The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology (2023) 125:4083–4097

https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-023-10946-9

ORIGINAL ARTICLE

Development of an automated fibre placement‑based hybrid

composite wheel for a solar‑powered car
Alexander Air1,2 · Md Shamsuddoha2,3 · Ebrahim Oromiehie2 · B. Gangadhara Prusty2

Received: 20 October 2022 / Accepted: 18 January 2023 / Published online: 4 February 2023
© The Author(s) 2023, corrected publication 2023

Abstract
Substantial range, handling and acceleration improvements in high-performance vehicles can be achieved by weight reduc-
tion. An important area for weight reduction on a car is the wheels. A novel prototype carbon fibre/epoxy wheel has been
developed using a combination of automated fibre placement (AFP) and hand layup for the Sunswift 7 solar car. A three-piece
wheel design that utilises each process where best suited has been analysed and optimised using the ANSYS ACP PrepPost
suite, manufactured, and mechanically tested. The wheel disc was produced using AFP and featured selective reinforcement
in the form of spokes. The AFP fibre paths for the disc have been optimised using CGTech’s VERICUT VCP and VCS to
minimise gaps and overlaps, resulting in a 98.9% reduction in overlaps when compared with the unoptimised layup. The rim
and tyre mounting region of the wheel have been manufactured using hand layup and adhesively bonded to the disc. This
hybrid manufacturing approach has demonstrated an advancement in the feasibility of combining traditional and automated
composite manufacturing. The final wheel weighed 3352 g, and the wheel deflection under a compressive load has been
experimentally verified within 3% of the theoretical value.

Keywords Automated fibre placement · Composite wheel · Composite analysis · Solar racing · Thick laminate

1 Introduction new photovoltaic infrastructure [3]. Due to the relative inef-

Fossil fuel remains the predominant energy source for the
transportation sector around the world [1]. Ever stricter
global emission laws as well as increasing consumer aware-
ness to sustainability and the environmental impact of vehi-
cle emissions [2] have driven the advancement of alterna-
tive energy sources for vehicles, with electric vehicles (EVs)
being at the forefront of this movement. Solar electric cars
represent an advancement over regular EVs, utilising pho-
tovoltaic cells to generate electricity from solar irradiance,
and have been identified as important for the creation of
* Alexander Air
a.air@unsw.edu.au
1
Sunswift Racing, UNSW Sydney, Kensington, NSW 2052,
Australia
2
ARC Training Centre for Automated Manufacture
of Advanced Composites (AMAC), School of Mechanical
& Manufacturing Engineering, UNSW Sydney, Kensington,
NSW 2052, Australia
3
Present Address: BAE Systems Australia, Melbourne,
Australia
ficiency of current solar panel technology as a means of
energy conversion [4], it is critical to find efficiency gains
in other areas of the solar car. A primary method for this
is weight reduction, as a lower-mass vehicle requires less
energy to move. Fibre-reinforced plastics are already well-
known for their applications in the automotive industry, pri-
marily due to their superior strength–weight ratio when com-
pared with traditional materials such as steel and aluminium
[5–8]. There has been a major shift towards using fibre-rein-
forced composites in solar car components in recent years all
over the world [9–11]. As wheels have an additional inertia
component (rotational) when compared with other parts of
the car, they are a key area for optimisation. The weight
reduction of wheels not only offers decreased energy con-
sumption, but also improved suspension response and vehi-
cle handling characteristics.
Czypionka and Kienhöfer [12] developed and validated an
FE model of a composite car wheel using ANSYS ACP. A
prototype wheel was manufactured, and a dynamic cornering
fatigue test was conducted. This test applied the static equiva-
lent of a cornering-induced bending load to the wheel, with
strain gauges used to measure the resulting deflection. The

