HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

Physical Development: This involves those changes that take place in a person’s body and this
includes changes in weight, height and body structure.
Social/Emotional Development: This involves changes that concern individual’s personality and
relationship with others. It also involves learning and appreciating people’s positive social relations and in
discarding or reshaping what is negative.
Mental/Cognitive Development: This includes those stages that occur in mental activity including
sensation, perception, memory, thought reasoning and language exposure.

HUMAN PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENTAL STAGES

A human being passes through seven developmental stages. These are
(i) Conception
(ii) Birth
(iii) Childhood
(iv)Adolescence
(v) Adulthood
(vi)Old age
(vii) Death
(i) Conception

This is the fusion of the sperms and ovum which results into fertilization hence the formation of a
human being. Within conception there are three stages of human being in the womb. These stages are the
germinal (pre-embryonic period), embryonic period and foetal period.

(a) Germinal (Pre-embryonic period)

This period has duration of two weeks in which there is a development of a zygote (fertilized egg). The
zygote can either be single or double as a result of mitosis. During the germinal period, which lasts from
conception until day 14, the fertilized egg, called a zygote, undergoes rapid cell division and growth. At
the same time, its cells begin to differentiate and cluster to assume specialized roles. For example, some
cells begin to form the support structures of the placenta, which will provide food and oxygen to the
foetus, while others begin to form structures of the developing human. Another significant achievement of
the germinal stage is implantation of the cell mass, now called the blastocyst, into the inner wall of the
mother’s uterus, where it will remain for the duration of prenatal development. Implantation also triggers
hormonal changes in the mother’s body that enables it to nurture the developing human.
As a fertilized egg goes through its first divisions, the daughter cells become progressively smaller.
When there are a hundred or more cells, they form a hollow ball of cells, called a blastula, surrounding a
fluid-filled cavity. Later divisions produce three layers of cells—endoderm (inner), mesoderm (middle), and
ectoderm (outer)—from which the principal features of the animal will differentiate.

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 endoderm

mesoderm

ectoderm

Figure 1: Layers covering the zygote

The ectoderm is where the nervous system, sensory organs, the skin and the lower part of the
rectum develops. The mesoderm is where the skeletal, muscular, kidney and circulatory systems develop.
Endoderm is the layer that gives rise to the digestive tract (liver, gall bladder and pancreas),
respiratory system and a portion of the reproductive organs.

(b) Embryonic Period (3 – 8 weeks)

The embryonic period lasts from day 14 through the eighth week. During this time, major structures
and organ systems begin to form. During the fourth week, for example, the brain begins to develop, a
primitive heart starts to beat, and the eyes, ears, and mouth begin to form. By eight weeks after
conception, the embryo has most of its basic organ systems, facial features have formed, and even fingers
and toes have appeared. There is also an establishment of a placenta relationship with the mother.

(c) Foetal Period (9 weeks – 9 months)

During the foetal period, from the ninth week until birth, major organs grow in size and complexity,
the muscular and nervous systems develop, and the sex organs form. By the fourth or fifth month,
mothers can begin to feel the foetus moving within them. The foetus startles in response to sudden, loud
noises outside the womb, and its hiccupping can be detected. Brain development is dramatic. Nearly all
nerve cells that the brain will use throughout life are formed, and brain regions become specialized in
function. As birth approaches, the foetus grows significantly in size and adds protective fat stores in
preparation for life outside the womb.

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 (ii) Birth
Birth is a transition between dependent resistance in the uterus and life as a separate organism. A
few weeks before birth, the head of the infant generally faces down; the uterus sinks lower and forward
hence causing the mother discomfort. In the event that the foetus does not turn at delivery that is, leg
first, then it is called breech birth. During childbirth, a woman undergoes a process called labour, in
which rhythmic contractions of the uterus expel the baby through the vagina. Labour can be divided into
six distinct stages, although a labouring woman may not always be aware when one stage ends and
another begins. The six stages are:

 Beginning of labour
As labour begins, rhythmic uterine contractions begin weakly and grow progressively stronger. Each
contraction shortens the muscle fibres in the uterus, pulling the cervix (uterine opening) wider. In this
early stage of labour the cervix dilates (opens) to about 4 centimetres (1.5 inches).
 Dilation of cervix
As the first stage of labour ends, the labour pattern changes. Contractions become more painful and
occur closer together. As labour progresses the cervix opens to its full width of 10 centimetres (4 inches).
The baby's head begins to rotate to fit through the birth canal.
 Descent
After the cervix becomes fully dilated, contractions become very intense, less than five minutes apart,
and usually last a minute or longer. The mother may push or bear down with her abdominal muscles
during contractions. With each contraction the baby continues its descent through the birth canal.
 Crowning
If a baby's position is head first during delivery, the mother's vagina fits like a crown around the
baby's head, making the head visible as it emerges from the birth canal. Crowning occurs when the
widest diameter of the baby’s head is at the mother’s vulva. The process takes between 20 and 80
minutes.
 Birth
Delivery, the process by which the baby is expelled from the uterus through the birth canal and into
the world, begins with irregular contractions of the uterus that occur every 20 to 30 minutes. As labour
progresses, the contractions increase in frequency and severity. The usual length of labour for a prime
Vidal (first-time mother) is about 13 to 14 hours, and about 8 or 9 hours in a woman who has given birth
previously. Wide variations exist, however, in the duration of labour.
As the head emerges, the neck flexes and the baby rotates to the side. This enables the shoulders to
manoeuver around the pubic bone. One shoulder emerges, quickly followed by the other shoulder and the
rest of the body. Full term is reached at the end of ninth month of pregnancy. Most of the foetal hair has
been shed, and the foetus is ready for birth, having attained a length of about 50 cm (about 20 inches)
and a weight of approximately 3 kilogrammes (approximately 7 pounds). The vernix covers the entire
surface of the body. When the infant is born before the full term and weighs less than 2.4 kg (5 pounds, 8
ounces), it is considered premature.
 Delivery of placenta

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 In the final stage of labour, the uterus continues to contract for approximately 5 minutes after birth
and the placenta detaches from the uterus and is expelled.

A normal pregnancy lasts about 40 weeks, or 280 days, after the beginning of the last menstrual period.
Occasionally women go into labour before the expected date of birth, resulting in a premature infant.
About 7 percent of all infants are premature - that is, born before the 37th week of pregnancy. Babies
born just a few weeks early usually develop normally. Recent advances in the care of premature infants
now allow many babies who are born after only 25 to 26 weeks of pregnancy to survive. Even babies born
after only 23 weeks of pregnancy have survived, although survival rates for such highly premature infants
are low.
There are cases when there can be more than one infant born to the same mother during the same
delivery. If the infants were conceived as a result of fertilization of two ova, they are referred to as fraternal
twins. If the two infants came about as a result of one fertilized ovum splitting into two, then they are
referred to as identical twins. Sometimes this division is not complete and the twins are born when certain
body parts are conjoined. In such a case, they are called Siamese twins. Three infants born at the same
delivery by the same mother irrespective of the number of ova fertilized are called triplets. Four infants
born by the same mother at the same delivery are called quadruplets and if they are five, they are referred
to as quintuplets.

(iii) Childhood
This is the stage where the child learns, identifies with the environment, develops perception and
memory.

(iv) Adolescence
This is a developmental stage between childhood and adulthood during which many physical, social
and cognitive changes take place. There are three stages of adolescence. These are early adolescence
which is age 9 to 11 for girls and 11 to 13 for boys, middle adolescence which is age 12 to 15 for girls and
14 to 18 for boys; and late adolescence which is age 16 to 20 for girls and 19 to 21 for boys.
Puberty is a period during which the sexual organs mature for reproduction and can function.
During this stage therefore, primary sex characteristics that are related to body changes with regard to
sexual reproduction take place.
In girls the primary sex characteristics include development of the ovary, uterus, vagina and
menarche (onset of the menses). In boys the primary sex characteristics include rapid growth of the
scrotum, testes, penis and the ability to produce sperms (thorarche). The hypothalamus initiates pubertal
changes by directing pituitary growth hormones and gonadotropins (hormones that control the ovaries
and testes).
Later on, the secondary sex characteristics begin to appear. These are physical changes that are not
associated with sexual reproduction yet they distinguish males from females. In girls there is the
broadening of hips and breast growth. In males the voice breaks and there is appearance of beards. In
both sexes there is the appearance of the underarm hair.
Social changes that occur during adolescence are

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  Attraction towards people of the opposite sex
 Rebellion against established authority
 Tendency to be withdrawn
 Shyness and a strong potential for embarrassment

Intellectual changes that occur in both sexes within adolescence are

 Development of abstract thinking and reasoning

 They enter into critical thinking
 They experience expanded problem-solving capacities and think of serious issues like justice
and getting the right partner
 They are more realistic than unrealistic

(v) Adulthood
Adulthood is associated with aging where both biological and social changes cut across the lifespan.
Biological changes refer to the changes in the structure and functioning of human organism through
time. Social changes imply adjustments in an individual assumption and relinquishing of roles through
time. Early adulthood extends from 22 to 45 years, middle adulthood from 46 to 65 years and late
adulthood from 65 onwards.
In middle adulthood, women experience menopause (end of menstrual period). In menopause, many
women experience extreme heat even in cold weather, fatigue, dizziness, insomnia (that is, lack of sleep),
headache and nervousness. Psychological symptoms in menopause may include depression, mood
swings, weepiness, and other emotional flare-ups, as well as memory lapses. Men may experience midlife
crisis characterized by reduced sexual energy and frustration due to pending retirement. If a man had not
prepared himself and if he had not done what he had hoped to do, he may experience stress and
frustration. They also start thinking of death as a reality. Death creates anxiety and some men may give
up and engage in self-defeating behaviour.

(vi) Old Age

In old age there are new problems some of which are physical. Muscular responses become weaker
and the aging adult gradually begins to lose control over the environment.

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1. Explain the difference between growth and development.
2. Mention seven human developmental stages
3. State the stages of a human being in the womb, explaining briefly the characteristics of each stage.
4. What is the difference between teenage, adolescence and puberty?
5. State four social changes that occur in adolescence.
6. Mention intellectual changes that occur in adolescence.
7. State eight physical changes associated with adolescence.
8. State and describe three types of twins.

THEORIES OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

A theory is an organized set of principles that is designed to explain and predict something. Over the
years, psychologists and other scientists have devised a variety of theories with which to explain
observations and discoveries about child development. In addition to providing a broader framework of
understanding, a good theory permits educated guesses—or hypotheses—about aspects of development
that are not yet clearly understood. These hypotheses provide the basis for further research. A theory also
has practical value. When a parent, educator, therapist, or policymaker makes decisions that affect the
lives of children, a well-founded theory can guide them in responsible ways.
Theories can also limit understanding, such as when a poor theory misleadingly emphasizes
unimportant influences on development and underestimates the significance of other factors. It is
therefore essential that theories are carefully evaluated and tested through research, whose results often
lead to improvements in theoretical claims. In addition, when theories are compared and contrasted, their
strengths and limitations can be more easily identified.
There are four primary theories of child development: psychoanalytic, psychosocial, cognitive, and
moral. Each offers insights into the forces guiding childhood growth.

1. Psychoanalytic Theory of Human Development

Psychoanalytic theory was developed by Sigmund Freud (1856 – 1939). According to Freud, there are
five stages of human development:

(i) Oral Stage (0 – 1 year)

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 Sucking the mother’s breast satisfies the infant’s need for food and pleasure. The mouth, tongue,
gums and the lips give the infant erotic pleasure. Two activities during this developmental period are oral-
incorporative behaviour and oral-aggressive behaviour. These early behaviour are considered to be the
prototypes of some of the character traits of adulthood.
Oral-incorporative behaviour is the first to appear and it involves pleasurable stimulation of the
mouth. Libidinal energy is at first focused on the mouth and then with maturity, other areas of the body
develop and become focal points of gratification. Deprivation of gratification during infancy is assumed to
lead to problems in adulthood.
As the infant teethes, the oral aggressive period begins. Biting is one activity at this period. Adult
behaviour such as gossip, sarcasm, hostility, aggression and making ‘biting’ comments to others are
related to events of this developmental period. Greed and acquisitiveness may develop as a result of not
getting enough food or love during the early years of life. Material things that children seek become
substitutes for what they really want that is, love and food from the parent. Later, personality problems
that stem from the oral stage are the development of the world based on mistrust, fear of reaching out to
others, rejection of affection, fear of loving and trusting, low self esteem, isolation and withdrawal and
inability to form or maintain intense relationships (Omulema, 2000).

(ii) Anal Stage (1 – 3 years)

The task to be mastered during this stage is learning independence, personal power and autonomy
as well as learning how to recognize and deal with negative feelings. Anal zone becomes a major
significance in formation of personality. Many of the attitudes children learn about their bodily functions
are the direct result of the attitudes of their parents. Children may try to control their parents by either
withholding their faeces or defecating at inappropriate times. If strict toilet training methods are used,
children may expel their faeces at inappropriate places and times. This behaviour can lay foundation for
later adult characteristics such as cruelty, inappropriate displays of anger and extreme disorderliness.
Freud described this as anal-aggressive personality.
In contrast, other people might focus too much attention on their children’s bowel movements by
giving praise whenever they defecate, which can contribute to a child’s exaggerated view of the importance
of this activity. This might be associated with a person’s need for being productive. Some adults develop
fixations revolving around extreme orderliness, hoarding, stubbornness and stinginess. This is known as
anal-retentive personality.

