Ore Geology Reviews 141 (2022) 104632

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Ore Geology Reviews

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Nodular sillimanite rocks as field indicators to metamorphosed massive

sulfide deposits
Paul G. Spry a, *, Scott McFadden a, Graham S. Teale b, Brian Alers c, John M. Shallow d,
Justin M. Glenn a
a
Department of Geological and Atmospheric Sciences, Iowa State University, 253 Science I, Ames, IA 50011-1027, USA
b
Teale and Associates, P.O. Box 740, North Adelaide, South Australia 5006, Australia
c
Alers and Associates Limited, PO Box 775, Nederland, CO 80466, USA
d
JMS Geologic LLC, Boulder, CO, USA

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Nodular sillimanite rocks (NSR), some of which are spatially associated with massive sulfide deposits, consist of
Nodular sillimanite rocks intergrowths of quartz, sillimanite (mainly fibrolite), and muscovite (up to 30 cm in length) that occur pre­
Metamorphism dominantly in Archean-Proterozoic metapelites, ortho- and para-gneisses, and metavolcanic rocks meta­
Massive sulfide deposits
morphosed to the amphibolite/granulite facies. Such rocks are particularly abundant in central Colorado where
Central Colorado
Proterozoic
they either enclose or occur stratigraphically above or below at least 10 metamorphosed Proterozoic Cu-Zn-(Pb-
Au-Ag) deposits. A plot of NSR compositions in terms of SiO2/Al2O3 vs Na2O/K2O and a K2O-MgO-Na2O ternary
diagram suggest that the protoliths of NSR spatially associated with sulfide occurrences in Colorado were pre­
dominantly shale, arenite, lithic arenite or greywacke. North American shale composite (NASC)-normalized rare
earth element (REE) patterns of NSR associated with these deposits show compositions close to NASC values with
flat patterns and slightly negative Eu anomalies, which also supports the concept of a sedimentary protolith. Such
a protolith contrasts with NSR spatially associated with massive sulfide deposits elsewhere in the world that more
commonly have volcanoclastic/igneous precursors. Mass-balance calculations of NSR from the Cotopaxi deposit
(Colorado) show major and trace element mobility with mostly mass gains in K2O, MgO, Ba, Cu, Pb, and Zn, and
depletions in CaO, and Na2O relative to their protolith (lithic arenite), an unaltered biotite-muscovite-feldspar
gneiss. Although Al2O3 and SiO2 show both gains and losses, the mass gains are considerably larger for Al2O3.
The gains in base metals (Cu, Pb and Zn), the enrichment of Cu and Zn (rather than Pb) that mimics the ore
concentrations, the presence of gahnite (ZnAl2O4) in sillimanite nodules in some metallic deposits in Colorado,
and the existence of chalcopyrite and pyrrhotite in NSR suggest the sedimentary protoliths were hydrothermally
altered and that NSR, where spatially associated with sulfide deposits, represent zones of metamorphosed
stratabound alteration zones. Nodular sillimanite rocks are easy to recognize in the field and constitute an
exploration guide for massive sulfide deposits that were subjected to regional metamorphism at the amphibolite
to granulite facies.

1. Introduction
The search for metamorphosed ore deposits uses a variety of
geological, geochemical, and geophysical exploration techniques,
including field evaluations that involve the identification of alteration
zones, exhalative rocks, and specific indicator minerals. Iron formations,
tourmalinites, gahnite (ZnAl2O4)-quartz rocks, garnetite, quartz garne­
tite, and cordierite-anthophyllite/gedrite rock, among other rocks types,
have been used as guides in the search for metamorphosed sedimentary
exhalative (SEDEX), volcanogenic massive sulfide (VMS), and Broken
Hill-type deposits (e.g., Spry et al., 2000; Spry and Teale, 2021). The use
of a suite of non-sulfide indicator minerals (e.g., gahnite, spessartine,
zincian staurolite, rutile, ecandrewsite, zincian högbomite, apatite,
tourmaline, and anthophyllite) that are collected in situ or as resistate
minerals in soil, alluvium, and glacial and aeolian sediments are also
increasingly being used as pathfinders to ore (e.g., Averill, 2007;

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: pgspry@iastate.edu (P.G. Spry).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oregeorev.2021.104632
Received 15 August 2021; Received in revised form 30 November 2021; Accepted 2 December 2021
Available online 8 December 2021
0169-1368/© 2021 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
P.G. Spry et al.
McClenaghan et al., 2015). Allard and Carpenter (1988) suggested that
other minerals, several of which are aluminous, should also be consid­
ered as ore guides (e.g., pyrophyllite, andalusite, kyanite, sillimanite,
chloritoid, cordierite, nigerite, sapphirine, gedrite, dumortierite, and
lazulite). They, in part, form because the alteration of rocks within the
hydrothermal systems responsible for the formation of the ore deposit
commonly shows enrichment in the relatively immobile element Al as a
result of the leaching of more mobile elements including Na, Ca, and Fe
(e.g., Galley, 2003).
Nodular sillimanite rocks (NSR), or so-called “pod” rocks, are, in
general, nodular intergrowths of quartz, sillimanite, and muscovite that
occur in occur in metapelites, ortho- and para-gneisses, and meta­
volcanic rocks metamorphosed to the amphibolite or granulite facies (e.
g., Losert, 1968; Breaks and Shaw, 1973; Franceschelli et al., 1991;
Brunel and Lansigu, 1997; Pedrick et al., 1998; McLelland et al. 2002;
Selleck et al., 2004; Hassaan et al., 2009). They are also spatially related
to ore deposits but this was only first recognized in the 1970s and early
1980s, where they were observed in the stratigraphic sequence of rocks
spatially associated with the Broken Hill and Big Syncline Pb-Zn-Ag-(Cu)
deposits in the Aggeneys-Gamsberg ore district (AGOD), South Africa
(Moore, 1974; Lipson, 1978; Stedman, 1980). Cassellman and Mio­
duszewska (1982) and Studer (1982) subsequently reported the spatial
relationship between NSR and two metamorphosed base metal sulfide
deposits in Canada (Bathurst Norsmines Zn-Pb-Cu deposit, Hackett
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Ore Geology Reviews 141 (2022) 104632
River, N.W.T. and Stall Lake Cu-Zn deposit, Manitoba, respectively).
Since then, NSR have also been recognized adjacent to other meta­
morphosed ore deposits including the: Montauban Cu-Zn deposit,
Quebec (Bernier et al., 1987), Muariya, Bhawra-Tekra, and Banskhapa-
Pipariya Cu-Pb-Zn prospects, Betul Belt, India (Praveen et al., 2005;
Ghosh and Praveen, 2006), Foster River Zn-Pb-Ag prospect, Sasketch­
ewan (Steadman and Spry, 2015), and Geco Cu-Zn deposit, Ontario
(Zaleski and Peterson, 1995), as well as with zones of hydrothermal
alteration in the La Romaine Supracrustal Belt, Quebec (Bonnet et al.,
2005). Such a spatial relationship to metamorphosed sulfide deposits
suggests that NSR could potentially serve as exploration guides to ores of
this type.
Here we focus on NSR in Proterozoic rocks of the Rocky Mountains in
Colorado where they constitute among the most extensive NSR horizons
in the world. Such rocks have been reported in southwestern Montana
(Heinrich, 1950), New Mexico (Pedrick et al., 1998), southern Wyoming
(Snyder et al., 1988; Klipfel, 1992), and as extensive discontinuous belts
of metasedimentary rocks in the northern Front Range (Spurr and Gar­
rey, 1908; Knight, 1981; Snyder et al., 1988; Foster, 1991; Klipfel, 1992;
Mahan et al., 2013), the Wet Mountains (Acevedo, 2002; Siddoway
et al., 2000), and other locations in central Colorado. Although present
in geological settings apparently unrelated to zones of hydrothermal
alteration or metallic mineralization in Colorado, NSR are spatially
associated with at least 10 Proterozoic Cu-Zn-(Pb-Au-Ag) prospects in
Fig. 1. General map of southern Colorado showing
the extent of Proterozoic rocks (grey shaded pattern;
after Sheridan and Raymond, 1984), terrane bound­
aries (after Shaw and Karlstrom, 1999), and location
of metamorphosed massive sulfide deposits and
spatially related nodular sillimanite rocks (NSR). 1:
Bon Ton, 2: Cinderella, 3: Sedalia, 4: Ace High/
Jackpot, 5: Independence, 6: Betty (Lone Chimney), 7:
Cotopaxi, 8: Green Mountain, 9: Copper Girl, 10:
Evergreen hydrothermal alteration zone. 11: Caprock
deposit. The location of the Mazatzal Deformation
Front is derived from Shaw and Karlstrom (1999). X is
the location of Five Point Gulch (see also Avecedo,
2002), Fig. 2 is shown as an inset along with an
outline of Fremont County that is referred to in Fig. 3.
(For interpretation of the references to colour in this
figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version
of this article.)
P.G. Spry et al.
Fig. 2. General Proterozoic geology and location of massive sulfide deposits in the Salida area, Colorado (modified from Sheridan and Raymond, 1984). Shown as an
inset on Fig. 1.
the central and northern portions of the state (Salotti, 1965; Shallow and
Alers, 1996; Heimann et al., 2005; Spry et al., 2010).
The origin of NSR is controversial with more than a dozen origins
having been proposed in the literature (e.g., Losert, 1968). The early
work of Losert (1968) appraised non-ore related occurrences of NSR,
which contrasts to the present contribution, where we extend the ob­
servations of Allard and Carpenter (1988) and Spry (2000) to evaluate
the spatial and genetic relationship of NSR to massive sulfide deposits
with the aim of determining their origin, and their potential as path­
finders to sulfides. We focus our attention on occurrences in Colorado
but we consider them in context with NSR locations, some of which have
not previously been reported, spatially associated with metamorphosed
massive sulfide deposits elsewhere in the world.
2. Regional geology
Metamorphosed massive Cu-Zn-(Pb-Au-Ag) deposits extend in a
discontinuous belt from the Wet Mountains, in central southern Colo­
rado, to the Independence Mountains, near the Colorado-Wyoming
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Ore Geology Reviews 141 (2022) 104632
border in a sequence of Proterozoic metasedimentary, granitoids, and
bimodal metavolcanic rocks, which were metamorphosed from the
upper greenschist facies in the west (near Gunnison) to the granulite
facies further east in the Wet Mountains (e.g., Heinrich, 1981, Sheridan
and Raymond, 1984; Heimann et al., 2005) (Fig. 1). Plutonism began at
around ~1.8 Ga as Proterozoic rocks were accreted onto the southern
margin of the Archean Wyoming Province (e.g., Tweto et al., 1980;
Condie, 1982; Shaw and Karlstrom, 1999), with the juvenile volcanic-
arc crust Yavapai province (1.80–1.70 Ga) being added during the
Yavapai orogeny (~1.72–1.68 Ga) and the more southern Mazatzal
province (1.7–1.6 Ga) being accreted during the 1.65–1.60 Mazatzal
orogeny (Bennett and DePaolo, 1987; Condie, 1982; Karlstrom, 1998;
Karlstrom and Humphreys, 1998; Whitmeyer and Karlstrom, 2007;
Grambling et al., 2015). Athough the juvenile accretion model has
gained acceptance it has been challenged and remains the subject of
ongoing debate (e.g., Jones et al., 2010). Basement rocks in Colorado
form part of the Yavapai province, but there is evidence of the Mazatzal
orogeny throughout Colorado. The period of southward accretion
occurred between ~1.8 and 1.6 Ga as part of a prolonged period of
P.G. Spry et al.
Fig. 3. Schematic map showing occurrences of nodular sillimanite rocks in Fremont County, Colorado (see inset location in Fig. 1). Note that some locations are
associated with unreported sulfide mineralization but several locations are not. The most extensive one “J” in the Tex-Echo Group is spatially associated with an
alteration zone that contains elevated concentrations of Cu, Pb, and Zn. The gray shading represents the outcrop pattern for Proterozoic rocks.
Laurentian crustal growth. Whitmeyer and Karlstrom (2007) proposed
that the main period of deformation and metamorphism occurred at
~1.78 to 1.70 Ga (Hedge et al., 1967, 1968). The boundary between the
two provinces consists of a ~300 km-wide zone oriented northeast,
although there is considerable uncertainty concerning the exact location
of the contact between them (Karlstrom, 1998; Karlstrom and Hum­
phreys 1998; Shaw and Karlstrom, 1999). Assuming the approximate
location of the Yavapai-Mazatzal crustal boundary of Shaw and Karl­
strom (1999) is correct, the Caprock deposit is located in the Yavapai
Province whereas all the other deposits occur in the transition zone close
to the northern limit of the boundary zone (Fig. 1). The initial phase of
deformation in the southern part of the study area is characterized by
isoclinal folds while the second and third deformation events formed
large open folds. The major structures developed during the Proterozoic
trend northwest to north.
Granitoids are widespread throughout the Proterozoic terrane in
Colorado and were emplaced from 1.75 Ga to 1.00 Ga during three
episodes (e.g., Bickford et al., 1989; Siddoway et al., 2000). These epi­
sodes are regionally characterized by the syntectonic Boulder Creek
intrusion (U-Pb zircon ages of 1714 ± 5 Ma; Premo and Fanning, 2000)
and the later Silver Plume (1.45 Ga; Peterman et al. 1968) and Pikes
Peak intrusions (1.0 Ga; Hedge 1970). Granitoids of these three gener­
ations occur in the northern Wet Mountains (Jones et al., 2010; Levine
et al., 2013), which host some of the mineral deposits (e.g., Green
Mountain). Northeast-trending shear zones that localized the Colorado
Mineral Belt (1.70–1.75 Ga; Tweto and Sims, 1963; Karlstrom and
Humphreys, 1998) were initiated during the Paleoproterozoic while a
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Ore Geology Reviews 141 (2022) 104632
second set of Mesoproterozoic northwest-oriented shears localized in­
trusions in the central part of the Colorado Mineral Belt.
3. Geological setting of massive sulfide deposits and nodular
sillimanite rocks in Colorado
Nodular sillimanite rocks are spatially associated with Cu-Zn-(Pb-
Au-Ag) sulfide deposits/prospects (Figs. 1 and 2) where they either
mostly host the deposit (e.g., Bon Ton, Cinderella) or occur strati­
graphically above (e.g., Independence) or below it (e.g., Caprock). In
other locations, they may show a spatial relationship to zones of meta­
morphosed hydrothermal alteration (e.g., Tex-Echo) (Fig. 3). Horizons
of NSR can extend intermittently for several kilometers and are up 90 m
wide (e.g., Independence deposit). They are particularly prominent in
the Cinderella-Bon Ton and Ace High/Jackpot-Independence areas,
where horizons of NSR extend intermittently between the paired de­
posits (Fig. 4 and Fig. 5a). Such rocks are also common in and adjacent to
the Cotopaxi deposit (Fig. 5b and Fig. 6). The massive sulfide deposits
are generally small in Colorado with the largest being Sedalia (1.25 Mt
@ 3.3% Cu, 5.6% Zn, 23 g/t Ag, and 0.3 g/t Au). They are generally
statabound or stratiform and up to 150 m in length (e.g., Green Moun­
tain deposit). Sulfides in the Sedalia deposit, for example, are crudely
laminated in massive to semi-massive zones (up to 1 m thick) with a
possible footwall stringer zone that is up to 3.3 m wide. Stacked Zn-Cu
sulfide lenses occur at the Cotopaxi and Cinderella deposits. Details of
their geological setting are given in Heinrich (1981), Sheridan and
Raymond (1984), and Heimann et al. (2005); those spatially associated
P.G. Spry et al. Ore Geology Reviews 141 (2022) 104632