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4084 The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology (2023) 125:4083–4097
authors found a good correlation between FEA results and the
physical testing, validating their model. Following the final
layup optimization, the authors achieved a theoretical weight
reduction of 18% over an identical aluminium wheel. Wang
et al. [13] conducted a detailed design optimization and analysis
of a hybrid wheel using a CFRP rim and aluminium disc. A
multi-objective optimization algorithm was employed to opti-
mise layup thickness, sequence and angle. A prototype wheel
was constructed and physically validated using a radial fatigue
test and a 13° impact test. Importantly, the optimization scheme
reduced the Tsai-Wu failure indices by between 14.4 and 25.8%
compared with the initial layup, clearly highlighting the benefits
of the optimization process. Research into composite wheels
in the aerospace industry has also been conducted. Wacker
et al. [14] developed a wheel concept for the nose wheel on
an Airbus A320 aircraft. Whilst other studies have focused on
developing a wheel with minimal components, in this study,
the authors use four composite pieces manufactured using hand
layup of prepreg fabrics to create a wheel that can be disassem-
bled for ease of maintenance. To accomplish this, the authors
designed and physically validated a bolted joint that was used
to connect the parts of the wheel. Overall, a theoretical weight
reduction of 27% was achieved; however, no physical prototype
was constructed. Rondina et al. [15] investigated the automated
manufacturing of composite wheels using high-pressure resin
transfer moulding (HP RTM). The authors found a reduction
in manufacturing time compared with an autoclave method and
validated the mechanical performance of the HP RTM material
system.
Composite wheels are also becoming commercially avail-
able on passenger vehicles. The first company to market with
such as wheel was Koenigsegg [16]. Their patented ‘Aircore’
technology uses hollow spokes to achieve a 5-kg weight
reduction per wheel compared with the standard aluminium
wheel. Additionally, Australian-based Carbon Revolution
[17] designed and produced a carbon fibre wheel using resin
transfer moulding that is used by global vehicle manufac-
turers including Ford, Ferrari, and Renault. Likely due to
the proprietary technology used, there are limited techni-
cal details available about either the Koenigsegg or Carbon
Revolution wheels. Porsche [18] also developed a carbon
fibre wheel for the 911 Turbo model. This wheel utilised a
combination of hand layup and radial braiding to create a
preform that was later impregnated with resin and cured. The
finished wheel achieved a weight reduction of 2.15 kg per
wheel over the standard forged aluminium wheel and 20%
higher rigidity at the time of cracking. However, at a price
of $17,600 USD per set [19], these wheels are significantly
more expensive than steel or aluminium wheels.
Manufacturing of current commercially available carbon
fibre wheels is labour intensive, contributing to their high
price. For example, Koenigsegg relies on hand layup of
prepreg fabrics to construct their wheels [20]. Efforts have
13
been made to automate the production of composite wheels.
In particular, Carbon Revolution uses automated manufac-
turing processes to create dry fibre preforms that are subse-
quently placed in a mould and impregnated with resin in an
injection process [21]. An alternative automation strategy is
the use of Automated Fibre Placement (AFP). This technique
uses the selective placement of narrow carbon or glass fibre
tapes to construct a composite laminate. Popularised in the
aerospace industry, AFP improves productivity whilst provid-
ing high accuracy and quality as well as reduced wastage [22].
Hence, AFP has the potential to produce wheels at a lower
cost and faster rate than currently used processes.
This study demonstrates the design and analysis of a
carbon fibre-reinforced composite wheel for the Sunswift 7
solar racing car made using a hybrid approach by combin-
ing AFP and hand layup techniques. This novel prototype
design aimed to evaluate the feasibility of incorporating
AFP into the wheel production process and simultaneously
demonstrate the thick laminate and selective reinforcement
manufacturing capability of automated fibre placement. A
detailed analysis is carried out using ANSYS ACP Prep-
Post. The wheel geometry is optimised to reduce deflection
from vehicular loads. VERICUT Composite Programming/
Simulation (VCP/VCS) software was used to check the
manufacturability of the optimised design with AFP. The
manufactured wheel was tested for deflection and strain
and compared with the predicted results. The manufactured
wheel weight was 3352 g and provides a valuable and novel
insight into thick laminate manufacturing and the integration
of AFP into car wheel design.
2 Conceptual design
The composite wheel was designed to replace the existing
metal wheel. For compatibility with the solar car, and to
mount the designated Bridgestone Ecopia solar car tyre, the
wheel had to conform to a set of prescribed dimensions. The
wheel dimensions are provided in Table 1.
The wheel design consisted of three components that
were permanently joined during manufacturing. The compo-
nents were named the inner rim, outer rim, and disc. These
components are depicted in Fig. 1a. The disc refers to the
Table 1  Details of the governing wheel dimensions
Size designation (ISO 4249–3) 16 M/C × MT 3.00
Nominal bead width (mm [in]) 76 [3]
Nominal bead diameter (mm [in]) 406 [16]
Tyre size 95/80R16
