens spontaneously. These are
opportunities that the early childhood educator can make the most of such situations to teach
not only the main concept but also the concepts that are closely related to the main one.
c) Routine Activities
What could seemingly be mundane activities for adults like bathing, eating, grooming, etc., can
indeed be easily converted into learning experiences for children. All that is needed is a little
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bit of creativity and involvement on the part of the educator. Similarly, not only the routine
activities like circle time, story-telling, outdoor play, gardening, etc., but even lunch and snack
breaks can offer many learning experiences for children. Circle time and story-telling are
activities that can play a significant role in helping children develop skills that are required to
make them better communicators.
3. Projects or Inquiry Based Approach
A project is the examination of a theme (topic) done by a child or a small group of children. In
this approach, the educators provide materials and facilitate activities like painting, printing,
sand play, clay modelling, etc., and observe the children closely. Each child will approach the
activity in his or her own way and will design or create things according to his or her own
imagination. During the activity, children face challenges, seek help, interact within and
outside the group, pose a lot of questions, and try to accomplish the desired outcome through
trial and error.
The best part about the project based approach, is that it introduces children, in a subtle way,
to simulations of real life situations, which helps them deal with situations head on when it
actually happens when they grow into their adolescence.
4. Integrated Approach
In this approach, learning occurs in children in an integrated and holistic manner. An integrated
approach to teaching is where the 3 major domains of development are not separated and put
into compartments. Rather, they are all viewed together as a whole and the child is catered
accordingly. The integrated approach or the integrative teaching approach is an approach where
the children bring their prior knowledge of concepts and its related learning experiences to
support the new knowledge and experiences that they gain, and derive their learning.
This enables them to apply both their previously acquired and the newly acquired skills on
relatively more complex situations, and find solutions or come to conclusions either
individually or as a group.
Conclusion
It is important that the educators ensure that the teaching approaches for early childhood
education program are executed in a child-centric manner. It is also critical that the teaching
approach should be holistic in nature, considering the need for learning of the child within his
or her own natural and social environment.
What is Play-Way Method of Learning?
Play-way method of learning is a complete package that enables overall development of the
child by developing in terms of feelings, intellect and skills parameters. It not only focuses on
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subjective development but the emotional development of the child as well. In this method of
learning, playing acts as the driving force as the entire learning method revolves around
activity-based learning. It encourages expression and creative skills among children.
How effective is play-method of learning
Surprisingly, the pre-primary stage of education is often overlooked but actually, it needs
immense exploration and attention. The base of a child is formed right from pre-school. Play-
way method of learning is very popular modus operandi of imparting knowledge to children
and is introduced in major parts of India in preschools. While going to play school the child
steps out of his/her home and the nutshell for the first time. Hence, if an environment of play
is entertained for them in pre-schools than it will give them the feeling of comfort and will help
them to create a bond with their teachers and other kids. Children’s always tend to get excited
if certain fun element and play is involved in it. With this particular method, the child can give
wings to their imagination ability. It enables the child to improve various skills like motor,
creative, imaginative, aesthetic, cognitive, linguistic etc.
The play-way method is a unique method of learning and can be customized as per the child’s
interests and requirements. Hence, it may vary from child to child. Teachers should develop
different customized learning activities by creating a joyful environment and shall plan the
activities ranging from simple to complex. What can be best for child other than to get a
complete feeling of freedom? This method of learning is unplanned and hence encourages the
complete freedom of expression. The traditional methods of assessing kids based on grading
system are completely eliminated under this method rather, the teachers assess the aptitudes
and skills of a children regular intervals and keep their parents informed about same. The
children get promoted to next level by participating in ample of activities like music,
communication with teachers and other kids, art, learning and inculcating skills etc. All these
activities ensure the child’s development such as physical, intellectual, psychological along
with the development of different skills.
There is no rigid method of applying a play-way method of learning and it can be combined
with other methods of learning as well. All the appropriate knowledge regarding this method
can be acquired by preschool trainer certification. A school who wishes to incorporate a play-
way method of learning in its curriculum needs to study every minute detail of it and prepare
the set up accordingly.
My Preparatory School in Kalyaninagar, Pune has been known for its effective method of play-
way learning.

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Principles of Play-way method
• A practical approach helps in easy learning for the child.
• The complete atmosphere of freedom is conductive for learning.
• The customized method designed and adopted should suit the needs of the child.
• Learning methods used should be related to real life rather than books.
• This method provides a plethora of opportunities for the child to express
themselves.
Why Play-way method
• It turns entire learning into fun element by involving play in it.
• It develops the feeling of satisfaction among children.
• Every child is given equal exposure and ample of opportunities for learning and
participation.
• Along with knowledge, it inculcates various other skills in a child.
• It helps children to connect with peers and teachers easily.
• It facilitates the overall and holistic development.
Project approach
A project approach is an in-depth exploration of a topic that may be child or teacher-initiated
and involve an individual, a group of children, or the whole class. A project may be short-term
or long-term depending on the level of children's interest. What differentiates the project
approach from an inquiry one is that within the project approach there is an emphasis on the
creation of a specific outcome that might take the form of a spoken report, a multimedia
presentation, a poster, a demonstration or a display. The project approach provides
opportunities for children to take agency of their own learning and represent this learning
through the construction of personally meaningful artefacts.
If utilised effectively, possible characteristics may include: active, agentic, collaborative,
explicit, learner-focused, responsive, scaffolded, playful, language-rich and dialogic.
Project approach unpacked
Teachers may:
• facilitate a three-step process that includes planning, exploration and culmination
• orientate children towards a shared outcome or the creation of an artefact
• provide opportunities for individual children or small groups to explore aspects of the
project that are of specific interest to them
• provide opportunities for children to negotiate the medium used for creating and sharing
their project.
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Children may:
• engage with research materials including authentic objects, books, magazines,
newspapers, music and websites
• suggest alternative and creative ways to approach the project
• gather information or depictions from given sources
• use information and communication techonologies as a creative tool to generate simple
solutions, modifications or data representations
• reflect on whether they are satisfied with the outcome of the project.
The 3 Major Domains of Child Development
To address the major goals in the field of child development and to make the vast
interdisciplinary field into smaller bites for purposes of convenience and comprehensive
understanding, the field of child development is categorized into three major domains (or
arenas): Physical, Psycho-social and Cognitive.
The 23 sub-domains come under (and across) the 3 major domains.
1. Physical
• Height
• Weight
• Body size
• Proportions
• Appearance
• Physiological functions
• Perceptions
• Motor abilities
• Overall physical health
2. Psycho-Social
The Psycho-social development comprises the development of:
• Emotions
• Self-awareness and understanding
• Interpersonal over skills
• Friendships and relationships
• Moral development
• Behavior

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3. Cognitive
The Cognitive development, also called as intellectual development, comprises the
development in intellectual capacity of the child such as:
• Memory
• Attention
• Metacognition
• Language
• Problem-solving
• Reasoning
• Imagination and
• Creativity
Importance of the 3 Major Domains of Child Development
Having seen the 3 major domains of child development and the subdomains, it becomes crucial
to understand the importance of the role of each and every domain contributing to the holistic
development of a child.
It becomes important to note that not only are all the three major domains intertwined, the
development in each domain leads to development in the other.
Any child born in this world uses brain to help us moving body and function in their day-to-
day life. It starts at infancy and proceeds to old age. Hence human beings are always growing,
learning and changing.
Examples of Development in Each Domain and Their Interrelatedness
Let us see an example of how the development of a child in one domain impacts the other
domains.
Example 1
Let us take the physical development of a child (which is one of the 3 major domains) as an
example.
A child may grow up physically looking in a certain way which may not fit into his/her peer
group, because of which he/she can be made fun of or bullied by the other kids. The child may
face this scenario at school and/or outside school.
Irrespective of where it happens, this scenario will play on the socio emotional domain of
development, as the child may think less of oneself and develop a sense of insecurity and feel
insecure.
As an outcome of feeling insecure, the child may feel low in self-esteem, which could in turn
lead to issues in the physical health of the child.
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Example 2
Let us look at another example to show the interrelated of the 3 major domains of development.
To write words, a child will required fine motor skills for better grip and coordination, which
is a part of physical development. However, to start with, writing requires acquisition of
language, which is part of cognitive development.
Once language has been acquired by the child as a skill, it later influences the way the child
communicates with others, which is part of psycho-social development.
This is just one of the many examples which showcases the intertwining of all the three major
domains of development which started with one objective: Writing.
Conclusion
In the final analysis, it becomes very important to remember that while there are indeed 3 major
domains of child development, each of the three domains are not stand-alone entities that exist
as separate compartments. They are all interrelated and intertwined during the process of
growth and development of a child and continues beyond childhood – well into adulthood.

Reflection Question
1. How can you use these approaches in your classroom and which approach is the best
approach for you and why?
2.How can you relate the different approach with student’s area of domain?

References
1. Retrieved from https://childhood.in/teaching-approaches-for-early-childhood-education/
2.Retrieved from https://www.edtechreview.in/dictionary/what-is-play-way-method-of-
learning/

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 Chapter 19
Phonics Training
What is phonics? Why is it important?
We often hear educators say, 'What children can say today forms the basis for what they can
read and write in the future'. But this only tells part of the story. To read English successfully,
children must learn to turn the words they see in a text into sounds, and make sense of these
sounds. It is important for children to learn letter-sound relationships because English uses
letters in the alphabet to represent sounds.
Phonics teaches this information to help children learn how to read. Children learn the sounds
that each letter makes, and how a change in the order of letters changes a word’s meaning. For
example, if we don’t pay attention to letter order, words such as ‘dog’ and ‘pat’ might be
misread as ‘god’ and ‘tap’ respectively. Studies on children’s reading development have shown
that the phonics approach is more effective than meaning-based approaches, such as the whole-
language approach, in improving young children’s reading skills.
The whole-language approach encourages rote memorisation based on a child's visual memory
of individual words. For example, to help children recognise the words ‘pig’, ‘big’ and ‘dig’,
teachers might put these words in the following sentences and encourage the children to read
these sentences multiple times: 'I can see a big pig. The pig can dig in the mud. The pig is
having a mud bath.' Children would memorise ‘big’, ‘pig’, and ‘dig’ as three separate lexical
units. They would not be encouraged to grasp that any other words containing the part ‘-ig’
(e.g., ‘fig’) would be similar in pronunciation.
Breaking the code of written language
In contrast, the phonics approach focuses on analytical skills for breaking the code of written
language. Teachers would highlight that, although the words ‘big’, ‘pig’, and ‘dig’ have
different onsets (beginning sounds), the three words contain the same rhyme family ‘-ig’.
Children would reflect on the shared spelling patterns across the target words. Knowledge of
these patterns will help children sound out familiar words, and predict the pronunciation of
unfamiliar words.
Critics of phonics often claim that this approach does not focus enough on meaning. It does
not encourage children to learn how to use words in meaningful contexts, and stories that are
used to highlight the target letter-sound relationships are often nonsensical.
Vocabulary instruction can go hand-in-hand with phonics instruction. Key words that contain
the target letter-sound relationships are first embedded in fun visuals that make sense to the

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children. Vocabulary instruction is followed by games through which children learn to identify
and manipulate sounds.
How can we choose a phonics programme?
There are different commercial phonics programmes. Some begin by highlighting the most
frequently occurring letters in English (e.g., s, i, t) and then teach children how to blend these
letters to form words (e.g., s, i, t to form ‘sit’). Others take a different approach, for example
by seeking to improve children’s phonological awareness – sound awareness and manipulation
skills – before teaching letter-sound relationships.
Sound awareness refers to children’s abilities to identify the different sound units within a word,
for example, syllables, onsets, rhymes (vowels with/without an ending consonant) and
phonemes (individual sounds). Sound manipulation includes combining sound units to form a
word (known as blending, e.g., b + ad = bad) or breaking a word down into its component
sound units (known as segmentation, e.g., bad = b + ad).
Research indicates that children who have learned strong phonological awareness acquire
reading with greater ease and success than children who haven't. The effectiveness of various
phonics programmes depends on children’s ages. We write more about this below.
How should teachers prepare a phonics lesson for preschool children?
As mentioned earlier, phonics instruction should be integrated with vocabulary instruction,
because the ultimate goal is to help children make sense of what they have 'sounded out' from
a text. This can be done by first introducing words (e.g., cat, hat, rat, fat) using multi-sensory
activities and stories. The vocabulary provides the context for highlighting the target letter-
sound relationships (the words in the above example all contain the rhyme family 'at'), whereas
the stories help children understand how the words are used.
Next, teachers should encourage the children to say the target words aloud. This can be done
by embedding the words in chants, nursery rhymes or games. Once the children are able to say
the whole words, the next step is to use activities to teach phonological awareness by directing
the children’s attention to the sound units within words (e.g., syllables, onsets, rhymes,
phonemes) and encouraging the children to manipulate these sound units (e.g., blending and
segmenting).
Teachers should vary the type of phonological awareness tasks in line with the age of children.
For three-year-old children, the teachers can count with them the number of syllables within
the target words (e.g., clapping hands twice for the word Carol to indicate that this word has
two syllables). For four-year-old children, teachers can focus on the rhyme families and onsets
within words. For example, teachers can say ‘cat, c-at, cat’ to highlight the onset c and the
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rhyme ‘at’ for the word ‘cat’, and then encourage children to blend the onset c and rhyme ‘at’
to form the word ‘cat’. For five-year-old children, teachers can add in visual cues to show how
to break a word down into its onset and rhyme (e.g., cat = c + at). With this foundation of
phonological awareness, associating sounds with letters will be much easier for children.
Can phonics be included as a small part of each lesson?
Because practice makes perfect, it is ideal if a teacher can integrate phonics into every English
lesson. Teachers can do this by encouraging children to apply the phonics skills they have
learned to words they encounter in stories and nursery rhymes. For example, in a story session,
teachers can count with the children the number of syllables in target words, and also encourage
the children to think whether the key words contain onsets, rhyme families and letters that they
have learnt previously.
How can parents help their children with phonics?
Parents play a crucial role in fostering children’s reading development. It helps if parents
recycle the words that their children have learnt from school in their daily conversations. It also
helps if parents read with their children stories that have been encountered in school. Parents
can reinforce their children’s knowledge of letter-sound relationships by asking questions such
as, 'What is the beginning letter in this word? What sound does it make? What is the last letter
in the word? What sound does it make?’
Parents whose first language is not English
Parents who are not native-level speakers of English might be concerned about the influence
of their English on their children’s pronunciation skills. However, provided that children have
regular access to a variety of speakers (even through videos), their English pronunciation can
improve.
Parents can encourage their children to listen to nursery rhyme recordings and sing along.
Singing allows children to practise using their articulators (speech organs), and to compare
their articulation of words with a good model. Another strategy is for the parents to look up the
English translation for words from the first language on their mobile phones, play the
pronunciation, and ask their children to repeat the words back to them.
Besides worrying about their own English pronunciation, parents might wonder whether their
children are at a disadvantage compared to monolingual English-speaking children because
their home language does not use the Latin alphabet. This concern is unwarranted because, in
the early years, no child is able to read on his or her own; all children are learning the Latin
alphabet from scratch.

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However, children learning English as a second or additional language tend to have a much
smaller oral vocabulary size. When they attempt to sound a word out, they might not be able
to make sense of what they have just sounded out. A strong focus on vocabulary instruction is
therefore crucial for these children.
Helping young learners who are having difficulty learning to read
If a child is struggling to learn to read, it is important to identify whether the difficulties arise
from a lack of oral vocabulary (the child cannot make sense of what they have sounded out) or
a poor understanding of the letter-sound relationships in English (the child cannot sound out a
word).
If the cause is the former, teachers and parents should use stories or informational texts to
introduce words, and discuss their meanings or word use. If it is the latter, phonics will be the
solution. However, if the child does not respond to any of these interventions and consistently
performs below their peers, we recommend seeking help from specialists.
Limitations of phonics
While phonics can help children learn to sound out both familiar and unfamiliar words in texts,
the approach has limitations. In English, many high-frequency words are irregular. The word
‘one’ does not have a ‘w’, but it begins with the sound /w/. Although the word ‘of’ ends with
the letter ‘f’, the ending sound is actually /v/.
These irregularities mean that, even after having learnt phonics, children will still need to rote-
learn the pronunciation of many words. However, from an educational perspective, being able
to predict the pronunciation of many words using letter-sound knowledge is still better than
having to rote-learn the pronunciation of all words in a text.
LETTER SOUND ORDER
With Jolly Phonics the sounds are taught in a specific order (not alphabetically) that makes
learning the alphabet easy and fun. This enables children to begin building words as early as
possible. The letter order is as follows:
1. s, a, t, i, p, n
2. ck, e, h, r, m, d
3. g, o, u, l, f, d
4. ai, j, oa, ie, ee, or
5. z, w, ng, v, oo, oo
6. y, x, ch, sh, th, th
7. qu, ou, oi, ue, er, ar

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The five skills taught in Jolly Phonics are
1. Learning the letter sounds
Children are taught the 42 main letter sounds. These include alphabet sounds as well as
digraphs such as sh, th, ai and ue.
2. Learning letter formation
Using different multi-sensory methods, children learn how to form and write the letters.
3. Blending
Children are taught how to blend the sounds together to read and write new words
4. Identifying the sounds in words (Segmenting)
Listening for the sounds in words gives children the best start for improving spelling.
5. Tricky words
Tricky words have irregular spellings and children learn these separately.