Fig. 4. Geological map of the Cinderella-Bon Ton deposits showing the extensive intermittent nodular sillimanite rock horizon (~5 km long) that is spatially
associated with sulfide mineralization in both deposits. Note the location of samples of NSR shown in Table A1 are indicated. The prefix “SAM” has been removed so
that SAM-09-29 in Table A1 appears as “09-29”. The location of the cross section shown in Fig. 5a is shown as A-A’. The figure has been modified after Alers and
Shallow (1996) and Shannon and McCalpin (2006).

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P.G. Spry et al. Ore Geology Reviews 141 (2022) 104632

Fig. 5. Cross-sections through the a. Cinderella (after Ray et al., 1993), and b. Cotopaxi deposits (after Salotti, 1965). Note the close spatial relationship of sulfide
mineralization (anthophyllite-sulfide rocks) to nodular sillimanite rocks.

with NSR are summarized in Table 1. Few chronological studies have been done on the massive sulfide
Major rock types associated with these massive sulfide deposits deposits in Colorado but they include preliminary Pb-Pb model ages of
include feldspathic gneiss, mica schist, amphibolite, garnet-cordierite- 1.8 to 1.7 Ga on galena from the Cotopaxi deposit (Ririe, 1981), while a
amphibole gneiss, garnet-bearing schists, sillimanite gneiss/schist, model Pb-Pb age on galena in strongly mineralized metavolcanic units
calc-silicate gneiss, locally impure marble, and various metamorphosed was ~1.77 Ga (Tweto, 1977). Some deposits and spatially related rocks
granitoids (Heinrich, 1981; Sheridan and Raymond, 1984; Heimann were subjected to at least four periods of folding. The first fold event (F1)
et al., 2005). However, NSR only occurs in metapelites and biotite- is isoclinal and follows the bedding orientation and was followed by F2
muscovite gneisses. Sheridan and Raymond (1984) considered the that formed tight isoclinal folds. Two subsequent fold events F3 and F4,
feldspar-rich gneisses to have originally been felsic volcanic rocks, and are characterized by open upright folds and chevron-like folds, respec­
the amphibolites to have been mafic volcanic rocks. Given this associ­ tively. Shearing was associated with the F1 and F2 events.
ation, Sheridan and Raymond (1984) proposed that the deposits are
metamorphosed VMS ores while Heinrich (1981) suggested that they are
3.1. Mineralogy of nodular sillimanite rocks and sillimanite-bearing
Cu-Zn skarn deposits, in part, due to their proximity to various granit­
schists
oids. The metallic minerals in these deposits consist mostly of sphalerite,
chalcopyrite, pyrrhotite, and pyrite with lesser amounts of galena,
The mineralogy of NSR consists primarily of biotite, K-feldspar
magnetite, and gahnite. The mineralogy of the sulfide-bearing zones and
(microcline and orthoclase), plagioclase, quartz, muscovite and silli­
attendant alteration for each deposit is given in Table 2.
manite (mainly fibrolite), with minor amounts of magnetite, garnet,
The sulfide deposits associated with NSR were metamorphosed to the
cordierite, ilmenite, pyrite, pyrrhotite and gahnite, commonly within
middle or upper amphibolite facies in the sillimanite zone. A peak
quartz-feldspar-mica gneiss or mica schists. The nodule (or pod) varies
metamorphic temperature was considered by Acevedo (2002) to be 650
in size from ~1 cm to as much as 30 cm (Fig. 7a–c), where it is pre­
◦
C for a pressure of 3–6 kb in the Five Point Gulch area, based on silicate
dominantly composed of muscovite, quartz, and fibrolite. In general,
stabilities and the biotite-muscovite geothermometer of Hoisch (1989).
contacts between NSR and the adjacent rock (pelitic schist and biotite-
This area is near the center of the region where NSR rocks in south-
muscovite-feldspar gneiss) are sharp, but, in places, the NSR grade
central Colorado are prominent. It should be noted here that not all
into the surrounding gneiss (Fig. 7d) with the appearance of graded
massive sulfide deposits metamorphosed to the upper amphibolite facies
bedding. Sillimanite pods commonly occur on bedding planes (Fig. 7e).
are spatially associated with NSR, as these rocks are absent, for example,
At the Cinderella deposit, massive units of NSR locally contain centi­
adjacent to the Dawson and Grape Creek deposits near Cañon City and to
meter wide layers of, and locally alternate with, gahnite-biotite rocks
the Marion and Amethyst deposits in the southern Wet Mountains.
(Fig. 7f), with gahnite also forming coarse grains in the sillimanite

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P.G. Spry et al. Ore Geology Reviews 141 (2022) 104632

Fig. 6. Geological map of the Cotopaxi deposit showing the location of NSR and the protolith (SAM-10-08). Note the location of samples of NSR shown in Table A1
are indicated. The prefix “SAM” has been removed so that SAM-10-08 in Table A1 appears as “10-08”. This figure is modified after Salotti (1965). The location of the
cross section in Fig. 5b is shown as A-A’.

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P.G. Spry et al. Ore Geology Reviews 141 (2022) 104632

Table 1
Summary of geological characteristics of nodular sillimanite rock-related sulfide deposits from Colorado (modified after Ray et al., 1993; Heimann et al., 2005).
Deposit Grades, reserves, past production, Country rocks Mineralized rocks References
metallic minerals