Mounting offset (mm, + ’ve outboard) 35
Bolt pattern 5 × 86 mm
The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology (2023) 125:4083–4097
Fig. 1  Three-piece hybrid com-
posite wheel design
part of the wheel that is typically an arrangement of spokes
on a traditional car wheel. Both the inner and outer rims
refer to the tyre mounting surface, with the inner rim sitting
on the inboard (towards the centre of the car) side of the
disc. The disc was curved inboard to achieve the required
35 mm mounting offset as well as provide increased rigidity
(Fig. 1b). This three-component approach was taken due
to the challenges associated with the inability of the AFP
tow placement roller to access the highly curved bead seat
(R = 3 mm) where the tyre sits. For this reason, the disc was
made using AFP, whilst the two rim halves were made using
a hand layup of prepreg fabrics.
The shape of the two rim halves was driven by the desire
to maximise the contact area between them and the disc.
To achieve this, each rim half transitioned into a flange for
connection to the disc as shown in Fig. 1b. The rims were
attached to the disc using a structural adhesive. The bead
seat geometry was defined by the ISO 4249–3 Motorcycle
4085
Tyre and Rim standard [23], herein referred to as the stand-
ard. Notably, each rim angles down towards the connection
flanges. This creates a drop in the centre of the wheel that is
necessary for tyre installation. Five spokes on the disc were
also incorporated to provide additional stiffness to the wheel;
these spokes extended out from the centre of the rim until
the point where the outer rim overlaps the disc. Five spokes
were chosen as it allowed the spoke pattern to line up with
each of the 5 mounting holes.
The wheel mounting was designed to fit the solar car (5
bolts on an 86-mm PCD, as described in Table 1). The front
and rear faces of the wheel were covered using faceplates
made from a 1.6-mm thick aluminium sheet as shown in
Fig. 2. This distributed the load from the wheel nuts into the
wheel and acted to prevent surface damage from installation
and removal of the wheel. Similarly, an aluminium sleeve
was inserted into the central wheel bore to protect the carbon
fibre. The wheel was secured to the car using 5 × M10 studs
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4086 The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology (2023) 125:4083–4097
Fig. 2  Details of the wheel
mounting connection
and Aerotight nuts. Aluminium compression tubes were
used in the bolt holes to transfer the stud pretension directly
into the hub and minimise pressure on the carbon fibre.
3 Numerical analysis
Finite element analysis was undertaken in two parts to
reduce the computational complexity arising from the large
assembly. At first, a global analysis of the wheel was car-
ried out focusing on failure, deflection, and the connection
between the disc and rims, followed by the analysis of the
wheel mounting, focused on the wheel/hub interaction.
3.1 Global analysis
A CAD model was created in SolidWorks for the geom-
etries presented and subsequently imported into ANSYS
SpaceClaim where it was converted into shell geometry.
A 119,023-element mesh was generated using SHELL181
elements, with refinement around the important bead seat
area. Mesh convergence was checked by varying the mesh
size between 82,022 and 319,370 elements. Over this range,
maximum fibre stress and deformation under the bump load
case varied by 2.6% and 1.2% respectively.
3.1.1 Loading conditions and constraints
The wheel was analysed under three different load cases
representing forces applied to the car due to braking, corner-
ing, and bumping (vertical force due to hitting a road bump).
These loads were pre-existing forces defined for the solar
car. A fixed support was applied to the central portion of
13
the wheel. All loads were applied via a remote force at the
rolling radius of the tyre of 271.5 mm. Braking and bump
loads were applied to a 50° arc of the bead seat area on both
halves of the rim. The cornering load was applied to a 180°
arc of the bead seat to one-half of the rim. Additionally,
0.55 MPa tyre pressure was applied to all interior surfaces
on the rim in all cases. The loading conditions are depicted
in Fig. 3, note that each of the three forces was applied one
at a time. A 50° arc was selected based on previous experi-
mental research conducted by Stearns et al. [24]. The authors
determined that the pressure on the rim bead caused by the
loading acts on an 80° arc on a 16″ rim (the same size being
designed). This result accounts for the fact that the tyre helps
distribute the pressure over the rim. Thus, a 50° arc without
factoring in the tyre provides a reasonable estimate.
3.1.2 Carbon fibre laminate
The ANSYS ACP PrepPost module was used to define the
layup on the wheel. Three epoxy prepreg materials were
defined. For the disc, Park Aerospace HTS45E23/E-752-LT
material was used. For the rims, Delta-Preg T700/DT806R
UD fabric and T300/DT806R 2 × 2 twill fabric was used.
Material properties are given in Table 2. The layup was
defined in three zones: rims (inner and outer), disc and
spokes (see Fig. 4a). Figure 4b depicts the fibre directions
for each of these zones. Given the large number of design
variables, the layup optimisation was simplified using geo-
metric constraints. As shown in Fig. 4, the outer rim was
sized to fit the tyre valve with clearance for attaching a pump
head. The rim thickness was set close to 4 mm to allow for
installation of snap-in-valves as per the standard. This then
The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology (2023) 125:4083–4097 4087