Phallic Stage (3 – 6 years)

During this stage, the focus of attention is on the genitals – the boy’s penis and the girl’s clitoris.
According to Freud the main conflict in the phallic stage centres on the unconscious incestuous desire
that children develop for the parent of the opposite sex. In male phallic stage, the boy craves the attention
of his mother, feels antagonistic towards his father and develops fears that his father would punish him
for his incestuous feeling towards his mother. This is known as Oedipus Complex. Freud called this
condition castration anxiety. As a result of this anxiety, the boy represses his sexual desire for his
mother. If the Oedipal conflict is resolved, the boy replaces his sexual longing for his mother with more

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acceptable strong identification with his father. He becomes more like his father and may adopt many of
his father’s mannerisms.
The female phallic stage is characterized by Electra Complex. The girl develops love for the father and
negative feelings towards the mother when she discovers the absence of the penis. Freud called this penis
envy. It is the equivalent of boy’s castration anxiety. She desires to compete with her mother for the
father’s attention and when she realizes she cannot replace her mother, she begins an identification
process by taking on some of the characteristics of her mother’s behaviour.

Latency Stage (6 – 12 years)

New interests now replace infantile sexual impulses. Socialization takes place and children direct
their interests to the larger world. The sexual drive is sublimated to some extent in school, sports and
friendships with members of the same sex. The pre-genital stage characterized by narcissistic orientation
is now replaced by turning outward relationship with others. Children of this age have an interest in
things of the external world. This period prevails until onset of puberty.

Genital Stage (12 – 18 years)

Young adults move into the genital stage unless they become fixated to an earlier period of
psychosexual development. The adolescent now develops interest in the opposite sex, engages in some
sexual experimentation and begins to assume adult responsibilities. As they move out of adolescence and
enter into adulthood, they develop intimate relationships, become free of parental influence and develop
the capacity to be interested in others. There is a trend away from narcissism towards altruistic behaviour
and concern for others. According to Freud, the individual derives satisfaction in enjoying the freedom to
love and to work.

Personality Structure
According to the psychoanalytic view, personality has three interacting systems: the id, the ego and
the superego. The id is the unconscious part of personality that operates on the pleasure principle. It is a
reservoir of the unconscious psychic energy that constantly strives to satisfy our instinctual drives for
survival (for example hunger, thirst and sex) and for aggression. It seeks immediate gratification and is
totally unconstrained by reality.
The ego is the conscious part of personality that operates on the reality principle. It seeks to gratify
the id’s impulses in realistic ways that will bring true pleasure rather than pain or destruction. It contains
mostly conscious perceptions, thoughts, judgments and memories. It mediates between the impulsive
demands of the id and those of the external world.
The superego is the conscience that forces the ego to consider not just the real but also the ideal. It is
a person’s moral code, the main concern being whether action is good or bad, right or wrong. It represents
perfection.

Ego Defence Mechanisms

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Compensation: Attempting to make up for one’s weakness or deprivation in one area by excelling in a
different activity for example a student who cannot do well in class engaging in indiscipline to achieve
recognition.

Denial: A refusal to accept or acknowledge information that is producing anxiety for example refusing to
accept that a deceased relative is really dead.

Displacement: Directing energy towards another object or person when the anxiety-causing object is
unavailable for example undisciplined students feeling intimidated by exams burning the school buildings
and stoning motorists in the neighbourhood.

Fantasy: Escaping into a dream world when problems become overwhelming for example a child from a
poor family creating a story about how rich the parents are.

Introjection: Taking in the values and the standards of others for example incorporating admirable
characteristics of one’s friends or parents.

Projection: Attributing one’s own mistakes to someone else for example a rapist claiming that his victim
dressed provocatively and that is why he raped her.

Rationalization: Justifying one’s own failures or losses for example a man failing to get a lady he desires
saying that after all the lady wasn’t even beautiful.

Reaction formation: Taking the opposite belief because the true belief causes anxiety for example a
woman being extremely nice to her co-wife when in fact she habours ill feelings towards her.

Regression: Going back to behaviour that was satisfying at an earlier period in life for example crying,
weeping or thumb sucking when frightened by current events.

Repression: Excluding threatening thoughts or painful feelings from awareness.

Ritual and undoing: Negating a disapproved behaviour by performing a good act so as to take away guilt
feeling for example a woman buying presents for her husband after beating him.

Sublimation: Diverting sexual or aggressive energies into other channels that are socially acceptable or
admirable for example directing aggressive behaviour into athletics.

2. Psychosocial Theory of Human Development

This theory was developed by Erik Erikson. One of the main elements of the theory is the
development of ego identity. Ego identity is the conscious self that individuals develop through social

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interaction. According to Erikson, ego identity is constantly changing due to new experiences and
information we acquire in our interaction with others. Identity includes all the beliefs, ideals and values
that help shape behaviour.
Another element is a sense of competence that motivates behaviours and actions. If each stage is
handled well, the person will feel a sense of mastery which is sometimes referred to as ego strength or ego
quality. If the stage is managed poorly, the person will emerge with a sense of inadequacy.
According to psychosocial theory, an individual’s social development puts one under specific
pressures or conflicts at different ages of one’s life. These conflicts are referred to as “crises”. Thus, at
each stage of development, an individual faces a new “crisis” that needs to be resolved at that particular
stage of development. The way in which the crisis of each stage is resolved has a major influence on the
development of one’s personality. Each stage has the potential for both strengths and weaknesses. Ideally,
the individual should strive for qualities that give strength.
There are eight stages of psychosocial development. These are:

I Trust versus Mistrust (0 – 1 year)

During this infancy stage, the way in which an infant is nourished, handled and made to feel comfortable
and secure, may lead the child to develop a sense of trust or mistrust. Infants are likely to gain a sense of
trust if parents meet their needs with love and care. However, if the infant’s needs are not met or the
infant is harshly handled, mistrust develops. Thus, the child may grow up either trusting or mistrusting
others and the world in general. Failure to develop trust will result in suspicion, fear and a belief that the
world is inconsistent and unpredictable.

II Autonomy versus Shame and Doubt (1 – 3 years)

By early childhood, the child has developed motor, language and mental skills as well as awareness of
some degree of independence. Consequently, the child would like to exercise control over the environment
through exploration and interaction. From these experiences, a child learns what is socially acceptable or
unacceptable without losing the feeling of being able to manage. Parents and caregivers should permit the
child reasonable free choice of movement and avoid being overcritical of a child’s minor mistakes. On the
other hand if parents are overprotective, do too much for the child or fail to recognize the child’s sense of
competence, the child develops a sense of shame and doubt. A child who doubts his/her abilities is likely
to feel ashamed and embarrassed when in the presence of others.

III Initiative versus Guilt (3 – 6 years)

During these pre-school years, the child has well developed physical, mental and language skills. There is
curiosity to learn and awareness of parental expectations. The child thus becomes inquisitive, makes
plans, sets goals and persists in both physical and social activities. Caregivers should respond to
questions children as and allow them reasonable freedom of movement. They should also avoid unhealthy
criticism or punishment for minor mistakes. Children who are successful at this stage feel capable and
able to lead others. Those who fail to acquire these skills are left with a sense of guilt, self-doubt and lack
of initiative. When an ideal balance of individual initiative and a willingness to work with others is
achieved, the ego quality known as purpose is achieved.

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IV Industry versus Inferiority (6 – 12 years)
During these early school years, children begin to develop a sense of pride in their abilities and
accomplishments through social interactions. They are expected to learn basic:

 Physical, mental and educational skills

 Understanding of the physical environment
 Social skills of getting along with peers, teachers and others.

Children who are encouraged and commended by teachers develop a feeling of competence and belief in
their skills. Those who receive little or no encouragement from parents, teachers or peers will doubt their
abilities to be successful. Successfully finding a balance at this stage leads to the strength known as
competence or belief in own abilities to handle its set tasks.

V Identity versus Role Confusion (12 – 18 years)

During adolescence children explore their independence and develop a sense of self. The adolescent is
faced three main challenges:

 Physical and emotional changes during puberty

 Environmental influence from friends and peers
 Demands of the society

Those who receive proper encouragement and reinforcement through personal exploration will emerge
from this stage with strong sense of self and feeling of control and independence. Those who remain
unsure of their beliefs and desires will feel insecure, indecisive, anxious and confused about future adult
roles.
Completing this stage successfully leads to what Erikson calls fidelity, that is, ability to live by society’s
standards and expectations.

VI Intimacy versus Isolation (18 – 35 years)

This stage covers the period of early adulthood when people are exploring personal relationships. Erikson
believed that it was vital that people develop close, committed relationship with other people. He believed
that a strong sense of identity built in the previous step was important for developing intimate
relationships. Those with a poor sense of self tend to have less committed relationships and are more
likely to suffer emotional isolation, loneliness and depression.
Successful resolution of this stage leads to what Erikson calls love, that is, the ability to form lasting,
meaningful relationships with other people.

VII Generativity versus Stagnation (35 – 60 years)

The middle aged adult now goes beyond the family and gets involved in helping the next generation. This
is a time of adjusting to discrepancy between one’s dream and one’s actual achievement. When a person

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makes a contribution during this period, a sense of generativity, productivity and accomplishment
results. In contrast a person who is self-centred and unable or unwilling to help the society move forward,
develops a feeling of stagnation. Successful resolution of this crisis leads to what Erikson calls care, that
is, development of a sense of unity with others.

VIII Integrity versus Despair (60 years +)

In old age, the focus is on retrospection i.e. looking back on life. Those who are unsuccessful feel guilty,
hopeless and bitter as they think about all things they could have done. This realization that they have
wasted their lives leads to a sense of despair. Those who feel few regrets and feel proud of their
achievements will develop a sense of integrity and a general feeling of satisfaction. Completing this stage
successfully leads to the ego strength Erikson calls wisdom, even when confronting death

Cognitive development
The theory of cognitive development was first developed by a Swiss developmental psychologist called
Jean Piaget (1896 – 1980). Cognition means higher mental processes by which we understand the world.
Cognitive abilities refer to a wide range of mental activities that include reasoning, interpreting
information, assessing situations and representing ideas. According to Jean Piaget’s theory of cognitive
development, there are four stages that a child should go through in order to attain cognitive abilities. The
stages occur in the same sequence for everyone, but the ages at which the stages are reached depend on
maturation and experience.

Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development

I Sensorimotor Stage (0 – 2 years): Infancy

The first twenty-four months is called sensorimotor stage because infants use all their senses (taste,
vision, hearing, touching and smelling) to learn about the world around them. During the first twelve
months, the sense of taste is the most developed in order to help the infant to suckle and therefore
survive. Infants use this sense to explore and to understand the world around them. To successfully
make use of the senses, the child is constantly involved in movement. The infant at this stage constructs
an understanding of the world by coordinating sensory experiences with physical actions. The main
characteristics of the sensorimotor stage are:
(a) Development of schema: When infants use their senses to explore, experiment and manipulate objects,
they acquire new concepts, knowledge and skills. This new learning is stored in the brain as mental
pictures which Piaget calls schemas. The schemas contain the characteristics of persons, objects,
animals, events and situations which the child experiences. As toddlers grow older and are able to move
freely, they acquire more knowledge and skill of the environment around them. This process of acquiring
new knowledge and adding it to the existing schema is referred to as assimilation. When a child has to
make changes in the existing schemas as a result of new experiences, it is called accommodation.
(b) Development of object permanence: From about the age of 8 months, the infant forms a schema that
objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen, heard, or touched. This is referred to as object

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permanence. The parents and the caregivers need to play with the infant games of hiding objects in order
to stimulate the development of object permanence.
(c) Circular Reactions: These involve repeating actions over and over. Infants start by using their bodies to
repeat actions and as they grow older, they use play objects to repeat actions.
(d) Ability to imitate new responses: The infant develops the ability to store mental pictures of things she
has seen and reproduces or repeats what had been seen earlier.
NB: Children with severe cognitive difficulties may not progress beyond sensorimotor stage.

II Pre-operational Stage (2 – 7 years): Early Childhood

This stage is called pre-operational since children at this age are still incapable of complex mental
activities. Even when provided with concrete evidence, a child is still not capable of using logical process
of reasoning. The main characteristics of preoperational stage are:
(a) Precausal thinking: This refers to way in which preoperational children use their own existing ideas or
views, like in egocentrism, to explain cause-and-effect relationships. Three main concepts of causality as
displayed by children in the preoperational stage include – animism, artificialism and transductive
reasoning. Animism is the belief that inanimate objects are capable of actions and have lifelike qualities.
An example could be a child believing that the sidewalk was mad and made them fall down, or that the
stars twinkle in the sky because they are happy. Artificialism refers to the belief that environmental
characteristics can be attributed to human actions or interventions. For example, a child might say that it
is windy outside because someone is blowing very hard, or the clouds are white because someone painted
them that color. Finally, precausal thinking is also categorized by transductive reasoning. Transductive
reasoning is when a child fails to understand the true relationships between cause and effect. Unlike
deductive or inductive reasoning (general to specific, or specific to general), transductive reasoning refers
to when a child reasons from specific to specific, drawing a relationship between two separate events that
are otherwise unrelated. For example if a child hears the dog bark and then a balloon popped, the child
would conclude that because of the dog bark the balloon popped.
(b) Ability to symbolize: This means that the children are able to use one thing to represent another for
example, taking a packet and pretending it is a car or pretending that an empty lotion bottle swathed in
clothes is a baby. The child has a clear schema in her brain of how the object being symbolized really
looks like.
(c) Seriation: This means the ability to classify, sort, group, match and sequence objects which develops
between 3 and 6 years. At the age of three, children are not able to sort, classify and group consistently.
From the age of 4 years, children are able to do simple classifications which involve sorting and grouping
materials. By 5 years, they are able to sort and group things according to colour, shape, texture, use and
smell.
(d) Centration: This is the act of focusing all attention on one characteristic or dimension of a situation,
whilst disregarding all others. For example, if a child in this stage is presented with two identical cups
containing the same amount of milk, the child usually notes that the cups contain the same amount of
milk. When milk in one of the cups is poured into a taller and thinner container, children who are
younger than 7 or 8 years old typically say that the two containers no longer contain the same amount of
milk, and that the taller container holds the larger quantity (centration), without taking into consideration

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the fact that both beakers were previously noted to contain the same amount of liquid. Due to superficial
changes, the child was unable to comprehend that the properties of the substances continued to remain
the same.
(e) Deferred imitation: This means that the child is able to reproduce actions he saw other people do
earlier. For example, if the child sees the father slashing grass, later he can take a slasher and start
cutting grass. During this period, children use deferred imitation a lot during their role play and so
caregivers should develop these abilities by talking with the children, answering their questions,
encouraging them to explore and to manipulate objects.