Ace High/ Unknown grade (Cu ≥ Zn≫Pb), best
Jackpot sample from dump: >10 % Cu, 0.4% Zn,
198 g/t Ag; Ccp, Sp, Mag
Betty (Lone Past production (Zn > Cu > Pb): 3856 kg
Chimney) Cu, 1680 kg Pb, 1180 kg Zn, 4.76 kg Ag,
312 g Au; Py, Ccp, Sp, Gn, Po, Bn, Cv, Ilm,
Mag, Hem
Bon Ton Unknown grade (Cu = Zn > Pb), best
sample from dump: 1.9% Cu, 6.4% Zn,
47 g/t Ag; Sp, Py, Ccp, Po
Caprock 0.9 Mt of 8% Zn + Pb projected reserves
(Zn ≥ Pb > Cu); Sp, Gn Py, Po
Cinderella Unknown grade (Zn >> Cu = Pb), best
sample from dump: 1.9% Cu, 6.4% Zn 47
g/t Ag; Sp, Ccp, Gn, Py
Cotopaxi Past production (Zn≥Cu): 0.01 of 1337 t
Zn, 83 t Cu, 71 t Pb, 301 kg Ag, 4.5 kg Au;
Sp, Ccp, Gn, Po, Py, Mrc, Rt, Ilm, Mol, Cv,
Mag
Copper Girl Past production < 400 t; Ccp, Mo
Evergreen No production; Ccp, Sp, Po
Green Best drill hole intersection (Cu>Zn): 18.1
Mountain % Cu and 4.3 % Zn over 1.5 m; Ccp, Py,
Sp, Gn, Mol, Po, Ilm, Hem, Rt, Ghn
Independence Unknown grade but best sample from
dump (Cu≥Zn >> Pb): 3.3 % Cu, 1.3 %
Zn, 1.8 g/t Ag; Ccp, Sp, Po, Py, Cv, Mol,
Ilm, Mag
Sedalia 1.2 Mt @ 3.2% Cu, 5.6% Zn, 23 g/t Ag,
0.28 g/t Au; Sp, Ccp, Gn, Cv, Py, Mrc, Po,
Mag, Gh, Ghn, Ilm, native gold, native
silver
Qz-Fsp-Bt gneiss and schist,
amphibolite, nodular sillimanite
rock, pegmatite
Bt gneiss, Qz-Ms schist, Qz-Crd-Sil
gneiss, amphibolite
Fsp-Bt-Qz-Ep gneiss, amphibolite,
feldspathic quartzite, Qz-Fsp-Ms-Sil
gneiss, Bt-Qz-Fsp-Hbl gneiss, Qz-Fsp-
Bt gneiss
Qz-Fsp-Sil-Grt-Bt gneiss, nodular Bt-
Sil-Qz gneiss
Sil-Qz-Ms gneiss, Qz-Bt-Ep gneiss,
amphibolite, Grt gneiss
Qtz-Bt-Fsp-Sil gneiss, granite, NSR,
Hbl gneiss, Bt schist, calc-silicate
gneiss, granite gneiss, pegmatite
Bt-qtz gneiss, Qtz-Fsp gneiss
Sil-Ms-Qz-Grt gneiss, Ged-Grt-Crd
gneiss, amphibolite, calc-silicate rock
Qz-Fsp gneiss, Qz-Crd-Bbt gneiss,
migmatite, Ath-Crd rock, Sil gneiss,
Hbl-Bt-Crd gneiss, amphibolite, Iron
formation
Bt-Qz gneiss, granite, amphibolite,
pegmatite, Bt-Ms schist
Feldspathic gneiss, Bt-ms schist,
amphibolite, Grt-Crd amphibole
gneiss, Grt-Bt schist, pegmatite
NSR, Ghn-Phl-Ms-Chl gneiss, Grt-Bt-Py Van Alstine (1969),
gneiss, Mag-Hbl gneiss, Ath-Gh schist, Crd- Boardman (1971)
Ath-Ghn-Ms rock, Qz-Sil-Ath-Ghn-Grt-Ms-
Bt lenses
Qtz-Crd-Sil gneiss, NSR, calc-silicate Heinrich (1981)
gneiss, Crd-Ath-Ghn ± Pl rock, Act ± Bt
rock, Qz-Crd rock
NSR, iron formation, Bt-Grt schist, Knight (1981)
quartzite, Ms schist
Ghn-Grt-Bt gneiss, NSR, Ghn-Ath rock Klipfel (1992)
Calc-silicate rock, NSR, Bt-Grt schist, Bt Heinrich (1981), Knight
gneiss, Ms schist, Ath rock, quartzite (1981)
Ghn-Ath rock, NSR, Ath-Bt gneiss, Ghn-Qz- Lindgren (1908), Salotti
Grt rock, pegmatitic Ghn-Bt rock, Chl (1965), Ririe (1981),
schist, Grt-Qz-Bt rock Heinrich (1981), Ririe and
Foster (1984)
NSR, chert, schist Ray et al. (1993)
Ged-Grt-Crd gneiss, NSR Heimann et al. (2005)
NSR, Qz-Grt gneiss, Ath-Ghn rock, Grt Heinrich (1981), Ririe
amphibolite, Grt-Sil-Pl gneiss, Qz (1981)
garnetite, Qtz-Bt gneiss, Grt-bearing
pegmatite
Ghn-Ath rock, marble, NSR Lindgren (1908), Boardman
(1971), Heinrich (1981)
Crd-Ath-Sil-Grt gneiss, minor calc-silicate Lindgren (1908), Boardman
rock, nodular Sil rock, Mag-Chl-Grt rock, (1971), Heinrich (1981),
Hbl-Ep-Qz-Sil-Pl rock, Act schist, Tr-Pl Knight (1981)
rock, Tr-Chl rock

NSR nodular sillimanite rocks, Abbreviations after Whitney and Evans (2010).

nodule. Nodules can also be flattened in the dominant S1 and S2
schistosities (Fig. 7d) but in places they grew across bedding planes
(Fig. 8a), or formed as elongate rods parallel to the axial planes of F2
folds (Fig. 8b and c). Locally, sillimanite nodules also occur in quartz ±
feldspar veins (Fig. 8d). Acevedo (2002) describes sillimanite nodules in
the Five Springs Gulch area with rotational fabrics suggesting their
development was pre- or syn-kinematic and related to local shearing.
Although unrelated to sulfide mineralization, spectacular blue nodular
cordierite (up to 20 cm in diameter; Fig. 8e) occurs in quartz-feldspar-
mica gneiss in close proximity to NSR near Five Points Gulch (Travis,
1956; Siddoway et al., 2000). According to Travis (1956), the cordierite-
bearing rocks consist of quartz and muscovite with minor amounts of
sillimanite, biotite, plagioclase, cordierite, and tourmaline, with the
cordierite containing inclusions of quartz, muscovite, biotite, and tour­
maline. Similar size cordierite nodules also occur in rocks adjacent to the
Cotopaxi deposit and west of the Bon Ton deposit (Ray et al., 1993).
Biotite, fibrolite, and muscovite define the foliation in NSR whereas
quartz, K-feldspar, cordierite, and plagioclase produce a more equi­
granular texture (Fig. 9a and b). Although fibrolite is the dominant form
of sillimanite (Fig. 9c–e), coarse sillimanite is locally present. The nod­
ules are dominated by coarse muscovite, quartz, and fibrolite (Fig. 9c–f),
while the surrounding matrix consists of biotite, K-feldspar, plagioclase
and lesser fine-grained muscovite, cordierite, magnetite, garnet, and
ilmenite (Fig. 9a and b). In general, K-feldspar exceeds plagioclase
except for some samples (SAM09-15A, SAM09-17A, SAM09-20) from
the Turret deposit, where the opposite is the case. In other samples,
coarse corroded muscovite and gahnite contain folded swaths of fibro­
lite, suggesting these minerals formed after the aluminosilicate (Fig. 9f).
Although uncommon in the samples studied here, Acevedo (2002) re­
ported biotite rims on the margins of pods from Five Points Gulch, but in
sample SAM09-35, biotite is present within the nodule. In this same
sample, rare fibrolite also occurs in the matrix as an epitaxial growth on
biotite.
Sillimanite-bearing schists contain variable amounts of fibrolite but
do not occur as nodules and may or may not be spatially associated with
muscovite, which is common place in NSR. Biotite and muscovite
generally form the schistosity. Although cordierite and lesser amounts of
K-feldspar and local garnet and trace zircon occur in these rocks, similar
to NSR, the overall mineralogy of these rocks is simpler than NSR as they
are devoid of metallic minerals such as magnetite, ilmenite, pyrite,
pyrrhotite, and gahnite.
4. Methods and sampling
Rock samples were collected from in-situ locations. The bulk rock
compositions of 40 samples were analyzed by Acme Analytical Labo­
ratories (Vancouver) using packages 4A (major elements) and 4B (trace
elements). Major oxides (n = 11), loss-on-ignition, and the following
trace elements (Ba, Be, Co, Cs, Ga, Hf, Nb, Ni, Rb, Sc, Sn, Sr, Ta, Th, U, V,
W, Y, and Zr; plus the rare earth elements (REEs) (Ce, Dy, Er, Eu, Gd, Ho,
La, Lu, Nd, Pr, Sm, Tb, Tm, and Yb) were analyzed. The major elements
were prepared by lithium metaborate/tetraborate fusion and nitric acid
digestion and analyzed by inductively coupled plasma-atomic emission
spectroscopy, while a separate split of sample for trace element analyses
was digested in Aqua Regia and analyzed by inductively coupled plasma
mass-spectrometry techniques. The detection limits for the oxides were

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P.G. Spry et al. Ore Geology Reviews 141 (2022) 104632

Table 2
Primary mineralogy of sulfide deposits and spatially associated altered rocks.
Ace High/Jackpot Betty Bon Ton Caprock Cinderella Cotopaxi Evergreen Copper Girl Green Mt. Indpendence Sedalia

Quartz XX XXXX XXXX XXXX XXXX XXXX XX XXXX XXXX XXXX XXXX
Cordierite XXX XXX XXX XX XXX XXX XXXX XXX XXXX XXXX
Garnet XXXX XXXX XXXX XXXX XX XXX XXXX XXX XXXX
Sillimanite XXX XX XXX XXXX XXXX XXXX XXX XXXX XXX XX XXX
Staurolite X XX X X
Zircon XX XX XX XX XX XXX XX XX XX
Titanite XX
Forsterite XX XX X XXX X
Clinohumite X XX X XXX XX
Epidote XX XXX X XXXX
Allanite X X X X X
Tourmaline X XX XX
Enstatite X
Hypersthene XX
Diopside X XX XX XX
Pigeonite XX
Anthophyllite XXX XXXX XXX XXX XXXX XXXX XX
Gedrite XXXX XXXX XXXX XXXX
Cummingtonite XXXX XXXX XX XXXX XXX XXX XXX
Tremolite XX XX XXX XXX XX
Actinolite XX XX XX XXXX XXX XX XXXX
Hornblende XX XX XXX XXXX XXXX
Muscovite XX XX XX X XXX XX
Biotite XXXX XXXX XXXX XXXX XXXX XXXX XXX XXXX XXXX XXXX
Chlorite XXX XXX XX XXXX XX XX XXX
Plagioclase XX XX XX XX XX XX XX XXX XX XXX
Microcline X XX XX X
Magnetite XX XX X XX XXX XX XXX XXXX
Gahnite XXXX XXXX XXX XXX XXX XXXX XX XXX XXX XXXX
Högbomite X X X
Ilmenite XX X XX XX XX XX XX
Rutile XX X X XX X X XX
Corundum XX X? XX XXX
Monazite X X
Apatite XX XX XX XX XX XXXX
Scheelite X
Pyrite XX XX XXX XXX XXX XXX XX XXX XX XXXX
Pyrrhotite XX XXX XX XXX XX XX XX XXX
Marcasite XX X X
Chalcopyrite XXX XXX XXX XXX XXX XXXX XXXX XXXX XXXX XXXX XXXX
Bornite XX XX XXX
Sphalerite XXX XXX XXX XXX XXX XXXX XX XXXX XXX XXXX
Galena XX XX XXX XX XXX X XXX
Molybdenite X X XXX X XX XX

XXXX – common, XXX – uncommon, XX – trace, X – rare; References Lindgren (1908), Salotti (1965), Heinrich (1981), Ray et al. (1993), Heimann (2002), Heimann
et al. (2005); this study.