Fig. 3  Finite element analysis

loading conditions

Table 2  Material properties for HTS45E23/E-752-LT T700/DT806R T300/DT806R

different CF/Epoxy prepregs
used Density (kg/m3) 𝜌 1490 1490 1420
Resin content (%) 35 ± 2 36 ± 3 42 ± 3
Areal weight (gsm) 145 200 200
Ply thickness (mm) t 0.13 0.21 0.23
Elastic modulus (GPa) E1 136.6 121 61.3
E2 , E 3 10 8.6 61.3
Shear modulus (GPa) G12 , G13 4.3 4.7 3.3
G23 3.1 3.1 2.7
Poisson’s ratio v12 , v13 0.27 0.27 0.04 (v12)
v23 0.4 0.4 0.3 (v23 , v13)

Fig. 4  Carbon fibre layup zones

(a) and ply directions (b)

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4088 The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology (2023) 125:4083–4097

Table 3  Effect of spoke Thickness Mass (kg) Maximum total Maximum Maximum IRV
thickness on various parameters (plies [mm]) deflection (mm) strain (µε)
of the wheel
Reference 0 [0] (Base) 2.03 1.47 3369.4 0.34

Difference (%) 10 [1.3] 2.46 − 6.99 − 1.07 − 0.91

20 [2.6] 4.93 − 12.43 − 2.04 − 1.72
30 [3.9] 7.39 − 17.01 − 2.93 − 2.46
40 [5.2] 9.85 − 20.98 − 3.76 − 3.15

Table 4  Fibre layup in different Rim (Zone 1) Disc (Zone 2) Spokes (Zone 3)
locations of the wheel
𝜽 Material 𝜽 Material 𝜽 Material

[0/90] Twill fabric [0/45/90/ − ­45]10 UD tape Radial30 UD tape

04 UD fabric 0 UD tape
[0/90]8 Twill fabric [− 45/90/45/0]10 UD tape
04 UD fabric
[0/90] Twill fabric

constrained the disc thickness to approximately 10 mm to
achieve the required mounting offset.
The spoke thickness was varied to achieve the required
strength and stiffness. A parametric study on spoke thick-
ness using the vertical load case was performed, as this case
induces the highest stress. The number of spoke plies was
varied from 0 to 40 (thickness ranging from 0 to 5.2 mm),
and maximum deflection, maximum strain, and inverse
reserve factor (IRV) were recorded. For this study, Tsai-Wu
failure criteria were used for IRV calculation. The IRV rep-
resents an inverse factor of safety, a value of 0.5 translates
to a factor of safety of 2, and values over 1 indicate failure.
The results of the comparison are shown in Table 3, note
that values in the ‘difference’ rows are percentage changes
from the reference values. As the spoke thickness increased,
total deflection, strain, and IRV decreased. Mass increased
at a linear rate with spoke thickness. A 30-ply (3.9 mm)
thick spoke was selected as it provided a similar decrease in
deflection to the 40-ply spoke and closely matched the thick-
ness of the rim, adding to the visual appeal of the wheel.
This is shown in Zone 3 of Fig. 4a.
Table 5  Cohesive zone model properties
Property
Debonding interface mode
Tangential slip under normal conditions
Maximum normal contact stress (MPa)
Critical fracture energy for normal separation (J/m2)
Maximum equivalent tangential contact stress (MPa)
Critical fracture energy for tangential slip (J/m2)
Artificial damping coefficient
The layup for each zone is given in Table 4, where ori-
entation is denoted as θ . In the rim, 0° fibres were used
extensively to resist bending whilst 90° fibres were also
incorporated to increase hoop strength and aid with resist-
ing the air pressure load. The disc used a symmetric layup of
[0/45/90/ − 45] whilst the spoke plies were oriented radially
as shown in Fig. 4b.
3.1.3 Cohesive zone modelling
The adhesive bond between wheel components was simu-
lated using a cohesive zone model (CZM). Contact debond-
ing was set up between the flange on each rim and the
accompanying contact area on the disc, corresponding to
the red regions in Fig. 1b. The CZM material was defined
using a fracture-energies-based method. The values used are
provided in Table 5.
3.1.4 Summary of the global analysis results
Maximum deformation occurred at the edge of the inner rim
in all cases, closest to where the load was applied. Figure 5
shows the lateral and radial deflection of the wheel for the
bump and cornering load cases in the area where the load
Value is applied. The maximum lateral separation of the bead
seats occurred on the vertical load case. A maximum lateral
Mixed
deflection of 0.60 mm on the outer rim and a maximum of
No
0.20 mm in the same direction on the inner rim were observed.
60
The ISO standard [23] used for the design of the wheel
500
specifies a maximum deviation in the bead seat separation
35
of + 1 mm to maintain secure seating of the tyre. Thus, the net
1200
deformation of 0.6–0.2 = 0.4 mm satisfies this requirement.
0.000001
Additionally, a maximum radial deformation of 0.85 mm

