ASSIGNMENT 1

Q2 - CLINICAL APPLICATIONS

Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT)?

Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) is a type of psychotherapeutic treatment that helps people
learn how to identify and change the destructive or disturbing thought patterns that have a
negative influence on their behavior and emotions.1
Cognitive behavioral therapy combines cognitive therapy with behavior therapy by identifying
maladaptive patterns of thinking, emotional responses, or behaviors and replacing them with
more desirable patterns.2
Cognitive behavioral therapy focuses on changing the automatic negative thoughts that can
contribute to and worsen our emotional difficulties, depression, and anxiety. These spontaneous
negative thoughts also have a detrimental influence on our mood.
Through CBT, faulty thoughts are identified, challenged, and replaced with more objective,
realistic thoughts.
CBT encompasses a range of techniques and approaches that address our thoughts, emotions, and
behaviors. These can range from structured psychotherapies to self-help practices. Some of the
specific types of therapeutic approaches that involve cognitive behavioral therapy include:

Cognitive therapy centers on identifying and changing inaccurate or distorted thought patterns,
emotional responses, and behaviors.3

Dialectical behavior therapy (DBT) addresses destructive or disturbing thoughts and behaviors
while incorporating treatment strategies such as emotional regulation and mindfulness.

Multimodal therapy suggests that psychological issues must be treated by addressing seven
different but interconnected modalities: behavior, affect, sensation, imagery, cognition,
interpersonal factors, and drug/biological considerations.4

Rational emotive behavior therapy (REBT)

Rational emotive behavior therapy (REBT) involves identifying irrational beliefs, actively
challenging these beliefs, and finally learning to recognize and change these thought patterns.
While each type of cognitive behavioral therapy takes a different approach, all work to address the
underlying thought patterns that contribute to psychological distress.

According to REBT, our cognition, emotions, and behavior are connected.2 In order to understand
the impact of events and situations that people encounter throughout life, it’s essential to look at
the beliefs people hold about these experiences and the emotions that arise as a result of those
beliefs.
The main goal of REBT is to help people respond rationally to situations that would typically
cause stress, depression, or other negative feelings. When faced with this type of situation in the
future, the emotionally healthy response would be to realize that it is not realistic to expect
success in every endeavor. All you can do is learn from the situation and move on.

Main Beliefs
Rational emotive behavior therapy operates under a few main beliefs.
You are worthy of self-acceptance no matter what even when you struggle or make mistakes;
there is no need for shame or guilt.
Others are also worthy of acceptance, even when their behavior involves something that you don’t
like.
Negative things will sometimes happen in life, and that doesn’t mean that things are happening in
a way they shouldn’t be. Life is not positive all of the time, and there’s no rational reason to expect
it to be.
ABC Model
A core concept of REBT is the ABC model. This model explains how, while we may blame
external events for our unhappiness, it is our interpretation of these events that truly lies at the
heart of our psychological distress.
"ABC" is an acronym for:
A: Activating event, which is when something happens in the environment around you
B: Belief, which describes your thoughts about the event or situation
C: Consequence, which is your emotional response to your belief

During REBT, your therapist will help you learn how to apply the ABC model to your daily life.
If you’re feeling depressed due to a conflict in your relationship, for example, a rational emotive
behavior therapist may help you identify the activating event for your problem before
encouraging you to figure out which beliefs led to your negative feelings. They would then work
with you to change those beliefs and, ultimately, your emotional response to the conflict.