NB It is during preoperational stage that some children are found to have specific learning difficulties.
These children experience difficulties when performing tasks such as reading, writing, spelling or
arithmetic.

III Concrete Operational Sage (7 – 11 years): Middle to late childhood

Although this stage is characterized by the appropriate use of logic, the reasoning is limited to things that
are physically present or concrete. During this stage, a child's thought processes become more mature
and "adult like." Abstract, hypothetical thinking has not yet developed, and children can only solve
problems that apply to concrete events or objects. Piaget determined that children are able to incorporate
inductive reasoning. Inductive reasoning involves drawing inferences from observations in order to make
a generalization. In contrast, children struggle with deductive reasoning, which involves using a
generalized principle in order to try to predict the outcome of an event. Children in this stage commonly
experience difficulties with figuring out logic in their heads. For example, a child will understand Mark is
taller than Luke and Luke is taller than John; however when asked is John taller than Mark?, the said
child might not be able to logically figure the question out unless Luke, John and Mark are presented in
person or in illustrations.

Characteristics of concrete operational stage are:

(a) Transitivity, which refers to the ability to recognize relationships among various things in a serial
order. For example, when told to put away his books according to height, the child recognizes that he
starts with placing the tallest one on one end of the bookshelf and the shortest one ends up at the other
end.
(b) Reversibility: This means understanding that in spite of the perceptual change that has occurred in an
object, if it were reversed to its original form, it would be the same as before. The child is able to
understand that a mathematical operation of addition can be undone through subtraction for example,
2+3 = 5; 5-3 = 2. The child is able to understand that if a ball of clay is flattened, it can be made into a
ball of clay again.
(c) Reduction in egocentrism: This means being able to understand that other people can view things
differently for them and others. They also learn that different results and conclusions can be drawn even

14
if different people are working on the same data and information. Self-centredness reduces as children
now begin to appreciate other people’s viewpoints through social interactions. As children grow, they
listen to others and are able to evaluate their thoughts and views against others. This enables them to
empathize because they can imagine what others feel in various situations.
(d) Logical thinking: The child develops the ability to think logically and make decisions. The child is able
to take several elements or aspects of a problem into consideration and the ability to reverse these
thoughts helps the child in making better judgments and decisions. The child also learns to reach
solutions based on numbers, measurements and reasoning.

IV Formal operations stage (12+ years): Adolescence and adulthood

This is the fourth and the final stage of cognitive development as proposed by Piaget. In this stage,
individuals begin to apply their operations to abstract concepts and also concrete objects.

Characteristics of formal operational stage are:

(a) Capability of hypothetical thinking: This means individuals are able to ask themselves and others
“What if...?” They can reason beyond the concrete.
(b) Capability of deductive reasoning: This means developing a guess and drawing conclusions from it.
Individuals are able to reason: “If...then...” which was not there before in the other stages.
(c) Systematic formulation and testing of concepts: The individual no longer accepts any information
gathered but now has the ability to test the truth in it. The individual now tends to use more of logical
and methodical ways to solve problems than trial-and-error.

In the early stages of the operational period, adolescents recognize that others have unique thoughts and
perspectives. However, they often fail to differentiate what others are thinking and their own thoughts.
This adolescent egocentrism helps to explain what seems to like extreme forms of self consciousness and
concern for physical appearance. They notice how tall or how fat they are. The adolescent’s strong
potential for embarrassment and preoccupation with growing are the result of a cognitive error known as
imagery audience. In other words, adolescents picture all eyes focus on their behaviour.

Parents, teachers and social workers need to appreciate that providing a stimulating environment plays
an n important role in the development of mental skills in children. The stimulating environment provided
by the caregivers directly determines the speed at which children pass through the stages of cognitive
development. Caregivers may provide such environments by:
 Giving meaningful attention to children under their care
 Giving or providing children variety of relevant toys to play with
 Providing children opportunities to play and interact with other children

Indicators of Cognitive Problems

During the first seven years of life, a child who is slow in developing the following skills might be having
cognitive problems:

15
  Self help
 Communication
 Sensorimotor
 Socialization
Between 7 years and 13 years a child with difficulty in the learning of
 Academic subjects
 Social perception
 Judgment and
 Reasoning
may be having cognitive problems.

Application of the Cognitive Theory

1. Parents and caregivers may apply the theory to help them determine what is suitable for the cognitive
development of child at every stage.
2. Caregivers can use the theory to understand the behaviour of children at various stages and provide
appropriate care and stimulating environment for the children
3. Teachers and curriculum developers may use the theory to formulate learner-centred curriculum and
learning materials.
4. Caregivers may use the theory to enable them identify children with special needs (for example,
learning difficulties and emotional behaviour disorders) and seek early and timely interventions for them.

Criticism of the Cognitive Theory of Development

Psychologists who oppose the theory oppose it on the following grounds:
1. It assumes that all children develop in the same sequence, yet this is not necessarily true.
2. It assumes that after the age of 12, there is no further cognitive development and that a person reaches
cognitive maturity at 12.
3. The theory assumes that upon attainment of a certain chronological age, a corresponding attainment of
specific cognitive abilities also come with it.
4. The theory does not take into account children with special needs like the gifted and those with various
impairments and challenges.
5. It ignores hereditary factors.

MORAL DEVELOPMENT

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There are at least two aspects of moral development: thinking about right and wrong and behaving in a
moral or immoral way. These two aspects are somewhat correlated in middle childhood. Children who
think in more advanced ways are more likely to behave in a moral, ethical manner.

Following in Piaget’s footsteps, Lawrence Kohlberg examined that there are three levels of moral reasoning
i.e. pre-conventional, conventional and post-conventional (autonomous), with two stages at each level.

Level I Pre-conventional (The emphasis is on avoiding punishment and getting rewards)

In the first stage, the most important value is obedience to authority in order to avoid punishment. Under
the second stage of pre-conventional level, each person tries to take care of his/her own needs. The
reason to be nice to other people is so that they be nice to you i.e. scratch my back and I scratch yours.

Level II Conventional (The emphasis is on social rules)

In stage three, good behaviour is considered behaviour that pleases other people and wins their praise.
Approval is more important than any other specific reward. In stage four, right behaviour means obeying
the laws set down by those in power.

Level III Post-Conventional Autonomous (Emphasis is on moral principles)

In stage five, the rules of society exist to the benefits of all and are established by mutual agreement. If
one party does not live up to the mutual agreement, the contract is no longer binding. In stage six, the
general universal principles determine right and wrong.

At every age, according to Kohlberg, how people think rather than what conclusions they reach or what
actions they take determine the stage they are in. Kohlberg also found that many adults reach stage one
or two.

ACTIVITY AND FURTHER RESEARCH

17
1. State and explain four stages in cognitive development according to Jean Piaget.
2. Explain the meaning of the following terms as applied in cognitive development:
(a) Schema
(b) Assimilation
(c) Accommodation
(d) Object permanence
3. Describe five stages of human development according to Sigmund Freud.
4. State and discuss six ego defence mechanisms

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
Definition of Psychology
Psychology is the scientific study of human behaviour and mental processes which includes thoughts,
emotions and actions.
Major Branches of Psychology
1. Clinical Psychology
This is the branch of psychology concerned with the psychological methods of recognizing and treating
mental disorders and problems of adjustment. After academic training and research and a year of
internship, the clinical psychologist does research in clinical phenomena in hospitals and clinics. He also
does diagnostic and therapeutic work with patients. Clinical psychology is also called abnormal
psychology. It looks for possible biological, educational and environmental causes of disorders. The aim is
to change the environment that leads to disorder. Clinical psychologists give advice to community workers
on how to handle psychological problems.
2. Developmental Psychology
This examines how attributes such as thinking, social skills, intelligence, language and personality
change over time. It is interested in how people grow and change over time from birth to death.
3. Biological Psychology
It attempts to answer questions about how the chemical and electrical activities of the nerve cells
influence behaviour.
4. Industrial Psychology

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 This is a field of specialization concerned with the methods of selecting, training, counselling and
supervising personnel in business and industry. It sometimes includes problems of increasing efficiency
in work and redesigning machines to suit the capacities of the worker better.
5. Counselling Psychology
This deals with people who have mild emotional and personal problems. Counselling psychologists are
mostly consulted by people who have specific questions that concern choice of career, vocation or social
problems.
6. Educational Psychology
This is a field of specialization concerned with psychological aspects of teaching and of formal learning
processes in school.
7. Quantitative or Statistical Psychology
This involves research work with a heavy emphasis on mathematics, tests and measurements. Statistical
psychologists develop tests and mathematical theories of tests and of behaviour.
8. Environmental Psychology
This focuses on the relationship between people and their physical surroundings. They study how street
noise, heat, architectural design, population density, and crowding affect people’s behavior and mental
health.
9. Sports Psychology
Specialists in this area advise athletes and study the physiological, perceptual-motor, motivational,
developmental, and social aspects of athletic performance

10. Health Psychology

This branch of psychology concerns itself with the promotion of physical health and the prevention and
treatment of illness. Researchers in this area have shown that human health and well-being depends on
both biological and psychological factors. Many psychologists in this area study psychophysiological
disorders (also called psychosomatic disorders), conditions that are brought on or influenced by
psychological states, most often stress. These disorders include high blood pressure, headaches, asthma,
and ulcers Health psychologists also study how people cope with stress. They have found that people who
have family, friends, and other forms of social support are healthier and live longer than those who are
more isolated. Other researchers in this field examine the psychological factors that underlie smoking,
drinking, drug abuse, risky sexual practices, and other behaviors harmful to health.

10. Social Psychology

It is concerned with attitudes, beliefs and psychological factors in group behaviour i.e. human problems
in the group, the community, the nation and the world.

Importance of Social Psychology

 It helps us to understand people’s behaviour.

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  It helps social workers understand different developmental stages and handle different crises that
may occur in the society.
 It makes one understand and appreciate the various cultures that are found in the society.
 It makes one understand the complexity of the human society and the social groups.
 It helps social workers to influence the ability and feelings of other people so that they change
and develop realistic attitudes towards life.

Approaches to the Study of Social Psychology

Social psychology, just like any other branches of psychology, is a scientific discipline because it makes
the use of the following approaches:
1. Natural Observation
Scientists test their theories and the hypotheses using naturalistic observation for example, in homes,
workplace or shopping centres. The naturalistic observation does not explain behaviour but simply
describes it.
2. Correlation
This is a statistical term that indicates that two variables are somehow related.
A variable is something that undergoes changes. There are two major types of variables: independent
variable and dependent variable.
Independent variable is any factor whose change is expected to affect the event that is being studied.
Dependent variable is the event that is expected to change when the independent variable is altered. On
particular variable is likely to or unlikely to occur when another variable does. For example, the more
educated a woman is, the more the choices of suitors there are. The fact that two variables are correlated,
however, does not mean that they are related in every case.
3. Experimentation
To understand causes and effects, psychologists conduct experiments. Experiments tests hypothesis in a
controlled environment, that is, in a setting in which relevant variables are manipulated.
4. Case Study
Psychologists sometimes use the case study approach in which individual cases are studied in great
depth to suggest what is true. It is an intensive investigation of one or a few individuals usually with
reference to single psychological phenomena. The unit of study can be a family, a group of delinquents,
dropouts and teenagers.
5. Survey
The survey method is a method of getting information regarding peoples’ characteristics attitudes,
opinions or behaviour by asking them all the same question. Its main advantage is that it reveals a lot
about people. Survey can be oral (interview) or written (questionnaire). The disadvantage is that people
sometimes give misleading answers either deliberately or accidentally; particularly if the concern is a
sensitive area, such as sex, money or race relations. One-way to control this problem is by including
several differently worded questions on the same topic.

ACTIVITY AND FURTHER RESEARCH

20
1. Discuss four principles that make social psychology a science?
2. State and explain six reasons why the study of social psychology is important
3. Discuss four branches of psychology.
4. Identify ten branches of psychology.
5. Distinguish between psychology and social psychology.
6. Why is the study of social psychology important to a social worker?
7. Discuss four ways in which a social psychologist may conduct research about various phenomena.

UNIT THREE: INDIVIDUAL AND SOCIETY

Meaning of Society
Society refers to a group of people who share a homeland and who depend on one another for their
survival and well-being. Each human society has an overall culture, but all societies contain groups of
people who have lifestyles that are not shared by the rest of the society. The patterns of culture
characteristics of such groups are called sub-culture.