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The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology (2023) 125:4083–4097
Fig. 5  Maximum deflection for
the bump and cornering load
cases—section view
was found. The ISO standard does not specify a diametral
tolerance on the wheel, so this result was deemed satisfactory
as it is highly localised to the load application area.
The rim-disc bond was analysed using the CZM contact.
The results indicated no debonding under any load case.
Figure 6 shows the normal pressure and shear stress in both
the inner rim/disc and outer rim/disc joint in the bump load
Fig. 6  CZM bond stress for the
bump load case
4089
case, where maximum stress occurred. A maximum absolute
normal pressure of 17.49 MPa (pulling the surfaces apart)
and maximum tangential stress of 1.10 MPa fall below the
allowable stress limits of 60 MPa and 35 MPa respectively.
Additionally, ANSYS reported the CZM contact status as
‘sticking’ at all locations in all load cases. This indicates
that the bond is intact.
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4090 The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology (2023) 125:4083–4097
Fig. 7  Tsai-Wu inverse reserve factors for the bump load case
ANSYS ACP Post module was used to evaluate the Tsai-Wu
failure criterion for each load case. The wheel did not fail in any
load case, with the maximum inverse reserve factors (IRV’s)
being 0.33, 0.21 and 0.21 in bump, cornering and braking
respectively. Figure 7 shows the IRVs for the bump load case,
with the highest IRVs focused on the rim where the wheel is
loaded. As failure occurs at 1, this represents a minimum FOS
of 3.03. In all load cases, the maximum IRV occurred on the
edges of the rim where the tyre mounts.
3.2 Wheel mounting analysis
The wheel mounting area was extracted and analysed sepa-
rately to reduce the computational complexity. The wheel
mounting area uses aluminium fittings bonded to the carbon
Fig. 8  Loading conditions on
the wheel mounting surface
13
fibre wheel. The simulation of this interaction is complex, so
a simplified model was used. The surface pressure on the car-
bon fibre was evaluated from the bump and cornering loading
conditions and compared with the out-of-plane compressive
strength for the material. The braking load was not analysed
as it is small in comparison to the other loads.
3.2.1 Loading conditions and constraints
The mounting area on the wheel was extracted along with the
rear face plate, compression tubes and centre sleeve, as shown
in Fig. 8. The front face plate was not included, and loads
were applied directly to the carbon fibre; this removes the
pressure distribution effect of the faceplate, adding conserva-
tism to the model. A 53,380-element mesh using SOLID186
elements was generated, and the convergence feature in
ANSYS Mechanical was used with an allowable change of
2% to check for mesh convergence. For the cornering load, a
remote force was applied to a 20-mm diameter circular area
around each mounting hole, corresponding to the diameter
of an M10 washer. For the bump load, a remote force was
applied to the inside faces of the compression tubes. The rear
faceplate was set as a fixed support.
3.2.2 Mounting analysis results
The pressure on the wheel was evaluated for the bump and
cornering load cases. As shown in Fig. 9, a maximum of
30.84 MPa and 49.25 MPa was found for the bump and cor-
nering load cases respectively. Given the 90° compressive
strength of 341 MPa for the material (as provided by the
manufacturer), the maximum stress failure criterion coef-
ficient can be found as follows [26]:
The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology (2023) 125:4083–4097 4091

Fig. 9  Stress in the wheel

mounting region for the bump
and cornering load cases

|𝜎1 | 49.25
| |= tows onto a substrate using a feed system and compaction
∗
𝜎Lc 341
= 0.144 < 1 roller. The incoming material is heated to improve adhesion
to existing layers, and a knife cuts the tows, allowing for
Thus, failure is not predicted. It is acknowledged that the tailored material deposition. In this study, the automated
maximum stress failure criterion is simplistic and does not dynamics-built AFP machine at UNSW Sydney was uti-
account for interaction terms; however, the large FOS of lised for making the disc. This AFP machine is a seven-
approximately 7 was considered satisfactory for this efficient axis robot platform (a six-axis Kawasaki robotic arm and
analysis. a coordinated spindle), a thermoset placement head which
comprises a compaction roller, prepreg tape dispensing sys-
tem and heating system (HGT), and a computer controller
4 Manufacturing [22]. The placement head can feed up to four 6.35 mm wide
tows simultaneously.
4.1 Automated fibre placement‑based
manufacturing of the disc 4.1.1 Fibre path generation