0.01 wt%, except for Cr2O3, which was 0.002 wt%, while those for most
of the trace elements, but not including the REEs, ranged from 0.1 to 0.5
ppm, except for Ba, Be, Sc, and Sn which had detection limits of 1 ppm.
The detection limits for Ni and V were 20 and 8 ppm, respectively, while
the REEs had detection limits ranging from 0.01 to 0.1 ppm. Total sulfur
and carbon were analyzed with a Leco instrument, with detection limits
of 0.02 wt%. The following trace elements Ag, As, Bi, Cd, Cu, Hg, Mo, Ni,
Pb, Sb, Se, Tl, and Zn had detection limits of 0.1 to 1 ppm, depending
upon the element, while Au had a detection limit of 0.5 ppb.
5. Results
5.1. Major and metallic trace element compositions of NSR in Colorado
Geochemical studies of NSR in and adjacent to sulfide deposits in
Colorado (n = 28) show that the concentrations of SiO2, Al2O3, Na2O,
K2O and MgO are 69.34–86.29, 8.10–16.09, 0.09–3.53, 0.85–4.25, and
0.16–4.56 wt%, respectively. Representative compositions are given in
Table 3 while the analyses of all rocks are in Table A1. By comparison,
sillimanite schists/gneisses contain 70.64–75.56 wt% SiO2,
10.75–13.35 wt% Al2O3, 0.26–0.55 wt% Na2O, 3.73–5.21 wt% K2O, and
2.13–4.35 wt% MgO, while sillimanite-free quartz mica schists contain
73.84–75.58 wt% SiO2, 11.84–13.32 wt% Al2O3, 0.28–1.91 wt% Na2O,
2.39–4.13 wt% K2O, and 0.93–2.93 wt% MgO. Although fewer analyses
were obtained for the last two rock types, they essentially have major
element compositions that fall within the broad range of NSR compo­
sitions. Nodular sillimanite rocks from the northern Park Range that are
unrelated to sulfide mineralization contain 72 to 79 SiO2 and 12 to 13.5
wt% Al2O3 (Snyder et al., 1988), which are also within the broad range
of compositions for NSR associated with sulfide deposits reported here.
Of the 45 trace elements plus total carbon and total sulfur measured
here, the following elements were primarily at or below detection limits:
Ag, Au, Bi, Cd, Hg, Ni, Sb, Se, total carbon, total sulfur, Tl, and V (Table 3
and Table A1). However, it should be noted that concentrations of up to
29 ppb Au and 11 ppm Ag were obtained from NSR adjacent to the
Cinderella deposit. Nodular sillimanite rocks from this deposit also
contained the highest Ba (up to 2793 ppm), Cu (up to 391), Mo (13
ppm), Pb (up to 1692 ppm), and Zn (up to 1228) concentrations
analyzed for NSR from all locations studied here. Even higher Zn con­
centrations (likely several % Zn) would have been obtained from sam­
ples containing coarse gahnite in NSR from the Cinderella deposit had
they been analyzed (see Fig. 7f and Fig. 9f). Although concentrations of

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P.G. Spry et al. Ore Geology Reviews 141 (2022) 104632

Fig. 7. Field photographs of nodular sillimanite rocks associated with the Cinderella (a, b, d, and f) and Independence deposits (c and e). Note the disk shaped
nodules in Figures a and b but the flattened pods in Figures d and f from the Cinderella deposit. Note also the decrease in the abundance and size of the nodules in e as
the nodular sillimanite rock grades into quartz-biotite-muscovite schist. Gahnite occurs in thin gahnite-biotite layers (Ghn-Bt) between pod layers and as individual
grains in nodules (f). Nodules at the Independence mine commonly occur along bedding planes.

Rb are generally lower (<100 ppm) in NSR than in sillimanite schists/
gneisses and sillimanite free-schists/gneisses, two samples (Cotopaxi
SAM-10–01, Ace High SAM-10–27) have Rb contents of 160 and 154
ppm, respectively. Sample SAM-10–01, which contains an exceptionally
high proportion of sillimanite nodules, is unusual in composition rela­
tive to other NSR since it also contains the highest concentrations of
Al2O3 (20.24 wt%), K2O (6.39 wt%), Sr (68 ppm), and Zr (520 ppm), and
the lowest SiO2 (60.78 wt%) content. High concentrations of Cu (up to
88 ppm), Pb (71 ppm), and Zn (531 ppm) also occur in this sample
relative to other NSR. The deposits studied here are predominantly Zn-
Cu deposits with lesser concentrations of Pb. This is reflected in the
ternary plot of Pb-Cu-Zn for samples of NSR, which shows compositions
concentrated near the Zn apex along the Zn-Cu join. (Fig. 10).
5.2. Rare earth element compositions
The main rare earth element-bearing mineral in NSR studied here is
zircon, which occurs in trace amounts, although rare allanite and
monazite occur locally in some rocks. Zircon is ovoid in shape and ap­
pears to have a metamorphic origin rather than euhedral shapes more
characteristic of igneous zircon (Hoskin and Schaltegger, 2003). North
American shale composite (NASC) normalized rare earth element (REE)
concentrations of NSR (Fig. 11a–f), using the values of Taylor and
McLennan (1985), are commonly flat and display both light rare earth
element (LREE) and heavy rare earth element (HREE) enriched and
depleted patterns, small to moderately negative europium (Eu) anom­
alies [Eu/Eu* = (EuNASC/([SmNASC + GdNASC])/2; 0.29 to 1.24], and no
or small positive cerium (Ce) anomalies [Ce/Ce* = (CeNASC/([LaNASC +

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P.G. Spry et al. Ore Geology Reviews 141 (2022) 104632

Fig. 8. Field photographs of nodular sillimanite rocks. a. Nodules oriented normal to and crossing bedding planes, Ace High deposit. Note the elongate nature of
nodules on the left had side of the image parallel to the orientation of the pencil; b. Nodules stretched along the axial plane of F2 folds, Independence deposit. Parallel
to the orientation of the pencil; c. Rods of nodules stretched along an F2 fold hinge lineation; d. Randomly oriented nodules and a cross cutting quartz-nodular
sillimanite vein, Independence deposit; e. Blue nodules of cordierite in muscovite schist from Five Springs Gulch (see description in Travis, 1956). (For interpre­
tation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

PrNASC])/2; 0.94–1.37]. One sample, SAM-10–14 from the Betty deposit
shows a weak positive Eu anomaly. By comparison, sillimanite-bearing
and sillimanite-free schists have values of Eu/Eu* and Ce/Ce* of 0.23
to 0.81 and 0.75 to 1.69, respectively (Table A1). Nodular sillimanite
rocks, sillimanite-bearing and sillimanite-free schists/gneiss have
similar REE profiles from the same locations but there are slight dif­
ferences in patterns between locations. For example, REE patterns for
both sillimanite-free schist and NSR from the Ace High/Jackpot deposit
exhibit slopes that reflect a weak increase in HREEs compared to LREEs
(excluding NSR sample SAM-10–27) and a positive LuNASC/LaNASC ratio
(Fig. 11a). The Independence deposit occurs along the same strati­
graphic horizon as the Ace High/Jackpot deposit with NSR samples
SAM-09–37 and SAM-09–48 also showing the same increase in the
HREEs relative to LREEs with associated ratios of >1 (Fig. 11b). Sample
SAM-09-33, a sillimanite schist from the Independence prospect, shows
the highest ratio (LuNASC/LaNASC = 4.96, Fig. 11b). Samples from other
deposits that show a similar slight increase in normalized HREEs relative
to LREEs include samples SAM-09-01C, SAM-09-01E, SAM-09-02 and
SAM-09-27 from the Cinderella and Bon Ton deposits (Fig. 11c), and
SAM-10-09 and SAM-10-11 from Cotopaxi (Fig. 11e). This pattern
contrasts to the flat patterns (notwithstanding the weak negative Eu
anomalies in all but one sample (SAM-10-14)) for other samples,
particularly for NSR from Cotopaxi (Fig. 11d) and sample SAM-09-20
from Turret (Fig. 11f). The pattern for the last sample differs from two
other NSR from Turret, both of which show gentle decreases from LREEs
through to HREEs.
6. Discussion
6.1. Origin and protolith of nodular sillimanite rocks associated with
sulfide deposits in Colorado
Losert (1968) summarized 15 proposed origins of NSR from various
worldwide locations for studies done prior to 1968: metamorphism of

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P.G. Spry et al. Ore Geology Reviews 141 (2022) 104632

Fig. 9. Photomicrographs of textures of nodules and matrix in nodular sillimanite rocks (NSR) a. Quartz (Qz), plagioclase (Pl), garnet (Grt), biotite (Bt), and minor
muscovite (Ms) form the matrix of NSR (cross-polarized transmitted light); b. Alkali feldspar (Afs), cordierite (Crd), quartz, and trace muscovite in the matrix of
nodular sillimanite rock (cross-polarized transmitted light); c. Fibrolitic sillimanite (Fi) with trace muscovite and quartz in a nodule adjacent to the matrix containing
alkali and plagioclase feldspars (cross-polarized transmitted light); d. Muscovite, fibrolite, and quartz in a nodule. e. Folded muscovite and fibrolite with some
fibrolite needles in muscovite (cross-polarized transmitted light); f. Quartz, fibrolite, and gahnite (Ghn) in a nodule from the Cinderella deposit (plane-polarized
light). Abbreviations after Whitney and Evans (2010).

clay galls, metamorphism of quartz pebbles in conglomerates, boudi­
naging of Al-rich quartzites, feldspathization of quartz-sillimanite bands
in gneisses, recrystallization of quartzitic inclusions in granitic rocks,
recrystallization of quartz-sillimanite tectonites, primary magmatic
differentiation and segregation, contact metamorphic processes, trans­
formation of pre-tectonic cordierite-rich rocks, and gneissic replace­
ment. In evaluating these different origins, Losert (1968) concluded that
NSR formed as a result of late post-kinematic, metamorphic differenti­
ation in which alumina was provided by the dealkalization of K-feldspar
and biotite in the host rock.
Snyder et al. (1988) endorsed the mechanism of formation of NSR
proposed by Losert (1968) for various locations of NSR in the northern
Park Range, Colorado, but they also noted that some NSR did not show
the structural criteria and nodule shapes mentioned by Losert (1968) to
conclude a post-metamorphic kinematic model. Instead, Snyder et al
(1988) suggested that some examples of NSR in northern Colorado
formed from both igneous and sedimentary protoliths (e.g., altered
granitic pebbles, altered rhyolite, shale inclusions in quartz monzonite)
and that nodules did not necessarily have shapes that resulted from post-
metamorphic deformation.
It is difficult to distinguish between igneous and sedimentary pro­
toliths in high-grade metamorphic terranes in the absence of obvious
sedimentary and igneous textures, which is case for the NSR studied
here. Instead, we have relied on the geochemistry of the NSR in Colorado
to aid in this task by using a ternary diagram, in terms of K2O, MgO, and
Na2O, which was developed by La Roche (1974). This ternary diagram
was originally used to evaluate the geochemical trends resulting from
the erosion of igneous rocks to sediments. However, it can also be used

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Table 3
Representative bulk-rock composition of nodular sillimanite rocks and spatially associated lithologies from Colorado.
Sample No. SAM09-02 SAM09-03D SAM09-03E SAM09-05 SAM09-15A SAM09-21A SAM09-39 SAM-10–14 SAM-10–27 SAM09-48