Client-Centered Therapy

Client-centered therapy, also known as person-centred therapy or Rogerian therapy, is a

non-directive form of talk therapy where you act as an equal partner in the therapy process while
your therapist remains non-directive—they don't pass judgment on your feelings or offer
suggestions or solutions.
This approach was developed by humanist psychologist Carl Rogers during the 1940s and 1950s.
Rogers is widely regarded as one of the most influential psychologists of the 20th century. He
believed that people are the best expert on their own lives and experiences.
Rogers also suggested that people have a self-actualizing tendency, or a desire to fulfill their
potential and become the best that they can be. His form of therapy was intended to allow clients
to fulfill that potential by relying on their own strength to change.1
Initially, Rogers called his technique "non-directive therapy." Much like psychoanalyst Sigmund
Freud, Rogers believed that the therapeutic relationship could lead to insights and lasting changes
in clients.
While his goal was to be as non-directive as possible, he eventually realized that therapists guide
clients even in subtle ways. He also found that clients often do look to their therapists for some
type of guidance or direction.
What Are the Key Concepts of Client-Centered Therapy?
Mental health professionals who utilize this approach strive to create the conditions needed for
their clients to change. Client-centered therapy involves a therapeutic environment that is
conformable, non-judgmental, and empathetic, which is achieved through three features:2

By using these three techniques, therapists can help clients grow psychologically, become more
self-aware, and change their behavior via self-direction. In this type of environment, a client feels
safe and free from judgment.
"Client" vs. "Patient"
Rogers deliberately used the term "client" rather than "patient." He believed that "patient" implied
that the individual was sick and seeking a cure from a therapist.
By using "client" instead, Rogers emphasized the importance of the individual in seeking
assistance, controlling their destiny, and overcoming their difficulties. This self-direction plays a
vital part in client-centered therapy.

Client-centered therapy may improve self-concept, which is your organized set of beliefs and
ideas about yourself. Self-concept plays an important role in determining not only how people see
themselves, but also how they view and interact with the world around them.3
Sometimes, self-concept is congruent with reality. In other cases, self-perceptions are unrealistic
or not in tune with what exists in the real world. While most people distort reality to at least a
small degree, when self-concept is in conflict with reality, incongruence can result.
For example, imagine a young woman who views herself as uninteresting and a poor
conversationalist despite the fact that other people find her fascinating and quite engaging.
Because her self-perceptions are not congruent with reality, she may experience poor self-esteem.
What Is the Focus of Client-Centered Therapy?
Through the process of client-centered therapy, you can learn to adjust your self-concept in order
to achieve congruence. The techniques used in the client-centered approach are all focused on
helping you reach a more realistic view of yourself and the world.

ASSIGNMENT 2

Q1.

Effective teaching involves a combination of pedagogical strategies, communication skills, and

instructional techniques that promote student engagement, understanding, and retention of
knowledge.

Teaching methods are ways to instruct students in a classroom, helping them to understand and
remember what they've learned. Some of the best teaching strategies allow educators to convey
information in a clear and concise way, while also ensuring students retain it over the long term.
If students can comprehend facts on a deep level and practice skills properly in the classroom,
they can apply that wisdom and those abilities to their personal lives and their future careers.
Teaching methods are opportunities to make learning engaging, inspiring and fun for students.
They aid teachers in fulfilling the responsibility of guiding the social and emotional development
of children. By using the right strategies, teachers can instil values of respect, empathy and
cultural sensitivity into their classroom. They also use teaching methods to prepare students for
standardized testing. Your classroom philosophies and principles can vary based on your
preferences as a teacher, your school mission statement, your subject areas and other factors.
Effective teaching involves a combination of pedagogical strategies, communication skills, and
instructional techniques that promote student engagement, understanding, and retention of
knowledge. Here's a detailed exploration of some effective techniques of teaching:

Teacher affectiveness is generally referred to in terms of a focus on student outcon and the
teacher behaviours and classroom processes that promote better stude outcomes. This report
highlights key issues and findings about two related but distinctive topics how to define a
teacher's effectiveness and what is known about effective teaching practices. It also seeks to
identify the implications for policymakers in education and for improving classroom practice.
Teachers are one of the key elements in any school and effective teaching is one of the key
propellers for school improvement. This review is concerned with how to define a teacher's
effectiveness and what makes an effective teacher. It draws out implications for policymakers in
education and for Improving classroom practice.