SEVERAL WAYS OF LEARNING TRICKY SPELLINGS:

• Look, cover, write and check. Look at the word to see which bit is tricky. Ask the child
to try writing the word in the air saying the letters. Cover the word over and see if the
child can write it correctly. Check to make sure.
• Mnemonics. The initial letter of each word in a saying gives the correct spelling of a
word. For instance, “laugh” – Laugh at the Ugly Goat’s Hair.
• Say it as it sounds. Say the word so that each sound is heard. For instance, the word
‘what’ is said w-hat.
Jolly Phonics
Jolly Phonics is a thorough foundation for reading and writing. It uses the synthetic phonics
method of teaching the letter sounds in a way that is fun and multi-sensory. Children learn how

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to use the letter sounds to read and write words. This guide provides background advice for
parents and teachers. It explains the principles behind Jolly Phonics so that your understanding
of the teaching,
and your ability to help a child, is much greater. All the material is suitable for use in school.
Much of it is also well suited to use at home; those items have been marked with a * . The
items can be used together, or individually. Jolly Phonics includes learning the irregular or
‘tricky words’ such as said, was and the. Together with these materials you should also use
storybooks. Parental support is important to all children as they benefit from plenty of praise
and encouragement whilst learning. You should be guided by the pace at which your child
wants to go. If interest is being lost, leave the teaching for a while and then come back to it
later. Not all children find it easy to learn and blend sounds. It is important to remember that
this is not because they are unintelligent, but because they have a poor memory for symbols
and words. Extra practice will lead to fluency in reading and help your child manage at school.
The five basic skills for reading and writing are:
1. Learning the letter sounds
2. Learning letter formation
3. Blending
4. Identifying sounds in words
5. Spelling the tricky words
Although the skills are covered separately in this guide they will all be taught together.
1.Learning the letter sounds
In Jolly Phonics the 42 main sounds of English are taught, not just the alphabet. There is a mix
of alphabet sounds (1 sound – 1 letter) and digraphs (1 sound – 2 letters) such as sh, th, ai and
ue. Using a multi-sensory approach each letter sound is introduced with fun actions, stories
and songs.
The sounds are in seven groups. Some sounds are written with two letters, such as ee and or.
These are called digraphs. oo and th can each make two different sounds, as in book and moon,
that and three. We teach the letter sounds in 7 groups of 6 letters at a pace of 4-5 sounds a week.
Children can start reading after the first group of letters have been taught and should have been
introduced to all the 42 letter sounds after 9 weeks at school. To distinguish between these two
sounds, the digraph is represented in two forms. This is shown below.
1. s a t i p n
2. c k e h r m d
3. g o u l f b
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4. ai j oa ie ee or
5. z w ng v oo oo
6. y x ch sh th th
7. qu ou oi ue er ar
Each sound has an action which helps children remember the letter(s) that represent it. As a
child progresses you can point to the letters and see how quickly they can do the action and say
the sound. One letter sound can be taught each day. As a child becomes more confident, the
actions are no longer necessary. There is a list of all of the letter sounds and their corresponding
actions on page 8 of this guide. Children should learn each letter by its sound, not its name. For
example, the letter a should be called a (as in ant) not ai (as in aim). Similarly, the letter n
should be nn (as in net), not en. This will help in blending. The names of each letter can follow
later. The letters have not been introduced in alphabetical order. The first group (s, a, t, i, p, n)
has been chosen because they make more simple three-letter words than any other six letters.
The letters b and d are introduced in different groups to avoid confusion. Sounds that have
more than one way of being written are initially taught in one form only. For example, the
sound ai (rain) is taught first, and then alternatives a-e (gate) and ay (day) follow later.
Examples can be found in the Jolly Phonics Word Book.
2.Learning letter formation
This is taught alongside the introduction of each letter sound. Typically, children will learn
how to form and write the letters letter down during the course of the lesson.

It is very important that a child holds their pencil in the correct way. The pencil should be held
in the ‘tripod’ grip between the thumb and first two fingers. If a child’s hold starts incorrectly,
it is very difficult to correct later on. A child needs to form each letter the correct way. The

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letter c is introduced in the early stages as this forms the basic shape of some other letters, such
as d.
Particular problems to look for are:
• the o (the pencil stroke must be anticlockwise, not clockwise),
• d (the pencil starts in the middle, not the top),
• there must be an initial downstroke on letters such as m and n.
The Jolly Phonics DVD, Jolly Stories and Finger Phonics books show the correct formation of
each letter. A good guide is to remember that no letter starts on the baseline. In time a child
will need to learn joined-up (cursive) writing. It helps the fluency of writing and improves
spelling. When words are written in one movement it is easier to remember the spelling
correctly. Jolly Phonics uses the Sassoon Infant typeface which is designed for children
learning to read and write.
Many of the letters (such as d and n) have an ‘exit’ stroke at the end to make it easier to transfer
into joined-up writing. (Check your school’s policy as many schools do not teach joined-up
writing early on) The grip is the same for both left- and right-handed children
3.Blending
Once the first few letter sounds are learnt, children begin blending the sounds together to help
them read and write new words.
Blending is the process of saying the individual sounds in a word and then running them
together to make the word. For example, sounding out d-o-g and making dog. It is a technique
every child will need to learn, and it improves with practice. To start with you should sound
out the word and see if a child can hear it, giving the answer if necessary. Some children take
longer than others to hear this. The sounds must be said quickly to hear the word. It is easier if
the first sound is said slightly louder. Try little and often with words like b-u-s, t-o-p, c-a-t and
h-e-n. There are lists of suitable words in The Phonics Handbook and the Jolly Phonics Word
Book. Remember that some sounds (digraphs) are represented by two letters, such as sh.
Children should sound out the digraph (sh), not the individual letters (s-h). With practice they
will be able to blend the digraph as one sound in a word. So, a word like rain should be sounded
out r-ai-n, and feet as f-ee-t. This is difficult to begin with and takes practice. The Jolly Phonics
Regular Word Blending Cards can be used in class to improve this skill. You will find it helpful
to be able to distinguish between a blend (such as st) and a digraph (such as sh). In a blend the
two sounds, s and t can each be heard. In a digraph this is not so. Compare mishap (where both
the s and h are sounded) and midship (which has the quite separate sh sound). When sounding
out a blend, encourage children to say the two sounds as one unit, so fl-a-g not f-l-a-g. This
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will lead to greater fluency when reading. Some words in English have an irregular spelling
and cannot be read by blending, such as said, was and one. Unfortunately, many of these are
common words. The irregular parts have to be remembered. These are called the ‘tricky words’.
4.Identifying sounds in words (Segmenting)
When children start reading words, they also need to start identifying the phonic components
that make the word sound the way it does. By teaching blending and segmenting at the same
time children become familiar with assembling and breaking down the sounds within words.
The easiest way to know how to spell a word is to listen for the sounds in that word. Even with
the tricky words an understanding of letter sounds can help. Start by having your child listen
for the first sound in a word. Games like I-Spy are ideal for this. Next try listening for the end
sounds, as the middle sound of a word is the hardest to hear. Begin with simple three-letter
words such as cat or hot. A good idea is to say a word and tap out the sounds. Three taps means
three sounds. Say each sound as you tap. Take care with digraphs. The word fish, for example,
has four letters but only three sounds, f-i-sh. Rhyming games, poems and the Jolly Songs also
help tune the ears to the sounds in words. Other games to play are:
a) Add a sound: what do I get if I add a p to the beginning of ink? Answer: pink. Other examples
are m-ice, b-us, etc.
b) Take away a sound: what do I get if I take away p from pink? Answer: ink. Other examples
as above, and f-lap, s-lip, c-rib, d-rag, p-ant, m-end, s-top, b-end, s-t-rip, etc.
5. Spelling the tricky words
These are words with irregular parts, such as ‘who’ and ‘I’. Children learn these as exceptions
to the rules of phonics. Introducing the common tricky words early in the year increases reading
fluency (as they frequently occur in those first simple sentences you might expect them to
read).
There are several ways of learning tricky spellings:
1) Look, Cover, Write and Check. Look at the word to see which bit is tricky. Ask the child to
try writing the word in the air saying the letters. Cover the word over and see if the child can
write it correctly. Check to make sure.
2) Say it as it sounds. Say the word so each sound is heard. For example, the word was is said
as ‘wass’, to rhyme with mass, the word Monday is said as ‘M-on-day’.
3) Mnemonics. The initial letter of each word in a saying gives the correct spelling of a word.
For example, laugh – Laugh At Ugly Goat’s Hair.
4) Using joined-up (cursive) writing also improves spelling.

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Storybooks
A child will benefit greatly from a love of reading for pleasure. This can come from being read
to. Once a child has begun to learn the letter sounds they will be able to pick them out in words.
They should then move on to working out whole words through blending. As a result it is easier
if reading begins with storybooks that use simple words. The Jolly Readers can be used to
provide this progression. Once there is fluency in reading, the most important skills for a child
will be comprehension and the understanding of more words. This can be developed by asking
a child questions about a story they have just read.
About Jolly Phonics
Jolly Phonics has been developed by Sue Lloyd and Sara Wernham, who were
primary/elementary school teachers at Woods Loke Primary School in Lowestoft, England.
Independent studies find that, after one year’s teaching, children taught with Jolly Phonics have
an average reading age around 12 months ahead of their actual age. Their spelling age is usually
slightly further ahead. Boys typically do as well as girls. Jolly Phonics is multisensory and has
been developed so the adult can use it confidently and easily, even at the end of an exhausting
day! Jolly Learning Ltd is an independent British publisher, founded in 1987.

The Actions
s Weave hand in an s shape, like a snake, and say ssssss.
a Wiggle fingers above elbow as if ants crawling on you and say a, a, a.
t Turn head from side to side as if watching tennis and say t, t, t.
i Pretend to be a mouse by wriggling fingers at end of nose and squeak i, i, i.
p Pretend to puff out candles and say p, p, p.
n Make a noise, as if you are a plane – hold arms out and say nnnnnn.
c k Raise hands and snap fingers as if playing castanets and say ck, ck, ck.
e Pretend to tap an egg on the side of a pan and crack it into the pan, saying eh, eh, eh.

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h Hold hand in front of mouth panting as if you are out of breath and say h, h, h.
r Pretend to be a puppy holding a piece of rag, shaking head from side to side, and say rrrrrr.
m Rub tummy as if seeing tasty food and say mm m m m m .
d Beat hands up and down as if playing a drum and say d, d, d.
g Spiral hand down, as if water going down the drain, and say g, g, g.
o Pretend to turn light switch on and off and say o, o; o, o.
u Pretend to be putting up an umbrella and say u, u, u.
l Pretend to lick a lollipop and say llllll.
f Let hands gently come together as if toy fish deflating, and say f f f f f f.
b Pretend to hit a ball with a bat and say b, b, b.
ai Cup hand over ear and say ai, ai, ai.
j Pretend to wobble on a plate and say j, j, j.
oa Bring hand over mouth as if you have done something wrong and say oh!
ie Stand to attention and salute, saying ie ie.
ee or Put hands on head as if ears on a donkey and say eeyore, eeyore.
z Put arms out at sides and pretend to be a bee, saying zzzzzz.
w Blow on to open hand, as if you are the wind, and say wh, wh, wh.
ng Imagine you are a weightlifter, and pretend to lift a heavy
weight above your head, saying ng…
v Pretend to be holding the steering wheel of a van and say vvvvvv.
oo ooMove head back and forth as if it is the cuckoo in a cuckoo clock,
saying u, oo; u, oo. (Little and long oo.)
y Pretend to be eating a yoghurt and say y, y, y.
x Pretend to take an x-ray of someone with a camera and say ks, ks, ks.
ch Move arms at sides as if you are a train and say ch, ch, ch.
sh Place index finger over lips and say shshsh.
th th Pretend to be naughty clowns and stick out tongue a little for
the th, and further for the th sound (this and thumb).
qu Make a duck’s beak with your hands and say qu, qu, qu.
ou Pretend your finger is a needle and prick thumb saying ou, ou, ou.
oi Cup hands around mouth and shout to another boat saying oi! ship ahoy!
ue Point to people around you and say you, you, you.
er Roll hands over each other like a mixer and say ererer.
ar Open mouth wide and say ah. (British English)
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Flap hands as if a seal and say ar, ar, ar. (Nth Am English)
15 Phonics rules for reading and spelling
When kids and adults learn to read, they are connecting how words sound to how those sounds
are represented by letters. Phonics instruction helps make those connections. Phonics
instruction also teaches spelling patterns and spelling rules. It teaches about parts of words
called syllables. Learning common syllable patterns can help people become better readers and
spellers. To thrive in both reading and spelling, here are 15 important rules to know.
1.Vowels in syllables
Every syllable of every word must have have at least one vowel sound. A vowel can stand
alone in a syllable, as in u-nit and an-i-mal. It can also be surrounded by consonants as in
jet,nap-kin, and fan-tas-tic.
2. Short and long vowels
Vowels can make different sounds. The sounds they make depend on where they are in a word.
For example, is the vowel followed by a consonant? This helps determine if the vowel makes
its short or long sound: go vs got, she vs shed, hi vs him.
When there’s only one vowel in a syllable and it is followed by at least one consonant, the
vowel usually makes its short sound. Examples include on, itch, mas-cot, and Wis-con-sin.
This pattern is called a “closed syllable” because the consonant “closes in” the short vowel
sound.
When there is only one vowel and it is at the end of a syllable, the vowel makes its long sound,
as in he and ban-jo. This pattern is called an “open syllable”.
3. Silent e
When e is the last letter in a word, and there’s only one other vowel in that syllable, the first
vowel in that syllable is usually long and the e is silent, as in sale and in-side. This syllable
pattern is called “vowel-consonant-e”.
Some teachers call this the “silent e” rule. Some call it the “magic e” rule. The e gives all its
power to the other vowel and makes that vowel use its long sound (“say its name”).
4. Consonant blends and digraphs
Digraph is a fancy word for two letters that represent one sound. In a diagraph made of
consonants, the two consonants work together to form a new sound. Examples include chap,
ship, thin, whiz, and photo. Consonant blends are different. These groups of two or more
consonants work together. But unlike diagraphs, their individual sounds can still be heard as
they’re blended together. Examples include clam, grasp, and scrub.

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5. Vowel diagraphs
In a vowel diagraph, two vowels are side by side. The first vowel is long and says its name.
The second vowel is silent, as in boat, paint, and beach.
Sometimes, two vowels work together to form a new sound. This is called a diphthong.
Examples include cloud and boil.
6.R-controlled vowels
When a syllable has a vowel that is followed by r, the vowel is “controlled” by the r and makes
a new sound. Examples include car, bird, germ, form, and hurt. This rule is sometimes called
“bossy r” because the r “bosses” the vowel to make a new sound.
7.The “schwa” sound
Any vowel can make the schwa sound; it sounds like a weak uh or ih. Words like from and
final have schwa sound. Some words have more than one schwa sound, like apartment and
banana. It’s the most common sound in the English language.
8. Soft c and hard c, and soft g and hard g
When the letter c is followed by the vowels e, i, or y, it usually makes its soft sound. Examples
of that are cent, circus, and cyclone. With other vowels, the letter c makes a hard sound, as in
cat and cot.
Likewise, when the letter g is followed by the vowels e, i or y, it usually makes its soft sound.
Examples of that are gel, giant, and gym. With other vowels, the letter g makes a hard sound,
as in gas, gorilla, and yogurt.
9. The “fszl” (fizzle) rule
The letters f,s,z, and l are usually doubled at the end of a one-syllable word immediately
following a short vowel. Examples include stuff, grass, fuzz, and shell. Exceptions include quiz
and bus.
10. Ending in k or ck
When a one-syllable word ends with the /k/ sound immediately following a short vowel, it’s
usually spelled with ck, as in duck and trick. When the /k/ sound follows a consonant, long
vowel sound, or diphthong, it’s usually spelled with k, as in task, cake, soak, and hawk.
11. The /j/ sound and the /ch/ sound
In a one-syllable word, when a /j/ sound immediately follows a short vowel, it’s spelled dge as
in badge, hedge, bridge, dodge, and smudge. (The d “protects” the vowel from the “magic
e”rule.)