Location Cinderella Cinderella Cinderella Cinderella Turret Bon Ton Cotopaxi Betty Ace High Independence

Rock Type NSR NSR NSR Sil schist NSR NSR NSR NSR NSR NSR

SiO2 74.02 42.86 79.23 70.64 73.79 77.3 75.69 79.85 70.32 74.69
Al2O3 12.7 28.71 11.23 13.35 15.02 10.81 14.13 13.08 13.77 12.41
Fe2O3 2.82 6.32 1.77 3.51 2.44 2.74 1.78 1.18 4.51 4.46
MgO 3.89 1.73 0.54 4.35 0.73 1.78 2.19 1.01 4.56 2.17
CaO 0.03 0.06 0.04 0.05 2.02 0.35 0.03 0.08 0.13 0.05
Na2O 0.24 0.24 0.35 0.26 3.53 1.54 0.18 0.39 0.61 0.36
K2O 3.98 4.01 4.1 5.21 0.99 3.83 3.8 2.4 4.19 4.25
TiO2 0.16 0.35 0.13 0.22 0.32 0.17 0.2 0.03 0.24 0.25
P2O5 0.03 0.08 0.03 0.03 0.1 0.03 0.03 0.02 0.02 0.03
MnO 0.19 0.24 0.04 0.29 0.03 0.09 0.12 0.02 0.1 0.12
Cr2O3 <0.002 <0.002 <0.002 <0.002 <0.002 <0.002 <0.002 <0.002 <0.002 <0.002
Ni <20 <20 <20 <20 <20 <20 <20 <20 <20 <20
Sc 4 9 4 7 4 4 5 <1 18 5
LOI 1.4 2.8 1.2 1.6 0.8 1.1 1.5 1.7 1.3 0.9
Sum 99.48 87.35 98.64 99.48 99.79 99.72 99.61 99.74 99.78 99.65
Ba 1708 2581 2008 2153 932 1283 1694 1771 281 1161
Be 2 2 1 3 2 2 1 2 4 2
Co 1 5.2 0.4 5.3 3.5 1.6 1 0.5 1 1.6
Cs 0.5 0.5 0.3 0.7 0.7 0.4 1.4 1.5 1.4 0.4
Ga 20.8 54.4 19.4 18.2 18.1 17.3 24.8 17.9 35.4 23.1
Hf 10.4 27.6 11.2 9.7 8.2 12.6 12.3 2 13.2 16.3
Nb 22.8 37.4 12 19.8 22.4 25.1 26.8 4.3 102.3 27.5
Rb 72.5 65.4 64.1 108.4 33.9 82.3 71.4 49.5 154.4 82.7
Sn 3 16 3 3 3 6 4 2 14 5
Sr 27.4 67.1 56.8 31.7 213 51 21.6 33.5 18.9 28.7
Ta 1.1 1.4 0.5 1.4 1 1.1 1.1 0.4 5.2 1.4
Th 7.9 24.3 7.7 8.2 29.3 7.8 10 17.9 16.1 11.2
U 4 10.9 3.6 4.3 5.7 3 4.4 2.7 7.4 5.5
V <8 <8 <8 28 20 <8 <8 <8 <8 <8

Sample No. SAM09-02 SAM09-03D SAM09-03E SAM09-05 SAM09-15A SAM09-21A SAM09-39 SAM-10–14 SAM-10–27 SAM09-48
Location Cinderella Cinderella Cinderella Cinderella Turret Bon Ton Cotopaxi Betty Ace High Independence
Rock Type NSR NSR NSR Sil schist NSR NSR NSR NSR NSR NSR
W 1.2 3.3 1.3 4.1 1 <0.5 1.2 0.9 4.3 2.2
Zr 296.8 865.4 329.4 305.5 314.9 363.9 368.3 62.3 425.9 503.3
Y 66.5 211.9 36.2 80.8 19.5 38.5 61.5 54.3 55.4 114.3
La 45.6 127.3 35.6 53.8 72.7 38.5 53 70.5 47 43.9
Ce 114.1 312.2 82.9 122.7 151.4 91.6 128.4 209.8 122.7 115.9
Pr 12.67 36.21 9.75 14.84 15.46 10.37 15.8 20.72 14.47 13.67
Nd 51.2 147.2 40.8 58.8 54.8 43.8 65.4 77.7 56.1 56.6
Sm 10.49 28.57 7.33 11.91 8.56 8.49 12.89 15.36 12.16 12.39
Eu 1.44 2.63 1.1 1.6 1.33 1.35 2.29 3.79 0.73 1.44
Gd 10.19 27.17 6.54 11.7 5.91 7.63 11.75 13.4 11.19 14.41
Tb 1.84 4.63 1.07 2.14 0.84 1.24 1.97 2.01 1.74 2.81
Dy 10.94 30.77 5.86 12.8 3.81 6.56 11.42 11 10.24 18.15
Ho 2.42 7.63 1.23 2.7 0.65 1.34 2.44 1.99 2.06 4.07
Er 7.83 24.99 4 8.35 1.89 4.01 7.14 5.65 6.34 11.94
Tm 1.23 3.72 0.64 1.29 0.3 0.58 1.1 0.81 1.01 1.73
Yb 8.02 24.59 4.12 8.84 1.94 3.98 7.48 5.04 7.33 10.93
Lu 1.26 3.77 0.69 1.33 0.32 0.64 1.22 0.75 1.17 1.59
TOT/C <0.02 0.1 <0.02 0.03 0.02 0.08 <0.02 0.07 <0.02 <0.02
TOT/S <0.02 0.12 0.06 <0.02 <0.02 <0.02 <0.02 <0.02 <0.02 <0.02
Mo 1.3 34.7 13.1 0.9 0.2 0.3 1.3 0.2 0.9 1.1
Cu 180.3 2879.3 390.9 48.5 11.3 3.1 82.8 3.2 1.4 392.7
Pb 169.2 569.9 128.4 99.1 5.9 4.7 21.9 6.5 4.5 2.6
Zn 1228 1410 897 731 36 375 410 33 124 187
Ni 1.5 0.8 1.5 16.2 3.2 1.4 0.9 1 1 1
As 0.5 <0.5 <0.5 <0.5 <0.5 <0.5 0.8 0.7 0.8 <0.5
Cd 0.5 1.7 0.5 0.2 <0.1 0.2 1.1 <0.1 <0.1 0.5
Sb 0.1 0.2 <0.1 0.1 <0.1 <0.1 <0.1 <0.1 <0.1 <0.1
Bi 0.2 34.7 0.9 0.2 0.1 <0.1 <0.1 <0.1 <0.1 1.4
Ag 1.1 28.5 10.8 0.4 <0.1 <0.1 <0.1 <0.1 <0.1 0.8
Au 4.3 850.5 22.8 4.8 0.6 1.8 0.5 <0.5 <0.5 2.6
Hg <0.01 0.02 0.12 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 0.1 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01
Tl 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.4 <0.1 0.4 0.2 0.1 0.5 0.2
Se <0.5 8.5 3.1 <0.5 <0.5 <0.5 <0.5 <0.5 <0.5 <0.5

NSR nodular sillimanite rock, Sil sillimanite.

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P.G. Spry et al.
Fig. 10. A ternary plot of Pb, Cu, and Zn contents of NSR, sillimanite gneiss/
schist, and schists/gneisses (i.e., sillimanite-absent) spatially associated with
metamorphosed massive sulfide deposits in Colorado.
to discriminate between igneous and sedimentary precursors of rocks
that were subsequently metamorphosed (Fig. 12a). It is clear from this
plot that most samples of NSR, sillimanite gneiss/schists, and
sillimanite-free schists and gneisses plot close to the MgO-K2O join near
the K2O apex, which overlap the compositions of clastic sedimentary
rocks, rather than the trend shown for igneous rock compositions
(Fig. 12a). Exceptions to this are three samples of NSR from the Turret
deposit, which plot closest to the Na2O apex and do not fit into any of the
fields identified by La Roche (1974). Other outliers include an andalusite
schist (SAM-09-42) from the Sedalia deposit that plots on the MgO-K2O
line close to the MgO apex, and a nodular sillimanite rock (SAM-10-09)
from Cotopaxi that plots close to the igneous rock trend but between the
arenite and greywacke fields. In a plot of Na2O/K2O versus SiO2/Al2O3,
which was developed by Pettijohn et al. (1973) to assess the composition
of sedimentary rocks, NSR from Colorado plot in the fields of shale,
arkose, and greywacke (Fig. 13a). These two plots suggest that the
protoliths to NSR in Colorado have a sedimentary origin. Along these
lines, a sedimentary protolith is supported by the flat normalized REE
values for most NSR analyzed here that are close to NASC values
(Fig. 11). The negative Eu anomaly is typical of a clastic input to the
precursor as has been reported elsewhere (e.g., Foster River, Saskatch­
ewan, Stedman and Spry, 2015), while the variations in patterns reflect
differences in sediment provenance from different source regions (e.g.,
Yang et al., 2019).
Although the geochemical data point toward a sedimentary precur­
sor, they do not take into account the possible effects of hydrothermal
alteration, which may remove or add various elements to the protolith.
Given the spatial association of NSR to massive sulfide deposits in Col­
orado, these effects must be taken into account. Such involvement of
hydrothermal fluid interaction with possible protoliths to NSR has pre­
viously received limited attention but includes the studies of Bernier
et al. (1987) and Bonnet et al. (2005), and is further evaluated here.
6.2. Mass balance calculations
As a way to determine potential compositional changes that result
from hydrothermal alteration of the protolith to form NSR, comparisons
need to be made between the composition of an unaltered protolith and
the NSR. Given that more samples of NSR (n = 13) were collected from
the Cotopaxi deposit, we have conducted mass-balance calculations
relative to sample SAM-10-08 (biotite-muscovite-feldspar gneiss), which
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Ore Geology Reviews 141 (2022) 104632
is considered to be the unaltered protolith of the NSR. Here we use the
technique of MacLean and Kranidiotis (1987), MacLean (1990), and
MacLean and Barrett (1993) to obtain the gains and losses of an oxide or
element in weight % relative to the precursor/protolith. The equations
used are (MacLean (1990):
Mass change % = R − C − precursor composition (1)
R− C =%component(altered rock)×(I − M(precursor)/I − M(altered rock))
(2)
where R-C = reconstructed composition and I-M = immobile element
monitor. MacLean (1990) defines the term “reconstructed composition”
to represent “the net mass change of a unit of rock that has gained or
been depleted in mobile components”. The choice of an immobile
element is made by determining arrays between potential immobile
elements that have high correlation coefficients that pass through the
origin (MacLean and Kranidiotis, 1987; Bonnet et al., 2005). Immobile
elements in metamorphic rocks commonly include Al, Nb, Sc, Ti, Y, and
Zr. In this study, Ti and Sc were chosen as the immobile elements since
they give the highest correlation coefficient of 0.963 among the corre­
lation coefficients for these six elements. The results of the calculations
for NSR from Cotopaxi relative to the protolith for the 13 rocks are
presented in Fig. 14a–d using Sc as the reference element. It must be
stressed here that the gains and losses shown in Fig. 14 are plotted on a
log scale for the major oxides Al2O3, SiO2, K2O, MgO, Na2O, CaO, and
Fe2O3, and the trace elements Ba, Cu, Pb, and Zn.
Mass balance calculations suggest NSR from the Cotopaxi deposit
show more gains (n = 8) than losses (n = 5) for Al2O3 relative to that in
SAM-10-08, and that for four of these samples there is at least a 10 wt%
gain in Al2O3 whereas for those NSR that show a loss it is limited to
values <2 wt% Al2O3 (Fig. 14a). Other oxides that generally showed
gains relative to the protolith are K2O and MgO (Fig. 14a and b), while
Na2O and CaO generally show losses (Fig. 14b). SiO2 and Fe2O3 show
both gains and losses (Fig. 14a and c) while trace elements Ba, Cu, Pb,
and Zn largely show gains (Fig. 14c and d). The general immobility of Al,
as reflected by the gains and the enrichment in elements (Cu, Pb, and Zn)
found in massive sulfides, supports the idea that NSR represent zones of
hydrothermal alteration.
Lines drawn from the protolith (SAM-10-08), which plots between
the edge of the arenite field of Fig. 12a and in the lithic arenite field of
Fig. 13a, to each of the 13 samples in both Fig. 12b and Fig. 13b is
consistent with the concept that the precursor was strongly altered by
hydrothermal fluids prior to metamorphism. This explains why the
compositions of several NSR at Cotopaxi appear close to the K2O-MgO
join and further away from the Na2O apex (Fig. 12a and b). Moreover,
very low values of SiO2/Al2O3 in Fig. 13a and b reflect large losses of
SiO2 in some samples. It is noted here that the range of compositions of
NSR from the Montauban (Bernier and MacLean, 1993) and Foster River
deposits (Stedman and Spry, 2015) also show relatively low SiO2/Al2O3
ratios whereas those associated with NSR at Kragerö (Elliot and Norton,
1965) show a more limited range of values that overlap the arenite field
of Pettijohn et al. (1973). The implication here is that the protoliths of
samples of NSR from Kragerö were not affected by hydrothermal fluids,
in contrast to those from Foster River and Montauban that are spatially
associated with massive sulfides.
Mass-balance calculations of NSR in the La Romaine Supracrustal
Belt, Quebec, by Bonnet et al. (2005) show enrichments in K2O, FeO
(total), Ba and Zr, and depletions in P2O5, Na2O, MgO, and CaO relative
to its precursor (rhyolitic tuff). Chondrite-normalized REE patterns of
NSR from the La Romaine Supracrustal Belt (Bonnet et al. 2005) and
Foster River (Steadman and Spry, 2015) are characterized by light REE
enrichment, heavy REE depletion, and negative Eu anomalies. These
patterns match those of their host rocks (metapelites or metavolvanic
rocks), and reflect host rock composition and formation from or inter­
action with low temperature (≤250 degrees C), near-neutral pH, and
P.G. Spry et al. Ore Geology Reviews 141 (2022) 104632