Types of Societies
1. Band Societies: These ones have a subsistence type of life and people are organized into small groups.
They are made up of individual families who may camp together for some time before migrating to another
campsite. Band life is essentially migratory, shelters are temporary and possessions are few.
2. Agrarian Societies: They practice small scale farming, usually just for own composition.
3. Pastoral Societies: Their main social networks revolve around livestock keeping. Movements from one
place to another, interactions, choice of mate and sometimes even career choice depends directly or
indirectly on livestock.
4. Patrlineal Societies: Only sons inherit wealth from fathers and children of divorced parents stay with
the father’s family by law.
5. Matrilineal Societies: Families are headed by mothers and daughters inherit from their mothers. In
such societies, polyandry is acceptable.
6. Egalitarian Societies: There is equality of access to technology and natural resources. Food and other
forms of wealth cannot be withheld by a wealthy few while others endure shortages and hardships.

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Characteristics of Society
1. Members of a society share a homeland i.e. they all feel they belong to a particular geographical region.
2. Members depend on one another for social, economic and sometimes political survival. Members of a
society rely on each other for intimate relationships, psychological support, trade and even political
support.
3. Members have similar customs and interests.
4. Members have an organized administrative and social structure. There is always a system of leadership
whose hierarchical structure is recognized by all members. There is also an established system by which
leaders ascend to power.
5. A society has common norms; that is, there are commonly accepted standards of proper behaviour.
6. It is made up of one common culture and sub-cultures that apply only to particular groups within the
society.
7. It gives security to its members, especially in cases of external threats and aggression. In the event of
an attack, individuals are more likely to get support from within the society.
CHARACTERISTICS OF A MODERN SOCIETY
1. Interaction between members is impersonal.
2. Individuals act independently depending on rational will.
3. Behaviour of members conform to written rules.
4. Regulation of social order is based on political legislation.
5. Social order rests on conventional agreement.

Impact and Importance of Society for an Individual

1. Society determines and controls social behaviour. Usually a society has its own system of rewards and
punishments that shape behaviour of its members.
2. Society determines personal preferences and tastes. In many cases, an individual puts interests of the
society before self interests, for example in the choice of clothing.
3. Society provides company and companions. The most important factor in choosing friends is physical
proximity. Society is made up of people who are physically close most of the time; hence getting a friend is
easy in the society.
4. Society provides peer acceptance. Since customs, interests and norms are similar, the society readily
fulfills acceptance needs of an individual. Furthermore, members of a society are often familiar to one
another and so society gives the individual a sense of belonging.
5. Society gives reward values for example, stimulation value, utility value and ego-support value.
Stimulation value means the society is made up of interesting people who are imaginative and can give
the individual new experiences. Utility value means the society can give time and resources to help the
individual achieve personal goals. Ego support value means giving sympathy and encouragement in times
of difficulty and appreciation and approval when things go well.

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ACTIVITY AND FURTHER RESEARCH

1. Explain the meaning of society

2. Discuss characteristics of society.
3. Describe five ways in which the society can have impact on an individual.

UNIT FOUR: ENVIRONMENT AND HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

Environment refers to all living things that are naturally on earth or some part of it. Environment
may also be classified as physical or social. Physical environment consists of ecological units like weather,
floods, and seasons of the year. Social environment consists of things like cultural values, beliefs,
religious adherence, attitudes, education, moral values, security values and sex roles.
Physical environment has two key components: complete ecological units that function as natural
systems without massive interventions, for example animals, all vegetation, rocks, micro-organisms and
the atmosphere; and universal natural resources and physical phenomena that lack clear cut boundaries
such as air, water, climate, radiation and anything else that does not originate from human activity.

Types of Environment
There are two types of environment that may have influence on human development:
(i) Shared environment and
(ii) Non-shared environment
Shared environment refers to a set of conditions or experiences that is felt by children raised in the
same family. Examples include the family’s social class, parent’s personalities and the neighbourhood in
which they live.

23
 Non-shared environment refers to a set of conditions or experiences unique to one child both within
and outside the family that are not shared with any other sibling. Thus experiences occurring within the
family can be part of the non-shared environment. Parents often do interact differently with each sibling
and siblings interact differently with parents. Siblings often have different friends and different teachers
at school.
Children raised in the same family have both shared and non-shared experiences.

Impact of Environment on Human Development

1. In the pre-natal stage of development, environmental factors such as X-rays, maternal diseases and
use of drugs by the mother can affect the foetus. Exposure to radiation during the X-ray process may
damage the central nervous system of the foetus, making the infant exhibit poor physical growth and an
underdeveloped brain. Maternal diseases like rubella or sexually transmitted infections contracted during
the first three months of pregnancy are likely to cause visual, hearing and cognitive problems. Likewise,
mothers who smoke heavily or consume alcohol risk having children with attention and learning
problems.
2. Language acquisition is done mainly the environment. The child picks vocabulary, pronunciation,
listening skills as well as non-verbal cues from people he interacts with and first learns names of objects
in the surrounding.
3. What is socially and morally acceptable is largely determined by the environment. Thus, environment
directly impacts on how an individual behaves and whether or not this behaviour will gain social
acceptance. A man lying on the beach wearing shorts without a shirt on would be considered to be a
normal holiday maker. If he does the same thing in front of a college administration block, he would be
labeled insane and most likely; the behaviour would not be approved.
4. Environmental phenomena such as wind, natural disasters, climate and relief features influence social
interactions, dressing style and people’s economic lifestyles.
NB: In most cases environment interacts with heredity to determine the development of an individual.

ACTIVITY AND FURTHER RESEARCH

1. Define the term environment as applied in social psychology.

2. State four types of environment

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3. Explain four functions of the natural environment for human beings.
4. Describe four ways in which environment can impact on human development.

UNIT FIVE: CULTURE AND HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

Definition of Culture
Culture is the complex system of meaning and behaviour that defines the way of life for a given group
or society. It includes beliefs, values, art, morals, knowledge, customs, laws, habits, language, dress and
achievements of society that are passed on from one generation to the next. Culture includes ways of
thinking as well as patterns of behaviour.
Culture is both material and non-material. Material culture consists of objects created in a given
society for example, buildings, tools, art, publications and other tangible objects. These objects are
significant because of the meaning they are given. A temple for example, is not just a building but its form
and presentation signify the religious culture of the faithful.
Non-material culture includes norms, laws, ideas, beliefs and customs of a group of people. Non-
material culture is not tangible but it has a strong presence in social behaviour.

Characteristics of Culture
1. Culture is shared
Culture has significance because people hold it in common. It is collectively experienced and agreed upon.
The shared nature of culture is what makes the human society possible.
2. Culture is learnt
Culture may be taught directly or indirectly through a learning process. A parent teaching a child how to
drink milk using a cup or a teacher instructing children in myths, songs and other traditions in school
can be said to be directly teaching culture. Culture can also be learnt indirectly through observation and
imitation. For example, an architect can observe a house built many years before she was born and come
up with the same design. A person becomes a member of a culture through both formal and informal
transmission of culture. Until the culture is learnt, the person will feel like an outsider. Sociologists refer
to the process of learning culture as socialization.
3. Culture is symbolic
The significance of culture lies in the meaning people give to symbols for things or behaviour. The
meaning is bestowed by the cultural significance of the symbol and not in the symbol in itself. The
Kenyan flag for example, is literally a piece of cloth. Its cultural significance derives not from the cloth of
which it is made, but from its meaning as a symbol of freedom and democracy. Symbols mean different
things in different contexts. For example, a cross on a building has a different meaning from a cross
planted on the ground.
4. Culture is taken for granted
Members of a culture rarely question cultural expectations. Practices are learnt and simply taken as
“normal.”

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5. Culture is relatively stable
It endures across the people and time from one generation from one generation to another.
6. Culture varies across time and place
Physical and social environments vary from one society to another, and because people are creative in
adapting culture to the challenges they face, culture is not fixed. Because culture varies from one setting
to another, the meaning systems that develop within a culture must be seen in their cultural context.
Cultural relativism is the idea that something can be understood and judged only in relationship to the
cultural context in which it appears. For example, in some places clitoridectomy is a rite of passage and
in others, it is a violation of human rights, violence against women or a criminal offence.

Components of Culture
Norms
These are guides or models of social behaviour which tell what is proper and what is not and sets limits
within which individuals may seek alternatives or ways to achieve goals. They regulate people’s behaviour
in a given society and they come in the form of rules, standards or prescriptions followed by people for
example, norms of conduct for doctors, teachers, engineers and soldiers.
Customs
Customs are repetitive or typical habits and patterns of expected behaviour followed within a group or
community and have gained the support of public opinion or tradition. They serve as regulators of
people’s sentiments and attitudes towards given issues or topic. They produce habits in individuals and
behaviour in the society for example, shaking of hands, taking a bath frequently and not sipping beer in
church. Customs are not rigidly enforced by the society, although violating them may attract some
sanctions like raised eyebrows, critical and sarcastic remarks, disapproval or embarrassment to those
who do not conform.
Mores
Mores define what is morally right and what is morally wrong. They are strong folkways with ethical and
moral significance which are strongly held and emphasized. They embody codes of ethics and standards
of morality. Examples include standards of sex behaviour, family relations, attitude towards authority,
religion and molesting people with special needs. Violation of mores results in strong disapproval and
severe punishment. Persons who violate mores are ostracized, imprisoned or even killed. In almost all
societies, rape, blasphemy or deliberately pushing off a physically challenged person off a wheelchair are
acts that are regarded as violation of mores and may draw wrath of other members of the society.
Laws
Laws are enforced by special and recognized political organizations. Such political organizations may or
may not be democratically chosen, but so long as the society recognizes the authority they have, they can
enforce laws. Laws regulate people’s behaviour or conduct. They are results of conscious thought and
deliberate planning and are adaptable to changing conditions than customs. In civilized societies, people
regularly adjust laws to suit their needs at various times. In Kenya, for example, some cultural practices
that were hitherto acceptable like female genital mutilation have been declared illegal practices by law.
Laws are mainly enforced by the police and the courts. The degree of disapproval and punishment
depends on which law was violated. In most cases, laws are more effective when rooted in mores.

26
Values
Values are standards or qualities used to evaluate the desirability of things. They define what is good,
right and moral. In almost all Kenyan societies, major value orientations include:

 Patience
 Spirituality
 Respect for human dignity
 Transparency and accountability
 Personal achievement and occupational success
 Activity and work as a means of success
 Judging people through ethical principles
 Emotional closeness and security in the family.

Language
This refers to a system of symbols that have specific and arbitrary meaning in a given society. It enables
people to talk about past and future, and making it possible to learn one another’s experiences.

Factors influencing cultural change

1 Spatial Movement of the People

People bring about change into other cultures when they migrate from one place to another. When
immigrants arrive into a new country or new regions, they bring their own culture with them and this is
likely to affect the inhabitants of the area. Their hosts may copy the new culture of immigrants, reject the
culture or blend it with their own. Further, change in the numbers of the population may also have an
effect on culture. As people move into towns, more shops, houses, places of worship and hospitals are
needed, jobs must be created to support them and institutions of learning must be created for them and
their kin.

2. Diffusion of Cultural Elements/Traits

Diffusion is a process by which one society borrows cultural traits or elements from another society and
includes them into one’s own culture. People living in many parts of the world borrowed from Chine and
Far East items such as gunpowder, pepper, tea, coffee and playing cards.
3. Social Movements
A social movement is an organization with an aim of bringing change in society for example, Women’s
Rights Movement in the US, Girl-child Rights Movements in Kenya and the third Liberation Movement in
Kenya that eventually brought the new constitution in Kenya in 2010. Social movements are led by people
who have special ability to speak out for a given cause and with followers of the movement. This special
ability is called charisma. Some of the charismatic African leaders include Nelson Mandela, Jomo
Kenyatta, Tom Mboya, Dedan Kimathi, John Garang and Professor Wangari Maathai.
4. Laws

27
Most bills introduced into a legislative body suggest a change in some aspects of society. If those bills are
passed to become law, they may bring change in society. Not every law passed by a legislative body brings
change in the culture. There are occasions when a decree by the executive arm of the government may
become law. However, not all laws are enforced. Not only may new laws bring change but also a different
interpretation of an old law by the courts or executive can produce cultural change.
5. Natural Disasters
Natural disasters such as drought, tidal waves, plagues, floods, lightning strikes, earthquakes, volcanic
eruptions and landslides bring about change in culture. They force people to take some actions to repair
or solve the new problems created the disaster. These natural disasters exert a high toll pressure on lives
and have financial implications. Sometimes disasters may lead to a more advanced society and in the
end; it will unite people for a common purpose. On the other hand, disasters may also lead to a complete
breakdown of the structures of the society.
6. Wars
Armed conflicts bring about the greatest change in a society in the least amount of time. They cause loss
of many lives, families and friends. They also lead to destruction of property, forced transfer of
populations, inhumane acts, crimes against humanity and shifting of consumer goods to make materials
of war. There is also blending of cultures as armies invade new territories. Because of these, the values,
norms, language, customs and other components of culture are likely to change.

Acculturation
Acculturation is the process whereby the attitudes and/or behaviour of people from one culture are
modified as a result of contact with a different culture. Acculturation implies a mutual influence in which
elements of two cultures mingle and merge. For acculturation to occur, some cultural equality has to exist
between the giving and the receiving culture.
There are three types of acculturation. Acculturation may be selective, planned or antagonistic.
Selective acculturation is where recipients choose only what fits them for adaptation from another group
or person. Planned acculturation involves a deliberate and often forceful imposition of one’s group’s way
of life to a targeted group for example, colonial education. Antagonistic acculturation means borrowing of
culture from one group and using it to defend yourself or a group.