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In a one-syllable word, when a /ch/ sound immediately follows a short vowel, it’s usually
spelled tch as in catch, fetch, stitch, blotch ad clutch. The exceptions to this rule are such, much,
rich, and which.
12. Drop the e with -ing
When words end with a silent e, drop the e before adding -ing. Examples: bike/biking,
give/giving, and dodge/dodging. This rule also applies to other suffixes that start with vowels,
like -ed, -er, -able, and -ous. Examples: grieve/grievous, excite/excitable, and hope/hoped.
13. Doubling
In a one-syllable word like win where one short vowel is followed by one consonant, double
the consonant before adding a suffix that starts with a vowel. Examples: winner, winning,
winnable.
14. Plurals
For most words, add s to make them plural, as in cat/cats. But when a singular word ends with
s, sh, ch, x, or z, add es to make it plural, as in classes, brushes, and foxes.
15. Y rules
To make plural a word that ends in a vowel immediately followed by y, just add s, as in toy/toys.
When y immediately follows a consonant, change the y to I and add es. Examples:
family/families, pony/ponies and treaty/treaties.
Suffixes follow a similar set of y rules. When there’s a vowel right before y, keep the y and
simply add the suffix. Examples include play/playing and annoy/annoying.
When a word ends with a consonant followed immediately by y, change the y to I before adding
suffixes lke -ed and -est. Examples include carry/ carried and happy/happiest.
But when the suffix begins with i, keep the y and simply add the suffix, as in fly, flying and
baby/babyish.
Exceptions to the rules
Most words in the English language follow phonics rules. But any exceptions to these rules
need to taught and memorized for reading and spelling. These words are often found on lists
of sight words or high frequency words.
If your child is struggling with reading or spelling, talk to the teacher. An extra scoop of phonics
instruction could help your child catch up. You may also want to learn about reading specialists
and reading interventions, whch are common resources schools use to help struggling readers.
WHAT ARE DIGRAPHS AND HOW TO TEACH THEM
A quick guide explaining what digraphs are along with plenty of ideas and printable resources
for teaching digraphs in the first years at school.
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Teaching phonics you are introduced to terms you probably haven't heard before and as a parent
trying to support your child at home, the whole thing can just be confusing.
Phonograms, digraphs, graphemes, blends, morphemes, trigraphs, dipthongs...
What are digraphs? Aren't they just blends? How are blends different? In this post, we try to
explain the what digraphs are and provide you with some teaching ideas and resources to help
teach them to young children.
WHAT IS A DIGRAPH?
A digraph is two letters which work together to make a single sound like sh in shell or fish. A
digraph can be made up of vowels or consonants.
Most consonant digraphs are taught in Reception (first year at school) while the vowel
consonants are taught more in Year 1.
WHAT'S THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN A DIGRAPH AND A BLEND?
A consonant blend is when two consonants are blended together but when you stretch out the
word, each sound can still be heard. Blends might be the first sounds in a word or the last.
The most common blends are - bl, br, cl, cr, dr, fl, fr, gl, gr, pl, pr, sc, sl, sm, sp, st and tr but
there are also some three letter blends like splat, spring and street.
CONSONANT DIGRAPHS
Consonant digraphs are those speech sounds made by groups of two consonants to make a
single sound. Examples of consonant digraphs are -
/ck/ as in sock
/ch/ as in beach
/ph/ as in phone
/sh/ as in shop
/th/ as in thick or then
/wh/ as in whale
VOWEL DIGRAPHS
Vowel digraphs are made by two letters with at least one being a vowel like /ea in leaf or /oy/
in boy.
Vowel digraphs such as /ae/, /ie/, /oe/, /ee/, /ue/ can also be split by a consonant like in /oe/ in
love or /ie/ in bike.
When taught, depending on the phonics program used (think Jolly Phonics, Letters and Sounds,
Soundwaves, Thrass), it's beneficial to show children that the same sound can be represented

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different ways. A grapheme is a written symbol (ie letter) that represents a sound. This might
be a single letter or could be 2, 3 or even 4 letters said together.
For example, the words pay, aim, grey all have the same /ai/ sound but they use a different
digraph in each word. Using visuals can help young children start to make sense of this. There
are some rules for some digraphs like /ay/ is only found at the end of English words but for
other spelling, children will have to rely on their memories and practice.
These are groups of two letters – at least one of which is a vowel – that make a single sound,
for example, the letters ow in the word 'slow.'
When teachers teach phonics, they tend to look at one sound and then show children the various
ways this can be made and written down as a grapheme (a combination of letters).
For example: true, food, crew all have the same /oo/ sound, represented by a different digraph
(highlighted in bold) each time.
Day, rain and they also all contain the same sound (/ai/), but are represented by a different
digraph each time.
Teachers will also teach children about the split digraph. This is where a digraph, such as ae,
ie, oe, ee, ue is 'split' by a consonant, for example:
In the word pie, you have a digraph made up of ie.
• in the word pine, the digraph has been split by the letter n to make a new word, 'pine'.
Split digraphs are represented like this: a_e, i_e, o_e, e_e, u_e.
Teachers may give children a group of words and then ask them to put them into groups
according to the spelling of a certain sound, for example, they may give them the following
word cards:
fair mare bear care tear
lair stair dare hair pear
and ask them to arrange them into the following groups according to the way their digraphs are
spelled:
• ai
• a_e
• ea
Teachers will tend to point out various digraphs to children as they read books. They may be
given word cards to put into groups, according to their digraphs. They will also be given phonic
activities that encourage them to write words containing certain digraphs. It is very important
for children to be given the chance to practise writing words in order to learn the correct
spelling.
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Hard sound and soft sound
Hard and Soft C and G
The letters c and g can make spelling tricky. Each of these letters has a hard sound
hard c sound (kuh): cat, cup
hard g sound (guh): gap, goat
as well as a soft sound.
soft c sound (suh): cell, city
soft g sound (juh): gerbil, gym
Usually, a c or g sound is hard or soft depending on the vowel that follows it. Here's the general
rule:
When c or g meets a, o, or u, its sound is hard.
cap, cave, colt, comedy, curly, cuddle
gas, gather, goblet, goddess, gum, gutter
When c or g meets e, i, or y, its sound is soft.
census, center, circle, citizen, cycle, cymbal
gel, general, giant, ginger, gypsy, gyrate
Long vowels and short vowels
Learning short and long vowel sounds-what are they?
Learning phonics sounds is getting to know all about all vowel and consonant sounds that make
up the 26 letters of the English alphabet. Each of the 5 vowels (a, e, i, o, u) can make at least 2
sounds. For example, the vowel ‘a’ sounds different in ‘cat’ and ‘cake’. How we spell with
vowels does not always determine the sound it makes.
Each vowel makes two sounds- a short sound and a long sound. In some cases, they can be
silent too! When a vowel makes the sound of a particular letter, then it is a short sound.
However, when the vowel sounds like the letter’s name, then it makes a long sound. The sound
the vowel makes depends on its position in the word and the letters that surround it.
For example:- the ‘a’ in ‘fat’ and ‘e’ in ‘bed’ make short vowel sounds. While in ‘fate’ and
‘wheat’ they make the long vowel sounds.
So, based on where and the vowel is placed in a word, its length and sound can change. When
teaching preschoolers to read, you must help them understand the rules for what sound the
vowels make in different instances. Yes, short and long vowel sounds for kids can be confusing
at times. However, regular practice with them to recognize the distinctions will help.
Rules to bear in mind while learning short and long vowel sounds

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Here are some basic rules to help you introduce short and long vowel words for preschoolers.
Do remember that rules have exceptions too.
Rule No.
Vowel Position
Vowel Sound
Examples
1. When a word has only one vowel and ends with a consonant
Vowel makes a short sound
‘a’ in ‘jam’
‘e’ in ‘west’
‘o’ in ‘hot’
‘i’ in ‘fish’
‘u’ in ‘cup’
2. When a word has two vowels separated by two or more letters
The first vowel makes a short sound
as in ‘apple’
as in ‘octopus’
as in ‘basket’
as in ‘elephant’
as in ‘umbrella’
3. When a word ends with the letter ‘e’ (magic ‘e’/ silent ‘e’)
The first vowel makes a long sound
‘cap’ becomes ‘cape’
‘kit’ becomes ‘kite’
‘tub’ becomes ‘tube’
as in ‘game’
as in ‘time’
4. When a word has two vowels walking together the first one does
the talking
The first vowel makes a long sound
The second vowel remains silent
as in ‘tie’
as in ‘boat’
as in ‘rain’
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as in ‘value’
as in ‘feet’
Here's a long and short vowel sounds list: few more examples
Vowel
Short Vowel
Long Vowel
Aa
‘fat’, ‘map’, ‘hand’, ‘lamp’, ‘glass’
‘fate’, ‘pain’, ‘game’, ‘mail’, ‘whale’
Ee
‘egg’, ‘red’, ‘nest’, ‘bell’, ‘smell’
‘ear’, ‘sea’, ‘heal’, ‘weak’, ‘three’
Ii
‘pig’, ‘rib’, ‘fist’, ‘milk’, ‘swim’
‘hide’, ‘tile’, ‘lime’, ‘wipe’, ‘prize’
Oo
‘fox’, ‘hop’, ‘rod’, ‘drop’, ‘pond’
‘road’, ‘goat’, ‘bone’, ‘note’, ‘roast’
Uu
‘bud’, ‘gun’, ‘hug’, ‘dump’, ‘puff’
‘rule’, ‘true’, ‘dune’, ‘flute’, ‘fruit

Ways to teach short and long vowel sounds. Here are some simple long and short vowel
activities to introduce and practice the vowel sounds with your kids.
1. Fun with Songs
Learning the different vowel sounds can be more fun with songs. They are one of the best ways
to teach short and long vowel sounds, as their catchy rhythms can help kids learn vowel sounds

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and remember them easily. Check out Kutuki’s ‘Short and Long Vowel Song’ . This song is
great for kids learning short and long vowel sounds.

2. Use hand motions or movements

Use simple gestures for every vowel. This can help kids associate the vowels with the motions
and the sound they are making. In addition to working on their muscle memory, the kinesthetic
activity makes learning more engaging for kids. For instance, have your child bend their knees
when they hear a short vowel sound. For a long vowel sound, ask them to jump up and clap.

3. Mark the vowels

It is useful to place a mark on top of the vowels. It indicates the vowel sound to be used. For
instance, a short vowel sound is indicated by a curved symbol above the vowel-like ‘ă’ in ‘măn’.
While a long vowel sound is represented by a small horizontal line above it, like ‘ā’ in ‘māin’.
Such symbols will reinforce your kid’s ability to recognize and use the appropriate vowel sound
effectively.
4. Create Practice Sheets
Have your child practice the short and long vowel sounds using activity sheets. These help kids
recognize, understand, and distinguish words with a long vowel sound from those with a short
vowel sound.

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Blending
Vc cv cvc ccvc
Ap pa nap snap
Word families
At sat cat
Ap map tap
An man pan
Am ham dam
Ad dad had
As has gas
Alternatives
Oa ow o_e
Oak low bone
Oats slow home
Boat snow rope
S
C
Mice Rice Nice face Ice
F ph
If dolphin
Fat phone
Fit newphew

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Fun sphere
Fed phonics
ai a_e ay
aid ate day
aim ape hay
bait game lay
fail lane pay
laid gate may
j g
jet cage
job page
jab stage
jug register
jog margin
ie i_e igh
tie ride high
die hide night
lie nine light
pie ripe right
died life sight
ee y ea e_e
eel mummy eat steve
or au al aw
for paul hall saw
ou ow
loud now
oi oy
oil boy
ue u_e ew
fuel mule few
er ir ur
her bird burn

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Voiced and Voiceless sound
The consonants in the English language are differentiated in two categories: voiced and
unvoiced consonants.
1. Voiced – Vibrations in the vocal cords
2. Unvoiced – NO vibrations in the vocal cords
When assisting students with how to distinguish between voiced and unvoiced consonants,
use the “B” and the “P” as an example & walk through the following steps:
• Ask your student to place the palm of his hand on his throat
• Ask your student to say the sound of the letter “B.” When said correctly, he will HEAR
his voice and FEEL the vibrations of his vocal cords in the palm of his hand.
• Ask your student to say the sound of the letter “P.” When said correctly, he will NOT
hear his voice and he will NOT feel the vibrations of his vocal cords in the palm of his
hand.
NOTE: The voiced phonemes will not produce a push of air from the mouth; whereas, the
unvoiced phonemes will produce a push of air from the mouth.
NOTE: The voiced consonants and their unvoiced counterparts will create the same kinesthetic
formation in the mouth (tongue, lips & teeth) & are distinguished only by whether they are
voiced or unvoiced.
The following pictorial is helpful for our students as they are learning the voiced and unvoiced
consonants:

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What is trick words/ sight words/ irregular words?
The words which cannot be blended
How to learn tricky word
 See it
 Spell it
 Repeat it

I Group 1 be
the Tricky words Was
He To
She Do
Me Are
we all

You Group 2 There

Your Tricky words They
Come Go
Some No
Said So
here my

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 One Group 3 Live
By Tricky words Give
Only Little
Old Down
Like What
have when

Why Group 4 More

Where Tricky words Before
Who Other
Which Were
Any Because
many Want

Saw Group 5 Two

put Tricky words Four
Could Goes
Should Does
Would Made
right Their

Once Group 6 Love

Upon Tricky words Cover
Always After
Also Every
Of Mother
eight father

Floss Spelling Rule

Directions
1. Provide your child with the activity sheet. Or, use any paper with a line down the center
to create two lists where your child will spell words.
2. Review the foss spelling rule with your child and share words that follow the rule.

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• When a one-syllable word ends in f, l, or s, double the fnal f, l, or s (for example, snif,
fall, mess). We call this the foss spelling rule because the word foss follows this rule
and includes the letters f, l, and s to help us remember the rule.
• There are some exceptions to this rule (for example if, pal, has).
3. Select a word from the Key below and read it to your child (for example, bell) without
your child seeing the word.
4. Ask your child, “Does the foss rule apply to this word?”
• If it does, ask your child to spell the word on the left side under “Floss Rule.”
• If it does not, ask your child to spell the word on the right side under, “Exceptions.”
5. Help your child blend the sounds in the word to read it if needed.
6. Continue for each word in the list. Read the words in random order.
7. Discuss the meanings of any unknown words.
Key for Floss Rule Words Exceptions
Floss Rule Words Exceptions
ff ll ss If
Cliff Drill Boss Chef
Huff Grill Class Of
Off Skull Dress Pal
Staff Stall Hiss Was
stuff sell floss Yes
This

Floss Spelling Rule Activity Sheet

When a one-syllable words ends in f,l or s, double the final f, l, or s (for example, sniff, fall,
mess). We call this the floss spelling rule because the word floss follows this rule and includes
the letters f, l and s to help us remember the rule.
Floss Rule Words Exceptions

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The Schwa Vowel Sounds Rules in Spelling
You might be asking yourself: What the heck is “schwa?”
Schwa is the most common vowel sound in the English language because most unstressed
vowels are pronounced as a schwa. Schwa is a relaxed /ŭ/ or /ĭ/ sound made quickly with barely
parted lips. The rules of the Schwa Sound are as follows:
� Any vowel may say one of the schwa sounds in an unstressed syllable or unstressed
word.
� O may say /ŭ/ in a stressed syllable next to W, TH, M, N, or V.

� AR & OR may say their schwa sound, /er/, in an unstressed syllable.

See examples below for more clarification and to help you explain to your favourite student.

References
1. Retrieved from https://thereadingschool.ca/understanding-the-schwa-sound-for-spelling-
and-phonics/
2. Retrieved from https://ies.ed.gov/ncee/rel/regions/southeast/pdf/ 3.2Act4 Floss Spelling
Rule.pdf
3. Retrieved from https://www.playloft.ca/jolly-phonics-explained
4. Retrieved from https://www.understood.org/en/articles/phonics-rules-for-reading-and-
spelling

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 Chapter 20
Creating Early Childhood Environment
Key components for creating early childhood environments
According to the California Preschool Program Guidelines (2015) “The teacher’s
intentional design of the learning environment increases opportunities for children to have
engaging and meaningful interactions with adults and peers. Along with interactions,
instruction, learning activities, and routines, the learning environment is a central part of
preschool teachers’ planning and implementation of curriculum. This is universally
applicable in Pennsylvania, as well. Therefore, when an intentional teacher is setting up the
learning environment, we need to consider a combination of conditions. More specifically,
we think about three key aspects: the physical environment, social-emotional environment,
and temporal environment (Gordon and Browne, 2016).
Table 20.1: Relationship between Development and Learning
Component Description
How the physical space is designed and laid out, both inside and outside.
Physical
This includes the learning centers/areas, furniture and equipment, and
Environment
materials.
Social-Emotional The interactions and relationships between children, teachers, and family
Environment members.
Temporal The flow of time, including the timing, sequence, and length of routines
Environment and activities throughout the day.

Because developing relationships are at the core of our practices, Dodge, Colker, and
Heroman’s The Creative Curriculum recommends we begin by thinking about the messages
we send in our programs.

Quotable
“Teachers who are aware of the power of the environment arrange their space
purposefully to convey the messages they want children to receive.”
–Creative Curriculum

They recommend that we focus on embedding these positive messages:

“This is a good place to be.”
“You belong here.”

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 “This is a place you can trust.”
“There are places where you can be by yourself when you want.”
“You can do many things on your own here.”
“This is a safe place to explore and try your ideas.”
A Closer Look at the Physical Environment
The term physical environment refers to the overall layout of the indoor and outdoor space
that children and teachers will use – this includes the furniture and equipment, the materials
and centers, the entryway and walkways, and even the lighting, floor and ground covering,
and wall decor. As suggested by the California Preschool Program Guidelines (2015),
“High-quality indoor and outdoor learning environments set the stage for social-emotional
exploration and growth. When we present children with a friendly, inviting, and culturally
familiar environment, they feel comfortable and secure. In other words, the physical
environment sends a clear message to children and their families that they matter, and that
their safety and well-being are valued.
Designing Physical Environment
Designing a functional floor plan requires careful thought. Teachers usually want to create
an aesthetically appealing space that is safe, comfortable, and practical. They need to work
within the parameters of the age levels of the children they will serve, the building and
outdoor space they have at hand, the cultural context of the families and community, and the
regulations they must adhere to, such as those of Title 22.

Figure 20.1 – Written floor plan Figure 20.2 – Graphic floor plan
Creating a functional written floor plan of the inside and outside space is a valuable starting
place. The same principles that applied to planning curriculum will apply to planning spaces.
Having a written plan allows us to frame our thoughts and ideas and to modify them easily.

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Some teachers prefer to sketch on paper while others prefer a digital approach. Once we
have a general sketch of the space, we can:
Refer to the description of the ages and stages that will be in the space to get a better
understanding of what development we are planning for. Begin with a broad plan
since we usually do not know individual children yet. As we get to know them, we
modify as needed.
Consider the community and cultural context of our families and be sure to reflect
that in our design.
Think about safety and health concerns.
Consider the large pieces of furniture and equipment that may not be easily moved.
Consider the types of play and exploration that will take place and plan areas for each.
Consider the materials needed for these areas and how they will be stored and made available
to children.
Consider transitions between areas.
Consider lighting, flooring, ground cover, bulletin boards, etc.

Teacher Tip
“Get down on your knees to view the space from a child’s perspective. This practice helps
teachers create an aesthetically appealing space at the children’s eye-level. Also, to ensure
safety, stand in every corner of the classroom to scan the room for visibility. As noted in Title
22, for proper supervision, children must be visible to their teachers at all times, teachers
should likewise be visible to their children.