Fig. 11. North American shale composite (NASC) rare earth element (REE) patterns of NSR and other rocks from Colorado. Normalizing values are from Taylor and
McLennan (1985). a. Ace High/Jackpot deposit (SAM-10-25, SAM-10-27, SAM-10-28 – NSR; SAM-10-24, SAM-10-29, SAM-10-31, SAM-10-32 – biotite-muscovite
schist). b. Independence deposit (SAM-09-37, SAM-10-48 – NSR; SAM-10-21, SAM-10-23 – biotite gneiss; SAM-10-22 – garnet-biotite gneiss, SAM-09-33 – silli­
manite schist). c. Cinderella deposit (SAM-09-01C, SAM-09-01E, SAM-09-02, SAM-09-03E, SAM-09-12A – NSR; SAM-09-05 – sillimanite schist); Bon Ton (SAM-09-
21A, SAM-09-27 – NSR); d. and e. Cotopaxi deposit (SAM-09-38, SAM-09-39, SAM-09-40, SAM-09-41, SAM-10-01, SAM-10-03, SAM-10-04, SAM-10-05, SAM-10-07,
SAM-10-09, SAM-10-10, SAM-10-11 – NSR; SAM-10-06 – mica schist; SAM-10-08 – biotite-muscovite feldspar gneiss); f. Turret deposit (SAM-09-15A, SAM-09-17A,
SAM-09-20 – NSR); Betty deposit (SAM-10-14 – NSR; SAM-10-12, SAM-10-15 – sillimanite gneiss; Sedalia deposit (SAM-09-42 – andalusite schist).