Possible Outcomes of Acculturation Process

1. Assimilation
Assimilation is the movement towards the dominant culture. For example, two cultures A and B come
into contact and A is more dominant than B. when B moves towards A and drops some of its cultural
components in favour of B, then assimilation is said to have taken place.
2. Integration
Integration is the synthesis of two cultures. For example, when two cultures A and B come into contact,
they influence each other into a kind of bicultural blend and form a new culture, AB, bearing a blend of
cultural components from both cultures.
3. Rejection

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Rejection is the reaffirmation of the traditional culture and rejection of the dominant culture. For
example, when two cultures A and B come into contact, at the end of the acculturation process, there is
still culture A and B, both retaining their identities irrespective of which one is more dominant than the
other.
4. Marginalization
Marginalization is alienation from both cultures. For example, when two cultures A and B come into
contact, they abandon their identities and pick a new culture altogether, culture C.

Diffusion
Diffusion is the process by which innovations spread from one culture to another or from one sub-
culture into a larger society. It is based on the belief s of existence of culturally dominant centres.

Difference between Diffusion and Acculturation

1. Diffusion is considered only as one aspect of acculturation.
2. Diffusion deals with smaller number of cultural attributes.
3. Acculturation is more rapid and observable than diffusion.
4. Acculturation is through face to face contact whereas contact is not required in diffusion.

Assimilation
Assimilation is the process by which individuals or groups are absorbed into and adopt the dominant
culture and society of another group. Dominant culture is the culture of the most powerful group in the
society. It need not be the culture of the majority of people; it is simply the culture of the group in the
society that has enough power to define the cultural framework.
The term assimilation is generally used with immigrants to a new land. New customs and attitudes
are acquired through contact and communication. The transfer of customs is not simply a one-way
process. Each group of immigrants contributes some of its own cultural traits to its new society.
Assimilation usually involves a gradual change and takes place in varying degrees. Full assimilation
occurs when new members of a society become indistinguishable from older members.
There are two main types of assimilation: marital and behavioural. Marital assimilation is resultant
from marriage especially the inter-ethnic and inter-racial ones. Marriage may be social, economic,
religious or political. Behavioural assimilation is the total acquisition of certain behaviour patterns of a
group by individuals residing within that group for example, speech, system of dressing and general
mannerisms.
Generally, one who is weak in character is easily assimilated. If one culture is imposed upon another
against their will, then cultural imperialism is said to have occurred.

Impact of Culture on Human Development

Culture sustains a society, gives a sense of morality and identity as well as cohesiveness. There is no
universal human culture but there is individuality in various cultures. Thus every culture is unique and
gives people who believe in it a sense of identity.

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 Culture defines what is morally right and what is morally wrong. Moral development is therefore
pegged on culture. For example, what is defined as sexual deviance is mainly determined by a particular
culture. Homosexuality is frowned upon by some cultures but tolerable in others. However, a majority of
other sexual deviations like necrophilia (sex with a corpse), pedophilia (sex with children), bestiality (sex
with animals) and incest (sex between close blood relatives) are generally regarded as immoral because
culture labels them abnormal. Depending on the society, various types of punishment may be inflicted on
the offender to discourage the undesired behaviour.
Certain cultural acts also bring about long term negative or possible effects on the moral
development of a child. For example, in American culture, beating of children is discouraged by law and
there is ultimate ownership of the child by the state. In almost all African cultures, if a child does wrong,
he is beaten. The child therefore learns to lie in order to avoid punishment. The American child learns to
tell the truth since there is no corporal punishment.
Culture influences personality development. An individual’s personality is the complex of mental
characteristics that makes one unique from other people. It includes all of the patterns and emotions that
cause us to do and say things in particular ways. The various components of culture influence and
actually determine our personality types.

ACTIVITY AND FURTHER RESEARCH

1. Define the term culture

2. Explain four components of culture
3.

UNIT SIX: SOCIALIZATION AND HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

Meaning of Socialization
Socialization is a process of preparing an individual to respond appropriately to the demands of the
society i.e. it is a process by which an individual acquires knowledge, skills and other accompaniments to
participate effectively in the society. It is thus a process by which people learn acceptable and
unacceptable behaviours for a particular environment.

Characteristics of Socialization
1. It is a long lasting process. The effects of socialization remain long after the process has ended.

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2. It has an aim. In most cases, the main objective of the socialization process is to enable the socializee
(the person being equipped with survival skills and knowledge) to adopt acceptable behaviour for the
society.
3. It has to take place at a given place and time. Socialization does not just take place anywhere. It is a
structured process in which specific agents pass knowledge as and when appropriate.
4. It is a process that has stages and each stage has some changes. Socialization is not a one-off event. In
every stage, there is something to be learnt and there is a marked change in the socializee before the
socializee proceeds to the next stage.
5. It is interactive. Socialization is a process that involves more than one person. No one can socialize
oneself.
6. It is participatory as one engages with a group and becomes part of it.

Stages/Process of Socialization
I Attachment
Attachment is the tendency to seek proximity (closeness) of somebody special. People get attached to
others so that they are socialized and helped to grow. At birth, the infant is contented to remain with and
seek attention from virtually anyone whether familiar or not. After seven months, the infant starts
recognizing people and develops an understanding that people are different and not interchangeable. At
this stage, two developments occur: there is focus on positive social responses in selected individuals
only, and; negative responses are shown to strangers or unfamiliar people who may be feared or avoided.
The child is likely to approach targets of attachment that is, parents or caregivers either when tired or in
a relaxed mood. Further, the child does not fear when exposed to unfamiliar events as long as the target
of attachment is around.
II Sex-typing
This is the imitation of responses that are characteristics and abilities considered appropriate for a given
sex. Characteristic that determine sex-typing include:

 Biological and physiological differences

 Interests and personality reactions
 Identification with same sex parents

These characteristics are typical of particular sex i.e. certain work activities and personality traits are
appropriate for a given sex. For example, in many societies, men are expected to be self-reliant while
women are expected to have strong family orientation.
III Moral Development
Concept of morality, appropriate sense of values and consciousness are often used interchangeably to
describe ethical aspects of behaviour. Therefore, increasing the ability of the child to grasp or understand
his worth and demands of his culture constitutes moral development.
IV Identification and Initiation
Identification is a process where attitudes of another person are internalized by someone. It is also
referred to as a process by which the person’s patterns, his thoughts and feelings are taken up by another

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person who is seen to be a role model. Imitation is the production of specific responses in specific
situations to attain specific goals.

Functions of Socialization
1. It channels and transforms one into a person with identity. Once an individual has been socialized, he
identifies himself with the socializing agent and thus feels a member of the group.
2. It helps in the transmission of knowledge and skills. An individual is not born with ability to participate
in group activities but learns how to participate from others.
3. It regulates behaviour through social control.
4. It teaches basic discipline ranging from habits and manners to social life.
5. Socialization provides individuals with role models. It instills specific aspirations such as the desire to
pursue certain careers or to be a good mother or a good father.
6. It provides social roles and their supporting attitudes. Membership requires training so that one can
play special roles. Individuals learn to co-ordinate their behaviour to that of the others and to adjust to
particular circumstances as the role demands.

Types of Socialization
Primary socialization
Primary socialization occurs when a child learns the attitudes, values, and actions appropriate to
individuals as members of a particular culture. For example if a child saw his/her mother expressing a
discriminatory opinion about a minority group, then that child may think this behavior is acceptable and
could continue to have this opinion about minority groups.

Secondary socialization
Secondary socialization refers to the process of learning what is appropriate behavior as a member of a
smaller group within the larger society. It is usually associated with teenagers and adults, and involves
smaller changes than those occurring in primary socialization. e.g. entering a new profession, relocating
to a new environment or society.

Developmental socialization
Developmental socialization is the process of learning behavior in a social institution or developing your
social skills.

Anticipatory socialization
Anticipatory socialization refers to the processes of socialization in which a person "rehearses" for future
positions, occupations, and social relationships.

Resocialization
Resocialization refers to the process of discarding former behavior patterns and accepting new ones as
part of a transition in one's life. This occurs throughout the human life cycle (Schaefer & Lamm, 1992:

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113). Resocialization can be an intense experience, with the individual experiencing a sharp break with
their past and needing to learn and be exposed to radically different norms and values. An example might
be the experience of a young man or woman leaving home to join the military, or a religious convert
internalizing the beliefs and rituals of a new faith. An extreme example would be the process by which a
transsexual learns to function socially in a dramatically altered gender role.

Agents of Socialization
Agents of socialization are causative institutions that help prepare adequately to meet the challenges of
society. Some of the agents include the following:

1. Religion
Almost all human beings believe in at least one supernatural being. All religions have dogmas or systems
of beliefs that define how human beings are supposed to relate with one another and with the deity. The
religious instructions help the individual improve his/her social skills and influence the way an individual
behaves in society.

2. Marriage
Marriage is the joining of two social networks. Each partner comes into the marriage with friends, life
experiences, values and expectations learned while growing up. Through this union, two important steps
are taken. First, a new bond is forged in the network of friends and kin that links every family together.
Second, they also bring new confrontation in the private culture of the two families. In the process of
cross fertilization, competition and compromise that follow, some behaviour is preserved, elaborated and
passed on to the children, while other elements are rejected and filtered out.

3. The School
The school is the most appropriate place where a variety of activities can be organized to foster social
development. Some of these activities include organization of social functions through co-curricula
activities like games, drama, debate and excursion trips. These activities influence how a child will relate
to others in the society because these activities force the child to be in close association with others.
Guidance and counselling by teachers assists the student to make informed career choices and to develop
special attributes like discipline and punctuality.
Interaction with teaching and non-teaching staff provides an array of role models for the student to
emulate.
Many schools expose the learners to some light manual work, especially chores related to environmental
preservation. Work ethics in school exposes the child to non-domestic skills which the family may not
have for example, self awareness, self esteem, interpersonal relationships, effective communication and
decision-making. Further, social interactions with members of the school community help the child to
understand the need for national unity. This is because the school community may have members from
different communities in the nation. It may be the first forum through which a learner is exposed to
others from another tribe or community.

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4. Peer Groups
Peers play a crucial role in the psychological and social development of an individual. The relationship
with peers of both sexes is critical as it serves as the prototype of adult relationships. There exists an
atmosphere of freedom in the peer group which makes it easy for members to learn from each other. The
peer group influences an individual in the following ways:
It serves as information bureau especially on issues that adults are reluctant to discuss like sexuality.
Some of the information adolescents get from each other about sexuality may be incorrect and
misleading, but it eventually serves as a basis of learning because the adolescent uses it to get the truth.
Peer group is also an avenue for practicing adult values which children and adolescents copy from the
wider society. It is within the peer group that the child is forced to practice fair play, sense of duty,
cooperation, honesty and a sense of belonging because all members are eager to belong and to be
accepted. It is also a progressive centre where adolescents exchange their views on modes of dress,
conduct and speech, especially because they feel the adults around them are intolerant to change.
Peer groups also provide an alternative source of role models, especially if the adolescent is disappointed
by the relevant adults in their lives.
However, peer groups may also be a source of negative influence especially to the adolescent where peer
pressure may cause an adolescent to engage in irresponsible sex, drug abuse, rebellion and other anti-
social behaviour like bullying, stealing and rioting.

5. The Media
Both print and mass media are powerful agents of socialization because of the adolescent’s need to
explore and discover. The mode of dress, conduct and speech of an adolescent is sometimes influenced by
the worldview as expressed through the mass media like radio, television and the internet. Media also
socializes adolescents into foreign cultures that the adolescents love because of their desire to be
universally acceptable and their vulnerability to change.
The negative influences of the media include immoral modes of conduct, source of information, drugs and
drug abuse, pornography and acts of violence.

6. The Family
The family provides a child with an environment it can trust. The pre-adolescent accepts the family
conduct, values and morals without question. At adolescence, the child begins to question the family
conduct, values and morals, and depending on how the adolescent perceives the family, they may accept
and internalize the family influences or rebel and reject the family influences.
The first language that a child learns is usually the language used by the family members. It is also called
Mother Tongue.
Values and skills that a child develops depend on the family type: chaotic, ruling, bonding, protective or
symbiotic.
TYPES OF FAMILIES

1. The Chaotic Family:

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 The parenting style is abusive, irresponsible, ridiculing, frightening, rejecting, severe and
intimidating.
 There is no marital closeness. Family members are disengaged from each other.
 There is insensitivity to children’s needs
 Spouses are more of roommates than intimate. Divorce is very likely.
 The family is a mere stop-over place. There is a lot of distrust. In terms of moral development, it is
in level one where people do things just for fear of punishment.
 Children feel unloved and unwanted. They are very likely to become depressed and fear bringing
friends home.
 The children are quick to leave the home. They are candidates for anti-social activities like
violence, promiscuity and drug taking. They also have difficulty in relating with others.

2. The Ruling Family

 The parenting style is authoritarian and militaristic. There may be rules and regulations
governing certain types of behaviour.
 The family members are insensitive to relationships. They are task-oriented and so skills are not
developed.
 There is a lot of fault finding. Feelings are neglected and so skills do not develop.
 The family is very structured. Each person has his/her own seat, cup, plate etc. They are more
task-oriented and not sensitive to feelings. In terms of religion, they don’t change easily.
 Children feel that they are not accepted. Self worth according to the children is measured by
accomplishment. Love is conditioned. Children feel emotionally withdrawn. At school, such
children tend to become unruly. They experiment with drinking, promiscuity and drugs.
 Children don’t relate well with the authority. When they become adults they get into crime.
 Leaving home is a big relief. For those who have left, going back home is only out obligation e.g.
when there is a funeral.