Figure 20.3 Early Childhood Indoor Environment

Setting Up Learning Centers, Play Spaces, and Other Areas
As you begin to set up what you have planned, you might want to ask yourself some of these
questions:
Does the entryway look attractive and feel welcoming?
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Is there a family board to keep families informed and included?
Is there an individual space for each child to keep belongings?
How is the lighting?
How does it smell?
Are the active spaces away from the quiet spaces to maintain a reasonable noise level?
Is there a cozy space where children can have privacy and a place to rest and recharge?
Are all the developmental domains represented – Physical, Cognitive, Language,
Social, Emotional, and Spiritual?
Are the materials age-appropriate and are there enough materials available?
Is the space well organized and not overwhelming or chaotic?
Are there clear pathways to the exits in case of an emergency?
Are outlets covered, hand washing available and other safety concerns addressed?
Would I want to be here as a child? Would I want my child here as a parent?
To set the stage for exploration and learning there are a variety of activity areas that will
interest the children and promote all types of play to foster development and learning. To
support the development of the whole child, the preschool framework suggests the following
learning centers to consider both inside and outside:
Art
Blocks
Dramatic Play
Library and Literacy
Math
Science and Nature
Music and Movement
Computer Lab
Additional areas to incorporate when setting up your environment may include:
Eating Area
Gathering Area or Circle Time Space
Bathroom and Sink
Kitchen Area or Food Prep Space
Space to rest
Furniture and equipment to consider:
Child-size tables and chairs
Adult-sized chairs
Figure 20.4 – Infant indoor
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 Cubbies for personal belongings
Shelves
Storage containers for materials
Materials and props
Throw rugs, Carpets, and blankets
Safety mats
Trash cans
First Aid
When arranging your centers and spaces here are some tips:
Design spaces for children to work and play independently or in small groups.
Set up an area where the class can gather together as a community.
Consider the number and size of centers. Make sure there are enough materials for
children to be engaged without being crowded and to minimize long wait times.
Incorporate a management system that regulates how many children can be in a center
at one time.
Label your centers and spaces and include photos.
Materials should be age appropriate and readily available to the children.
Keep in mind that everything that is done inside can be set up outside as well.
Because children respond positively to nature, the outdoors is a perfect opportunity
to promote all types of play, promoting exploration, development, and learning.

Figure 20.5 Preschool Outside Environment

A Bit More about the Outdoors
A variety of equipment can be purchased to expand children’s experiences outside, although a
large budget is not required to create high-quality outdoor spaces for young children. Programs

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 may choose to provide a playground made of natural materials to immerse children in nature
as well.
The following describes high-quality outdoor spaces for children
There is adequate space for gross motor play.
The space is easily accessible and well organized so activities do not interfere with
one another.
The following materials are included:
Stationary equipment (such as swings, slides, and climbing equipment).
Portable equipment (such as wheeled toys, mats, jump ropes, bean bags, and balls).
Equipment that stimulates balancing, climbing, ball play, steering, tumbling, jumping,
throwing, and pedaling.
The equipment provides skill development at multiple levels.
There is enough equipment that children do have to wait long to play
The equipment is in good repair
The equipment is appropriate for the age and ability of the children • Adaptations are
made for children with disabilities
Teacher Tip
The article Heavily Decorated Classrooms Disrupt Attention and Learning (2014), suggests
that “too much of a good thing may end up disrupting attention and learning in young
children.” Children who spend a large portion of their day in highly decorated classrooms
can be more distracted and spend less time on-task when compared to their counterparts
who were in classrooms with minimal and organized décor.
To help reduce clutter on the walls, you can use documentation boards to showcase what
your children are learning in your classroom. Select a specific activity that you will
highlight.
Showcase actual work samples along with quotes from the children and descriptions of the
development and learning that took place. When children see their work on display, they
can feel a sense of belonging and pride. Families feel a connection as they view what their
children are doing in their second home. As you finish with each board you can collect
them for future reference and memories
In addition to showcasing what children are experiencing, you may want to use some type
of poster to display daily schedules, basic routines (e.g., hand washing), and diverse images

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of children and families, basic learning concepts, and classroom expectations. These types
of visual aids can help young children adapt to their environment more efficiently.
Another strategy that can help children develop their independence is the use of labels.
For example, in the block area, the teacher can laminate labels onto the shelf indicating
where all the blocks belong. Labels may include photos, drawings, and words in the
languages familiar to the children. This strategy not only keeps the center more organized;
it also provides children with the opportunity to clean up with minimal directions or adult
supervision and encourages the use of many cognitive and motor skills.
Family photos are another way to decorate walls in a meaningful way for children and
families. Inviting each family to bring a photo (or taking them at the school) and posting
them prominently brings a sense of belongingness and community to the environment.
Don’t forget the teacher’s families too!

Children construct their own knowledge about the world they live in. Therefore, as
intentional teachers it is our job to give them the tools and resources that they will need to
be successful as they explore, examine, investigate, interact, and problem solve. It is our job
to set the stage. It is our job to ensure that each center has a purpose and that the physical
environment provides enough space to invoke possibilities and opportunities for learning
and safe risk-taking. While most of the suggestions listed above can be used for every age
group, the number and types of materials will vary depending on the ages and stages of the
children we are planning for.
The Social-Emotional Environment
According to the Early Childhood Learning and Knowledge Center, “social development
refers to a child’s ability to create and sustain meaningful relationships with adults and other
children, whereas, emotional development refers to a child’s ability to express, recognize,
and manage his or her emotions, as well as respond appropriately to others’ emotions.” Not
only is the social-emotional environment important for a child’s health and well-being, but it
also provides a solid foundation for lifelong learning and interactions with others.
A Closer Look at the Social Environment
The social environment is comprised of all the interactions that occur throughout the day. A
well-designed social environment fosters trusting relationships by creating opportunities for
children to interact with their peers and with their teachers. Effective teacher-child
interactions are one of the most crucial ingredients for both social and whole child

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development. Experts in the field of early childhood education have long understood that
effective teacher-child interactions are key predictors of student success.

Figure 20.6 Warm Interpersonal Interaction

To create a classroom environment that supports positive social interactions Gordon and
Browne (2016) suggest that teachers evaluate the quality of their interpersonal interactions.
Take a moment to review the self-check questions.
Self-Check: Questions to ask yourself about your social-emotional environments
Is there a feeling of mutual respect between the adults and children?
Are the children interacting with one another?
Am I modeling cooperative behavior?
Am I planning activities that encourage peer interactions?
What are my facial expressions, and what tone do I use when I talk to the children?
Do I give genuine feedback and praise for their achievements?
Am I spending quality time with all the children?
When I’m feeling frustrated, do I take it out on the children?
Do I allow the children to solve their own problems, or do I try to fix everything
myself?
When I need to talk to a child, do I get down to their level?
Do I greet families with a smile and do I make an effort to connect with each family?
At the end of the day when the child is being picked up, do I share a pleasant anecdote
about the child’s day or do I focus only on challenging moments?
Do I provide opportunities for the children to help with daily tasks?
Do I have opportunities for families to volunteer and be involved?

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The Emotional Environment
Young children are just learning how to regulate their emotions and behaviors and they need
your guidance and support. Exactly what kind of support can you give a child? Co-
regulation is defined as warm and responsive interactions that provide children with the
support, coaching, and modeling that they need to express their feelings, wants, needs,
actions, and behaviors. Co-regulation is an interactive process where teachers must know
when to step in and when to step back. Teachers must pay close attention to each child’s
cues so that they can respond in a consistent and sensitive manner.
To develop caring and responsive relationships with the children in your classroom, it is
helpful to learn about each child’s unique temperament and communication styles, their likes
and dislikes, their strengths, and the areas where they need further support. Only through
ongoing observation and documentation will you truly discover what makes each child so
special.

Figure 20.7 Teacher displaying a warm interpersonal tone

Once you know each child’s unique cues and personalities you will be able to address their
individual needs and meet them where they are developmentally. Additionally, you will be
able to plan learning experiences that will help children develop their “self-regulation
skills.” Self-regulation is having the ability to control your behavior, actions, and emotions
in response to a particular situation. In other words, it’s having the power to calm yourself
down when you get upset because things didn’t quite go your way. When children can share
their toys with their friends, wait their turn to ride the bike, and can use their words to

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express their feelings, they are practicing self-regulation. Take a moment to review the self-
check questions and think about ways you can support a child’s emotional development.
Self-Check: Questions to ask yourself
Are there cozy spaces for children to take a break?
Are their puppets, dolls, and other activities that encourage children to express
feelings?
Do we sing songs and read books about feelings?
Do I provide verbal prompts that help children express their wants and needs?
Am I aware of each child’s temperament?
Am I aware of my own feelings and reactions when I am stressed?
Have I taught children effective strategies to help calm them down when upset?
Creating Your Social Emotional Environment
Research suggests that for children to thrive, they must first have their “basic needs” met.
These “basic needs” are highlighted in Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs in Chapter 2
(Developmental and Learning Theories). Once a child feels safe, secure, loved, and that
they belong, they will be ready to learn. As an intentional teacher, it is up to you to create a
social and emotional climate where children are comfortable enough to develop meaningful
relationships and safe enough to explore their environment. In the article, Creating an
Emotional Safe Classroom, Dr. Bruce Perry states, “Optimal learning is driven by curiosity
which leads to exploration, discovery, practice, and mastery. In turn, mastery leads to
pleasure, satisfaction, and confidence to once again explore. The more a child experiences
this cycle of wonder, the more they can create a lifelong excitement and love of learning.”
A well-planned learning environment starts with you. When you create a positive social and
emotional environment, children will feel secure. Once they feel secure and can trust that
you will meet their needs, they will begin to explore the materials and interact with one
another, and ultimately they will enjoy the environment you have prepared for them. Your
classroom environment plays a critical role in helping children develop their social and
emotional skills. Designing a welcoming classroom that promotes cooperation, mutual
respect and tolerance will help children connect with you and with each other. To integrate
responsive caregiving practices here are some teacher tips to help you set up an engaging
social-emotional environment:
Be responsive to children’s needs. To help children feel more confident and secure, first
meet their basic needs. Provide each child with warm, caring interactions that can be later
modeled.
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Provide Prompts. Partner with children to manage their feelings and frustrations. Give them
the words to express their feelings and solve their own problems.
Use your positive personality as a teaching tool. Your smile, your voice, and your touch,
along with direct eye contact can make children and their families feel safe and cared for.
Be predictable. Establish clear expectations and follow through. Children need consistent
boundaries and need to know they can count on you for guidance.
Find time for quiet moments. Solitude allows the brain to “catch up” and process the new
experiences of the day. This leads to better consolidation of new experiences and better
teaming.
Praise when possible. Confidence and pleasure come from success. Everyone succeeds at
something. Those with challenging behaviors need to know they can be successful too.
Be observant. As you watch and listen you will gather useful information about each child.
Watch to see what the children are curious about: What types of activities interest them?
How are they feeling? What are their pressure points? When you follow their cues and
respond to their needs, you can then plan for meaningful learning opportunities.
Celebrate diversity and help all children feel included. Encourage children to communicate
and express themselves. At times, they may feel more comfortable using their home
language, body movements, gestures, signs, or drawing a picture. Plan activities that
provide opportunities for children to work together as partners or in small groups. Assign a
buddy to assist children that are new to the program or that may be struggling to stay
engaged and on task. Encourage families to share.
Include both teacher-initiated and child-initiated activities. Teacher-initiated activities are
planned and led by the teacher, while child-initiated activities are inspired by the children’s
own interests and abilities. Materials are set out and children are encouraged to explore and
create using their own ideas.
Reflection
How would you promote social-emotional well-being for each age group?
Infant, Toddler, Preschool, or School-age

The skilled and intentional teacher creates a classroom climate that promotes cooperation,
mutual respect, and tolerance. The Teaching Pyramid Framework for Supporting Social
Competence provides a model for promoting social competence and preventing challenging
behaviors.

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 Figure 20.8 – The Teaching Pyramid

Reflection Question
How does “Spiritual Development” or the concept of “me-ness” and “you-ness” for
children fit into the Social-Emotional environment?

Assessing Teacher Interactions

In EDUC115 (Observing and Recording the Behavior of Young Children) you will look more
closely at The Classroom
Assessment Scoring System (CLASS), was developed at the University of Virginia’s Center
for Advanced Study of Teaching and Learning as an assessment tool to improve teacher-
student interactions and, ultimately, enhance student development and learning. It is used in
many early childhood programs to support teachers’ growth. The CLASS tool describes three
broad categories focusing on the way teachers are providing emotional support, classroom
organization, and instructional support to meet the needs of the children they work with. The
tool looks at the following:

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 Pause to Reflect
You are an important part of the social-emotional environment and you need to take time for
yourself. Every job has stress factors and being an early childhood teacher is no different. To have
positive energy you will need to manage a classroom, you should find healthy outlets to help
manage your own needs and emotions.
What do you do to manage stress and maintain your emotional well-being?
Experiment and discover what works for you. Ideally, you will be able to model these techniques
to the children. By providing children with a calm, peaceful, and nurturing atmosphere they will
feel safe and secure in their social-emotional environment. And, you will have peace of mind.

A Close Look at the Temporal Environment

Quotable
“The most precious resource we all have is time. How will we use it?” – Steve Jobs

Before your head hit the pillow last night and you fell fast asleep, what did you do? Did you
brush your teeth? Did you take a shower? Did you read a book, watch TV or listen to some
music? Would you say what you did last night followed the same routine that you do every
night or was it unusual? How do you feel when you follow a regular routine? How do you
feel when life throws you a curveball and nothing is as it should be? Now, imagine how a
child might feel if every day they had to adjust to a new routine; if they never knew what to
expect from one day to the next. Imagine how a child might feel if there was a predictable
pattern to follow and if they always knew what was coming next.
According to Gordon and Browne (2016), the temporal environment has to do with the
scheduling, timing, sequence, and length of routines and activities that take place at home
and at school. With predictable schedules, routines, and transitions there is a sense of safety
and security. With a steady schedule and regular routines, children will be able to adapt to
their environment as well as adjust to a new situation that may arise much more quickly. It
also frees them up to be able to focus on the task at hand rather than worrying about how
much longer they have or what will come next.
The terms routines and schedules are often used interchangeably. Schedules and
routines are utilized in preschool classrooms to:
Help guide the day.
Communicate to everyone what is happening and when.
Foster engagement.
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 Meet the needs of children to explore, persist, and elaborate.
Promote a safe and fun place to learn and grow.

Figure 20.9 – An example schedule

Some considerations about daily routines/schedules include:
They are a series of behaviors that occur on a regular basis
Expectations for routines need to be planned and then taught to children.
Created for developing and learning
The amount of time for each block will vary and should be flexible.
Most early childhood program routines include:
Arrival and Departure o Group or circle time o Activities o Center or free choice time o Snack
time and meals o Outdoor time
Transitions between blocks of time
They are sequenced – to create a flow of the day
Choices should be incorporated whenever possible.
They are balanced in terms of: o Active/quiet o Individual/small/large group o
Teacher-directed/child-initiated activities o Noise level, pace, and location
Teachers should be in tune with children’s needs and engagement and be flexible.
Shorten or lengthen blocks of time as needed.
Plan for transitions as carefully as the segments of the routine themselves.
Posting a routine provides a visual reminder for children.

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 Figure 20.10 – More examples of schedules and routines

Incorporation Transitions into your Curriculum

Quotable:
“Life is one big transition.” – Willie Stargell

Transition is another word for change, and change can be challenging. The biggest transition
children will experience each day with you is arrival and dismissal, when they move from one
of their most important living spaces to another.
All routines include transitioning from one segment to the next. Every transition affords the
opportunity to flow smoothly from one experience into the next or to become chaotic and
stressful for children and teachers alike. Planning for each transition during the day is as
important as planning the experiences themselves. With careful planning and flexibility, we
can help children leave their present moment gently and purposefully, moving to the next
adventure that awaits them.

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 Teacher Tip: Planning for Transitions
Make sure the children understand the routine and that they will move from segment to segment.
Give a warning at least 5 minutes before a big transition and then again as it approaches
Be sure to let them know what is coming next.
Use clear signals (flashing lights, ringing a bell, singing a song, etc.) and keep it consistent for that
segment each day.
Establish clear expectations about clean up time and mealtime transitions.
Have all daily materials prepped and ready before children arrive.
Create a calm atmosphere during transitions.
Make transitions fun with games of cleaning up, moving in different ways.
If possible eliminate or at least limit the amount of time children must wait between segments.

How does the Temporal Environment Benefit Children?

Each child in your class is unique. When you provide a structured schedule with predictable
routines and consistent transitions, you are creating a safe and secure environment where
all children can thrive. By providing clear expectations, you will help children adjust to
their surroundings, adapt to the daily schedule and routine, and feel more comfortable
knowing what comes next. Once they are comfortable in their setting, children will socialize
with their peers, and they will use materials in a more meaningful way. Additionally, when
the daily routine is consistent and predictable children are more likely to:
Feel more confident to explore, create and take risks
Stay on task and complete activities
Be more engaged in learning activities and play
Gain a sense of belonging
Develop autonomy and independence
Play more cooperatively and have fewer incidents
Here are a few reminders when setting up your temporal environment:
Post two daily schedules: one for the children down at their eye level, and one for their
families on the Family Board
State clear expectations and provide positive reinforcement
Review the schedule regularly and adjust as needed based on the needs of the children.
Keep routines consistent however, be prepared to make changes if necessary.
Include visual prompts (photos) on your daily schedule so children can track their day.

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Creating an Inclusive Environment
In an Executive Summary, the U.S. Department of Education and Health and Human Services
(2015) defines inclusion in early childhood programs as “including children with disabilities
in early childhood programs together with their peers without disabilities, holding high
expectations and intentionally promoting participation in all learning and social activities,
facilitated by individualized accommodations, and using evidence-based services and
supports to foster their cognitive, communication, physical, behavioral, and social-emotional
development; friendships with peers; and sense of belonging. This applies to all young
children with disabilities, from those with the mildest disabilities to those with the most
significant disabilities.” When planning your environment, be mindful that some of your
children might require some additional considerations to fully participate in all the scheduled
activities, routines, and learning experiences.
Partnering with families, some accommodations for children with special needs might include:
Provide schedules with pictures for children who need visual reminders of the daily
sequence of activities.
Be flexible with the schedule; allow children more time to complete transitions and activities
as needed
Have alternative activities for those children with medical conditions or physical
impairments who might have less stamina and tire more easily across the day.
Pair children up to help each other during transitions.
Allow for regular breaks.
Partner with families to coordinate the child’s daily schedule and routines, and to
communicate progress.
Modify chairs to meet children’s needs (you can use tennis balls on the bottom of the chair
for noise control or to make the chairs slide more easily)
Put carpet squares, cushions, or a tape line on the floor to indicate where children should sit
or stand
Modify materials to make them easier for children with motor difficulties to hold and use
(e.g., using pencil grips, large knobs)
Provide specialized equipment (e.g., built-up handled spoons, adaptive scissors) to help
children be more independent

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 Can you see how we might make accommodations for a certain child that might benefit other
children or the entire group? All children have needs that are special and we plan for each to help
them feel safe, comfortable, and included.