15
P.G. Spry et al.
Fig. 12. a. Ternary plot in terms of normalized weight % K2O, MgO, and Na2O
showing the composition of NSR, sillimanite schists/gneisses, and sillimanite-
free schists/gneisses associated with metamorphosed massive sulfide deposits
in Colorado along with the average composition of igneous rocks (gabbro,
basalt, granite, rhyolite, Qg quartz gabbro, and Grd granodiorite) in double
lines, and the compositions of sedimentary rocks shown as fields: AR arkose, G
graywacke, and S shale. The figure is modified after La Roche (1974). b. Plot
showing the alteration trends as lines for NSR from Cotopaxi relative to the
protolith (SAM-10-08). Note the general trend towards the MgO-K2O join re­
flects gains in these two oxides.
high fO2 fluids.
Although gahnite can occur in metasedimentary rocks in Colorado
and elsewhere by processes unrelated to hydrothermal activity (Spry
et al., 1986; Heimann et al., 2005), its presence in the cores of sillimanite
(with gahnite contents of up to 5 vol% from the Cinderella deposit,
Colorado) along with the presence of minor chalcopyrite and pyrrhotite,
mass balance calculations, and the close proximity of nodular sillimanite
rocks to sulfides suggests that they were originally clay-bearing rocks
that were hydrothermally altered by base metal-bearing solutions. The
NSR can be considered as metamorphosed stratabound zones of hy­
drothermal alteration similar to those previously described by Galley
(2003).
The common spatial association between NSR and cordierite-
anthophyllite ± gahnite rocks in and adjacent to sulfide deposits in
16
Ore Geology Reviews 141 (2022) 104632
Colorado was reported by Heimann et al. (2005) and resembles that
observed elsewhere (e.g., Montauban, Bernier et al., 1987; Betul Belt,
Praveen et al., 2005). Bernier et al. (1987) considered chlorite and
chlorite-sericite rocks to be the precursors to this assemblage. As was
pointed out by them, four different bulk rock compositions along
chlorite-sericite tie line when metamorphosed to amphibolite facies can
produce a variety of minerals (Fig. 15). Composition 1 in Fig. 15 pro­
duces the assemblage biotite-sillimanite-plagioclase (i.e., associated
with NSR) along with spatially related cordierite-anthophyllite-biotite
± garnet rocks (compositions 3 and 4). Composition 2 is characteristic of
sillimanite-bearing schists near the base metal deposits in Colorado.
In contrast to the general lack of mobility of Al in NSR studied here,
the presence of quartz-sillimanite veins cross-cutting NSR at the Inde­
pendence deposit shows that Al is mobile under certain metamorphic
and chemical conditions. Although several workers proposed that
increased solubility of Al in metamorphic fluids and hydrothermal so­
lutions was either a function of H+ metasomatism in acidic solutions (e.
g., McLelland et al., 2002) or due to Al complexing with halides/alkalies
(e.g., Pascal and Anderson, 1989), Manning (2007) showed that the
solubility of Al in solution was greatly enhanced in metamorphic fluids
because it formed Al-Si complexes (e.g., HALSiO4aq). Lowering of the
solubility of this complex in the fluid as P and T decreased (near to but
post-peak metamorphism) accounts for the formation of the quartz-
sillimanite veins that cross-cut NSR in some locations.
6.3. The origin of nodules in NSR in central Colorado
Fibrolite in NSR is largely confined to the nodule and is primarily
associated with quartz and coarse muscovite, and locally gahnite
(particularly in the Cinderella deposit). In places, rare biotite occurs in
the nodule with fibrolite occurring on the margins but not within biotite.
The matrix consists of quartz, microcline, biotite, and lesser muscovite,
garnet, cordierite, ilmenite, and rare fibrolite. The muscovite is finer
grained in the matrix than in the nodule. Although not common, biotite
selvages around the nodule are also present. Losert (1968) and Eugster
(1970) suggest that sillimanite and quartz formed as a result of the
metasomatic breakdown of K-feldspar. Eugster (1970) proposed the
following reactions:
2KAlSi3 O8K− feldspar + 2H + = Al2 SiO5 Fibrolite + 5SiO2Quartz + 2K + + H2 O (3)
3KAlSi3 O8K− feldspar + 2H + = KAL2 AlSi3 O10 (OH)2 Muscovite + 2K + 6SiO2Quartz
(4)
3Al2 SiO5 + 3SiO2 + 2K + + 3H2 O
Fibrolite Quartz
= 2KAl2 AlSi3 O10 (OH)2 Muscovite + 2H + (5)
In the case of NSR related to sulfide deposits in Colorado, reactions
(3) and (4) could have taken place near peak conditions to produce
quartz, fibrolite, and muscovite in the nodule while reaction (5) would
occur at a lower temperature to stabilize muscovite relative to fibrolite,
resulting in the presence of fibrolite inclusions in muscovite. For biotite
selvages around the nodule, Foster (1991) proposed that biotite acted as
catalyst and called upon a non-metasomatic reaction previously pro­
posed by Kerrick (1990):
KAl2 AlSi3 O10 (OH)2 Muscovite + SiO2Quartz
= KAlSi3 O8K− + Al2 SiO5 fibrolite + H2 O (6)
feldspar
While reactions 3 to 6, can explain minerals in the system
K–Al–Si–OH– and textures in NSR, the spatial relationship of NSR to
sulfide deposits and other metamorphosed alteration assemblages
including anthophyllite/gedrite-cordierite-gahnite rocks further sup­
ports the suggestion proposed here that the protolith was hydrother­
mally altered prior to metamorphism.
P.G. Spry et al.
6.4. Nodular sillimanite rocks, ore deposits, and exploration implications
The spatial relationship between NSR and metallic mineral deposits
has been reported for several locations metamorphosed from the middle
amphibolite to granulite facies, but mostly to the upper amphibolite
facies (e.g., Aggeneys-Gamsberg ore district, Moore, 1974; Lipson, 1978;
Lipson, 1990; Stedman, 1980; Bathurst Norsemines, Casselman and
Mioduszewska, 1982; Montauban, Bernier et al., 1987; Betul Belt, India,
Praveen et al., 2005; Foster River, Steadman and Spry, 2015) (Fig. 16,
Table 4). Rampura Agucha is one of the largest SEDEX base metal de­
posits in India (Ranawat et al., 1990; Mishra and Bernhardt, 2009) but
despite this the presence of NSR has not previously been reported. Field
work by Teale identified NSR in a package of metasedimentary rocks
(Fig. 17a). Highly aluminous and iron-rich sillimanite gneisses (quartz-
K-feldspar-plagioclase-garnet-biotite-sillimanite) are abundant and
garnet amphibolites, clinopyroxene-bearing amphibolites, calc-silicates,
and albite-gedrite-garnet rocks can be observed intimately associated
with mineralization. Nodular sillimanite rocks not only occur away from
the Rampura Agucha mine but they also occur within the operating mine
pit along with quartz-K-feldspar-plagioclase-sillimanite-garnet-biotite-
tourmaline rocks that are highly siliceous rocks and which exhibit pos­
itive europium anomalies. Elsewhere in India, in the Betul Belt, small
(<2 Mt) Zn-Cu and Zn-Pb-Cu deposits were metamorphosed to the
17
Ore Geology Reviews 141 (2022) 104632
Fig. 13. a. A plot of Na2O/K2O (weight %) versus
SiO2/Al2O3 (weight %) of NSR, sillimanite gneiss/
schist, and schists/gneisses (i.e., sillimanite absent)
spatially associated with metamorphosed massive
sulfide deposits in Colorado. The precursors to these
rocks overlap and fall in the greywacke, lithic arenite,
arkose, and shale fields. The compositions of NSR
from the Foster River and Montauban deposits (shown
as boxes) are derived from Steadman and Spry (2015)
and Bernier and MacLean (1993), respectively, while
a box labeled as Norway incorporates nodular silli­
manite quartzites (Muffetangen) and nodular silli­
manite schist (Fiskerodden) compositions from two
locations near Kragerö, Norway (Elliot and Norton,
1965). b. Plot showing the alteration trends for NSR
from Cotopaxi relative to the protolith (SAM-10-08).
Note the general trend towards the low values of
SiO2/Al2O3 reflecting the overall enrichment of Al2O3
relative to the protolith (SAM-10-08). The figure is
modified after Pettijohn et al. (1973).
middle amphibolite facies and hosted in altered felsic volcanic rocks, the
precursors of which were sediments, tuffs, and rhyolite (Praveen et al.,
2005; Ghosh and Praveen, 2006). The NSR envelop metamorphosed Mg-
rich anthophyllite-chlorite-garnet-gahnite altered rocks, which occur
immediately adjacent to or near the Muariya, Dehalwara, Bhawra-Teka,
and Banskapa-Pipariya prospects/deposits. Nodular sillimanite rocks at
Mauriya and Dehalwara consist of fibrolite nodules (~1 cm in size) in
which fibrolite appears to have grown incipiently on biotite in the
nodule. At Muariya, NSR occurs on the footwall of the deposits while at
Dehalwara they occur adjacent to the mineralized zone. Praveen et al.
(2005) interpreted the NSR as the metamorphosed equivalent of hy­
drothermally altered footwall felsic rocks with the altered precursor
assemblage consisting of quartz and sericite. A similar spatial associa­
tion was recognized among sulfide mineralization, cordierite-antho­
phyllite ± gahnite alteration, cordierite-biotite rocks and NSR at
Montauban (Bernier et al., 1987), with NSR occurring in units up to 10
m wide in quartzitic biotite-muscovite gneiss surrounding the North and
South gold zones. Bernier et al. (1987) considered the protolith to have
been a stratabound sericitic hydrothermal alteration zone associated
with the formation of the sulfides, with up to 15% sulfides, gahnite, and
zincian staurolite in the metamorphosed unit. Such a geological setting
is also associated with the Geco-Willroy Cu-Zn-Ag VMS deposits,
Ontario, with the so-called “Sericitic Schist” unit surrounding base metal
P.G. Spry et al.
mineralization (Friesen et al., 1982; Zaleski and Peterson, 1995). The
sericitic-sillimanite member of this unit is a weakly mineralized NSR,
with nodules up to 8 cm in length, which is spatially associated with
cordierite-anthophyllite alteration. Like Montauban, the Geco-Willroy
deposits occur in a bimodal sequence of felsic and mafic volcanic rocks.
Other Archean VMS deposits associated with NSR include the Stall
Lake Cu-Zn and Izok Lake Zn-Cu-Pb-Ag deposits, which occur in a
sequence of bimodal volcanic rocks (Studer, 1982; Morrison, 2004).
Nodular sillimanite rocks occur in the hanging wall of the Stall Lake
deposit in contact with metamorphosed chlorite-staurolite alteration. At
Izok Lake, metamorphosed alteration assemblages consist of muscovite
(±biotite ± sillimanite), muscovite-sillimanite, and silicification (Mor­
rison, 2004). Locally, NSR forms in the altered rocks (Fig. 17b).
Intensely developed chlorite-biotite-cordierite alteration occurs within
the biotite-rich areas, whereas zones of Na metasomatism occur within
the silicified areas. Contacts between the various metamorphosed
altered rocks vary from abrupt to gradational. The nature of the proto­
lith of the NSR at Izok Lake is uncertain but at Stall Lake Studer (1982)
suggested that it was a metamorphosed metasomatically altered cherty
felsic tuff.
The Aggeneys-Gamsberg ore district (A-GOD) is one of the largest
base metal districts in the world containing ~440 Mt @ 3.6% Zn, 1.4%
Pb, 0.2% Cu, and 21 g/t (McClung et al., 2007). The district occurs in the
18
Ore Geology Reviews 141 (2022) 104632
Fig. 14. Gains and losses of major elements (in
weight %) and trace elements (in ppm %) of nodular
sillimanite rock in and adjacent to the Cotopaxi de­
posit, relative to the composition of the proposed
unaltered (now metamorphosed) protolith (SAM-10-
08) (modified after Bonnet et al., 2005). Note that the
gains and losses for 13 samples are shown on the X
axis with the gains (in red) and losses (in blue). The
log scales are not the same for figures a through
d because oxides such as Al2O3 and SiO2 show large
weight % values while trace elements show variations
at the ppm level but are shown as weight % gains and
losses. a. Al2O3, SiO2 and K2O. b. MgO, Na2O, and
CaO; c Fe2O3 and Ba; d. Cu, Pb, and Zn. The general
immobility of Al as reflected by the gains and the
enrichment in Cu, Pb, and Zn supports the idea that
NSR represent zones of hydrothermal alteration. (For
interpretation of the references to colour in this figure
legend, the reader is referred to the web version of
this article.)
Proterozoic Bushmanland Group, which consists of ~1 km thick
sequence of quartzites, schists, ferruginous quartzites, and calc-silicate
rocks (Ryan et al., 1986; Lipson, 1978; Lipson, 1990; Rozendaal et al.,
2017). Nodular sillimanite rocks occur in the Namies Schist, previously
referred to as the Aluminous Schist Formation (Ryan et al., 1986),
spatially associated with the Broken Hill (Moore, 1974; Hoffmann,
1993), Black Mountain (Stedman, 1980), and Big Syncline deposits
(Lipson, 1980). Although not described previously, NSR are also
spatially associated with the Gamsberg deposit (Fig. 17c). Unlike, the
Montauban and Geco-Willroy deposits where NSR occurs in rocks
immediately adjacent to sulfides, NSR occurs stratigraphically below the
massive sulfides in horizons not spatially associated with obviously
altered rocks. Besides magnetite, the presence of other opaques (sul­
fides?) was not reported. It is unclear whether or not NSR in the A-GOD
represents a unit that was hydrothermally altered (either completely or
partially) or it simply represents an aluminous sedimentary unit unre­
lated to the ore-forming processes.
Another location of NSR, which has not previously been described
but was identified by one of us (Teale), occurs in the Mt. Painter area,
northen Curnamona province (Fig. 17d) where NSR are associated with
gahnite-bearing sillimanite gneiss as well as a host of other rock-types
that can be located in the Broken Hill district further to the south.
These include garnet amphibolite, unusual quartz-cordierite-rutile
P.G. Spry et al. Ore Geology Reviews 141 (2022) 104632

Fig. 15. AKF diagram showing the mineral assemblages associated with
A
Sil the variable ratios of a sericite-chlorite precursor (typically associated with
the alteration zones surrounding VMS deposits). The assemblage for rocks
in altered and unaltered rocks associated with the Colorado massive sulfide
± Qtz
deposits metamorphosed to the amphibolite facies is schematically
Phe demonstrated along the discontinuous line as indicated by the following
Ser Crd numbers 1. NSR (i.e. high sericite:chlorite ratio in precursor assemblage,
now sillimanite-muscovite-quartz-biotite), 2. Biotite-cordierite-sillimanite
rocks, 3. Cordierite-biotite-garnet rocks; and 4. Anthophyllite-bearing
1 rocks (i.e. high chlorite:sericite ratio). Assemblages in garnet-free rocks
adjacent to sulfide mineralization (i.e. sillimanite-bearing and sillimanite-
2
absent schists/gneisses) are represented by areas 3 and 4 while assem­
blages in fields 1 (i.e. sillimanite-sericite (now muscovite)-biotite-quartz
3 and 4 (anthophyllite-cordierite-biotite ± garnet) are spatially associated
Grt with the massive sulfide deposits in Colorado. The figure is modified after
Bernier et al. (1987). The abbreviations used are: Ath – anthophyllite, Bt –
4 Chl
biotite, Chl – chlorite, Crd – cordierite, Qtz – quartz, Phe – phengite, Ser –
Bt sericite, Sil – sillimanite,

Ath

K F
Tlc

Fig. 16. Location map of nodular sillimanite rocks spatially associated with worldwide metamorphosed massive sulfide deposits.

gneiss, spessartine-rich quartz-garnetite, quartz-absent phlogopite-
corundum-sapphirine ± spinel ± högbomite ± hematite ± magnetite
rocks, and quartz garnetites (Teale et al., 1993a; Teale et al., 1993b). At
the Archean Oakdale Cu-Zn VMS prospect, South Australia (Fig. 17e),
semi-massive sulfide zones at Oakdale are associated with a sequence of
rocks that contain NSR, garnet amphibolite, clinopyroxene amphibolite,
quartz-feldspar-biotite ± sillimanite ± graphite ± sulfide rocks, various
calc-silicate rocks, and K-feldspar-quartz-biotite-sillimanite-garnet-
tourmaline-cordierite gneiss, the last of which is intercalated with
pyrrhotite-bearing clinopyroxene-spinel-phlogopite-rich, and quartz­
–plagioclase–biotite–garnet ± graphite gneiss (Teale et al., 1986). It
should be noted that while NSR in Colorado is spatially associated with
several known sulfide deposits, it is also spatially associated with an
extensive stratabound zone of hydrothermal alteration in the Tex-Echo
area (Fig. 3) where a felsic gneiss contains NSR and elevated concen­
tration of Cu (up to 6107 ppm), Pb (up to 1.7% Pb), and Zn (up to 1.4%)
(Shriver et al., 1993).
In describing the geological setting of the Åmmeberg or stratiform
ash siltstone (SALS) Zn-Pb-Ag-Cu deposits, in the Bergslagen district,
Sweden (Sundblad, 1994; Allen et al., 1996), Kumpulainen et al. (1996)
reported the presence of sub-economic Zn-Pb-(Cu) mineralization at the
Marketorp deposit, ~40 km east of the large Zinkgruvan deposit
(Bergman and Sundblad, 1994). Although not previously reported,
outcrops of NSR rocks (Fig. 17f) were identified here (Spry) along with
quartz-garnetite adjacent to exploration pits associated with the Mar­
ketorp deposit. The origin of the NSR is unknown but given its spatial
association with quartz-garnetite that is considered to be a meta-exha­
lative rock (e.g., Spry et al., 2000; Spry and Teale, 2021), it is likely that