3. The Bonding Family

 This is the open system. The parents are highly democratic. They are consistent in discipline.
Children are listened to but they can also be overruled at times. Parents are authoritative but not
authoritarian.
 There is good interpersonal relationship within the family.
 There is good communication, listening and cooperation. Conflicts can be there, but are amicably
solved.
 Divorce is rare. Couples are allies and they work together. The environment is conducive for all
family matters.
 Children’s response is healthy (emotionally) and children develop good intrapersonal and
interpersonal skills.
 Exiting is neither dramatic nor traumatic. The children leave home when they are ready. Leaving
is easy. Parents and the children become good friends.

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 4. The Protective Family
 This is also an open system. The parenting style is permissive, overprotective and children
are pampered.
 The personality development is compromised. Confidence and identity of who they are can’t
be formed. Character development is also hindered.
 The marital relationship is very stable and their focus is on the children.
 They communicate with respect and sensitivity. Support and protection is guaranteed. There
is loyalty. The family is threatened by people of different theological or political persuasions.
 Children struggle with dependence. They are very strong in interpersonal relationships. They
are very open and social. They are insecure in the adolescence stage, though. They become
victims of peer pressure. They also have a very poor sense of self.
 They delay in letting go. When they leave, they leave with apron strings tied to the family.
Parents have the messianic complex.

5. The Symbiotic Family

 The parenting style is possessive, smothering and there is a lot of dependence.
 There is strong family orientation. Individualism is not there. Individuality or identity is seen
as lack of allegiance to the family.
 Family routine is the norm. Peace at any price is the motto. Loyalty is the key.
 The psychological space is violated. Children struggle with independence. Conformity is the
norm especially when it comes to embracing theological and political views. There are
vicarious casualties [ e.g. parents force career choices on their children]
 Children feel guilty for leaving home
7. The Community
The community influences all the other agents of socialization like the school, the family, the mass media
and peers. Specifically, the community influences on an individual are through the behaviour, values and
morals, especially because it is the one that passes most of them from the adult world to the younger
generation. At the same time, the community has legally recognized machinery that it can put into play to
end unacceptable behaviour like illicit sex, drug abuse and other anti-social behaviour.

Social Control
Social control is the application of social sanctions so as to maintain stability and order. Sanctions are
used to control the behaviour of members of the group or society. When norms are enforced to the extent
that almost all the people in the society conform to them, social control and order exists. No society can
survive for long without some measures of social control.
Social control puts pressure on people so that they may follow some behaviour patterns and rules valid in
society. Social control is more felt in small, primary groups.

Forms of Social Control

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1. Taboos
Taboos are cultural prohibitions. They depend on the norms of a particular culture. In many societies, if a
taboo is broken or violated, one is cursed.

2. Values
These are items that are held in high esteem in a society or a group of persons. If a value is broken, it
interferes with or injures the social order and the violator is considered a social deviant.

3. Laws
These are rules that are put in place by society in order to bring about stability and order. Laws are
usually made by a recognized authority and are often documented in written form. Laws are enforced to
regulate the smooth running in society and bring about harmony to coexistence in society.

4. Sanctions
A sanction is any measure taken in support of a social order. Such a measure can be rewarding or
punitive.
Formal sanctions are rewards or punishments given out publicly or ceremoniously. They are usually
based on a system of well written down rules and they must be authorized by a recognized authority for
example, certificates after competition.
Informal sanctions are spontaneous social responses to good or bad behaviour. They represent
mechanisms used by other members of society against or in favour of individuals engaging in
inappropriate behaviour to warrant punishment or warrant support for example, jeering, cheering, verbal
abuse and gossip.
Sanctions whether formal or informal can be positive or negative. Positive sanctions are rewards or
promises of rewards to persons who meet or exceed group expectations. They are used to reinforce good
behaviour for example, promotion due to good performance or hard work. Examples of positive sanctions
include certificates of merit, certificate of good conduct, encouragement, handshake and appraisal.
Negative sanctions are based on a punishment or a threat of punishment to those who violate norms and
expectations for example, salary deductions, interdiction, warning letters, suspension, expulsion, verbal
abuse and heckling.

Impact of Socialization on Human Development

1. Socialization leads to exchange of ideas and knowledge by influencing people’s views, way of thinking
and perception of things
2. It shapes the behaviour and personality of people. Through interaction with others, the individual
learns which behaviours are appropriate and which ones are not, for various situations and adjusts
accordingly.
3. It leads to character formation through moral development. Socialization aims at helping the individual
develop character traits that aid in survival.
4. It leads to sharing of talents, education and information.
5. It brings about acceptance of other people as human beings.

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6. It leads to exchange of values and thus brings about human development in physical, social and
intellectual domains.

ACTIVITY AND FURTHER RESEARCH

1. Define socialization.
2. Give five characteristics of socialization.
3. Explain the meaning of the term socializer.
4. Describe the process of socialization
5. List five functions of socialization.
6. Explain how school, media, peer groups and marriage are agents of preparing an individual to participate actively
in the society.
7. Describe four types of families.
8. What is social control?
9. Distinguish between the following terms:
(a) Formal sanctions and informal sanctions
(b) Negative sanctions and positive sanctions
(c) Laws, values and taboos.
10. Describe five ways in which socialization may affect human development.

UNIT SEVEN: GROUP DYNAMICS

A group may be defined as two or more people who are engaged in interaction with an aim of achieving
some specific goals. Interactions influence individual’s behaviour and it can either be physical or
symbolic.
Physical interaction is where individuals are involved in physical activities and in most cases they try to
communicate or prove a point, depending on one’s recognition. Symbolic interaction involves the use of
symbols such as gestures, signs and non-verbal communication.

Characteristics of a Group
1. There is interaction of group members.

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2. There must be two or more members.
3. It has an identity that is known by name. The name may be known only to its members if it is a
clandestine organization or to everyone interested in the activities of the group if it has nothing to hide.
4. It must have an objective, goal or aim. Groups are not formed just for the sake of it. Usually, a group
has at least one thing members intend to achieve.
5. It has rules and norms governing the behaviour of the members. Some of the rules may be set by the
members themselves or by the government. In a functional group, there are specific penalties for
members who go against the rules and norms of the group.
6. Members are bound by common interest.

Categories of Groups
Primary Groups
In Primary groups, members are few and know each other by name. Examples include neighbourhood
watch security groups and welfare groups of students in the same institution. Interaction is personal and
each member is interested in generating solutions to the problems facing other members. Characteristics
of a primary group are:

 Members are very close.

 Face to face intimate association and cooperation is established.
 Members have a sense of belonging that is very strong.
 They are small and kind of closed.

Secondary Groups
In secondary groups, relationship exists among members but to a minimal extent. Examples include
churchgoers and members of a school Board of Management. Characteristics of secondary groups are:

 They have little personal impact on members

 Members rarely interact with one another outside the activity that brings them together.
 Most of the communication is based on the goals of the group.

Tertiary Groups
In tertiary groups, members may not even know one another by name and are only brought together by a
short term interest. Communication is there but it is impersonal. An example of a tertiary group is
passengers in a bus.

Other Classification of Groups

1. Reactive groups: These are mostly interest groups which respond to external threats. In many cases,
they are very aggressive and competitive. Examples include Al Shabaab, Boko Haram, Mungiki and Al
Qaeda. Joining them may require extensive vetting and undergoing rituals before one gains full
acceptance.

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2. Reference groups: These are groups to which an individual does not belong but the actions and
activities of the group are copied and imitated by the individual. They shape the emotions, thoughts and
mannerisms of the individual, yet the individual is not part of them. Political parties in Kenya, for
example, are often reference groups for one another as they plan their campaign strategies.
3. Recurrent groups: These are permanent groups in which persons interact over and over. They may be
formal or informal. Formal groups have official administrative structures, officials who are usually elected
and a set of rules governing their conduct. Examples are women groups, and youth groups. Informal
groups do not have stringent administrative structures and the organizations are usually managed on an
ad hoc basis. Examples of informal recurrent groups include psychosocial support groups for people with
terminal illnesses and fellowship groups in some churches that proclaim salvation.

Stages of Group Development

Groups often undergo five major stages of development. These are:

1. Pre-affiliation

At this stage, members have a mixture of emotions and this includes hesitancy in being involved with the
group. There is reluctance to speak. There is always silence. One feels as if one is not part of the group.
The g group leader is supposed to be more active here than at any other stage. Group leader is the ice-
breaker.

2. Power and Control

At this stage, sense of belonging begins to develop. Group members become communicative and
empathetic. They also position themselves on how to rank in this group. They break into sub-groups;
some are more powerful than others. Members who feel isolated may drop out.

3. Intimacy:

The resolving of group power gets to be solved gradually. Intimacy begins to develop more. There is a lot of
involvement between members of the group. Conflicts begin to decrease. There is recognition of value of
group experience and acceptance. The group morale also increases with a sense of group‘s purpose. The
group’s character emerges as norms are established and roles are developed. Motivation develops so that
the group’s objectives can be achieved. There is mutual trust which heightens as members grow closer
and begin to self-disclose more often. The holding back of negative feelings is heightened.

4. Differentiation/Developing of Group Identity

In this stage, there is cohesiveness, free expression, support for one another and support for one
another’s feelings and opinions. Roles and status hierarchies become less rigid. Sense of group identity
develops. Solutions are based on consensus.

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5. Separation

In this stage, there is the loosening of the group. Members begin to leave one another. They begin to look
for ways to satisfy their needs. Many are anxious to leave the group. Some are satisfied because their
needs have been met and others are not satisfied.

Factors Influencing Group Behaviour

1. Group Leader’s Behaviour
The way the leader interacts with members and how they perceive him is likely to determine the way
members behave. If they see the leader as authoritarian, group members are likely to rebel and oppose
the leader’s ideas even if the ideas are good and constructive. It may also lead to blind obedience. Blind
obedience means group members obey the leader unquestioningly out of fear or the belief that the leader
can never be wrong.
2. Group Composition
Groups may be homogenous or heterogeneous to varying degrees. Heterogeneous means having diverse
traits, while homogeneous means sharing the same or similar traits. Members of heterogeneous groups
differ in terms of problems, background and other characteristics and so their perceptions may greatly
differ. Homogeneous groups are likely to agree over common issues most of the time.
3. Group Target
If members feel the final product of the group activity can be evaluated or is beneficial to the individual,
then members are likely to work hard to achieve the group goal. When members feel that their input will
not be evaluated, it may lead to social loafing i.e. the tendency to work less hard just because one is in a
group.
4. Group Size
When the group is too small, it limits opportunities of getting fresh ideas or learning. When it is too large,
it limits individual participation. Most social psychologists prefer groups between seven and ten members.
However, the optimal size depends on the type of group and the group goals. The number chosen should
take into account unforeseen members’ absences due to illness, dropouts and other emergencies. Small
groups have fewer communication problems and less member dissatisfaction. As groups get larger, sub-
groups (cliques) tend to form, some of which may work against group goals.
5. Threats from Rival Groups
When members perceive competition or dominance from another group, they may react in various ways:
they may give up and disband, discard their norms and copy the rival, or even try to sabotage the rival.
6. The Cost of Leaving the Group
Sometimes members stick to a group because they have invested heavily in the group in terms of time,
emotions, resources and hopes. They may feel that leaving the group may not be in the best of their
personal interests.

Functional versus dysfunctional Group Behaviour

Functional Group Dysfunctional Group

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1. Members communicate openly and expect other
members to be supportive
2. Decisions are arrived at by consensus and
members consider the opinions of even dissenting
members.
3. members take turns to speak
4. Members acknowledge and respond to strengths
and progress of other members
5. Members focus on the present and on the
changes they need to make on themselves.
6. Members follow the guidelines set during the
initial sessions.
7. Members are concerned about the group
functioning and address failings that are preventing
participation or goal attainment.
1. Members’ communication is cautious and
superficial.
2. Certain members dominate decision-making and
discount each other’s input without identifying or
assessing alternatives.
3. Members interrupt each other and compete for a
chance to speak.
4. Members focus on weaknesses and other
negatives and don’t acknowledge each other’s
strengths.
5. Members focus on the past for the issues of
relevant to the group’s purpose and on others
rather than themselves.
6. Members engage in behaviour that is
inconsistent with the group guidelines.
7. Members are very resistant in addressing
individual or group problem.

Types of Group Behaviour

1. The Crowd Type

It has a very short life. Its modes of feeling, thinking and acting are temporary. The behaviour of a crowd
is characterized by:
- Collective inhibition of intellectual processes i.e. people who under normal circumstances are very
intelligent and reasonable, stop reasoning and subdue their thought processes to those of the group.
-Heightening or intensification of emotions i.e. behaviour is based on what individuals feel rather than
what they think.
- Regression to the instinctive level of activity i.e. actions are spontaneous and based on natural impulse.
2. The Club Type
The club type is held together by the possession of some common interests, sentiments or ideals that are
powerful enough to weld its members together. It is relatively permanent. The club type has two main
characteristics which are restraint and thoughtfulness. Group members think and try to act rationally
because they expect to be together for a long time.
3. The Community Type
It has continuity and permanence. It has a comprehensive common purpose. The community type focuses
on the whole life of its members. It enables the individuals to achieve complete self realization.