Evaluating the Environment

Once you have created your ideal early learning environment, it is suggested that you
evaluate it on an ongoing basis to make sure it is continuously meeting the needs of the
children using it. A tool that is used extensively to assess and evaluate childcare programs
is the Environment Rating Scales (ERS). The Environment Rating Scales were designed to
offer guidelines for high-quality practices. According to ERS, a quality program must
provide for the three basic needs all children have:
Protection of their health and safety
Building positive relationships
Opportunities for stimulation and learning from experience
The ERS further states, that “no one component is more or less important than the others,
nor can one substitute for another. It takes all three to create quality care. Each of the three
basic components of quality care manifests itself in tangible forms in the program’s
environment, curriculum, schedule, supervision, and interaction, and can be observed.”
There are 4 Environment Rating Scales depending on the type of program being
assessed:
The Infant/Toddler Environment Rating Scale
Early Childhood Environment Rating Scale
School-Age Care Environment Rating Scale
Family Child Care Environment Rating Scale
The ECERS scale consists of 35 items organized into 6 subscales:
Space and Furnishings
Personal Care Routines
Language and Literacy
Learning Activities
Interaction
Program Structure

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Behaviour Affected by Environments
Reflection question
Can the environment influence a child’s behavior? Take a moment to reflect on the following
scenarios:
In an infant room where some of the children are walking and some are not, teachers have
placed the immobile babies on soft blankets in the middle of the room. Activities for the mobile
children are placed on the outside areas of the space. As the children waddle from one
experience to another they step on the babies on the blankets.
A group of children is in the block area building some tall structures. “TIMBER!” one child
shouts out loud, while the other 4 children clap their hands. The teacher looks at her watch and
without a transition warning, the teacher yells “clean up time.” The children run to another area.
There are 2 children at the easel boards painting. One child is waiting for her turn and says,
“PLEASE hurry up – I’ve been waiting a long time.” As one child is finishing her artwork, she
drops some paint and the paintbrush on the floor and leaves it there. With paint on her hands,
she holds her hands up high and walks all the way across the classroom to the bathroom to wash
her hands, tracking a little paint along the way. The girl who was waiting picks up the paintbrush
and begins to paint – she too steps in the paint on the floor. The teacher quickly grabs a towel
and begins to wipe up the floor and sternly asks the children to please be careful.
What environmental changes might you make?

As demonstrated in the scenarios, a poorly arranged physical setting, transitions that are
not well planned, and quick teacher responses can trigger challenging behaviors. Both
teachers and children can become frustrated. By altering floor plans, planning for each
segment of the day, and thinking through the communication and interactions we will have
with children, we can avoid many challenging behaviors.
All three aspects of the environment; physical space, social-emotional tone, and routine can
affect children’s behavior. The environment sends very powerful messages about how to
behave and feel.
Below is a chart of environmental modifications we can make to minimize certain
behaviors by Dodge, Colker, and Heroman.

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Table 18.2: Environmental Modifications to Minimize Behaviours
Behavior Possible Causes Changes to the Environment
Too much space is open; the room is Use shelves and furniture to divide the
Running in the
not divided into small enough areas; space. Avoid open spaces that encourage
classroom
activity areas are not well defined. children to run.
Too many popular toys are one-of-a- Provide duplicates of toys. Show children
Fighting over kind; children are asked to share too when it will be their turns (e.g., use a sand
toys often. timer or help children create a waiting list for
turns).
Wandering around, The room is too cluttered; choices Get rid of clutter. Simplify the layout of the
inability to choose are not clear; there is not enough to room and materials. Add more activity
activities do, too much time. choices. Revisit schedule.
Areas are undefined and open; Use shelves to define areas. Separate noisy
Becoming easily children can see everything going and quiet areas. Assess children’s skills and
distracted; not on in the room; materials are too select materials they can use in interesting
staying with a task difficult or children are bored with ways.
them.
Space is limited; poor traffic patterns Define work areas for children (e.g., use
Continually prevent children from spreading out. masking tape or sections of cardboard for
intruding on other’s block building, and provide trays or placemats
workspace for toys). Limit the number of areas open at
one time to allow more space for each.
Misusing materials Children do not know how to use Make a place for everything. Use picture and
and resisting clean materials appropriately; materials on word labels to show where materials go.
up shelves are
Behavior Possible Causes Changes to the Environment
messy; the displays are disorderly. Provide consistent guidance on how to clean
up.

Conclusion
The physical spaces, the tone we set, and the routines we follow will have a major impact
on the children we work with. By planning based on their ages and stages, individual
strengths, and family, cultural and community backgrounds we can create warm, secure

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spaces where children can engage in all types of learning through play, take safe risks, and
maximize their learning and development.
The environment is certainly a strong influence on a child’s experiences in our program;
considered the “third teacher” with all that it offers. In the next and final chapter of this book,
we will explore the child’s “first teacher”, the family, and the ways that we can collaborate to
make the most of a child’s learning experiences between the child’s two most important worlds,
home, and school.

Reflection Question
Table 20.2 focuses on the effect the physical environment has on behavior. Can you think of
ways the social-emotional and temporal environments affect behavior as well?

References
Retrieved from https://pressbooks.pub/eceprinciplesandpractices/chapter/chapter-7-creating-
an-effective-learning

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 Chapter 21
Assessment
This resource focuses on assessment practices and includes information on the purpose
of assessment, assessment domains, types of classroom assessment; the purpose of classroom
assessment; the assessment process; and assessment tools. The effective use of assessment in
classroom practice is also described in details.
Early Childhood Assessment
Childhood assessment is a process of gathering information about a child, reviewing
the information, and then using the information to plan educational activities that are at a level
the child can understand and is able to learn from. Assessment is a critical part of a high-quality,
early childhood program. When educators do an assessment, they observe a child to get
information about what he knows and what he can do. Observing and documenting a child’s
work and performance over the course of a year allows an educator to accumulate a record of
the child’s growth and development. With this information, educators can begin to plan
appropriate curriculum and effective individualized instruction for each child. This assessment
record is also a great tool to share with parents so they can follow their child’s progress at
school, understand their child’s strengths and challenges, and plan how they can help extend
the learning into their homes.
Importance of Early Childhood Assessment
Assessment provides educators, parents, and families with critical information about a
child’s development and growth.
Assessment can:
 Provide a record of growth in all developmental areas: cognitive, physical/motor,
language, social-emotional, and approaches to learning.
 Identify children who may need additional support and determine if there is a need for
intervention or support services.
 Help educators plan individualized instruction for a child or for a group of children that
are at the same stage of development.
 Identify the strengths and weaknesses within a program and information on how well
the program meets the goals and needs of the children.
 Provide a common ground between educators and parents or families to use in
collaborating on a strategy to support their child.

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 General Principles of Assessment
The following general principles should guide both policies and practices for the
assessment of young children.
• Assessment should bring about benefits for children. Gathering accurate information from
young children is difficult and potentially stressful. Formal assessments may also be costly and
take resources that could otherwise be spent directly on programs and services for young
children. To warrant conducting assessments, there must be a clear benefit—either in direct
services to the child or in improved quality of educational programs.
• Assessments should be tailored to a specific purpose and should be reliable, valid, and fair
for that purpose. Assessments designed for one purpose are not necessarily valid if used for
other purposes. In the past, many of the abuses of testing with young children have occurred
because of misuse. The recommendations in the sections that follow are tailored to specific
assessment purposes.
• Assessment policies should be designed recognizing that reliability and validity of
assessments increase with children’s age. The younger the child, the more difficult it is to
obtain reliable and valid assessment data. It is particularly difficult to assess children’s
cognitive abilities accurately before age 6. Because of problems with reliability and validity,
some types of assessment should be postponed until children are older, while other types of
assessment can be pursued, but only with necessary safeguards.
• Assessments should be age-appropriate in both content and the method of data collection.
Assessments of young children should address the full range of early learning and development,
including physical well-being and motor development; social and emotional development;
approaches toward learning; language development; and cognition and general knowledge.
Methods of assessment should recognize that children need familiar contexts in order to be
able to demonstrate their abilities. Abstract paper-and-pencil tasks may make it especially
difficult for young children to show what they know.
• Assessments should be linguistically appropriate, recognizing that to some extent all
assessments are measures of language. Regardless of whether an assessment is intended to
measure early reading skills, knowledge of color names, or learning potential, assessment
results are easily confounded by language proficiency, especially for children who come from
home backgrounds with limited exposure to English, for whom the assessment would
essentially be an assessment of their English proficiency. Each child’s first- and second-
language development should be taken into account when determining appropriate assessment
methods and in interpreting the meaning of assessment results.
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• Parents should be a valued source of assessment information, as well as an audience for
assessment results. Because of the fallibility of direct measures of young children, assessments
should include multiple sources of evidence, especially reports from parents and teachers.
Assessment results should be shared with parents as part of an ongoing process that involves
parents in their child’s education.
Purpose of Assessment
One of the first things to consider when planning for assessment is its purpose. Who
will use the results? For what will they use them? Assessment is used to:
◊ inform and guide teaching and learning
A good classroom assessment plan gathers evidence of student learning that informs teachers'
instructional decisions. It provides teachers with information about what students know and
can do. To plan effective instruction, teachers also need to know what the student
misunderstands and where the misconceptions lie. In addition to helping teachers formulate the
next teaching steps, a good classroom assessment plan provides a road map for students.
Students should, at all times, have access to the assessment so they can use it to inform and
guide their learning.
◊ help students set learning goals
Students need frequent opportunities to reflect on where their learning is at and what needs to
be done to achieve their learning goals. When students are actively involved in assessing their
own next learning steps and creating goals to accomplish them, they make major advances in
directing their learning and what they understand about themselves as learners.
◊ assign report card grades
Grades provide parents, employers, other schools, governments, post-secondary institutions
and others with summary information about student learning.
◊ motivate students
Research (Davies 2004; Stiggins et al. 2004) has shown that students will be motivated and
confident learners when they experience progress and achievement, rather than the failure and
defeat associated with being compared to more successful peers.
Outcomes And domains
Purposeful and systematic assessment requires decisions about what to assess. After
extensive review and discussion, there are five main domains:
• Physical well-being and motor development,
• Social and emotional development,
• Approached to learning,

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• Communication, language and literacy, and
• Cognition and general knowledge (including mathematics and science).
Depending on the domains, teachers have to produce the standard framework and
appropriate assessment strategies. (See Developmental Milestones in previous chapters)
Two Main Types of Assessment
Assessment is integral to the teaching–learning process, facilitating student learning
and improving instruction, and can take a variety of forms.
Summative Assessment
Assessment of learning is the snapshot in time that lets the teacher, students and their
parents know how well each student has completed the learning tasks and activities. It provides
information about student achievement. While it provides useful reporting information, it often
has little effect on learning. Summative assessments are used to gauge children's learning
against a standard or a benchmark. They are often given at the end of the year and are
sometimes used to make important educational decisions about children. Summative
assessments are a snapshot of students' understanding which is useful for summarizing student
learning. What helps me remember the difference between the two types is that summative is
like a summary. Summative is the big picture or the grand summary of a child's learning.
Summative assessments aren't used a lot in early childhood programs because they're not really
considered developmentally appropriate as a form of assessment for very young children. One
example that you might see or use in your program is a Kindergarten Readiness Assessment or
a developmental skills assessment that enables the child to move to the next classroom.
Formative Assessment
Assessment for learning is ongoing assessment that allows teachers to monitor students
on a day-to-day basis and modify their teaching based on what the students need to be
successful. This assessment provides students with the timely, specific feedback that they need
to make adjustments to their learning. These are considered low-stakes. So summative are high-
stake and formative are low-stake. They're ongoing and they tend to be based on teachers'
intentional observations of children which are typically during specific learning experiences
and/or during everyday interactions or classroom involvement. These assessments are most
useful for planning learning experiences, activities, and environments. These are the everyday
interactions that we talked about, where assessment naturally emerges from the work that
you're already doing. Those would be considered more of the formative assessment. Again,

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these assessments are used to determine activities for the lesson plan after asking questions
such as
o What kind of things should I change out in my centers?
o What kind of items in the science center are the kids just throwing?
o What kind of things in the science center are they actually sitting down and
investigating and trying to see what they can figure out about it or are they really
actually curious about?
Formative assessments are most appropriate for use with young children. Remember,
summative assessments are not necessarily appropriate for age five years and under, but
formative assessments are definitely appropriate as they're often more authentic, more real, and
more holistic. They show a picture of the whole child as well so they can be more useful.
Because young children's learning can be so varied and sometimes erratic, using multiple
sources of assessment information is ideal. That goes back to what we were just talking about
where children develop in such a wide range, with a variety of contexts and situations.

Assessment for Learning Assessment of Learning

(Formative Assessment) (Summative Assessment)

Checks learning to determine what to do next Checks what has been learned to date.
and then provides suggestions of what to
do—teaching and learning are
indistinguishable from assessment.

Is designed to assist educators and students in Is designed for the information of those not
improving learning. directly involved in daily learning and
teaching (school administration, parents,
school board, Alberta Education, post-
secondary institutions) in addition to
educators and students.

Is used continually by providing descriptive Is presented in a periodic report.

feedback.

Usually uses detailed, specific and Usually compiles data into a single number,
descriptive feedback—in a formal or score or mark as part of a formal report.
informal report.

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Is not reported as part of an achievement Is reported as part of an achievement grade.
grade.

Usually focuses on improvement, compared Usually compares the student's learning either
with the student's “previous best” (self- with other students' learning (norm-
referenced, making learning more personal). referenced, making learning highly
competitive) or the standard for a grade level
(criterion-referenced, making learning more
collaborative and individually focused).

Involves the student. Does not always involve the student.

Adapted from Ruth Sutton, unpublished document, 2001, in Alberta Assessment

Consortium, Refocus: Looking at Assessment for Learning (Edmonton, AB: Alberta
Assessment Consortium, 2003), p. 4. Used with permission from Ruth Sutton Ltd.
Ideally, interim assessment is used to track growth over time which is conducted during the
learning process and at the end.
Assessment Methods
The quality of an assessment depends in part upon decisions made before any measure
is administered to a child. Before selecting an instrument for use with a given population of
children, project designers should be able to explain why that specific measure is being used
and what they hope to learn from the results. Selection of instruments is guided by the purposes
and goals of the assessment. Assessment strategies lie along a continuum ranging from formal
to informal. Types of measures that might be selected to represent either extreme include
standardized testing (formal) and naturalistic observation (informal). The fundamental
difference between formal and informal assessment is the degree of constraint placed on
children’s behavior, or level of intrusiveness into their lives. The ideal testing environment, as
well as who is best qualified to administer measures, will depend in part on where along the
formal-informal continuum an assessment lies. A standardized test is most effective when
delivered by an examiner who has specialized training and experience with that specific
instrument. Designers of standardized tests usually describe in test manuals the type of
environment that must be created in order to obtain valid results. Most individual tests of
cognitive ability must be administered in a controlled, relatively quiet area where a child is not
likely to be distracted or interrupted. In contrast, informal assessments are ideally delivered by
a child’s teacher, or by another professional who interacts regularly with the child. These types