19
P.G. Spry et al. Ore Geology Reviews 141 (2022) 104632

Table 4
Summary of geological characteristics of nodular sillimanite rock-related sulfide deposits in worldwide locations.
Deposit Grades, reserves, past production, Country rocks, metamorphic Mineralized rocks References
metallic minerals grade

Muariya, Dehalwara, Pb-Zn, Zn-Cu-Pb Unknown grade
Bhawra-Teka, and (Zn≫Pb), best sample from dump:
Banskapa-Pipariya >10 % Cu, 0.4% Zn, 198 g/t Ag; Ccp,
(Betul Belt, India) Sp, Mag
Foster River, Past production (Zn≫Pb), Sito East −
Saskatchewan 50,000 t @ 4.5% Zn; Sp, Py, Po, Gn,
Ccp, Ghn, Mag
Montauban, Quebec Zn-Pb-Cu-Ag-Au, 2.7 Mt @ 4.5% Zn,
1.5% Pb, 0.70 g/t Au, 85 g/t Ag; Sp,
Py, Ccp, Po
Geco-Willroy, Ontario Zn-Cu-Ag, Geco − 58 Mt @ 3.5% Zn,
1.9% Cu, 0.2% Pb, 50 g/t Ag Willroy
− 8 Mt @ 0.9% Cu, 4.9% Zn, 50 g/t
Ag; Py, Po, Ccp, Sp
Bathurst-Norsemines, Zn-Pb-Cu-Au-Ag, A Zone 5 Mt @ 8.5
Northwest Territories % Zn, 1.4% Pb, 0.25% Cu, 0.4 g/t Au,
196 g/t Ag; Py, Sp, Gn, Ccp, Mag
Stall Lake, Manitoba Cu-Zn, 11.0 Mt with an average
grade of 4.27% Cu, 0.56% Zn and
1.5g/t Au; Po Ccp, Po, Sp
Marketorp, Sweden Zn-Pb-(Cu), no production grades;
Sp, Gn, Py Po
Rampura Agucha, India 63.7 Mt @ 13.4% Zn, 1.9% Pb, 45 g/t
Ag; Sp, Gn, Py, Po, Asp, Gr, Ag
sulfosalts
Aggeneys-Gamsberg Swartberg − 83 Mt @ 2.5% Pb, 0.7%
Ore district, South Zn, 0.6% Cu, 45 g/t Ag; Broken Hill −
Africa (Swartberg, 38 Mt @ 6.4% Pb, 2.9% Zn, 0.5% Cu,
Gamsberg) 82 g/t Ag; Sp, Py, Gn, Po, Ccp
Mt. Painter, South Zn-Pb mineralization. No production
Australia grades minor Gn, Sp, Ccp
Broken Hill-type Broken Hill 160 Mt @10% Pb 1.2 Mt,
deposits (Broken Hill, 12% Zn, 160 g/t Ag, Pinnacles 2 Mt
Pinnacles, South @ 2.4% Pb, 8.0% Zn, 92 g/t Ag; Sp,
Cross) Gn, Po, Py, Ghn
Oakdale, South Zn-Cu-(Pb), no production grades,
Australia best drill hole intersection 5.8 m @
0.23 % Zn; Sp, Po, Cu, Gr
Qz-Fsp-Bt gneiss and schist,
amphibolite, nodular sillimanite
rock, pegmatite; upper
amphibolite facies
Psammopelitic and pelitic gneiss,
quartzite, meta-arkose; upper
amphibolite facies
Migmatitic Bt gneiss, Qz-Fsp-Bt
gneiss, quartzite, amphibolite;
upper amphibolite facies
Bt-Hbl-Grt gneiss, Bt-Sil-Grt
gneiss, Bt-Ath-Grt gneiss, Ser
schist, iron formation; upper
amphibolite facies
Metarhyolite, metabasalt,
metagreywacke, meta-argillite;
middle to amphibolite facies
Felsic volcanic rocks, andesitic
tuffs, Qz-crystal tuff, andesite,
middle to upper amphibolite
facies
Metatuffaceous rocks, rhylolitic
pyroclastic rocks, granitoids,
mafic sills; amphibolite facies
Migmatite, granitoids,
pegmatite, amphibolite, Grt-Bt
gneiss, calc-silicate rocks; upper
amphibolite-granulite facies
Augen gneiss, aluminous schist,
quartzite, amphibolite, Qtz-Fsp
gneiss, leucocratic gneiss, iron
formation
Sillimanite-bearing quartzite/
gneiss, feldspathic gneiss, rare
amphibolite, meta-felsic volcanic
rocks
Felsic gneiss, amphibolite,
metapelite, metapsammite, Qz-
Grt-Pl-Bt gneiss
Komatiitic to metafelsic volcanic
rocks; upper amphibolite facies
Nodular Sil-Grt schist, Ghn-Phl-Ms-Chl gneiss, Praveen et al. (2005),
Grt-Bt-Py gneiss, Mag-Hbl gneiss, Ath-Gh Ghosh and Praveen
schist, Crd-Ath-Ghn-Ms rock, Qz-Sil-Ath-Ghn- (2006)
Grt-Ms-Bt lenses
Sulfidic quartzite, Qz garnetite, NSR, iron Steadman and Spry
formation, Crd-Sil rock (2015)
Crd-Ath gneiss, NSR, calc-silicates, Ghn-Grt-Tur Bernier et al., (1987),
quartzitic gneiss Bernier and Maclean
(1993)
Grt-Crd-Sil-Pl rock, NSR, Sil-Ms-Qz schist, Cum- Friesen et al. (1982),
Hbl-Grt-Pl rock Zaleski and Peterson
(1995)
Rhyolitic pyroclastic rock, chert, calc-silicate, Cassleman (1977),
NSR, Sil-Bt-Grt-Qz ± Crd ± Ser rock, Ser-Qz ± Casselman and
Sil ± Crd rock, Ath-Crd-Bt-Grt-Qz ± Sil ± Ser Mioduszewska (1982)
rock
Chl schist, St-Grt gneiss, Chl-St gneiss, NSR, Studer (1982)
Chl-Grt gneiss
NSR, Qz garnetite, Ser-Qz rock, Grt-Px rock Bergman and Sundblad
(1994), Kumpelainen
et al. (1996)
Grt-Bt-Sil gneiss, Gr-Bt-Sil gneiss, NSR Ranawat and Sharma
(1990),Mishra and
Bernhardt (2009)
Mag quartzite, Mag amphibolite, Qz-garnetite, Lipson (1978), Lipson
NSR, Sil-Qz schist, Py-Gr-Bt schist, Py-Sil-Qz-Bt (1990)Stedman (1980),
schist Hoffman (1993)
NSR, Ghn-Sil gneiss, Qz garnetite, sulfide- Teale (1993)
bearing quartzite, Sil-Crd rock, Phl-Crn-
Spr±Spl±Hgb±Hem±Mag rock
Grt-Ghn quartzite/gneiss, Qz garnetite, Johnson and Klingner
garnetite, pegmatite, NSR (1975), Parr (1994),
Spry and Teale (2021)
Grt amphibolite, calc-silicates, NSR, Qz-Fsp-Bt- Teale et al. (2006)
Sil-Gr-Crd gneiss, Qz-Grt-Ap rock

Abbreviations after Whitney and Evans (2010), NSR nodular sillimanite rock.

the NSR at Marketorp represent a zone of metamorphosed hydrothermal
alteration.
7. Conclusions
The main conclusions from this study are:
1. The geographic distribution of NSR in Proterozoic rocks in Colorado
is amongst the most (if not the most) widespread in the world.
Nodular sillimanite rocks occur in a variety of geological settings,
mostly in metasedimentary rocks, where many are spatially associ­
ated with metamorphosed ore deposits and zones of hydrothermal
activity. They most commonly envelope the ore zone or occur
stratigraphically above of beneath sulfide mineralization.
2. Geochemical plots (SiO2/Al2O3 vs Na2O/K2O, REE patterns, and
K2O-MgO-Na2O ternary diagram) support the concept that the pro­
toliths of NSR spatially associated with sulfide occurrences in Colo­
rado were predominantly clastic sediments that were highly altered.
This is reflected in mass-balance calculations, which show for NSR
associated with one deposit (Cotopaxi) that they generally exhibit
gains in Al2O3, K2O MgO, Ba, Cu, Pb, and Zn, along with losses in
Na2O and CaO. Other oxides, SiO2 and Fe2O3, show both gains and
losses. Protoliths of NSR associated with metamorphosed sulfide
deposits elsewhere in the world (e.g., Foster River, Montauban),
include clastic sedimentary rocks as well as felsic volcanic rocks (e.g.,
tuffs, rhyolites).
3. While the fibrolite-quartz-muscovite nodules in NSR are likely the
result of the breakdown of potassic minerals (i.e., K-feldspar and
biotite), they are highly aluminous rocks because of the removal of
components, including the alkalies, during hydrothermal alteration
of the protolith as evidenced by mass-balance calculations, elevated
concentrations of Zn, Cu, and Pb, and Zn-bearing minerals such as
gahnite (especially in Colorado) in the NSR. In such cases, Al rep­
resents an immobile element, which contrasts to Al in aluminous
nodules in quartz veins cross-cutting NSR where it is mobile. Such
veins are uncommon in Colorado but have been reported elsewhere
where Al is a mobile element.
4. The spatial association of NSR to metamorphosed massive sulfide
occurrences is more common than previously recognized. Their
spatial association with alteration zones including cordierite-
anthophyllite and quartz-muscovite rocks and their extensive >1
km continuous nature, suggests they are metamorphosed zones of
stratabound alteration. They are easy to recognize in the field and
potentially represent field guides to massive sulfide deposits in ter­
ranes metamorphosed to the amphibolite-granulite facies, especially
those of Archean-Proterozoic age.

20
P.G. Spry et al. Ore Geology Reviews 141 (2022) 104632

Fig. 17. Field photographs of nodular sillimanite rocks associated with the a. Rampura Agucha Pb-Zn (SEDEX) deposit, India; b. Izok Lake Cu-Zn (VMS) deposit,
Nunavut Territories, Canada; c. Swartberg (Black Mountain) Pb-Zn-Cu (SEDEX) deposit, Aggeneys, South Africa; d. Mount Painter hydrothermal zone spatially
associated with minor Broken Hill-type Pb-Zn mineralization, Curnamona province, South Australia; e. Oakdale Zn-Cu (VMS) prospect, South Australia; and f.
Marketorp Pb-Zn-(Cu) (SALS) deposit, Bergslagen district, Sweden.

Declaration of Competing Interest org/10.1016/j.oregeorev.2021.104632.

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgements
Thanks to Kimberley Bailey (MMG) for providing us with images of
sillimanite-bearing rocks from the Izok Lake deposit. Eddie Berke is
thanked for his help with drafting. This study was financially supported
by grants to SMcF from the Rocky Mountains Association of Geologists
Foundation and the Society of Economic Geologists Foundation. Re­
views by Mike Rubenach and an anonymous reviewer are thanked and
improved the quality of the manuscript.
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://doi.
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