Automated fibre placement (AFP) is an advanced manufac- VERICUT Composite Programming (VCP) software, from
turing method for making composite components in which CGTech, was used to generate the fibre paths for manu-
several manufacturing stages are incorporated in the place- facturing the AFP disc. Various analyses including ply
ment head, as shown in Fig. 10. The AFP robot places thin angle deviation, steering radius violation and gap/overlap

Fig. 10  Automated fibre place-

ment robot with thermoset head

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4092 The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology (2023) 125:4083–4097
Fig. 11  Ply angle deviation analysis using VERICUT VCP
formation were performed using VCP. The mould surface
and outer boundaries were updated every twenty plies
(~ 6 mm) to prevent damage to the laminate edge as VCP
does not automatically adjust for thickness build-up. This
led to the creation of five offset CAD surfaces, each based
on the original CAD model of the disc mould. The fibre
orientations and termination boundaries were assigned to
each ply in accordance with the layup sequence. Trajectories
of the tow bands on the individual plies produced by VCP
for the disc (0°, 45°, 90°, − 45°) are shown in Fig. 11. For
the spokes, a guide curve was projected onto the tooling
surface, and parallel steered paths were generated based on
the guide curve.
4.1.2 Path geometry/layup analysis
Overlap and gap analysis was performed in VCP to ensure
there are no excessive tow overlaps or gaps that could affect
the overall net shape and integrity of the structure. Initially,
rosette role path geometry was used to generate tow path
trajectories. However, using this approach, overlaps and gaps
of 4281.44 m ­ m2 and 12.04 m­ m2 respectively per ply were
simulated for the 0° ply orientation. The analysis of the other
path geometry algorithms showed that these values can be
optimised using the parallel path geometry technique (e.g.,
total overlap/ply = 45.06 ­mm2 and total gap/ply = 32.23 ­mm2
for the 0° ply orientation). Thus, the parallel path approach
was used to minimise gaps and overlaps. Ply angle deviation
was also studied using VCP. Theoretically, the parallel path
Fig. 12  Lay-up simulation using
VERICUT VCS
13
approach would not produce significant ply angle deviation
on a two-dimensional plane surface. However, as the tool
surface is three-dimensional convex, tow trajectory devia-
tion of up to ~ 8° was simulated. Figure 11 illustrates VCP
analysis on ply angle deviation where the ply angle variation
exceeds 3°. The angle deviation on the spokes is not shown
as it was zero.
The AFP machine kinematics were finally visualised
and analysed in VERICUT Composite Simulation (VCS)
(Fig. 12). Before the actual AFP operation, erratic AFP
head movements, as well as collision clearances, were
checked, and trajectories were replanned and remedied
back in VCP. Finally, the placement and process informa-
tion were exported as numerical control programs for the
AFP machine.
4.1.3 Fibre placement using AFP and curing
The disc manufacturing is shown in Fig. 13. A matched
male and female mould were manufactured from alumin-
ium. The male mould was cleaned with isopropyl alcohol
and prepared with TR-930 release agent before AFP layup.
The mould was first secured onto the rotatable paddle, as
shown in the simulation in Fig. 12 using double-sided
tape. The tooling surface was preheated using a heat gun.
The AFP processing parameters of deposition rate, con-
solidation force and hot gas torch temperature were set
to 76 mm/s, 180 N and 200 °C (~ 70 °C at the nip-point)
respectively.
The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology (2023) 125:4083–4097
Fig. 13  Details of disc manu-
facturing
Three manufacturing issues were encountered during
the AFP layup. Firstly, the mould was not exactly aligned
on the paddle, causing the incorrect placement of the tows.
This was corrected after the first layer; however, it could
have been avoided by including some form of alignment
feature into the mould design that indexed the circular part
to the rectangular paddle. Secondly, the first tows to be
placed suffered from heavy distortion (Fig. 13a). This may
have been caused by the compaction pressure in subse-
quent plies moving them on the heavily curved edge of the
mould. Thirdly, the inside ends of the spokes had a large
degree of variation in their length. Figure 13a shows this
area on the disc before curing. Gaps, overlaps and incon-
sistencies are clearly visible in this region. These errors
did not affect the final wheel as this region was removed to
create the central bore.
A female mould half was placed over the disc for curing
to ensure good control over the final surfaces. Due to uncer-
tainty in how well the spokes would be placed by AFP, the
spoke geometry was not machined into the female mould.
Instead, inserts made from 3-mm plywood were wrapped
in adhesive-backed PTFE fabric and used to control the
spoke shape. As shown in Fig. 13b, the inserts were retained
using high-temperature tape. The inside area of the spokes
where defects occurred was filled with epoxy adhesive and
a hand-shaped insert to prevent resin flow into this area.