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of assessments often take place in a natural setting such as a classroom or playground. For the
most part, examiners do not intrude in children’s behavior when conducting an informal
assessment. The choice of an assessment strategy is also affected by the available resources in
terms of time, money, and staff. Some assessments are more time and cost intensive than others.
For example, one effective approach to identifying special needs (e.g., disabilities) is to use
standardized tests to screen all children. These tools can be quickly and inexpensively
administered to large populations of children. Children identified as potentially at risk or in
need of further intervention can then receive follow-up evaluations using more intensive
assessments including informal measures. Methods such as observation, parent interviews,
analysis of work samples, or teacher ratings can lead to collection of in-depth and authentic
data that reflect a “whole child” approach to the estimation of competence and need. A
comprehensive assessment normally requires a multimethod approach in order to encompass
the many dimensions of children’s skills and abilities. Formal and informal assessment
strategies each have strengths and weaknesses, so an approach that combines or balances the
two is most likely to provide a thorough evaluation of children across their cognitive, emotional,
social, and biological strengths and needs. A repeated measures design is also preferable,
especially with standardized tests, as performance of young children on assessment tasks will
fluctuate according to mood and environment, as well as their rapid and sporadic development.
Formal Assessment Methods: Standardized Testing
Standardized tests represent the most formal extreme of the assessment continuum
because they place the greatest constraints on children’s behavior. These tests are given under
strictly controlled, standard conditions so that, to the extent possible, each child is assessed in
exactly the same way. Standardized test scores allow for fair comparisons among individual or
groups of test takers. Because standard administration is essential to obtain valid results, the
skill of the examiner is of particular importance when using this type of assessment.
Standardized tests can be used to obtain information on whether a program is achieving its
desired outcomes and are thus often integral components of systems of accountability. They
are considered objective, time- and cost-efficient, and suitable for making quantitative
comparisons of aggregated data across groups. Testing will only meet these expectations fully
if the standard of comparison is developmentally and culturally appropriate. When used
appropriately, standardized tests can effectively eliminate biases in assessment of individual
children. There is some concern about how well standardized tests work with young children.
The younger the child, the more difficult it can be to obtain valid scores. Preschoolers may not
understand the demands of the testing situation, and may respond unpredictably to the testing
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conditions. Performance is highly influenced by children’s emotional states and experience, so
that test scores across time may be relatively unstable. To address these limitations, examiners
may choose to supplement standardized test scores with results from informal measures.
Example: The Classroom Assessment Scoring System (CLASS) is a standardized assessment
tool that was developed by Robert C. Pianta, Ph. D., is Dean of the Curry School of Education,
Director of the Center for Advanced Study in Teaching and Learning, and Novartis U.S.
Foundation Professor of Education at the University of Virginia, Charlottesville. The
assessment results are intended to guide program improvement and to support teachers develop
curricula to meet children’s individualized needs.
Informal Assessment Methods
Informal methods offer another approach to assessment. These other methods often fall
under the banner of “authentic” or “naturalistic” assessments. They engage or evaluate children
on tasks that are personally meaningful, take place in real life contexts, and are grounded in
naturally occurring instructional activities. They offer multiple ways of evaluating students’
learning, as well as their motivation, achievement, and attitudes. This type of assessment
should be consistent with the goals, curriculum, and instructional practices of the classroom or
program with which it is associated. Authentic assessments do not rely on unrealistic or
arbitrary time constraints, nor do they emphasize instant recall or depend on lucky guesses.
Progress toward mastery is the key, and content is mastered as a means, not as an end. To
document accomplishments, assessments must be designed to be longitudinal, to sample the
baseline, the increment, and the preserved levels of change that follow from instruction.
Informal assessment can be more expensive than standardized testing. Like their counterparts
in testing, informal measures must meet reasonable standards of demonstrated reliability and
validity, though less emphasis tends to be placed on the psychometric quality of informal
assessment tools. Their use, especially on a widespread scale, requires adequate resources.
Assessors must be trained to acceptable levels of reliability. Data collection, coding, entry, and
analysis are also time- and cost-intensive. This investment can be seen as reasonable and
necessary, however, if the goal is to produce information about children’s competencies on
real-life tasks in natural and authentic settings. Informal child assessment procedures that can
meet acceptable levels of reliability and validity include observations, portfolios and ratings of
children by teachers and parents.
Observations
In assessing young children, the principal alternative to testing is systematic
observation of children’s activities in their day-to-day settings. Observation fits an interactive
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style of curriculum, in which give-and-take between teacher and child is the norm. Although
careful observation requires effort, the approach has high ecological validity and intrudes
minimally into what children are doing. Children’s activities naturally integrate all dimensions
of their development–intellectual, motivational, social, physical, aesthetic, and so on.
Anecdotal notes alone are not sufficient for good assessment. They do not offer criteria against
which to judge the developmental value of children’s activities or provide evidence of
reliability and validity. Instead, anecdotal notes should be used to complete developmental
scales of proven reliability and validity. Such an approach permits children to engage in
activities anytime and anywhere that teachers can see them. It defines categories of acceptable
answers rather than single right answers. It expects the teacher to set the framework for children
to initiate their own activities. It embraces a broad definition of child development that includes
not only language and mathematics but also initiative, social relations, physical skills and the
arts. It is culturally sensitive when teachers are trained observers who focus on objective,
culturally neutral descriptions of behavior (for example, “Pat hit Bob”) rather than subjective,
culturally loaded interpretations (for example, “Pat was very angry with Bob”). Finally, it
empowers teachers by recognizing their judgment as essential to accurate assessment.
Portfolios
One of the most fitting ways to undertake authentic, meaningful evaluation is through
the use of a well-constructed portfolio system. Arter and Spandel define a portfolio as “a
purposeful collection of student work that tells the story of the student’s efforts, progress, or
achievement in (a) given area(s). This collection must include student participation in selection
of portfolio content, the guidelines for selection, the criteria for judging merit, and evidence of
student self-reflection.” Portfolios describe both a place (the physical space where they are
stored) and a process. The process provides richer information than standardized tests, involves
multiple sources and methods of data collection, and occurs over a representative period of
time. In addition, they encourage two- and three-way collaboration between students, teachers,
and parents; promote ownership and motivation; integrate assessment with instruction and
learning; and establish a quantitative and qualitative record of progress over time. They can
provide credible, meaningful evidence of students’ learning and development to parents,
teachers, and others that can be used to inform practice and policy in the preschool classroom
or at higher levels of the educational system. The purposes for which portfolios are used are as
variable as the programs that use them. In some programs, they are simply a place to store the
best work that has been graded in a traditional manner. In others, they are used to create
longitudinal systems to demonstrate the process leading to the products and to design
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evaluative rubrics for program accountability. There are also programs that merely have
students collect work that is important to them as a personal, non-evaluative record of their
achievements. When portfolios are not used to judge ability in some agreed-upon fashion, they
are usually not highly structured and may not even include reflective pieces that demonstrate
student growth and understanding. Portfolios are most commonly thought of as an assessment
approach appropriate in elementary and secondary schools. Yet they have long been used in
preschools to document and share children’s progress with parents, administrators and others.
For portfolios to be used for program accountability, as well as student learning and reflection,
the evaluated outcomes must be aligned with curriculum and instruction. Children must have
some choice about what to include if they are to feel ownership and pride. Portfolios should
document the creative or problem-solving process as they display the product, encouraging
children to reflect on their actions. Conversations with children about their portfolios engage
them in the evaluation process and escalate their desire to demonstrate their increasing
knowledge and skills. Sharing portfolios with parents can help teachers connect school
activities to the home and involve parents in their children’s education. The physical structure
of a portfolio refers to the actual arrangement of the work samples, which can be organized
according to chronology, subject area, style or goal area. The conceptual structure refers to the
teacher's goals for student learning. For example, the teacher may have students complete a
self-assessment on a work sample and then set a goal for future learning. The work sample
self-assessment and the goal sheet may be added to the portfolio. Work samples from all
curricular areas can be selected and placed in a portfolio. These can include stories, tests, and
reflection about work samples.
Effective Portfolio:
• are updated regularly to keep them as current and complete as possible
• help students examine their progress
• help students develop a positive self-concept as learners
• are shared with parents or guardians
• are a planned, organized collection of student-selected work
• tell detailed stories about a variety of student outcomes that would otherwise be difficult
to document
• include self-assessments that describe the student as both a learner and an individual
• serve as a guide for future learning by illustrating a student's present level of
achievement

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 • include a selection of items that are representative of curriculum outcomes, and what
the student knows and can do
• include the criteria against which the student work was evaluated
• support the assessment, evaluation and communication of student learning
• document learning in a variety of ways—process, product, growth and achievement
• include a variety of works—audio recordings, video recordings, photographs, graphic
organizers, first drafts, journals and assignments that feature work from all of the
multiple intelligences.
Work samples not only provide reliable information about student achievement of the
curriculum, but also provide students with context for assessing their own work and setting
meaningful goals for learning. Displaying concrete samples of student work and sharing
assessments that illustrate grade level expectations of the outcomes are key to winning the
confidence and support of parents.
Encourage students to provide evidence of their learning in their work products. Have
students include evidence of their learning, such as graphic organizers, journals, solved
problems that were challenging, problems that have been solved in multiple ways, problems
that the student has extended. Have them state where they see evidence of strong product or
performance. Periodically have students select a number of pieces of work that they have
analyzed for evidence of understanding and include these work products in a portfolio that
provides evidence of their learning over time.
An essential requirement of portfolios is that students include written reflections that
explain why each sample was selected. The power of the portfolio is derived from the
descriptions, reactions and metacognitive reflections that help students achieve their goals.
Conferencing with parents, peers and/or teachers helps synthesize learning and celebrate
successes.
Teacher Ratings
Teacher ratings are a way to organize teacher perceptions of children’s development
into scales for which reliability and validity can be assessed. Children’s grades on report cards
are the most common type of teacher rating system for older children. In the preschool years,
teacher ratings are most commonly used to assess children’s social and emotional development.
However, teacher ratings also can be used to assess children’s cognitive and language abilities.
Teacher ratings can be specifically related to other types of child assessments including scores
on standardized tests or other validated assessment tools, concrete and specific behavioral

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descriptions (e.g., frequency of participation in group activities, ability to recognize the letters
in one’s name), or global assessments of children’s traits (e.g., cooperative, sociable, hard-
working). Research shows that teacher ratings can have considerable short- and long-term
predictive validity throughout later school years and even into adulthood. Teacher ratings are
useful in assessing children’s cognitive and language abilities as well as their social-emotional
development. These ratings can be linked to other methods of assessment, such as standardized
testing or other assessment tools.
Parent Ratings
Parent ratings are a way to organize parent perceptions of children’s development into
scales for which reliability and validity can be assessed. Soliciting parent ratings is an excellent
way for teachers to involve them as partners in the assessment of their children’s performance.
The very process of completing scales can inform parents about the kinds of behaviors and
milestones that are important in young children’s development. It also encourages parents to
observe and listen to their children as they gather the data needed to rate their performance. An
example of the use of parent ratings is the Head Start Family and Child Experiences Survey
(FACES) study, in which parents’ ratings of their children’s abilities and progress were related
to measures of classroom quality and child outcomes. Parent Ratings integrate parents into the
assessment process. Parents who are encouraged to observe and listen to their child can help
detect and target important milestones and behaviors in their child’s development.
Effectively working with children and families, means that teachers must effectively
use observation, documentation, and assessment. We use the cycle of assessment to help
improve teaching practices, plan effective curriculum, and assess children’s development.
Families should be seen as partners in this process. Teachers must ensure that there is effective
communication to support these relationships.
Implementation of assessment into practice
The process of choosing the right assessment tools varies for each early childhood
program. Below are some general guidelines for implementing assessment into your program.
• Assessment aligns with instructional goals and approaches. Different types of
assessments have different purposes. It is important to first determine what should be
measured; then find the assessment program that best assesses those goals.
• Assessor knows the child. The adult conducting the assessment should have a pre-
existing relationship with the child. Ideally the assessor is the educator.

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 • Assessment is “authentic.” Assessment should take place in a child’s normal setting.
The assessment should reflect everyday relationships and experiences. It should be
conducted in familiar contexts and settings (such as the classroom).
• Observations are ongoing and diverse. For a comprehensive assessment,
observations should be made at a variety of children’s activities and be ongoing in order
to fully see the progress of a child.
• Assessment is a cycle. Although specific methods for assessment tools vary, the
process is cyclical. The cycle allows educators to make changes to their curriculum to
better serve children in their program. The cycle is as follows:
♣ Instruct.
♣ Observe. Observe children in various situations.
♣ Document, Reflect. Record while observing or as soon as possible.
♣ Analyze, Evaluate. Study the data with assessment tools. The assessment comes
from the combination of documentation and evaluation.
♣ Summarize, Plan, and Communicate. This informs a child’s specific needs and
future curriculum.
♣ Instruct. (The cycle repeats.)

Reflection Questions
1. Differentiate “Assessment of learning” and “Assessment for learning”.
2. How will you use different types of assessment in your classroom?

References
1. Angelaccio, A. (2000). ECE Principles and Practices Prek-4. Creative Commons
Attribution. Bucks Country Community College, Newtown, PA.
2. Resources for early learning: Early Childhood Assessment. Retrieved from
http://resourcesforearlylearning.org/fm/early-childhood-
assessment/#:~:text=Childhood%20assessment%20is%20a%20process,%2Dquality%2C
%20early%20childhood%20program
3. Early Childhood Assessment Resource Group. (1998). Principles and Recommendations
for Early Childhood Assessments. National Education Goals Panel.

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 Chapter 22
Environmental Assessments in Early Childhood Education
Environmental assessments in early childhood education involve a set of evaluation
tools that are used to assess the quality and quantity of early childhood education environments,
such as those found within classrooms, playgrounds, and homes. Research studies demonstrate
that high-quality care in early childhood programs is associated with features of the physical
and social environment; and that these quality measures are predictive of a range of positive
developmental outcomes for children in their cognitive, language, social-emotional, and
physical domains (e.g., NICHD Early Child Care Research Network, 2000; Peisner-Feinberg
et al., 2000). A thoughtfully designed and organized setting with a positive climate is
interpreted as providing a safe, secure, and instructive place for children to be inquisitive and
learn—from the teacher, their peers, and their environment. Environmental assessments have
been primarily used for accreditation, licensure, or research purposes. For example, the
National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC) developed Standards for
Physical Environment in 2005 for accreditation purposes to assess the quality of indoor and
outdoor physical environments, including equipment, facilities, and materials to ensure that the
environment is welcome, accessible, and promotes children’s learning, comfort, health, and
safety.
Environmental assessments are developed and utilized based on theories of child
development and cultural values and beliefs. One of the more predominant theories is the
ecological model developed by Urie Bronfenbrenner (1994). Within this model children are
observed in one of their natural contexts (e.g., child-care centers, home, and classroom). It is
assumed that these settings operate within a broader system (e.g., societal beliefs, state and
federal laws and regulations, interactions between caregivers, educators and service systems).
Many assessments focus on one or more aspects of the ecology of the setting. Based on
adaptations of Carta’s model (2002), for example, an environmental assessment could include
one or more of the following: (a) Classroom features (e.g., curriculum, practices, schedule and
nature of activities, materials); (b) interactions of the child with peers, teachers, and parents;
(c) staff characteristics (e.g., formal preparation, experience and perceptions about their roles
in relationship to their teaching; (d) classroom structures (e.g., group size, adult-child ratios,
size of space and its arrangement, nature of equipment and furnishings, and hours of operation).
Environmental assessments are formatted in several ways. For example, these tools
may include: (a) Inventories/rating scales and/or checklists; (b) interviews of personnel and
family members directly associated with the targeted environment; and/or (c) reviews of
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pertinent documents. The scope of environmental assessments varies depending upon the
following three factors for a child’s development: (1) Purpose (e.g., safety, health, quality, or
planning); (2) age/focus of child (e.g., infant-toddler, preschooler, or child with special needs);
and (3) location (e.g., home setting, classroom, or playground). Individual assessments have
been used in conjunction with other assessments to form a better understanding of the child. It
is important to note that these assessments are only one picture of a child’s surroundings within
a specific period of time and should be considered within the broader context. Environmental
assessments in early childhood education are developed for various reasons: (a) To ensure the
safety and health of children; (b) to assess and ultimately obtain high-quality early childhood
educational environments; and (c) to plan the schedule, curriculum, and/or individualized
education programs (IEP) (Wolery, 2004). Assessment tools will address one, two or all three
of these areas. The following sections will address each of these reasons.
Ensuring Safety, Security, and Health
Environmental assessments that address safety, security, and health issues in early
childhood environments are designed to help identify any materials, conditions, and/or events
that may lead to unintentional child death or injury. In addition, these assessments determine
whether the responsible adults (i.e., caregivers, teachers) in these settings are engaging in
precautions that will prevent any injuries. These assessments focus on areas where accidents
are most likely to occur, such as on playgrounds where children may slip or fall. The Public
Playground Safety Checklist (Consumer Product Safety Commission [CPSC] 2005) assesses
the sturdiness of the equipment, the type of grounding to break falls and the supervision of
children as they climb the jungle gym, use the slides or swings. Other assessment instruments
ensure that children are safe from potential fires, firearms, weapons, toxic materials, and
materials that pose danger of suffocation. For more safety issues, such as issues related to
materials, toys, cribs, products, or home equipment, CPSC provides a good source of
publications (available online at http://www.cpsc.gov/cpscpub/pubs/pubJdx.html).
Achieving Quality Environments for Children
Another reason for developing environmental assessment is to assess the quality of
environments that will promote children’s overall growth and development, and to design and
implement plans to improve that quality, when appropriate. There have been different ways of
defining quality of the environment and measuring it. One approach is assessing the overall
quality of the classroom or day care environment by including measures of a range of
characteristics associated with quality care.
For example,
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♣ The Day Care Environmental Inventory and Observation Schedule for Physical Space
(Prescott, Kritchevsky, and Jones 1975) is one of the earlier assessments of child-rearing
environments focusing on children in relation to the environment.
♣ The Preschool Environmental Rating Scale (Fromm, Rourke, and Buggey, 2000) is
another environmental scale that involves physical layout, materials, basic care needs,
curriculum, interrelationships, and activities in the setting.
♣ The Early Childhood Physical Environment Observation Schedules and Rating Scales
(Moore 1994) consist of five types of scales (i.e., Early Childhood Center, Children, and
Teacher Profiles; Early Childhood Teacher Style and Dimensions of Education Rating Scales;
Early Childhood Physical Environment Scales; Playground and Neighborhood Observation
Behavior Maps; Environment/Behavior Observation Schedule for Early Childhood
Environments) to assess overall quality of various dimensions of children’s environments.
♣ The Early Childhood Environment Rating Scale—Revised (ECERS-R) (Harms,
Clifford, and Cryer, 2005) and the Infant/Toddler Environment Rating Scale—Revised
(ITERS-R) (Harms, Cryer, and Clifford, 2003) are other assessment tools that have been the
most widely used measures of the quality of care in child-care settings including both the
physical structures and nonphysical features of the settings.
Many environmental assessments are developed to be used also in home settings for
licensing, research, and clinical application purposes. As more families are opting to place their
young children in family child-care programs, measures, such as the Family Day Care Rating
Scale (Harms and Clifford, 1989), are developed to provide useful information about the
quality of the provider’s home environment. In addition, these assessments have been used to
identify influences on children’s development from their home environment. They have also
been used to set goals for families who are receiving early intervention services.
Since the legislation of Individual Family Service Plans, professionals develop
partnerships with families to provide them information in order to make their own decisions
regarding what they think is best for their child and family. Examples of these assessments
include the following:
♣ Home Observation for Measurement of the Environment (HOME) Inventory (Caldwell and
Bradley, 1984), which is designed to assess physical and social aspects of home
environments, such as the interaction between the mother and the child, organization of
physical and temporal environment, and the learning materials.