Teaching method is the mechanism that is used by the teacher to organize and implement a
number of educational means and activities to achieve certain goals Teaching techniques are the
means that reflect the success of the learning process and the competencies of the teacher. Being a
teacher, I always need to look for new ways to deliver knowledge to my learner, and in many
occasions, I found that traditional teaching methods become not effective as it used to be due to
the current advancement in technology. Teaching becomes more effectives when it performed in a
quicker response to the needs of the learner, so that blending various techniques to deliver
knowledge and ideas become necessary. This paper presents the characteristics of many teaching
methods including online teaching and a comparison between them is highlighted, in order to
choose the method that satisfy the aims and provide the teacher with high
competency.

A) Differentiated instruction:
Differentiated instruction is the idea of creating tailored education plans for students based on
differing needs. This may involve the ways by which students access content, the activities they
do, the assessment techniques a teacher uses or even the physical setup of a classroom. As all
people have varying abilities and talents, it's beneficial for a teacher to adapt their teaching styles
to unique students. This is also a key step in supporting students with disabilities in the classroom
and ensuring they feel welcome and comfortable in academic environments. Recognizing and
accommodating diverse learning styles and abilities is crucial. Differentiated instruction involves
tailoring teaching methods, content, and assessment to meet the individual needs of students,
ensuring that everyone has an opportunity to succeed.

B) Lecture-based learning:
A traditional way to structure classroom learning is the lecture format, in which teachers explain
information while students observe. Teachers lead a lesson by presenting on, showing visuals of
and modelling examples of a topic. While a teacher is presenting, students can listen, watch, take
notes and copy the teacher's demonstrations. While this is a conventional and helpful approach,
teachers may alter it for different learning environments.

- Keep lessons brief: Students, especially those at a young age, may have short attention
spans and might only be able to focus for short periods of time. It can be advantageous to
keep classroom lectures short and concise to maintain student attention and engagement.

- Allow time for questions: While lecture-based learning is a teacher-centered approach,

educators can still involve student input by making time for questions before, during and
after the presentation. While this can make the lecture process longer, it can also allow
students to engage with the material, comprehend it and remember it more easily.

- Create instructional videos: Many teachers use a flipped classroom approach where they
encourage students to watch lectures or instructional videos at home and complete
assignments in class. This can be a great opportunity to let students work at their own
pace, as they can see videos again by rewinding and replaying them.

- Promote handwritten notes: For those students who are able, hand-writing notes on paper
can be a superb way to stay focused during lectures. It can also help people to recall
information well and strengthen their spelling and writing skills.

C) Presentation Method:
One of the common methods used by teachers in both formal and non-formal settings is a lecture
a carefully prepared oral presentation of a subject by a qualified expert that at times may seem
somewhat structured and formal. A lecture is used to present factual material in a direct and
logical manner, entertain or inspire, or stimulate thinking and further study on a problem prior to
opening the subject up for discussion, "Simple lecturing" employs what is known as the "still"
method of learning "you sit still, while I instill." Lectures can communicate an intrinsic interest in
the subject matter and convey material that is not available in another format, such as
unpublished research. Furthermore, lectures can be used to reach many listeners at the same time,
which is an advantage to those who learn well in this manner but may be problematic for others
who learn better from different methods. Since lectures primarily involve one-way
communication with minimal feedback, they put students in a passive rather than active role. This
format is not well suited to complex or abstract material, so the burden of organizing and
synthesizing the content is primarily on the presenter For lectures to be effective they need to
"combine the talents of a scholar, writer, producer, comedian, showman, and teacher in ways that
contribute to student learning"

a) Advantages of Presentation Method:

- Up-to-date info can be given quickly and simultaneously

- Learners quickly get overview of subject.
- Learners can be stimulated by good lecturer
- Easy logistics
- Lends itself to use of acknowledged expert in the field
 - Content can be controlled
- Pace of delivery can be controlled

b) Disadvantages of Presentation Method:

- Doesn't allow for different learning abilities or speeds

- Passive
- Time and location controlled by the teacher
- It is sometimes perceived as "boring" by learners

D) Group learning:
Group discussion is a child centered strategy, in which students are divided into groups, and they
are encouraged to discuss on the subject given, group discussion is dominated by the teacher.
Classroom climate is autocratic and most of the time, the teacher is active and students accept his
ideas and views. After giving lectures, teachers encourage the student to participate in
group-discussion Teacher supervises them and provides guidance to make the discussion fruitful.
The teaching strategy is focused to achieve higher order of cognitive objectives and affecting
objectives.

Importance of Group Discussion:

Group discussion plays a vital role in a student's life. Group discussions in the classroom are not
only beneficial for a student's social skills only but also enhance their educational development
and learning too. Some of the benefits of GD in a student's life are discussed below:

- Enhance Critical Thinking: Group discussion is used in a classroom to improve learning:

asking open-ended questions will encourage critical thinking and help students think for
themselves.

- Help with Understanding: Group discussion use to help students to understand a topic or
concept deeply which will stay for a long time in their minds.

- Improve Communication Skills: It is also used to improve communication skills as it can

encourage students to become more confident in speaking up and asking questions. This
will help them improve their communication in the long run because it should make
them more confident to ask if they're stuck and need help.

- Improve Interest in Lessons: It improves learning, as group discussion invites the students
to be the speakers. This helps students as it can maintain their focus and concentration to
hear another voice instead of listening to the same teacher, which holds their attention.

- Provide the Feedback: When learners discuss and explain the concepts to each other
aloud in a group, it helps the teacher to hear if they have learnt a concept or not. This is a
perfect feedback on teaching. It means that, if the teacher sees that they don't understand
 something clearly, they can help them by stepping in and adding some more context or
information in their discussion.

Segmenting students into groups is a great way to teach them skills in collaboration. While in
their teams, they can discuss subjects and learn about the perspectives of others. It's important to
encourage both class participation and listening skills so that students can gain these abilities for
the future. Teachers can assign group presentations so students can convey information to the rest
of the class, ask and answer questions and interact with each other.

E) Interactive Method:
Interactive learning is a hands-on approach to help students become more engaged and retain
more material. With or without a form of technology, interactive learning helps students
strengthen problem-solving and critical thinking skills. Interactive learning is a hands-on,
real-world approach to education. According to Stanford University School of Medicine,
'Interactive learning actively engages the students in wrestling with the material. It reinvigorates
the classroom for both students and faculty. Lectures are changed into discussions, and students
and teachers become partners in the journey of knowledge acquisition.' Interactive learning can
take many different forms. Students strengthen their critical thinking and problem-solving skills
using a much more holistic approach to learning, Interactive learning can take place
across the curriculum, with or without technology. ) Strategies for Interactive Learning: a
The possible methods for interactive learning are perhaps limitless, constrained only by creativity
and resources. Below are a few of the most common interactive learning strategies, organized
from less-intensive to more-intensive, in comparison with the traditional lecture. The following
are strategies of interactive learning.

Advantages of Interactive Learning:

- Engaging Content:
A learner's level of motivation and engagement with study material is greatly increased through
taking advantage of interactive learning. Gamified, video-based study material ensures that
multiple senses are active during each lesson activating different parts of the neurological system,
making it easier for them to digest and remember.

- Saves Cost and Time:

You no longer have to drive your child from one place to the next for extra tutoring in a subject.
Now all you need is a good internet connection, a desktop or tablet and a learner can actively
engage with the content. Only have an internet connection for a limited time? That's okay! Your
child can continue learning by downloading the learning material.