The mould assembly was cured at the material manufactur-
er’s recommended cycle, with an additional 60-min hold at
82.2 °C ± 2.8 °C during the initial temperature ramp to pro-
vide more time for the thick laminate to heat homogenously.
This was recommended by the material manufacturer. The
4093
cured part possessed localised resin extrusions where the
plywood mould plants did not correctly align with the geom-
etry and resulted in lower compaction; this produced resin-
rich build-up areas as shown in Fig. 13c and fibre waviness
along the edge of the disc in these regions which had to be
removed with a grinder. The centre bore, mounting holes
and bevelled outer edge were produced using 5-axis waterjet
cutting, as shown in Fig. 13d. The part was also sanded to
remove surface imperfections and sharp edges. The final part
weighed 2081 g.
4.2 Hand lamination of the rim
The manufacturing of the rim was completed using a tra-
ditional hand layup process. Two male aluminium moulds
(inner and outer rim) were designed and machined. Verti-
cal surfaces on the mould were given a ­1o draft angle to
aid with release. Wooden female moulds were machined
from plywood sheets glued together using PVA wood glue
to form a block. The wooden moulds were machined in
2 halves and joined together, with a laser-cut template
used to ensure concentricity. The join line was sealed with
epoxy adhesive, and the moulds were coated with 2 layers
of polyurethane (Cabot’s CPF Floor) to aid release agent
application and minimise resin impregnation into the wood.
The moulds were prepared for layup in the same way as
the disc mould.
Each layer of the rim was segmented into 8 pieces of
­45o. A 2D flat pattern of the mould surface was extracted
from the CAD model and used to cut sections from the
prepreg fabric using a CNC fabric cutter as shown in
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4094 The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology (2023) 125:4083–4097
Fig. 14  Rim material cutting
and hand layup
Fig. 14a. As the thickness of the part increased, the size of
the fabric sections was increased appropriately. The rims
were laid up as shown in Fig. 14b and vacuum bagged with
the metal mould on top, as the weight of the aluminium
helped with mould alignment and compaction. The rims
were autoclave cured at 90 °C for 3 h, excluding tempera-
ture ramps. The parts were hand finished to remove flash
lines. The final weights were measured at 617 g and 540 g
for the inner and outer rims respectively.
4.3 Assembly
Aluminium sleeves were press fit into the 5 mounting holes,
and the centre bore and face plates were adhesively bonded
to the front and back mounting surfaces. The three wheel
components (disc and rims) were assembled in two stages
using a jig, as shown in Fig. 15. The jig consisted of a lower
piece, upper piece and centre cylinder that held the wheel
components concentric whilst fixing the mould surfaces
of the inner and outer rims in place. Firstly, the inner rim
and disc were bonded, followed by the outer rim and disc.
The bond surfaces were sanded with 80-grit sandpaper and
cleaned with acetone before 3 M DP460NS Off-White epoxy
adhesive was applied. Each joint was left to cure for 24 h
at ambient temperature, and the final prototype is shown in
Fig. 16. The assembly jig, once tightened, squeezed glue
out on the front and rear faces and dried in place indicating
good adhesive dispersion in the contact area. This is shown
in Fig. 16c where the white adhesive can be clearly seen on
around the bond area. With all components attached, includ-
ing the valve, the final wheel was weighed at 3352 g.
Fig. 15  Wheel assembly jig
for alignment during adhesive
curing
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5 Testing and inspection
5.1 Mechanical testing
To validate the numerical model, a quasistatic compres-
sion test was performed using an Instron 8804 testing sys-
tem. As shown in Fig. 17, the wheel was placed outside
face up on a steel plate on the lower jaw of the Instron.
Two strain gauges were installed on different spokes, with
one close to the centre of the wheel and the other close
to the outer edge. The compressive force on the wheel
was varied between 200 and 5000 N each 3 times, and
the force, displacement and strain results were recorded.
The test results are shown in Table 6. The strain results
along the fibre direction were extracted from ANSYS by
probing the top position of the outermost spoke ply at the
measured strain gauge locations. The results are compared
with the measured strain data in Table 5. The outer strain
gauge correlated more closely to the prediction than the
inner gauge. The difference can be attributed to several
factors such as the strain gauge alignment (both angle
and centring on the spokes), physical measurement of the
gauge location and the fact that the actual gauge takes
an areal average value, whereas the values retrieved at
ANSYS are from a single point at the centre of the gauge.
5.2 Microscopy
Material offcuts from the external edge of the AFP
disc were used for the examination of the layup quality.
Figure 18a shows a macro photograph of an offcut section
The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology (2023) 125:4083–4097 4095