How Groups Influence the Behaviour of Individuals

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Sometimes people adopt certain behaviours just because they are part of a larger group. Some of these
behaviours are:
1. Social Facilitation
This is the tendency of people to do better on simple tasks and worse on complex tasks when they are in
the presence of others and their individual performance can be evaluated. it takes place in the presence of
others and that is what energizes the individual. The presence of others puts the spotlight on the
individual, making the individual be aroused. People and animals do better on simple tasks when there
are others watching them. On the other hand, they perform worse in the presence of others when the task
is complex. The reason is that the individual becomes particularly alert and vigilant because the
individual becomes apprehensive about how they are being evaluated. This distracts the individual from
the task at hand.
2. Social Loafing
Social loafing means the tendency to work less hard when in a group because the individual is aware that
efforts will not be evaluated. Individual productivity always declines in large groups because of two
factors: reduced efficiency resulting from the loss of coordination among individuals’ efforts; and social
loafing which is a reduction in efforts by individuals when they work in a group as compared to when they
work by themselves.
Social loafing occurs in situations where individuals can hide in the crowd. It is less likely when group
members are convinced that individual group members are convinced that individual performance is
crucial to group performance. It is also reduced when people work in close-knit committed groups. It may
be less prevalent in collectivist cultures which place a high priority on meeting group goals and
contributing to one’s in-groups. Females are generally less likely to engage in social loafing than males.
3. Self monitoring
This means adjusting one’s behaviour to situational norms or to the expectation of others. For example,
an abrasive bride meeting her in-laws for the first time choosing to act in demur shyness because it is the
behaviour expected in such occasions would be said to be self monitoring. Normally people engage in self
monitoring behaviour when there is an impression they want to create on their audience.
4. Supplication
Supplication means playing on the sympathy of others by acting weak or helpless. For example, a child
pretending to be sick so as to avoid going to school would be said to be engaging in an act of supplication
to earn the sympathy of parents.

Functions of a Group
Irrespective of the type of group, there is always a way in which the group has an impact on the
development of the individual.
1. Group provides development of skills like leadership skills and communication skills. One cannot be
recognized as a leader unless there is a group one is leading. In the process, the individual will develop
skills that will enable leadership to be provided. Likewise, since each group member needs to effectively
communicate with others, every member will be under obligation to develop appropriate communication
skills to enable them survive in the group.

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2. Group provides cognitive framework used by individuals as reference when responding to various
issues.
3. Group moulds individuals to acquire self esteem and self concept. Self esteem is the way a person feels
about himself or herself, that is, confidence in one’s own merit as an individual person. Self concept is the
idea people have of who or what they are. It is the mirror image determined largely by roles, relationships
and interactions with others. Both self esteem and self concept are acquired as a result of group
membership and one’s role in the group.
4. Group provides an opportunity to release tension. Through interpersonal communication and
interaction, a group can help a member overcome grief quickly. For example, in many societies, when
members of one’s group go to condole a bereaved person, they expect the bereaved person to tell them
exactly what happened, even if they already know the story. This may be done by several group members.
The repeated explanation is quite therapeutic and helps the bereaved to psychologically heal faster. Those
who do not belong to the bereaved person’s group are not even likely to give him audience.
5. Group necessitates change and learning. As members of a group work towards achieving the goals of
the group, they tend to generate solutions to challenges they face and in the process they learn from one
another.

ACTIVITY AND FURTHER RESEARCH

1. What is the difference between physical interaction and symbolic interaction in group dynamics?
2. Give four characteristics of a group.
3. With relevant examples, explain the difference between primary, secondary and tertiary groups.
4. Distinguish between a recurrent group and a reference group.
5. Describe stages of group development.
6. Discuss any four factors that influence group behaviour.
7. Mention four characteristics of a dysfunctional group.
8. Explain three types of group behaviour.
9. Explain the meaning of the following terms as applied in group dynamics:
(a) Social facilitation
(b) Social loafing
(c) Self monitoring

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(d) Supplication
(e) Altruism
10. Discuss four ways in which group dynamics can have impact on human development.

UNIT EIGHT: SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS AND SOCIAL INTERACTIONS

SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS
These are organizations in a society that work to socialize groups or people in it. An institution is an
enduring organization of procedures, rules and policies that enable people in a society to satisfy their
essential needs. Institutions make up for the relative permanent framework within which active and social
structures operate. Although institutions are established ways of organizing human life, they are not
necessarily secure or stable all the time. They can be strong or weak depending on the confidence people
have in them.
Types of Social Institutions
1. Political institutions
In almost all societies, there are organizations that provide authority, principles and obligations of
governance. They include state, government and political parties. One of the functions of political
institutions is to facilitate the formulation and enforcement of laws. It is such institutions that punish
and correct lawbreakers through the penal systems like prisons, remand homes and detention camps.
Where conflicts occur, political institutions provide arbitration and adjudication services through the
judicial system. They also provide for welfare of members of the society by providing services that
individual citizens cannot easily provide like building roads, hospitals and airports. Another function of
political institutions is protection of the society from external threats. Societies that have no recognized
political institutions may have anarchy and lawlessness may prevail.
2. Economic institutions
These institutions focus on production of goods, services and organization of labour. They also provide
methods of distribution of goods and services. Their main interest is the provision of care while buying
and selling goods or services. Examples include stock exchange market, banks, cooperative societies and
microfinance institutions.
3. Linguistic institutions
Each society has its own language: verbal, non-verbal and symbolic used in various situations.
4. Educational institutions
These institutions are used to transmit knowledge, skills and values. They thus have the function of
transmitting culture. Another function is preparing the socializee who passes through them for
occupational roles. A police training college for instance equips the recruits with skills of fighting crime
and prepares them for their future roles as police officers. Educational institutions also transmit
functional skills for functioning in society. Knowledge is not just passed to the socializee for its own sake
but to enable the individual survive in the larger society. Examples of educational institutions are

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schools, colleges, polytechnics and universities. Almost all institutions have a formal set up that may
include learning, examination and certification. There is always a testing component used to prove
whether the knowledge, skills or values have actually been transmitted.
5. Religious institutions
They entail beliefs about the world, universal order, spiritual beings and power as well as rituals
Principal Features of Social Institutions
1. Institutions endure
They last beyond the lifetime of their members. For example, a teacher may quit teaching in a school but
teaching and learning will still go on in that school; a head of state may die or quit politics altogether, but
the state shall continue to exist.
2. Institutions change
They change gradually in the absence of major upheavals, crises and problems such as political and
economic revolutions, but even this does not change institutions radically. The rate of institutional
change is definitely greater in highly industrialized societies than in simple agricultural societies.
3. Institutions consist of organized procedures
In order to fulfill their functions, institutions are well organized in terms of procedures and structures.
4. Satisfaction of basic needs
The organized procedures that institutions have enable people throughout the society to meet and satisfy
their collective basic needs.

Religion as an example of Institutions

Definitions of Religion
James G. Frazier defines religion as a belief in powers superior to Man which are believed to direct and
control the course of nature and human life.
Mc’Iver thinks that religion implies relationship not only between man and man but also between man
and some higher powers.
Emile Durkheim defines religion as a unified system of beliefs and practices relative to secret things.
Components of Religion
(a) Beliefs: Religious beliefs are guidelines which members of a particular religion adhere to or observe.
Beliefs vary from one religion to another. They are expressed in the form of doctrines, regulations and
articles of faith.
(b) Rituals: These are practices required or expected of members of a given faith. They honour divine
powers worshipped by the believers or followers. They also remind followers of their religious duty and
responsibility. Ritualistic activities include offering of sacrifice, rites of incorporation in the community of
believers, rites of reconciliation between members and their God; and rituals involving feasts, dance and
procession.
(c) Symbol: The main function of religious symbols is to emphasize the character and meaning of
supernatural forces for example, among the Christians, the cross is a symbol of salvation and the Bible is
a symbol of the word of God.

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(d) Magic: Many forms of religion use magic to obtain certain ends or goals. There is good magic and bad
magic. Good magic are miracles performed for the improved welfare of mankind. Bad magic is practiced
by evildoers like witchdoctors and sorcerers.
(e) Hierarchical Structure: Many but not all religions are characterized by a systematic form of
governance. Where such structures exist, there is a clear chain of command from the senior most officers
to the junior most officers.

Social Functions of Religion

(a) Religion provides social solidarity. It unites believers by regularly bringing them together to enact
various rituals and provides followers with shared values that bind them together.
(b) It provides meaningful answers to internal questions about existence. Religion provides emotionally
satisfying explanation for great problems like death and human suffering.
(c) Religion brings out about social control. It spells out rewards and punishments by supernatural forces.
Values relating to human life, sexual behaviour and property ownership are well taken care of by religion.
(d) It provides individuals with emotional support on the uncertainties of the world. Man generally feels
good when united with God.

Impact of Social Institutions on Human Development

1. Social institutions aid in producing and distributing goods and services. For example, political
institutions like the state, directly allocates resources to the members of the society.
2. Through social institutions, newly recruited members learn and accept values and customs of the
group. This is usually through interactions, negotiations and peer influence.
3. Social institutions helps groups or societies replace personnel when they exist or die.
4. They protect members, ensure continuity and reduce chances of extinction. Social institutions thus
preserve and maintain order.
5. They help members feel motivated to belong to a group since they give members a sense of identity.

Social Interaction
Social interaction is the process of people orienting themselves to others and acting in response to what
others say and do. The word social implies that more than one person is involved; while interaction means
that all parties are mutually influencing one another. Physical proximity is not necessary for interactions
to occur. People interact when they communicate via letter, phone, twitter, facebook or whatsapp.
Moreover, just being near others does not always mean that social interaction will take place. One could
be hurrying through a crowded train station, surrounded by hundreds of people and not even talking to
or making eye contact with anyone. In such circumstances, there is no social interaction between the
person rushing and the crowd.
Social interaction is purposive. People can act and react with each other in pursuing their objectives in
life. In some social interactions the participants can have different goals. For example a pickpocket seated
next to his victim in a bus chatting happily and traveling the same direction are socially interacting but
their goals are different.

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Different goals do not necessarily lead to conflict, though. Sometimes goals can be complementary or
cooperative, competitive or coercive. It is always ordered by patterns of social structure and culture. When
people get together, they generally fall into routinized schemes of expected behaviour. For example, at
parties, one is expected to be sociable and have fun.
Types of Social Interaction
Social interaction can be accidental, repeated, regular or regulated.
Accidental interaction is not planned and it is not likely to be repeated for example, asking a stranger for
direction. Once the individual has got the directions well, he may not meet or interact with the stranger
again.
Repeated interaction is also not planned but is likely to happen from time to time for example, meeting a
neighbour frequently on a street in the village.
Regular interaction is also unplanned but very common and likely to raise questions when missed for
example, meeting a workmate at the place of work.
Regulated interaction is planned and regulated by custom or law for example a family meeting or a staff
meeting.
Social interaction may also be physical, symbolic or behavioural. Physical interaction involves physical
activities and members try to communicate or prove a point. Symbolic interaction involves use of signs,
symbols and non-verbal communication. Behavioural interaction occurs when patterns of belief and
behaviour of a person is copied without physical interaction.

Development of Interpersonal Relationships

Interpersonal relationships are dynamic systems that change continuously during their existence.
Relationships have a beginning, a lifespan and an end. They tend to grow and improve gradually as
people get to know each other and become closer emotionally, or they deteriorate as people drift apart,
move on with their lives and form new relationships with others.
Most natural development of relationships follows five stages:
I. Acquaintance:
Becoming acquainted depends on previous relationships, physical proximity, first impression and a
variety of other factors. If two people begin to like each other, continued interaction may lead to the next
stage, but acquaintance can continue indefinitely.
II. Build up
During this stage, people begin to trust and care about each other. The need for compatibility and such
filtering agents as common background and goals will influence whether or not interactions will continue.
III Continuation
This stage follows mutual commitment to a long term friendship, romantic relationship or marriage. It is
generally a long and relatively stable period. Nevertheless, continued growth and development will occur
during this time. Mutual trust is important in sustaining the relationship.
IV. Deterioration
Not all relationships deteriorate, but those that do, tend to show signs of trouble. Boredom, resentment
and dissatisfaction may occur and individuals may communicate less and avoid self disclosure. Loss of
trust and betrayals may take place as the downward spiral continues.

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V. Termination
The final stage marks the end of the relationship either by death in the case of a healthy relationship or
by separation.

Factors Influencing Social Interaction

1. Proximity
Physical closeness increases attraction as compared to long distance relationships.
2. Familiarity
When people are exposed continuously to one another, it increases attraction. Attraction may be there
even when the exposure is not consciously realized.
3. Similarity
The more similar two people are in background, attitudes and character traits, the higher the probability
that they will like each other. Examples of areas of similarity that may enhance social interaction include
race, religion, education, moral values and political philosophy.
4. Physical Attractiveness
When there is perceived reciprocal attraction, then people are likely to interaction socially. People are
likely to interact for a longer time when they find the physical appearance of each other pleasant because
people tend to enjoy the company of those who give them positive feelings.
5. Propinquity
People are more likely to interact socially when there is psychological closeness between them. The
frequency of exclusive interaction is itself likely to generate a greater degree of interest in the other person
than might have emerged in a competitive situation. Some social or formal systems like job, college, youth
camps and neighbourhood may lead to a sentiment of liking which in turn may lead to volatile increase in
interaction. The resulting interaction may even lead to friendship or dating relationships.

Personal Space
Maintaining and regulating personal space directs affects many social interactions. There are unspoken
rules covering interpersonal distance considered for formal business, casual conversations, waiting in line
with other strangers and other situations. The study of the rules for the personal use of space is called
proxemics. When a person’s space is invaded by another person, signs of discomfort and stepping back to
re-establish their original distance are noticed. Those who hold their ground turn to their side, look the
other way or position an arm in front of themselves as a sign of psychological barrier to intrusion.
Conventions governing comfortable or acceptable distances vary according to relationships as well as
activities.
There are four basic zones of personal space:
1. Intimate Distance
This is the most private personal space. It extends about 18 inches (45 centimetres) out from the skin.
Entry within this space is reserved for special people or circumstances.
2. Personal Distance
This distance is maintained in comfortable interactions with friends. It extends from 1½ feet to 4 feet (45
to 120 centimetres) from the body. Personal distance keeps people within arm’s reach of each other.