- Flexible Learning:
The child can learn from the comfort of your home at any time that is most convenient to them
and you. You can track their progress on an interactive learning platform and be able to share
their progress with a teacher to ensure they know where the learner needs a little extra help.
 F) Inquiry-based learning
Inquiry-based learning promotes the idea of learning by investigation, where students can
complete projects, ask questions and find answers by themselves. While teachers act as resources
in these times, the goal is for students to solve problems and discover information on their own.
Upon learning about concepts, they can explain and present the concepts in their own words to
further enforce them in their memories. Then, students can advance to higher levels at their own
pace. This is a way for students to perform an active role in the learning process.

G) Kinesthetic learning:
Kinesthetic learning is the notion of learning through movement. Teachers can move around the
classroom and use hand gestures while they present to engage students visually and
kinesthetically. They can also encourage students to perform physical activities where they can
move around and use their creativity. Here are some ideas:

- Drawing: Many students enjoy drawing or painting, and teachers can include this activity
in the classroom to make learning enjoyable. Students can have the option to develop
ideas and use different colors and tools to make their ideas a reality.

- Acting: Students, especially young children, may have an exciting time developing and
role-playing in theatrical performances. This can be a great idea for implementing
kinesthetic learning in group projects.

- Building: Building structures with blocks, toys or other materials can help students
develop hand-eye coordination and analytical thinking skills. It can also be a fun way for
them to stay focused in the classroom.

- Playing: A traditional form of kinesthetic learning is playing sports, and many schools
have gym classes where students can exert energy and spend time outside. You can also
have educational sports games in the classroom, where students can move around and
learn simultaneously.

H) The Project Method:

The Project Method, pioneered by John Dewey, is centered on the idea that students can learn
effectively through collaboration and purposeful activities. This approach encourages cooperative
work among pupils who form small groups based on their interests and abilities. The primary
objectives of the Project Method are "learning by doing" and "learning by living together."

Principles Underlying Project Method:

​
- Purposiveness: Projects should have clear objectives to enhance student enthusiasm and
engagement.
- Freedom: Students have the freedom to choose projects according to their interests,
executing them with guidance from the teacher.
- Activity: Projects should be activity-centered, ensuring that knowledge gained through
activities is stable and useful.
 - Reality: Projects should reflect real-life situations, enabling students to complete them
naturally and in realistic conditions.
- Utility: Projects should possess utility, as students are more interested in work that is
useful for them.

Essential Steps of Project Method:

- Providing a Situation: Students are presented with a situation to contemplate, prompting

them to choose a project. This situation may arise during classroom studies, co-curricular
activities, or excursions, leading them to think about suitable projects.
- Choosing the Project: Students, guided by teachers, select a project based on available
resources and the nature of the identified problem. Aims and objectives are discussed
through group participation.
- Planning: The chosen project is discussed for planning, including the layout of a plan and
execution procedure.
- Executing the Project: Students engage in the natural execution of the project, planning
their roles according to abilities and capacities with a true, social, and cooperative spirit.
- Evaluation of the Project: The work on the project is periodically evaluated, allowing
modifications to the line of action and mode of execution based on the results of the
evaluation.
- Recording: A comprehensive record of the work, planning, discussions, achievements,
criticisms, and suggestions for further work is developed by the students at the end of the
project.

The Project Method, guided by these principles and steps, serves as an effective pedagogical
approach, fostering student collaboration, critical thinking, and practical application of
knowledge.

I) Problem-Based Learning:
Problem-based learning is a demanding but rewarding interactive strategy for students and
instructors. Many other strategies begin by presenting esenting material and then asking students
to apply discrete knowledge to a well-defined problem or question. Problem-based learning,
however, begins with an open-ended, usually authentic (ie., "real-world") problem, requiring
students (often in groups) to identify what they know and what they need to know that can help
solve the problem, determine how they can acquire needed knowledge, formulate
hypotheses/studies/experiments, determine a solution, and report their findings. Modeled on the
theory that open-ended inquiry increases student motivation, the distinct advantage of this
approach is that acquired knowledge immediately takes its place in a meaningful context.