Fig. 16  Assembled wheel. a Rear face, b side view and c valve alignment and glue squeeze-out

Fig. 17  Quasistatic compression

test setup

Table 6  Displacement and strain results for the quasistatic compression testing

Displacement
Sensor Average displacement at 5 kN (mm) Coefficient of variance (%) ANSYS predicted (mm) Difference (%)
Instron 0.248 0.041 0.241 2.97

Strain
Sensor Average strain at 5 kN (µε) Coefficient of variance (%) ANSYS predicted (µε) Difference (%)
Outer 66.032 1.085 58.985 11.27
Inner 66.433 1.173 52.377 23.66

13
4096 The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology (2023) 125:4083–4097
Fig. 18  Fibre waviness due to
poor mould compaction (a)
and micrograph of the cured
disc edge (b)
passing through one of the resin-rich build-up areas depicted
in Fig. 13d. The fibre waviness is clearly visible in this
region.
The ply thickness of the thick disc laminate was also
examined. Four samples from the disc edge were extracted
from material offcuts and embedded inside epoxy pucks. The
pucks were ground and polished to a mirror finish using a
Struers TegraPol-15 and photographed at 10 × magnification
using a Keyence VK-X200 laser microscope. An example
micrograph is shown in Fig. 18b. The average ply thick-
ness across 10 locations was measured to be 0.145 mm with
a coefficient of variance of 7.94%. This is a difference of
10.9% to the theoretical value of 0.13 mm used.
6 Conclusion
A novel hybrid automated fibre placement and hand layup
wheel for a solar racing car has been designed, analysed and
constructed. The final product successfully demonstrated the
incorporation of AFP into the wheel manufacturing process.
Only the disc was manufactured using AFP as the robot used
was deemed incapable of placing fibre on the complex rim
profile in any orientation. The three-piece design assembled
well; however, the assembly jig prevented access to remove
glue squeeze-out, resulting in a poor aesthetic. Poor mould
compaction from the use of plywood plants also created resin-
rich pockets that had to be removed with secondary machining
operations and introduced fibre waviness in small regions of
the disc edge. The mechanical performance of the wheel has
been successfully validated using experimental methods, and
the ply thickness of the thick laminate has been calculated.
Future work using the selective reinforcement capability of
AFP should be pursued. It is hypothesised that a highly opti-
mised wheel design could be achieved by using a hand layup
technique for the bulk shape of the wheel and AFP for precise
and selective reinforcement of key areas such as the spokes.
This could still result in increased manufacturing efficiency as
shapes that are complex and time-consuming for hand layup,
such as the spokes could be replaced with simple flat surfaces
that are subsequently reinforced using AFP. Other manufactur-
ing strategies utilising AFP for the disc and a different technique
13
more suited for round parts for the rims such as filament wind-
ing or radial braiding should also be investigated.
Author contribution Alexander Air: conceptualisation, methodology,
software, validation, formal analysis, investigation, data curation, writ-
ing—original draft, writing—review and editing, and visualisation.
Md Shamsuddoha: conceptualisation, methodology, investigation, writ-
ing—original draft, and supervision. Ebrahim Oromiehie: software,
investigation, writing—original draft, and writing—review and editing.
B. Gangadhara Prusty: conceptualisation, writing—review and editing,
supervision, project administration, and funding acquisition.
Funding Open Access funding enabled and organized by CAUL and
its Member Institutions. The authors would like to acknowledge the
support received through the following funding schemes of the Aus-
tralian Government:
ARC LIEF: An Australasian facility for the automated fabrication
of high-performance bespoke components (LE140100082).
ARC ITTC: ARC Training Centre for Automated Manufacture of
Advanced Composites (IC160100040).
The authors would also like the acknowledge funding provided by
Sunswift Racing for the purchase of materials, mould manufacturing
and assembly jig manufacturing.
Declarations
Competing interests The authors declare no competing interests.
Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attri-
bution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adapta-
tion, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long
as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source,
provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes
were made. The images or other third party material in this article are
included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated
otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in
the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not
permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will
need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a
copy of this licence, visit http://​creat​iveco​mmons.​org/​licen​ses/​by/4.​0/.
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