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3. Social Distance
It occurs in impersonal business and casual social gatherings that take place in a range of 4 to 12 feet
(120 to 360 centimetres). In this distance, the elimination of possibilities of touching and socializing is
noticed. In the same distance, conversation requires greater voice projection. Important people in many
offices use the width of their imposing desks to maintain the social distance while conducting business.
4. Public Distance
When people are separated by more than 12 feet (360 centimetres) interaction takes place on a decidedly
formal quality. People look flat and the voice must be raised. Formal speeches, business meetings,
political rallies and sometimes lectures are conducted at a public distance.

Violations of personal space at each distance tend to cause the invaded person to become more defensive
or move away.

Impact of Social Interaction on Human Development

1. Social interaction enables people to learn and develop identity. As people interact, they bring new
experiences to each other and in the process, learn and develop identity.
2. It helps in shaping our self image and thus determines our self esteem. As people interact, they get to
know how they are viewed by the people they interact with. In the process, they may adjust their
behaviour to match the expectations of others.
3. Social interaction enables people to learn the attitudes, values and behaviour appropriate to members
of a particular culture. It is what facilitates socialization and also makes one appreciate the culture of
other people.
4. It enables people to learn how to adapt to their physical, cultural and social environment. Without
social interaction, adjusting to changes in the environment would be impossible.
5. Social interaction enables functional integration by equipping society members with various skills.
6. It ensures the long term continuity of a society through transmission of culture from one generation to
another.

ACTIVITY AND FURTHER RESEARCH

1 (a) Define social institution.

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 (b) Describe five types of social institutions and mention two functions of each type.
2. Discuss four features of social institutions
3. Illustrate five characteristics of religion as an institution.
4. Explain five ways in which social institutions affect human development.
5. With relevant examples, give four types of social interaction
6. Describe stages through which interpersonal relationship develops
7. State and explain five factors that may influence the way people interact with each other.
8. What is proxemics? Explain various zones of personal space.
9. Describe five ways in which social interaction impacts on human development.
10. Explain three assumptions of symbolic interactionism.

UNIT NINE: SOCIAL PERCEPTION AND HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

Conflict and behavioural theories of perception

Perception is the process by which organisms interpret and organize sensation to produce a meaningful
experience of the world. Perceptions are formed as one experiences the environment. Interpretations of
situations, behaviour, options and personal appearances of these, form perceptions. Perceptions are also
individualist. What one perceives as good behaviour may be perceived as bad behaviour by another
person.

Forming Impressions and Making Attributions

Research has shown that people form impressions on others in two ways: physical appearance and
observation of personal behaviour. Sometimes people make quick and effortless perception based on
others’ physical appearance, facial expressions or body language. Studies have shown that people who are
physically attractive are perceived to be happy, friendly, warm, successful and well adjusted. At other
times, people form impressions based on careful observation of personal behaviour. According to this
view, people gather and analyze behaviour and collect evidence before evaluating. The explanation for
behaviour that people come up with is called attribution and the theory that describes this process is
called attribution theory.

Over the years research into attribution has shown that when we explain people’s behaviour, we often
overestimate the role of personal factors and underestimate the influence of situations. This bias is so
universal that it has been called the fundamental attribution error.

In forming impressions of others, people are subject to others’ biases as well. People are often slow to
revise their first impression of others even when those views are not supported by evidence. Part of the

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problem is that once you form impression of someone, you tend to interpret that person’s later behaviour
in ways that seem to fit the first impression. Another impression is that our first impression of someone
may shape the way we treat that person, which may in turn influence his or her actual behaviour. This
process is known as self-fulfilling prophecy. An example would be a situation where in a group of street
children who have been taken to a juvenile remand home, there is a child who had been cheated that he
would be thoroughly caned on arrival. As he is addressed by the officer in-charge of the remand home, he
keeps on wincing as he imagines himself being brutalized by the officer. Looking at the child’s face, the
officer concludes that this is a very naughty boy who is making faces at him. He treats the boy as a
naughty boy, addresses him as such and this new label influences the boy to behave in a naughty
manner. Being naughty is not the boy’s natural character, but the behaviour is brought about by the first
impression of him formed by the officer-in-charge.

Stereotypes and Prejudice

Seeking to understand the roots of racism, tribalism, sexism and other forms of discriminations, many
social psychologists study the cause and effect of stereotypes. Stereotypes are generalized beliefs that
associate whole groups of people with certain traits. They are oversimplified generalizations about the
group against which the prejudice is directed. Stereotyping is widespread and can be found in all
societies; for example, many people believe carpenters are untrustworthy.

We naturally sort other people into social categories such as race, gender, occupation and socio-economic
class. Furthermore, we see people as part of us or part of them depending on whether we feel they are
members of our own groups. In making this description, we tend to generalize from a single person to a
whole group and to assume that “they” members of a particular group outside our own are all alike.
Although stereotypes can help simplify our understanding of the world and may even contain a sense of
truth, they are usually over-generalized. Research shows that stereotypes can colour an individual’s
judgment of others at conscious level.
Prejudice means making a negative evaluation of others based solely on the membership of a particular
group. It often stems from direct competition for valuable but scarce resources. This competition between
groups can bring about conflict, frustration and hostility. Sometimes people may demean others without
realizing it in order to boost their sense of self worth. People generally derive pride from their connection
to successful others. This makes those seeking connections to sideline others because it makes them feel
secure.

Types of Perception
There are three main types of perception:
1. Phenomenal Perception: This is the process of attaining awareness or understanding any occurrence
that is physical and observable.
2. Psychological Perception: This involves attaining awareness of something by configuring it in the mind.
3. The looking-glass self Perception: This refers to how people shape themselves based on people’s
perception. There are three main components of the looking – glass self. First, we imagine how we appear

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to others. Secondly, we imagine the judgement of that appearance. Finally, we develop our self through
the judgement of others.

Factors that Influence Perception

1. Intensity and physical dimensions of the stimulus. People tend to take notice of things they are
exposed to for a long time. The experience the individual undergoes as a result of exposure to the
stimulus is likely to determine the individual’s perception.
2. The subject’s past experience. People tend to evaluate things, situations and people who are similar in
the same way. For example, a person who has been mugged on a particular street will perceive that
particular street as dangerous and insecure.
3. Readiness to respond to a stimulus.
4. Motivation and emotional state of the subject.
5. Social context; for example, a man wearing shorts without a shirt spreading a towel and lying on it
under a coconut tree at the beach to read a magazine at 11.00 a.m. will most likely be considered a
vacationer. The same man dressed in the same way and doing the same thing in front of a college
administration block may be labelled crazy.
6. Goals.
7. Expectations.
8. Stereotyped attitudes and beliefs.
Impact of Social Perception on Human Development
1. It brings about interaction. The way people interact, communicate and exchange ideas depend on how
they perceive one another.
2. It brings about socialization. The way an individual is made to fit effectively in the society depends on
how the person is perceived by the socialization agents and how the person perceives the socialization
agents.
3. Social perception leads to cooperation with other social institutions. A political institution like the
judiciary is respected and obeyed by consumers of justice because it is perceived as a dispenser of justice.
4. It brings about change of attitude towards something.
5. It leads to unity of purpose.
6. It can sometimes lead to conflict, frustration and hostility. When people perceive others as a threat to
their comfort, the threatened persons may become hostile and conflict may ensue.
7. Social perception can also create unhealthy competition among groups seeking recognition and thus
lead to hatred.

Role of Social Perception on Socialization

1. Social perception helps in shaping the behaviour of oneself and others.
2. The way adults perceive the children under their care determines how the children are brought up. For
example, parents who perceive a child as rude will most likely treat the child with rejection. The child in
turn is likely to grow up in line with the label given by the caregivers.
3. It helps in sorting out conflicts, exchange of ideas, interactions and relationships among the people
involved in a socialization process.

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4. Negatively, social perception can bring about prejudice, stereotyping, conflict and isolation of the
socializer and the socializee.

ACTIVITY AND FURTHER RESEARCH

1. Define perception
2. What is fundamental attribution theory?
3. With a relevant example, explain what is meant by self-fulfilling prophecy.
4. Distinguish between stereotype and prejudice.
5. Describe three types of perception.
6. Discuss any six factors that influence social perception.
7. Explain five ways in which social perception influences human development.
8. Describe three ways in which perception can negatively affect socialization.

UNIT TEN: ETHICS AND MORALITY

Meaning of Ethics and Morality

The word “ethics” is derived from a Greek word “ethos” which refers to customs and conventions of a
given society. Ethics, therefore, is a set of norms rules and guidelines governing human conduct. It may
also be defined as standard codes of behaviour expected by the group to which an individual belongs. It is
primarily concerned with establishing standards or norms of conduct and is commonly associated with
theories about how an individual ought to live.
Morality deals with things relating to human behaviour. It is a set of personal or cultural values, codes of
conduct or social mores that distinguish between right and wrong in the human society. Thus morality
directly refers to what is right and wrong regardless of what specific individuals think.

Role of Ethics in Society

1. It regulates the human actions in a society. A society is made up of people who share norms and
values. Thus, ethical standards apply across the board. All members of the society have a similar
construct of what ethical standards are expected and so they hinge their actions on that.
2. It helps guard against manipulation of members in a society.

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3. It shapes the behaviour of individuals in a society. Through socialization process individuals in the
society learn the appropriate behaviour and adjust accordingly.
4. It brings about peaceful interaction and coexistence among people, since everyone knows the norms
and rules that are set to govern their relationships.
5. It is the main source of code of conduct. Many professional organizations base their codes of conduct
on generally accepted ethical standards.
6. It facilitates human development through fair distribution of resources.
7. It promotes culture and values.
8. It protects human life. One of the reasons why people rarely kill those who have wronged them is the
respect for ethics.
9. Ethics makes individuals respect other persons and their property.

Importance of Norms in Society

Norms are standard patterns of behaviour. They are important because:
1. They bring about order. Everybody knows what to expect and how to react should things go wrong
2. They bring about peace and stability, thus creating harmony in the society.
3. They provide security by saving members of the society anxiety and fear of the unknown. People know
what to expect because there are predictable standards of behaviour.
4. They make people take responsibility for their actions. Individuals know that their actions are weighed
against set standards and so they try to pattern their behaviour according to those standards.
5. They help in the solution or settling of disputes and conflicts.
6. They protect values and morals.
7. Norms regulate people’s behaviour.

Sources of Morality
Morality distinguishes what is right from what is wrong. It has three main sources.
(a) Religion: Religion provides divine revelations which constitute a supernatural source of moral
standards for any believer. Religious ethics finds its expression in the laws of God.
(b) Society: These sources located within social institutions are numerous and differ in influence from
time to time. Such social institutions include family, school and clan.
(c) Person/Individual: These stem from an individual human person in his reasoning and conscience.
There are three generally acceptable psychological moral theories. These are the psychoanalytic theory,
cognitive theory and behaviour theory.
According to the psychoanalytic theory developed by Sigmund Freud, the process of personality
development which includes moral development is the outcome in which the child resolves his conflict.
These are conflicts between the primary forces of the unconscious governed by the pleasure principles of
immediate gratification and socio-cultural forces that try to control the individual desire.
According to the cognitive theory developed by Jean Piaget, moral development depends on knowledge
and recognition of what is right and what is wrong.
According to behaviourist theory propounded by B.F. Skinner, behaviour is a result of learning; that is,
the relationship between stimulus and response.

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 Factors Influencing Ethics and Morals
1. Beliefs and Taboos
What people take as right or wrong depends on their social, cultural and religious beliefs. People derive
religious instructions like the Bible for Christians, Quran for Muslims, Torah for Jews, Tipitaka for the
Buddhists and Bhagavad Gita for the Hindus. These instructions determine what is morally right or
wrong. Taboos vary from one society to another and what is ethical in one society may not necessarily be
ethical in another. For example, some Kenyan communities have no taboo barring a man from marrying
sisters.
2. Violence Applied From Outside
In times of war, unrest or civil strife, old ethics and morals may be replaced by new ones or discarded
altogether. For example, killing under normal circumstances is considered morally wrong, but killing a
violent external aggressor in self defence may be considered heroic.
3. Free Will Actions
This includes words, deeds, or desires that come from a person acting with a full knowledge of what he is
doing when he is free to act or refrain from an action. The choice that somebody makes on his free will
can determine what is ethical or moral for him to do.

Impact of Ethics and Morality on Human Development

1. Ethics and morality have made societies openly discuss and rethink issues on which people took hard-
line stances like euthanasia, gender roles, homosexuality and abortion.
2. Ethics and morality govern behaviour of individuals and define actions to be taken on those who violate
norms.
3. Ethics and morality determine the socialization process as most socialization agents base the
upbringing on what they regard as morally right.
4. Ethics and morality promote stability in the society since all the society members generally accept the
moral code of conduct. They therefore make social interaction possible.
ACTIVITY AND FURTHER RESEARCH

1. Define ethics.
2. Define morality.
3. State six roles of ethics in society.
4. Discuss the importance of norms in society.

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5. Identify and explain three sources of morality.
6. Explain any three psychological moral theories.
7. Describe four factors that influence ethics and morality.
8. Show five ways in which ethics and morality may affect human development.

UNIT ELEVEN: EMERGING TRENDS IN SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY

Trends will always keep emerging as societies are dynamic and keep on changing. A student of social
psychology therefore needs to keep on studying the trends as they emerge. In Kenya, some of the issues
that have emerged in the last ten years include the following:
Physical Environment and Change
- Nyumba Kumi
- Legislation against FGM
- Vetting people (ethics)

BENEDICT OTIENO

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