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♣ The Infant/Toddler (IT) HOME, the Early Childhood (EC) HOME, and the Middle
Childhood (MC) HOME are three versions of the HOME Inventory used to assess early
childhood home settings. More information is available online
at http://www.ualr.edu/crtldept/home4.htm.
In addition to these purposes, assessments such as the School-Age Care Environment
Rating Scale (SACERS) (Harms, Jacops, and White, 1996) have also been designed for not
only home but other group care programs for children during out-of-school time.
Planning the Schedule, Curriculum and/or Program
Planning the schedule, curriculum, or program for either a group of children or
individual children requires designing and organizing the environment according to children’s
diverse cultural, ethnic, and socioeconomic backgrounds as well as their varied developmental
levels. To accomplish this, the assessment tools just mentioned can be used as well as some
others, such as The Classroom Practices Inventory (CPI) (Hyson, Hirsh-Pasek, and Rescorla,
1990), which is based on the NAEYC Guidelines for Developmentally Appropriate Practices
for 4-5-year-old children. CPI is a rating scale with an emphasis on curriculum, teaching
practices, and the emotional climate of child-care programs.
Other instruments focus on the development of individual children, particularly those
having certified disabilities (i.e., with Individualized Education Plans or Individualized Family
Service Plans) and their inclusion in general education settings. Some of these instruments
include the following:
♣ The Ecological Congruence Assessment (Wolery et al., 2000)
♣ Classroom Ecological Inventory (CEI) (Fuchs et al., 1994)
♣ The Assessment of Practices in Early Elementary Classroom (APEEC) (Hemmeter,
Maxwell, Ault, and Schuster, 2001).
These assessments help parents, teachers, and other professionals plan for smooth
transitions for children from more restrictive to inclusive settings as well as ensuring access
for all children to the curriculum, the other children, teachers and other features of the
environment. Other environmental assessments are designed to plan for specific curricula areas,
such as children’s literacy. The Early Language and Literacy Classroom Observation (ELLCO)
Toolkit for children from 3- to 8-years-old (Smith and Dickinson, 2002) is designed as a
comprehensive set of observation tools for describing the extent to which classrooms provide
children optimal support for their language and literacy development. See also Classroom

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Environments; Disabilities, Young Children with; Ecology of Human Development; Grouping;
Parents and Parent Involvement.
Common Assessment Tools
Teachers can use a variety of assessment tools to assess student performance. Some of
these strategies and tools include:
◊ Anecdotal notes
◊ Checklists
◊ Rating scales
◊ Rubrics
Common Assessment Tools: Anecdotal Notes
Anecdotal notes are used to record specific observations of individual student behaviors,
skills and attitudes as they relate to the outcomes in the program of studies. Such notes provide
cumulative information on student learning and direction for further instruction. Anecdotal
notes are often written as the result of ongoing observations during the lessons but may also be
written in response to a product or performance the student has completed. They are brief,
objective and focused on specific outcomes. Notes taken during or immediately following an
activity are generally the most accurate. Anecdotal notes for a particular student can be
periodically shared with that student or be shared at the student’s request. They can also be
shared with students and parents at parent–teacher–student conferences.
The purpose of anecdotal notes is to:
• provide information regarding a student's development over a period of time
• provide ongoing records about individual instructional needs
• capture observations of significant behaviors that might otherwise be lost
• provide ongoing documentation of learning that may be shared with students, parents
and teachers.
Tips for Establishing and Maintaining Anecdotal Notes
• Keep a binder with a separate page for each student. Record observations using a
clipboard and sticky notes. Write the date and the student’s name on each sticky note.
Following the note taking, place individual sticky notes on the page reserved for that
student in the binder.
• Keep a binder with dividers for each student and blank pages to jot down notes. The
pages may be divided into three columns: Date, Observation and Action Plan.

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 • Keep a class list in the front of the binder and check off each student's name as anecdotal
notes are added to their section of the binder. This provides a quick reference of the
students you have observed and how frequently you have observed them.
• Keep notes brief and focused (usually no more than a few sentences or phrases).
• Note the context and any comments or questions for follow-up.
• Keep comments objective. Make specific comments about student strengths, especially
after several observations have been recorded and a pattern has been observed.
• Record as the observations are being made, or as soon after as possible, so recollections
will be accurate.
• Record comments regularly, if possible.
• Record at different times and during different activities to develop a balanced profile
of student mathematic learning.
• Review records frequently to ensure that notes are being made on each student regularly
and summarize information related to trends in students' learning.
• Share anecdotal notes with students and parents at conferences.
Common Assessment Tools: Checklists, Rating Scales and Rubrics
Checklists, rating scales and rubrics are tools that state specific criteria and allow
teachers and students to gather information and to make judgements about what students know
and can do in relation to the outcomes. They offer systematic ways of collecting data about
specific behaviors, knowledge and skills.
The quality of information acquired through the use of checklists, rating scales and
rubrics is highly dependent on the quality of the descriptors chosen for assessment. Their
benefit is also dependent on students’ direct involvement in the assessment and understanding
of the feedback provided.
The purpose of checklists, rating scales and rubrics is to:
• provide tools for systematic recording of observations
• provide tools for self-assessment
• provide samples of criteria for students prior to collecting and evaluating data on their
work
record the development of specific skills, strategies, attitudes and behaviors necessary
for demonstrating learning
• clarify students' instructional needs by presenting a record of current accomplishments.

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Tips for Developing Checklists, Rating Scales and Rubrics
1. Use checklists, rating scales and rubrics in relation to outcomes and standards.
2. Use simple formats that can be understood by students and that will communicate
information about student learning to parents.
3. Ensure that the characteristics and descriptors listed are clear, specific and observable.
4. Encourage students to assist with constructing appropriate criteria. For example, what
are the descriptors that demonstrate levels of performance in problem solving?
5. Ensure that checklists, rating scales and rubrics are dated to track progress over time.
6. Leave space to record anecdotal notes or comments.
7. Use generic templates that become familiar to students and to which various descriptors
can be added quickly, depending on the outcome(s) being assessed.
8. Provide guidance to students to use and create their own checklists, rating scales and
rubrics for self-assessment purposes and as guidelines for goal setting.
Checklists usually offer a yes/no format in relation to student demonstration of specific criteria.
This is similar to a light switch; the light is either on or off. They may be used to record
observations of an individual, a group or a whole class.
Rating Scales allow teachers to indicate the degree or frequency of the behaviors, skills and
strategies displayed by the learner. To continue the light switch analogy, a rating scale is like
a dimmer switch that provides for a range of performance levels. Rating scales state the criteria
and provide three or four response selections to describe the quality or frequency of student
work.
Teachers can use rating scales to record observations and students can use them as self-
assessment tools.
Teaching students to use descriptive words, such as
♣ always,
♣ usually,
♣ sometimes and
♣ never
helps them pinpoint specific strengths and needs.
Rating scales also give students information for setting goals and improving
performance. In a rating scale, the descriptive word is more important than the related number.
The more precise and descriptive the words for each scale point, the more reliable the tool.

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 Effective rating scales use descriptors with clearly understood measures, such as
frequency. Scales that rely on subjective descriptors of quality, such as
♣ fair,
♣ good or
♣ excellent,
are less effective because the single adjective does not contain enough information on
what criteria are indicated at each of these points on the scale.
Added value
Increase the assessment value of a checklist or rating scale by adding two or three
additional steps that give students an opportunity to identify skills they would like to improve
or the skill they feel is most important. For example:
• put a star beside the skill you think is the most important for encouraging others
• circle the skill you would most like to improve
• underline the skill that is the most challenging for you.
Rubrics use a set of criteria to evaluate a student's performance. They consist of a fixed
measurement scale and detailed description of the characteristics for each level of performance.
These descriptions focus on the quality of the product or performance and not the quantity;
e.g., not number of paragraphs, examples to support an idea, spelling errors. Rubrics are
commonly used to evaluate student performance with the intention of including the result in a
grade for reporting purposes. Rubrics can increase the consistency and reliability of scoring.
Rubrics use a set of specific criteria to evaluate student performance. They may be used to
assess individuals or groups and, as with rating scales, may be compared over time.
Developing Rubrics and Scoring Criteria
Rubrics are increasingly recognized as a way to both effectively assess student learning
and communicate expectations directly, clearly and concisely to students. The inclusion of
rubrics in a teaching resource provides opportunities to consider what demonstrations of
learning look like, and to describe stages in the development and growth of knowledge,
understandings and skills. To be most effective, rubrics should allow students to see the
progression of mastery in the development of understandings and skills. Rubrics should be
constructed with input from students whenever possible. A good start is to define what quality
work looks like based on the learning outcomes. Exemplars of achievement need to be used to
demonstrate to students what an excellent or acceptable performance is. This provides a
collection of quality work for students to use as reference points. Once the standard is

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established, it is easy to define what exemplary levels and less-than-satisfactory levels of
performance look like. The best rubrics have three to five descriptive levels to allow for
discrimination in the evaluation of the product or task. Rubrics may be used for summative
purposes to gauge marks by assigning a score to each of the various levels.
When developing a rubric, consider the following:
◊ What are the specific outcomes in the task?
◊ Do the students have some experience with this or a similar task?
◊ What does an excellent performance look like?
◊ What are the qualities that distinguish an excellent response from other levels?
◊ What do other responses along the performance quality continuum look like?
◊ Is each description qualitatively different from the others?
◊ Are there an equal number of descriptors at each level of quality?
◊ Are the differences clear and understandable to students and others?
Begin by developing criteria to describe the Acceptable level. Then use Bloom's
taxonomy to identify differentiating criteria as you move up the scale. The criteria should not
go beyond the original performance task, but reflect higher order thinking skills that students
could demonstrate within the parameters of the initial task.
When developing the scoring criteria and quality levels of a rubric, consider the following
guidelines.
 Level 4 is the Standard of excellence level.
Descriptions should indicate that all aspects of work exceed grade level expectations and show
exemplary performance or understanding. This is a "Wow!"
 Level 3 is the Approaching standard of excellence level.
Descriptions should indicate some aspects of work that exceed grade level expectations and
demonstrate solid performance or understanding. This is a "Yes!"
 Level 2 is the Meets acceptable standard.
This level should indicate minimal competencies acceptable to meet grade level expectations.
Performance and understanding are emerging or developing but there are some errors and
mastery is not thorough. This is a "On the right track, but …".
 Level 1 Does not yet meet acceptable standard.
This level indicates what is not adequate for grade level expectations and indicates that the
student has serious errors, omissions or misconceptions. This is a "No, but …". The teacher
needs to make decisions about appropriate intervention to help the student improve.

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 General Issues in Assessment
Reliability and Validity
Any formal assessment tool or method should meet established criteria for validity and
reliability. Reliability refers to the consistency, or reproducibility of measurements. A
sufficiently reliable test will yield similar results across time for a single child, even if different
examiners or different forms of the test are used. Reliability is expressed as a coefficient
between 0 (absence of reliability) and 1 (perfect reliability). Generally, for individualized tests
of cognitive or special abilities, a reliability coefficient of .80 or higher is considered acceptable.
Validity is the degree to which a test measures what it is supposed to measure. Because tests
are only valid for a specific purpose and assessments are conducted for so many different
reasons, there is no single type of validity that is most appropriate across tests. Content validity
refers to the extent to which the items on an instrument are representative of the key aspects of
the domain it is supposed to measure. Irrelevant items or the absence of items to address some
important element of a domain will negatively impact content validity. Face validity deals with
appearance rather than content. A test has face validity if it appears to measure what it purports
to measure. In assessing young children, two aspects of validity have special importance –
developmental validity and predictive validity. Developmental validity means the performance
items being measured are developmentally suitable for the children being assessed. Predictive
validity is the correlation between a test score and future performance on a relevant criterion.
A test would have strong predictive validity, for example, if superior performance on the test
was strongly associated with a high level of achievement later in school. The criterion to which
test performance is compared may be another test or an indicator such as grade retention,
special education placement or high school graduation. A test must be reliable in order to be
valid but not all reliable tests are valid. Principles and Recommendations for Early Childhood
Assessments, a report to the National Education Goals Panel, noted that “the younger the child,
the more difficult it is to obtain reliable and valid assessment data. It is particularly difficult to
assess children’s cognitive abilities accurately before age 6.” One prominent expert on early
childhood assessment concludes, “research demonstrates that no more than 25 per cent of early
academic or cognitive performance is predicted from information obtained from preschool or
kindergarten tests.” Growth in the early years is rapid, episodic and highly influenced by
environmental supports. Performance is influenced by children’s emotional and motivational
states and by the assessment conditions themselves. Because these individual and situational
factors affect reliability and validity, assessment of young children should be pursued with the

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necessary safeguards and caveats about the accuracy of the decisions that can be drawn from
the results. These procedures and cautions are explored in the following
Criteria of Reliable and Valid Preschool Assessment
Both the content and administration of measures must respect young children’s
developmental characteristics. Otherwise the resulting data will be neither reliable nor valid.
Worse, the testing experience may be negative for the child. Further, the knowledge and skills
measured in the testing situation must be transferable and applicable to real-world challenges
that a child may face at home or at school. Otherwise the information gathered has no practical
value. To produce meaningful data and minimize the risk of creating a harmful situation, all
assessment tools for preschool-age children, whether formal or informal, should satisfy the
following criteria:
1. Assessment should not make children feel anxious or scared. It should not threaten their
self-esteem or make them feel they have failed. Tests should acknowledge what
children know–or have the potential to learn–rather than penalizing them for what they
do not know. Examiners should be able to respond sensitively to each child’s reactions
to the testing situation.
2. Information should be obtained over time. A single encounter, especially if brief, can
produce inaccurate or distorted data. For example, a child may be ill, hungry, or
distracted at the moment of testing. The test is then measuring the child’s interest or
willingness to respond rather than the child’s knowledge or ability with respect to the
question(s) being asked. If time-distributed measurements are not feasible, then testers
should note unusual circumstances in the situation (e.g., noise) or child (e.g., fatigue)
that could render single-encounter results invalid and should either schedule a re-
assessment or discount the results in such cases.
3. An attempt should be made to obtain information on the same content area from
multiple and diverse sources, especially when repeated instances of data gathering are
not feasible (e.g., due to time or budgetary constraints). Just as young children have
different styles of learning, so they will differentially demonstrate their knowledge and
skills under varying modes of assessment. For example, a complete and accurate
assessment of language ability may involve standardized tests, classroom observation
and parent ratings. By measuring ability using multiple approaches, an assessment plan
is also less likely to be individually or culturally biased.
4. The length of the assessment should be sensitive to young children’s interests and
attention spans. The assessment period should probably not exceed 35-45 minutes.
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 Further, testers should be sensitive to children’s comfort and engagement levels, and
take a break or continue the test at another time if the child cannot or does not want to
proceed.
5. Testing for purposes of program accountability should employ appropriate sampling
methods whenever feasible. Testing a representative sample of the children who
participate in a program avoids the need to test every child. Sampling strategies reduce
the overall time spent in testing and minimize the chances for placing undue stress on
children and burden on teachers and classrooms.
Example 1: Effective Use of Observation Technique in Preschool Classroom Setting
To gather useful information about each child, we must first remember to use
an objective lens. In other words, rather than assuming you know what a child is thinking or
doing, it is important to learn the art of observing. To gather authentic evidence, we must learn
how to look and listen with an open mind. We must learn to “see” each child for who they are
rather than for who we want them to be or who we think they should be. Be assured, that
learning to be an objective observer is a skill that requires patience and practice.
Step 1: Define
As you begin to incorporate observation into your daily routine, here are a few things
to think about:
1. Who should I observe?
Quite simply – every child needs to be observed. Some children may stand out more than others,
and you may connect to certain children more than others. In either case, be aware and be
mindful to set time aside to observe each child in your care.
2. When should I observe?
It is highly suggested that you observe at various times throughout the day – during both
morning and afternoon routines. Some key times may include during drop-off and pick-up
times, during planned or teacher-directed activities, during open exploration, or during child-
initiated activities. You may have spontaneous observations – which are special moments or
interactions that unexpectedly pop up, and you may have planned observations – which are
scheduled observations that are more focused on collecting evidence about a particular skill
set, interaction, or behavior.
3. Where should I observe?
You should observe EVERYWHERE! Because children can behave differently when they are
indoors as compared to when they are outdoors, it’s important to capture them interacting in
both settings.
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 4. What should I observe?
To understand the “whole child” you need to observe their social interactions, their physical
development, how they manage their emotions and feelings, how they problem-solve when
tasked with new developmental skills, how they communicate with their peers and adults, and
how they use materials and follow directions. In other words – EVERYTHING a child does
and says! In addition to observing each child as an individual, it’s important to look at small
group interactions, along with large group interactions.
5. How should I observe?
To capture all the various moments, you need to know when to step in and when to step back.
Sometimes we quietly watch as moments occur, and sometimes we are there to ask questions
and prompt (or scaffold) children’s learning.
Sometimes we can record our observations at that moment as they occur, and sometimes we
have to wait to jot down what we heard or saw at a later time. We have to consider the following
tools to use:
• Running Record
To gather authentic evidence of everything you see and hear a child doing during a specific
timeframe, you can use a running record. The primary goal of using a running record is to
“obtain a detailed, objective account of behavior without inference, interpretations, or
evaluations”. According to Bentzen, you will know you have gathered good evidence when
you can close your eyes and you can “see” the images in your mind as they are described in
your running record.
• Anecdotal Record
Whereas a running record can be used to gather general information more spontaneously,
anecdotal records are brief, focused accounts of a specific event or activity. An anecdotal
record is “an informal observation method often used by teachers as an aid to understanding
the child’s personality or behavior.” Anecdotal records, also referred to as “anecdotal notes,”
are direct observations of a child that offer a window of opportunity to see into a child’s actions,
interactions, and reactions to people and events. They are an excellent tool that provides you
with a collection of narratives that can be used to showcase a child’s progress over time.
• Developmental Checklists
To track a child’s growth development and development in all of the developmental domains
including physical, cognitive, language, social, and emotional you will want to use a
developmental checklist. With a checklist, you can easily see what a child can do, as well as

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note the areas of development that need further support. Teachers can create their own
checklists based on certain skill sets, or to look at a child’s full range of development they can
download a formal developmental milestone checklist from a reputable source. Checklists can
be used to track a large group of children or an individual child.
• Frequency Counts
To gather information about a child’s interests, social interactions, play patterns, and
temperamental traits you can use a frequency count chart. As you observe the children at play,
a tally mark is made every time the noted behavior or action occurs within a set timeframe.
Frequency counts are also used to track undesirable or challenging behaviors, as well as
prosocial behaviors.
• Work Samples
Creating a work sample requires more effort than hanging a child’s picture on the wall. A work
sample provides tangible evidence of a child’s effort, progress, and achievement. Not only does
a work sample highlight the final product, but it can also highlight the process. To
collect authentic evidence, with every work sample you need to include the date and a brief
caption that explains the child’s learning experience.
• Documentation Boards
In addition to using the above tools and techniques to record observations, teachers can
use documentation boards or panels to highlight the learning activities that are happening
throughout the week, month, and year. Not only do families enjoy seeing their child’s work
posted, but children can also be empowered by seeing all that they have accomplished.
Documentation boards are another great way to validate progress over time. Documentation
boards can be made with the children as a project or can be assembled by the teacher or parent
volunteer. Typically, documentation boards are posted on the wall for all to see and they usually
showcase the following information:
 Learning goals and objectives
 Children’s language development
 The process and complete project
 The milestones of development
 Photos with detailed captions
Step 2: Document
As we observe, we must record what we see and hear exactly as it happens. There are
several tools and techniques that can be used to document our observations. As you continue

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along the Early Childhood Education / Child Development pathway, you may take a class on
“Observation and Assessment” which will provide you with detailed information on how to
effectively document a child’s development. As for now, we will take a brief look at some of
the tools and techniques you may want to use as part of your daily routine.

Figure 22.1 Documenting what you observe is an important part of the process.
Step 3: Interpret
After you have captured key evidence, you must now make sense of it all. In other
words, you must try to figure out what it all means. As you begin to analyze and interpret your
documentation, you will want to compare your current observations to previous observations.
As you compare observations, you will want to look for play patterns and track social
interactions. You will also want to look for changes in behavior and look for possible triggers
(antecedents) when addressing challenging behaviors.
Lastly, you will want to note any new milestones that have developed since the last
observation. To help you analyze and interpret your observation data, you will want to ask
yourself some reflective questions. Here are some suggested questions:
o What have I learned about this child?
o What are their current interests – who do they play with and what activity centers
or areas do they migrate to the most?
o Has this child developed any new skills or mastered any milestones?
o How did this child approach new activities or problem-solve when faced with a
challenge?
o How long does the child usually stay focused on a task?

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 o Is this behavior “typical” for this child?
o What can I plan to support and encourage this child to progress along at a
developmentally appropriate pace?
Another vital step in interpreting your observations is to reflect and connect your
observation data to developmental theories. ECE theories provide foundational principles that
we use to guide our practices and plan developmentally appropriate curricula.
Step 4: Plan
Once you have interpreted your observation data (asked questions, looked for patterns,
noted any changes in growth and development) and analyzed theory principles, it is time to
plan the curriculum. First, let’s define curriculum. According to Epstein (2007), the curriculum
is “the knowledge and skills teachers are expected to teach and children are expected to learn,
and the plans for experiences through which learning will take place (p. 5). I would like to
define curriculum as “the activities, experiences, and interactions a child may have throughout
their day.” The curriculum supports learning and play and it influences a whole child’s growth
and development. As teachers set goals and make plans, they should consider that some
curricula will be planned, while some curricula will emerge. As you plan your curriculum, you
are encouraged to think about the following aspects of the curriculum – the environment,
materials, and interactions. For example:
♣ How is the environment set up – is it overstimulating, cluttered, or inviting and well
organized?
♣ What is the mood and tone of the classroom – is it calm or chaotic? Do the children
appear happy and engaged? Have you interacted with the children?
♣ Are there enough materials available – are children having to wait long periods of
time for items and are there conflicts because of limited materials?
♣ Do the materials reflect the children’s interests – are they engaging and accessible?
♣ What are the social interactions – who is playing with whom, are there social
cliques, is anyone playing alone?
♣ Are the activities appropriate– do they support development in all areas of learning?
♣ Are there a variety of activities to encourage both individualized play and
cooperative play?
Step 5: Implementation
Probably the more joyful part of our job is implementing the curriculum and seeing the
children engage in new activities. It is common to hear teachers say that the highlight of their

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day is “seeing the lightbulb go on” as children make valuable connections to what the teacher
has planned and as the children master new skill sets. An important part of implementation is
understanding differentiated instruction. According to Gordon and Browne (2016) when
teachers can implement activities and materials to match the interests and skill level of each
child, they are utilizing developmentally appropriate practices. For light bulbs to go off,
intentional teachers must remember to “tailor what is taught to what a child is ready and willing
to learn.”
Step 6: Evaluate
Once you have planned your curriculum, gathered your materials, set up your
environment, and implemented your activities, you will need to observe, document, and
interpret the interactions so that you can evaluate and plan for the next step. Based on whether
the children mastered the goals, and expectations, and met the learning outcomes will
determine your next step. For example, if the children can quickly and easily complete the task,
you may have to consider adding more steps or extending the activity to challenge the children.
If some children were unable to complete the task or appeared uninterested, you may consider
how to better scaffold their learning either through peer interactions or by redefining the steps
to complete the activity. As you evaluate your implemented activities here are some questions
that you want to think about:
 How did the child approach the activity and how long did the child stay engaged?
 What problem-solving strategies did the child use?
 Did the child follow the intended directions or find alternative approaches?
 Who did the child interact with?
Based on your answers, you will decide on what is in the child’s best interest and how
to proceed moving forward.
Example 2: To Assess Children’s Development
Early childhood educators use assessments to showcase critical information about a
child’s growth and development. As suggested by Gordon and Brown (2016) “Children are
evaluated because teachers and parents want to know what the children are learning.” It is
important to note that “assessment is not testing.
Assessment is, however, a critical part of a high-quality early childhood program and
is used to:
 Provide a record of growth in all developmental areas: cognitive, physical/motor,
language, social-emotional, and approaches to learning.

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  Identify children who may need additional support and determine if there is a need
for intervention or support services.
 Help educators plan individualized instruction for a child or for a group of children
that are at the same stage of development.
 Identify the strengths and weaknesses within a program and information on how well
the program meets the goals and needs of the children.
 Provide a common ground between educators and parents or families to use in
collaborating on a strategy to support their child.
The key to a good assessment is observation. Whether you obtain your observation
evidence through spontaneous or planned observations, it is suggested that you document your
observations by utilizing various tools and techniques (e.g. running records, anecdotal notes,
checklists, frequency counts, work samples, learning stories). As teachers watch children in
natural settings, they can gather evidence that can then be used to track a child’s learning,
growth, and development throughout the school year. To start the assessment process, here is
a road map for you to follow:
Step 1: Gather Baseline Data
Step 2: Monitor Each Child’s Progress
Step 3: Have a Systematic Plan in Place
Let’s look at each step more closely.
Step 1. Establish a Baseline
Before you can assess a child’s development, you must get to know your child. The
first step is to gather “baseline” information. Through ongoing observation, you learn about
each child’s strengths, interests, and skills. While observing you may also uncover a child’s
unique learning styles, needs, or possible barriers that may limit them from optimal learning
opportunities. For example, you may notice that when a child arrives in the morning, they tend
to sit quietly at the table, and they don’t engage with other children or join in play activities.
As you track the behavior, you begin to see a pattern that when a teacher sits with the child and
they read a story together, the child warms up much faster than when left alone. Baseline
information provides you with a starting point that can help you build a respectful relationship
with each child in your class.
Step 2. Monitor Progress
“The goal of observing children is to understand them better” (Gordon & Browne, 2016,
p.119). Observations help guide our decisions, inform our practices, and help us to develop a
plan of action that best fits each child’s individual needs. With every observation, we can begin
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to see how all the pieces fit together to make the whole child. To successfully monitor a child’s
progress, we must look at the following:
♣ The child’s social interactions.
♣ The child’s play preferences.
♣ How the child handles their feelings and emotions.
♣ The timeframe in which the child masters developmental milestones.
♣ How the child processes information and is able to move on to the next activity or level
With each observation, you gather more information and more evidence that can be used to
assess the child’s development.
Step 3. A Systematic Plan
Once you have gathered an array of evidence, it is time to organize it. There are two
different types of assessment systems:
1. Published child assessment tools have been researched and tested and are accepted as
credible sources for assessing children’s development. Here are some examples of published
formative assessment tools often used in early childhood programs.
◊ The Work Sampling System (WSS) www.worksamplingonline.com
◊ Teaching Strategies GOLD www.teachingstrategies.com
◊ HighScope COR (Child Observation Record) www.onlinecor.net
◊ The Creative Curriculum Developmental Continuum www.teachingstrategies.com
2. Program-developed child assessment tools are developed to align with a specific
program’s philosophy and curriculum. (Teacher made assessment tools). Let’s see the
following Developmental checklist Preschool Teacher Manual published by UNICEF
Myanmar.

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Reflection Questions

1. Plan assessment procedures step-by-step.

2. Develop your own assessment tool depending on your objectives.
References
1. Angelaccio, A. (2000). ECE Principles and Practices Prek-4. Creative Commons
Attribution. Bucks Country Community College, Newtown, PA.
2. Environmental Assessments in Early Childhood Education. Retrieved from
https://schoolbag.info/pedagogy/early/103.html
3. UNICEF. (2012). Handbook for Early Childhood Care and Development.
Myanmar.Angelaccio, A. (2000). ECE Principles and Practices Prek-4. Creative
Commons Attribution. Bucks Country Community College, Newtown, PA.

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 Chapter 23
Teacher competencies for preschool teachers
Professional Standards and Competencies for Early Childhood Educators (2020) by
National Association for the Education Young Children (NAEYC)
Standard 1: Child Development and Learning in Context
Early childhood educators (a) are grounded in an understanding of the developmental
period of early childhood from birth through age 8 across developmental domains. They (b)
understand each child as an individual with unique developmental variations. Early childhood
educators (c) understand that children learn and develop within relationships and within
multiple contexts, including families, cultures, languages, communities, and society. They (d)
use this multidimensional knowledge to make evidence-based decisions about how to carry out
their responsibilities.
Key Competencies
1a: Understand the developmental period of early childhood from birth through age 8 across
physical, cognitive, social and emotional, and linguistic domains, including bilingual/
multilingual development.
1b: Understand and value each child as an individual with unique developmental variations,
experiences, strengths, interests, abilities, challenges, approaches to learning, and with the
capacity to make choices.
1c: Understand the ways that child development and the learning process occur in multiple
contexts, including family, culture, language, community, and early learning setting, as well as
in a larger societal context that includes structural inequities.
1d: Use this multidimensional knowledge—that is, knowledge about the developmental period
of early childhood, about individual children, and about development and learning in cultural
contexts— to make evidence-based decisions that support each child.
Standard 2: Family-Teacher Partnerships and Community
Connections Early childhood educators understand that successful early childhood
education depends upon educators’ partnerships with the families of the young children they
serve. They (a) know about, understand, and value the diversity in family characteristics. Early
childhood educators (b) use this understanding to create respectful, responsive, reciprocal
relationships with families and to engage with them as partners in their young children’s
development and learning. They(c) use community resources to support young children’s
learning and development and to support children’s families, and they build connections
between early learning settings, schools, and community organizations and agencies.
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Key Competencies
2a: Know about, understand, and value the diversity of families.
2b: Collaborate as partners with families in young children’s development and learning through
respectful, reciprocal relationships and engagement.
2c: Use community resources to support young children’s learning and development and to
support families, and build partnerships between early learning settings, schools, and
community organizations and agencies.
Standard 3: Child Observation, Documentation, and Assessment
Early childhood educators (a) understand that the primary purpose of assessments is to
inform instruction and planning in early learning settings. They (b) know how to use
observation, documentation, and other appropriate assessment approaches and tools. Early
childhood educators (c) use screening and assessment tools in ways that are ethically grounded
and developmentally, culturally, ability, and linguistically appropriate to document
developmental progress and promote positive outcomes for each child. Early childhood
educators (d) build assessment partnerships with families and professional colleagues.
Key Competencies
3a: Understand that assessments (formal and informal, formative and summative) are
conducted to make informed choices about instruction and for planning in early learning
settings.
3b: Know a wide range of types of assessments, their purposes, and their associated methods
and tools.
3c: Use screening and assessment tools in ways that are ethically grounded and
developmentally, ability, culturally, and linguistically appropriate in order to document
developmental progress and promote positive outcomes for each child.
3d: Build assessment partnerships with families and professional colleagues.
Standard 4: Developmentally, Culturally, and Linguistically Appropriate Teaching Practices
Early childhood educators understand that teaching and learning with young children
is a complex enterprise, and its details vary depending on children’s ages and characteristics
and on the settings in which teaching and learning occur. They (a) understand and demonstrate
positive, caring, supportive relationships and interactions as the foundation for their work with
young children. They (b) understand and use teaching skills that are responsive to the learning
trajectories of young children and to the needs of each child. Early childhood educators (c) use
a broad repertoire of developmentally appropriate and culturally and linguistically relevant,

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anti-bias, and evidence-based teaching approaches that reflect the principles of universal design
for learning.
Key Competencies
4a: Understand and demonstrate positive, caring, supportive relationships and interactions as
the foundation of early childhood educators’ work with young children.
4b: Understand and use teaching skills that are responsive to the learning trajectories of young
children and to the needs of each child, recognizing that differentiating instruction,
incorporating play as a core teaching practice, and supporting the development of executive
function skills critical for young children.
4c: Use a broad repertoire of developmentally appropriate, culturally and linguistically relevant,
anti-bias, evidence-based teaching skills and strategies that reflect the principles of universal
design for learning.
Standard 5: Knowledge, Application, and Integration of Academic Content in the Early
Childhood Curriculum
Early childhood educators have knowledge of the content of the academic disciplines
(e.g., language and literacy, the arts, mathematics, social studies, science, technology and
engineering, physical education) and of the pedagogical methods for teaching each discipline.
They (a) understand the central concepts, the methods and tools of inquiry, and the structures
in each academic discipline. Educators (b) understand pedagogy, including how young children
learn and process information in each discipline, the learning trajectories for each discipline,
and how teachers use this knowledge to inform their practice They (c) apply this knowledge
using early learning standards and other resources to make decisions about spontaneous and
planned learning experiences and about curriculum development, implementation, and
evaluation to ensure that learning will be stimulating, challenging, and meaningful to each child.
Key Competencies
5a: Understand content knowledge—the central concepts, methods and tools of inquiry, and
structure—and resources for the academic disciplines in an early childhood curriculum.
5b: Understand pedagogical content knowledge—how young children learn in each
discipline—and how to use the teacher knowledge and practices described in Standards 1
through 4 to support young children’s learning in each content area.
5c: Modify teaching practices by applying, expanding, integrating, and updating their content
knowledge in the disciplines, their knowledge of curriculum content resources, and their
pedagogical content knowledge.

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Standard 6: Professionalism as an Early Childhood Educator
Early childhood educators (a) identify and participate as members of the early
childhood profession. They serve as informed advocates for young children, for the families of
the children in their care, and for the early childhood profession. They (b) know and use ethical
guidelines and other early childhood professional guidelines. They (c) have professional
communication skills that effectively support their relationships and work young children,
families, and colleagues. Early childhood educators (d) are continuous, collaborative learners
who (e) develop and sustain the habit of reflective and intentional practice in their daily work
with young children and as members of the early childhood profession.
Key Competencies
6a: Identify and involve themselves with the early childhood field and serve as informed
advocates for young children, families, and the profession.
6b: Know about and uphold ethical and other early childhood professional guidelines.
6c: Use professional communication skills, including technology mediated strategies, to
effectively support young children’s learning and development and to work with families and
colleagues.
6d: Engage in continuous, collaborative learning to inform practice.
6e: Develop and sustain the habit of reflective and intentional practice in their daily work with
young children and as members of the early childhood profession.
Conclusion
Assessment of young children is important both to support the learning of each
individual child and to provide data—at the district, state, and national level—for improving
services and educational programs. At the level of the individual child, teaching and assessment
are closely linked. Finding out, on an ongoing basis, what a child knows and can do, helps
parents and teachers decide how to pose new challenges and provide help with what the child
has not yet mastered. Teachers also use a combination of observation and formal assessments
to evaluate their own teaching and make improvements. At the policy level, data are needed
about the preconditions of learning—such as the adequacy of health care, child care, and
preschool services. Direct measures of children’s early learning are also needed to make sure
that educational programs are on track in helping students reach high standards by the end of
third grade. Assessing young children accurately is much more difficult than for older students
and adults, because of the nature of early learning and because the language skills needed to
participate in formal assessments are still developing. Inappropriate testing of young children
has sometimes led to unfair and harmful decisions. Such testing abuses occur primarily for one
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of two reasons: either a test designed for one purpose is improperly used for another purpose,
or testing procedures appropriate for older children are used inappropriately with younger
children. Thus, this chapter has emphasized how technical requirements for assessments must
be tailored to each assessment purpose, and we have tried to explain how the increasing
reliability and validity of measurement for ages from birth to age 8 should guide decisions
about what kinds of assessments can be administered accurately at each age. We hope that
early childhood teachers can effectively apply knowledge of assessment strategies and create
well-organized assessment tools in helping children to reach into the successful paths of early
learning, depending on the rate of development, linguistic and cultural experiences, and
community contexts.

Reflection Questions

3. Describe key facts of early childhood teacher competencies.

4. Create assessment tool for early childhood teacher competencies.

References
3. National Association for the Education of Young Children. (2020). Professional
Standards and Competencies for Early Childhood Educators. Washington.

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